起信論直解

ESSENTIAL OUTLINE

THE HUAYAN SCHOOL OF THE DEPENDENT ORIGINATION OF THE DHARMA-REALM

Great Master Hanshan, Śramaṇa Deqing

Among the seven patriarchs of the Huayan School, Aśvaghoṣa was the First Patriarch. [1] Yet this treatise does not mention the essential purport of PERFECT INTERPENETRATION. Why is this? Because previously no one knew of this teaching, while later students were so confused that they could not discern it; therefore, I have added no ideas of my own whatsoever. Moreover, when the ancients established a school’s guiding tenets, why would they need to state everything fully and explicitly to the world? Therefore, I shall now speak only briefly about the crucial points, so that people may understand its guiding tenets.

The perfect teaching of the Huayan School takes the One True Dharma-Realm, which encompasses the FOUR DHARMA-REALMS, as its basis. On the basis of the Four Dharma-Realms, it establishes the TEN PROFOUND GATES. Although there are Four Realms and Ten Profound Gates, all are established through the SIX CHARACTERISTICS.

Thus, the Six Characteristics become the pivotal principle of unobstructed PERFECT INTERPENETRATION. This treatise fully elucidates the Six Characteristics and thereby encompasses the entire purport of the Four Realms and Ten Profound Gates. Because the Six Characteristics are the mainstay of PERFECT INTERPENETRATION, this treatise encompasses the inexhaustible Dharma-Realm.

Therefore, it first sets forth the suchness of the One Mind as the ESSENCE of the “Dharma-gate of the Great Total Characteristic.”

Furthermore, this treatise was composed on the basis of a hundred Mahayana works. Yet those hundred Mahayana works were established by the transformation-body Buddha and are, in truth, expedient teachings. This treatise now comprehensively gathers the expedient vehicles and returns them to the one true vehicle.

Its principal intent is to reveal that the expedient is itself the true and to guide beings back to the ultimate, PERFECTLY INTERPENETRATING ocean of fruition. Although the treatise does not explicitly reveal the purport of PERFECT INTERPENETRATION, the Three Vehicles, the five natures, sudden and gradual teachings, cultivation, and realization are all gathered back to their source in the ocean of fruition of the One Mind; and the perfectly interpenetrating and fully endowed virtues are all the wondrous functioning of the One Mind. (This has been fully explained in the Huayan School and therefore is not discussed here.) Its sole purpose is to gather and guide beings back to the ocean of the nature.

Hence, in this treatise, the first object of refuge is the reward-body Buddha; even what is seen by one who has eliminated delusion is also the reward-body Buddha.

The meaning of the treatise fully explains that defilement and purity share one and the same suchness and are the characteristics and functions of the One Mind. Because a single thought serves as the dependent origination of defilement and purity, this is entirely identical to the Huayan teaching that takes “the dependent origination of the Dharma-Realm” as its guiding principle, and that the twelve links of dependent origination are themselves the Tathagata’s Universally Radiant Wisdom. Thus one should know that the essential purport of entering the Dharma-Realm in the Huayan School must indeed take this treatise as the gateway for entering the Dharma-Realm.

The SIX CHARACTERISTICS are the characteristics of totality, particularity, identity, difference, formation, and disintegration.

1. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF TOTALITY is precisely the suchness of the One Mind, the essence of the “Dharma-gate of the Great Total Characteristic of the Dharma-Realm.”

2. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF PARTICULARITY refers to the One Mind, the two gates, the three subtle aspects, the six coarse aspects, the five consciousnesses, the six defilements, and the distinctions involved in cultivation and elimination.

3. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF IDENTITY means that sages and ordinary beings, defilement and purity, causes and effects, nature and characteristics all share one and the same suchness. It is like pottery, all of which is equally composed of minute particles.

4. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENCE means that the various defiled and pure dharmas are each distinct, being neither one nor different. It is like the various kinds of pottery, all of which arise from minute particles, yet are not one and the same.

5. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF FORMATION means that the various defiled and pure dharmas are all formed through the dependent origination of a single thought.

6. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DISINTEGRATION means that the various defiled and pure dharmas each have their own place, yet each is without intrinsic nature and cannot establish itself independently.

The FOUR DHARMA-REALMS are the Dharma-Realm of principle, the Dharma-Realm of phenomena, the Dharma-Realm of the unobstructed interpenetration of principle and phenomena, and the Dharma-Realm of the unobstructed interpenetration of all phenomena.

1. THE DHARMA-REALM OF PRINCIPLE is the suchness of the One Mind, in which there are no differentiated dharmas and which is wholly the one true principle.

2. THE DHARMA-REALM OF PHENOMENA consists of all the differentiated phenomenal dharmas of sages and ordinary beings, defilement and purity, and dependent and primary causes and effects.

3. THE DHARMA-REALM OF THE UNOBSTRUCTED INTERPENETRATION OF PRINCIPLE AND PHENOMENA is jointly established by the PRINCIPLE AND PHENOMENA described above and comprises ten gates. Because PHENOMENA are formed by penetrating PRINCIPLE, the whole of PRINCIPLE becomes PHENOMENA.

Because PRINCIPLE forms PHENOMENA, the whole of PHENOMENA is itself PRINCIPLE. Because PRINCIPLE is able to form PHENOMENA, PHENOMENA do not obstruct PRINCIPLE and are able to reveal PRINCIPLE. Because PHENOMENA are formed by penetrating PRINCIPLE, PRINCIPLE does not obstruct PHENOMENA and is able to encompass PHENOMENA.

Because PRINCIPLE is able to form PHENOMENA, the whole of PHENOMENA is itself PRINCIPLE. Because PHENOMENA are able to reveal PRINCIPLE, the whole of PRINCIPLE is itself PHENOMENA. Since PRINCIPLE and PHENOMENA mutually identify with one another, PRINCIPLE and PHENOMENA perfectly interpenetrate without obstruction.

This is distinguished and explained with great clarity in the Ten Gates of the Contemplation of the Dharma-Realm; here only its essential purport is briefly presented.

4. THE DHARMA-REALM OF THE UNOBSTRUCTED INTERPENETRATION OF ALL PHENOMENA: Since principle and phenomena are unobstructed, and the whole of PRINCIPLE now becomes PHENOMENA, there is no need to discuss its principle again. Because the whole of PHENOMENA is the whole of PRINCIPLE, all phenomena mutually encompass one another, without hindrance or obstruction.

It is solely because the SIX CHARACTERISTICS gather all phenomenal dharmas, so that each and every dharma perfectly interpenetrates, that the ten levels of profound gates are established. In order to reveal the great functioning of the Dharma-Realm, the doctrine of this treatise integrates the Six Characteristics and thereby encompasses the school of Perfect Interpenetration Endowed with Virtues, in which all phenomena are unobstructed.

The meaning of the Ten Profound Gates has been fully explained in the Huayan Profound Exposition. Here only their names are listed.

THE TEN PROFOUND GATES

1. The Gate of Simultaneous and Complete Mutual Correspondence

2. The Gate of the Unobstructed Freedom of the Broad and the Narrow

3. The Gate of the Mutual Inclusion of the One and the Many Without Loss of Distinction

4. The Gate of the Free Mutual Identity of All Dharmas

5. The Gate of the Joint Establishment of the Hidden and the Manifest

6. The Gate of the Interpenetrating Accommodation and Establishment of the Subtle

7. The Gate of the Realm of Indra’s Net

8. The Gate of Revealing the Dharma Through Phenomena and Giving Rise to Understanding

9. The Gate of the Formation of Dharmas Across the Ten Times

10. The Gate of the Perfect Interpenetration and Complete Virtues of Principal and Companion

11. The meaning of these Ten Profound Gates is clearly explained in the Contemplation of the Dharma-Realm and the Profound Exposition.

Explanation of the Title

The title of the treatise is the principal outline of the entire treatise.

THE AWAKENING OF FAITH IN THE MAHAYANA means arousing faith in the Mahayana.

Regarding MAHAYANA, Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna says in the Treatise on the Twelve Gates: “Why is it called Mahayana? Because it is superior in relation to the Two Vehicles, it is called the GREAT VEHICLE. Because this vehicle is capable of reaching the Buddhas, who are supremely great, it is called GREAT.

Because the Buddhas are great beings who ride this vehicle, it is called GREAT. Because it is able to eliminate the great sufferings of sentient beings and bestow great benefit, it is called GREAT. Because it is the reliance of great beings such as Avalokiteśvara and Mañjuśrī, it is called GREAT.

Because this vehicle reaches the ultimate limit of all dharmas, it is called GREAT. Because in the Prajnaparamita Sutras the Buddha taught the immeasurable and boundless meaning of the Mahayana, it is called GREAT. The profound meaning of the Mahayana is precisely EMPTINESS.

If one penetrates this meaning, one penetrates the Mahayana, perfects the paramitas, and is without obstruction....”

Thus, the meaning of the MAHAYANA is immeasurable and boundless and cannot readily be defined in full, yet it does not go beyond the single meaning of EMPTINESS.

A TREATISE [2] determines what is right and wrong, elucidates the correct principle, and analyzes matters not set forth in sutras and treatises, using reasoned discourse to clarify and substantiate them. This treatise was composed approximately six hundred years after the Buddha entered nirvana. Adherents of the Lesser Vehicle did not believe in mind-only; they grasped at dharmas outside the mind and gave rise to many disputes. Adherents of non-Buddhist paths held erroneous attachments and undermined the true Dharma. Therefore, moved by compassion, the author of the treatise composed this work.

This treatise was originally composed on the basis of a hundred Mahayana works, such as the Laṅkāvatāra Sutra and the Sutra Spoken at the Request of Viśeṣacinti. It elucidates the essential purport of mind-only and consciousness-only and gathers them back into the One Mind. It is the essential outline of the two schools of Nature and Characteristics; it probes deeply into the source of delusion and awakening and reveals the direct and essential purport of cultivation. That is to say, it comprehensively encompasses all the profound and wondrous principles taught by the Tathagata. It is truly the principal outline of the Great Teaching and the authentic purport of the Chan School!

COMPOSED BY BODHISATTVA AŚVAGHOṢA:

ASVAGHOSHA is the name of the author of this treatise. He was a native of Central India, appearing approximately six hundred years after the Buddha entered nirvana. He was the Twelfth Patriarch of Indian Buddhism and made an immense contribution to the transition of Buddhism from the Lesser Vehicle to the Great Vehicle. According to tradition, when he was born, a herd of horses was moved to utter mournful cries. Later, when he expounded the Dharma in Northern India, the king’s horses also stopped eating to listen to the Dharma and neighed aloud. For this reason, people called him Bodhisattva Asvaghosha—“Asva” meaning horse and “ghosha” meaning cry.

He was intelligent and broadly learned, and no one could equal him in debate. At first, he entered monastic life as an ascetic of a non-Buddhist path. On one occasion, he proclaimed, “If any bhiksu is able to debate with me, let him sound the monastery gong. If no one can defeat me, you may no longer receive offerings.” At that time, the elder Parsva was in Northern India. Knowing that Asvaghosha was one who could be converted, he used his supernatural powers to fly to Central India, instructed the people to sound the monastery gong, and debated with him. Asvaghosha was defeated and thereafter became the elder Parsva’s disciple.

Later, the elder returned to his native country. Asvaghosha remained behind and propagated the Buddhadharma for a time, until the king of the Lesser Yuezhi kingdom in Northern India led an army to conquer Central India. Asvaghosha and the Buddha’s alms bowl were the two treasures that the king of Central India had to surrender to Northern India in order to sue for peace. From then onward, Asvaghosha propagated the Dharma in Northern India. No one could equal him in debate or Dharma exposition, and he was even able to transform nonhuman beings.

His works include: The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, The Treatise on the Fundamental Text of the Profound Meaning of the Great Doctrine, Buddhacarita, The Sutra on the Path of the Ten Unwholesome Karmas, The Sutra on Rebirth among the Six Destinies, and The Sutra of the Nirgrantha’s Questions on the Meaning of Non-Self.

TRANSLATED BY TRIPITAKA MASTER PARAMARTHA:

A TRIPITAKA MASTER is one thoroughly versed in the three collections of sutras, Vinaya, and treatises. Such a master is also proficient in the languages of several countries, such as Chinese, Sanskrit, and so forth, thereby helping the Buddhadharma to spread widely.

PARAMARTHA is the name of the translator. In Sanskrit, he was called Kulanatha. The master was a native of Ujjayini in Western India. In the thirteenth year of the Datong era of the Liang dynasty, when he was over thirty years old, he traveled to China and gained the recognition of Emperor Wu. Later, when the country was beset by calamity, he fled to Northern Qi and then went to Eastern Wei. Amid his wandering and hardship, the master compiled and translated such works as the Golden Light Sutra, the Compendium of the Mahayana, the Treatise on Consciousness-Only, and the Biography of Vasubandhu, comprising 278 fascicles in all. On the eleventh day of the first month in the first year of the Dajian era, the master entered nirvana at the age of seventy-one.

Opening Verses

I take refuge with my whole life in all ten directions

In the all-knowing, supremely excellent karma,

The unhindered and sovereign body,

The greatly compassionate Savior of the world;

In the essence and attributes of this body,

The ocean of the Dharma-nature of true suchness,

The treasury of immeasurable virtues;

And in those who practice in accordance with reality.

Wishing to enable sentient beings

To remove doubts and abandon wrong attachments,

To awaken right faith in the Mahayana,

So that the Buddha-seed may never be severed.

The ancients said, “After the Buddha’s nirvana, whenever any disciple composed a sutra, treatise, or other writing, he first had to reverently pay homage to the Three Jewels.” Following that established custom, these verses offer praise and homage and state the purpose for composing this treatise.

Why must one first pay homage to the Three Jewels? Because the sutras are the Buddha’s words, and the Buddha’s wisdom is so exceedingly profound that it cannot be fathomed by discriminating consciousness. One must therefore pay homage and entreat the Three Jewels for the empowering protection of their majestic virtue. Only then can the meaning of the treatise accord inwardly with the Buddha’s mind, so that, though the words are those of an ordinary being, they may convey the intent of a sage.

“I take refuge with my whole life in all ten directions” means directing one’s entire body and life toward the Three Jewels of the ten directions. The ten directions are east, west, south, north, southeast, southwest, northeast, northwest, above, and below; they signify all realms. All these realms are transformations manifested when true suchness accords with conditions.

For worldly people, the body and life are the most precious things of all. To speak now of taking refuge with one’s whole life means to offer this entire body and life in reverent homage, expressing wholehearted sincerity without duplicity. To take refuge with one’s whole life in all ten directions, both body and mind must be emptied before one can truly return. Thus, “taking refuge” also means returning to the origin: returning the six sense faculties to the true source of the One Mind.

“The all-knowing, supremely excellent karma, the unhindered and sovereign body, the greatly compassionate Savior of the world” refers to the Buddha. This is taking refuge in the Jewel of the Buddha.

“All-knowing” is the function of mental karma when mental karma has been completely purified. It knows all three times and every place without the slightest omission, even a single thought as it arises in the mind of a sentient being. Therefore it is called ALL-KNOWING.

“Unhindered and sovereign” means freely interpenetrating without obstruction, like the lights of many lamps blending with one another without hindrance or impediment. Because the Buddha’s bodily karma is completely purified, that body possesses immeasurable characteristics, and those characteristics possess immeasurable excellent marks. Each sense faculty perfectly interpenetrates the others; the body pervades everywhere in sovereign freedom. The ten bodies are clearly manifest throughout, neither impairing nor becoming confused with one another. [3]

“The greatly compassionate Savior of the world” refers to the Buddha’s mind of great compassion.

COMPASSION means pity for suffering beings. It is called GREAT because this compassion is not that of a bodhisattva, nor is it that of the Two Vehicles. GREAT COMPASSION exists only when consciousness has been completely transformed into wisdom, which is called GREAT WISDOM.

Only through great wisdom can there be great compassion. Thus, the compassion of worldly people merely gives food upon seeing hunger and clothing upon seeing cold; it treats only the branches and has not yet treated the root. If the root is not treated, suffering and calamity will never cease.

It is like suffering from a disorder caused by wind and merely applying medicine externally without taking medicine internally: the illness only subsides temporarily and then erupts again, and suffering remains suffering. Therefore, the compassion of worldly people is not called GREAT.

The Buddha regards sentient beings with the vision of wisdom and compassion; therefore, his compassion is called GREAT. That compassion is impartial and makes no distinction between intimate and distant; therefore, it is called GREAT. His teachings are medicine that treats the suffering of sentient beings at its root.

Their essential purpose is to enable sentient beings truly to escape suffering. The Buddha taught people to observe the Five Precepts and the Ten Precepts, to practice goodness, and to avoid evil in order to help them escape the worldly sufferings of illness, poverty, and calamity. Yet the world is impermanent, and all dharmas are as fragile as morning dew.

Happiness does not last long, while suffering is never absent. Therefore, the Buddha also taught methods of practice such as meditation, mindfulness of the Buddha, and so forth, so that people might attain everlasting bliss.

Moreover, GREAT COMPASSION is the foundation of the Buddha Way. Through the power of that compassion, although bodhisattvas have attained nirvana, they continue throughout the long course of birth and death without weariness, fulfilling their compassionate vows. Therefore, the compassion of worldly people is not called GREAT; only compassion within the Buddhadharma is called GREAT. This designation “GREAT” is also established according to conditions. In relation to the Two Vehicles, a bodhisattva’s compassion is GREAT. In relation to both the Two Vehicles and the bodhisattvas, the Buddha’s compassion is GREAT. The GREAT spoken of in this section is the GREATNESS of the Buddhas.

“Savior of the world” means saving worldly beings from the suffering of afflictions. Yet the suffering of sentient beings arises from their own three kinds of karma. To save them from the three suffering realms, one can only reveal the path of practice by which they may transform their own destiny. Thus, whatever skillful transformation body the Buddha may employ, the TEACHING that flows from true suchness remains the principal means by which he saves the world. Master Hanshan said, “‘The greatly compassionate Savior of the world’ refers to the supremely excellent verbal karma. The Buddha employs the wheel of sound to expound the Dharma in response to beings’ capacities. Whatever words he utters, beings of every kind can understand; therefore, it is called supremely excellent.”

These three—OMNISCIENCE, THE UNOBSTRUCTED AND SOVEREIGN BODY, and THE GREAT COMPASSIONATE MIND THAT SAVES THE WORLD—cannot yet be possessed by ordinary beings, followers of the Two Vehicles, or bodhisattvas; hence they are said to be supremely excellent. They cannot yet possess them because their three karmic activities have not been purified as the Buddha’s have. Therefore, the Buddha’s activity is called the supremely excellent activity. SUPREMELY EXCELLENT means foremost, with nothing equal to it, and is synonymous with “optimal.”

With the essence and characteristics of this body, the ocean of the Dharma-nature of true suchness and treasury of immeasurable merits is the Dharma Jewel in which refuge is taken. “The essence and characteristics of this body” refers to the Buddha-body mentioned above. Master Xianshou said: “Generally, in discussing the Dharma Jewel, there are four kinds: teaching, principle, practice, and fruition.

Of these four, TEACHING is shallow, whereas PRINCIPLE is profound; PRACTICE proceeds by stages, whereas FRUITION is complete. Here, that in which refuge is taken encompasses only what is profound and complete—that is, it is directed solely toward PRINCIPLE and FRUITION. Therefore, reference is made to that Buddha-body to clarify that the Dharma Jewel is the Dharma as FRUITION, while revealing the essence and characteristics of the body clarifies that the Dharma Jewel is the Dharma as PRINCIPLE.”

In the Buddha-body, ESSENCE is precisely CHARACTERISTICS, and CHARACTERISTICS are precisely ESSENCE. It is the ocean of the Dharma-nature of true suchness, replete with immeasurable merits. It is called an OCEAN because, besides describing a vastness whose shores cannot be seen, it also expresses how the Dharma-nature of true suchness remains immutable while according with conditions, and accords with conditions while remaining immutable.

Master Xianshou said: “True suchness has two meanings: immutability and accordance with conditions. In the sense of ACCORDING WITH CONDITIONS, it manifests and produces all dharmas. Although it manifests and produces them, it still preserves the IMMUTABLE essence of true suchness. It is like ocean water becoming waves while retaining the unchanging nature of water. In this way, true suchness accords with conditions to transform and produce all dharmas; therefore, true suchness is Dharma-nature. Yet this true suchness as Dharma-nature remains purely wholesome and is not inherently defiled. Nevertheless, because conditions may be defiled or pure, its manifested aspects are respectively defiled or pure.”

“Storehouse” is the translation of the word TREASURY. TREASURY means an accumulation. The word STOREHOUSE is borrowed to describe this accumulation. The ocean of Dharma-nature contains immeasurable and boundless merits; hence it is said to be “the ocean of the Dharma-nature of true suchness, the treasury of immeasurable merits.” [4]

Those who practice in accordance with reality refers to bodhisattvas who have entered the bhumis. They are called “IN ACCORDANCE WITH REALITY” because they have directly realized the cause that is Buddha-nature. The Chan tradition calls this realization seeing one’s nature, or realizing the single thought of non-arising. Only when the cause is unborn can the fruit be unborn; hence they are said to PRACTICE IN ACCORDANCE WITH REALITY. This is taking refuge in the Sangha Jewel.

The section below states the purpose for composing the treatise.

In order to enable sentient beings to dispel doubt and abandon erroneous attachments, arouse right faith in the Mahayana, and prevent the Buddha-seed from being cut off.

The wish TO ENABLE them is the result of the mind of great compassion. Why is there a wish to enable sentient beings to abandon erroneous attachments? Because erroneous attachments are the source of suffering and distress. ERRONEOUS means not right. ATTACHMENT means tightly embracing and grasping. Erroneous attachments refer to incorrect views or thoughts concerning the principle of dependent arising in the world.

They are called ERRONEOUS because they cause one’s body, speech, and mind to act in ways that cannot accord with the transformative current of the Path. If one clings tightly to them as guiding principles and acts accordingly, suffering and calamity cannot be avoided, and ultimate nirvana cannot be attained; hence they are called ERRONEOUS.

What is ERRONEOUS is also established according to conditions. In relation to non-Buddhists and ordinary beings, the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle are RIGHT, while the teachings of ordinary beings and non-Buddhists are ERRONEOUS. Yet in relation to the true essence of the Dharma-body, fully endowed with compassion and wisdom, the Dharma-attachment of those of the Two Vehicles becomes ERRONEOUS. Remember that it becomes erroneous because of ATTACHMENT; it is not that the Dharma of the Two Vehicles is erroneous. “Dharmas abide in their Dharma-positions; the characteristics of the world constantly abide.”

Once one has faith in the Buddha’s teachings, doubt naturally disappears and erroneous attachments naturally cease; hence it is said, “dispel doubt and abandon erroneous attachments.”

To arouse means that something previously absent comes into being. It is synonymous with arising, appearing, and so forth.

To arouse right faith in the Mahayana means to give rise to correct faith in the Mahayana. Every kind of belief that accords with the laws governing the world—such as belief in cause and effect and in previous and future lives—is called RIGHT FAITH. Here, however, it is not merely right faith, but “right faith in the Mahayana.” Therefore, this faith must be faith that “this very mind is Buddha.”

BELIEVE that oneself and the Buddha are not two separate essences, and that it is only because of the concealment of ignorance that there appear to be a Buddha-body and the bodies of sentient beings. BELIEVE that feelings such as sadness, happiness, anger, and hatred, together with the views and prejudices one presently bears, are deluded thoughts without any real essence, arising solely through perfuming; only that unobstructed, all-pervading luminosity is one’s true mind.

BELIEVE that one is capable of reentering and realizing that eternally pure mind through the skillful means taught by the Buddhas and patriarchs in the sutras and treatises. BELIEVE that “the three realms are mind-only, and the myriad dharmas are consciousness-only,” and so forth. Possessing such faith is to arouse right faith in the Mahayana.

The Buddha-seed is the seed from which the fruit of Buddhahood is born. “Cut off” does not mean that it is utterly destroyed and nothing remains, but that it is concealed by ignorance. It is like the sun being hidden by clouds; this does not mean there is no sun. It is like a seed already lying in the earth but unable to sprout because the necessary conditions are lacking; this does not mean there is no seed. This is what CUT OFF means.

The TREATISE states: There is a Dharma capable of arousing the root of Mahayana faith; therefore, it must be expounded. This exposition has five parts.

THE TREATISE STATES marks the beginning of the treatise proper.

That which is capable of giving rise to something else is called a ROOT. Because faith can give rise to other wholesome dharmas, it is called the ROOT OF FAITH.

THE ROOT OF MAHAYANA FAITH refers to the Buddha-nature fully present in every sentient being. Only when Buddha-nature is the cause can the fruit be the Buddha’s nirvana.

DHARMA refers to that which can arouse the root of Mahayana faith. “THERE IS A DHARMA CAPABLE OF...” means that there is something capable of arousing the root of Mahayana faith—namely, this treatise. It is clearly set forth from PRINCIPLE to PRACTICE in five parts.

There are exactly five, rather than four or three, because both PRINCIPLE and PRACTICE must be complete. Principle without practice, or practice without principle, cannot cause the root of Mahayana faith to arise. Practice without principle cannot arouse the faith needed for practice.

If one has faith but does not practice in order to attain direct realization, that faith will wither over time, and the root of Mahayana faith will not sprout and bear the fruit of the Buddha’s nirvana. Only when PRINCIPLE and PRACTICE are both complete and perfectly interfused can the root of Mahayana faith arise and yield excellent results; therefore, the treatise is divided into exactly five parts.

What are the five?

1. The Section on Causes and Conditions

2. The Section on Establishing the Meaning

3. The Section on Explanation

4. The Section on Cultivating the Mind of Faith

5. The Section on Encouraging Practice and Explaining Its Benefits

These are the five principal sections of the treatise. The title of each section indicates its main subject.

The SECTION ON CAUSES AND CONDITIONS sets forth the reasons that led the patriarch to compose this treatise. Worldly dharmas are dependently arisen dharmas; therefore, a dharma does not appear by itself but must have causes for it to appear. Such causes are called CAUSES AND CONDITIONS. To set forth the Causes and Conditions also means to identify the PRACTITIONERS for whom the treatise is intended. Apart from these intended practitioners, the treatise has neither value nor efficacy. This is why all sutras and treatises have a section on the Circumstances of Arising. If one perceives the Buddha’s teachings as contradictory or confused, or the Three Vehicles as inconsistent, it is because one has not understood this aspect of dependent arising.

ESTABLISHING THE MEANING presents the fundamental tenet of the treatise. This is the principal part of the treatise, the part concerning PRINCIPLE, intended to resolve some of the doubts of people in the world. Merely presenting the fundamental tenet is not enough; that fundamental tenet must also be clearly explained so that sentient beings may be capable of receiving it. Therefore, there is the additional section on EXPLANATION.

The purpose of composing and explaining the treatise is to enable sentient beings to understand clearly and arouse the mind to practice. This is the principal purpose of the sutras and treatises. Without this aspect of practice, the Buddha-Dharma would merely be a branch of philosophy, rather than a path of spiritual cultivation as the very name Buddhism indicates. Therefore, the final two sections addressed by the treatise are THE PRACTICE OF FAITH and EXHORTATION TO PRACTICE. These pertain to the aspect of PRACTICE.

Only when PRINCIPLE and PRACTICE are both complete and interfused can the faculty of faith in the Mahayana arise. Thus, the treatise contains exactly five sections, neither deficient nor excessive. By deeply understanding the treatise through our own experience of practice, we will be able to arouse the faculty of faith in the Mahayana. When the faculty of faith in the Mahayana arises, it becomes the cause for Buddha-nature to appear; the lineage of the Buddhas will then not be severed, and suffering can truly come to an end. It is therefore necessary to expound it fully so that everyone may understand.

Next is the explanation of the section on Causes and Conditions.

The Section on Causes and Conditions

First, the section on Causes and Conditions is discussed.

Question: For what causes and conditions was this treatise composed?

CAUSES AND CONDITIONS refers to the reasons for composing the treatise. What reasons led to the composition of this treatise?

Answer: There are eight causes and conditions. What are the eight?

1. The general characteristic of the causes and conditions: namely, to enable sentient beings to leave behind all suffering and attain ultimate bliss, and not for the sake of seeking worldly fame, profit, or reverence.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC means the common, overall characteristic. Although there are eight causes, this is the cause common to them all. It is called common because this cause is present within the other seven causes. CHARACTERISTIC is a Buddhist term used in distinction to ESSENCE; it may provisionally be understood as similar to the modern term “form.” The treatise appeared because of compassion for sentient beings. It was not for personal fame, profit, or reverence, but solely because the author of the treatise wished sentient beings to leave behind all suffering and attain ultimate bliss.

This treatise not only helps people attain bliss, but ultimate bliss. ULTIMATE BLISS is bliss in which not the slightest trace of suffering remains. It is not the bliss that arises dependently with suffering in the world; therefore, it is ultimate bliss. If bliss is ULTIMATE, then ALL suffering must be abandoned.

ALL SUFFERING refers to the suffering of ordinary beings, non-Buddhist practitioners, practitioners of the Two Vehicles, and bodhisattvas. Although practitioners of the Two Vehicles are said to realize nirvana, that nirvana is still subject to the “subtle suffering of transformational birth and death.” SUBTLE means extremely fine and difficult to discern. Only after one has also passed beyond this transformational birth and death can one be said to have attained ultimate bliss.

2. To explain the fundamental meaning of the Tathagata so that sentient beings may understand it correctly and without error.

THE FUNDAMENTAL MEANING OF THE TATHAGATA encompasses everything stated in the sections on Establishing the Meaning and Explanation.

Here the details begin. The second reason this treatise came into being was to explain the fundamental meaning of the Tathagata. For what purpose was it explained? So that sentient beings might grasp the matter clearly. Only when they grasp it clearly will they possess sufficient faith to practice. Since it is called the meaning OF THE TATHAGATA, it is not something that ordinary beings, practitioners of the Two Vehicles, or bodhisattvas can understand completely; therefore, it must be explained.

3. To enable sentient beings whose wholesome roots have matured to be capable of receiving the Mahayana without regressing in faith.

This is the third reason this treatise appeared. Master Hanshan identifies these SENTIENT BEINGS WHOSE WHOLESOME ROOTS HAVE MATURED as those at the final stage of the Ten Faiths who are entering the Ten Abodes. Based on the section concerning defiled states of mind below, the fulfillment of the Ten Faiths here refers to those who have broken their attachment to external objects. This means that even though the mind may give rise to distinctions of love and hatred when encountering objects, they do not, because of that love or hatred, seek to cling to them or cast them away, thereby creating evil karma and undergoing painful retribution in the three evil paths.

Even after reaching the Ten Faiths, if one does not undertake practice, that faith will lead nowhere. Therefore, although these persons are classified as those “whose wholesome roots have matured,” they are still not said to have attained non-retrogression. NON-RETROGRESSION means that one will no longer fall back to the state of an ordinary being or a practitioner of the Two Vehicles. Regardless of the circumstances into which one is born, the mind devoted to Mahayana practice will still manifest. Thus, composing the treatise was necessary to help practitioners nurture their faith.

CAPABLE OF RECEIVING describes receiving something with endurance and perseverance. Why must one be capable of receiving it? Because in practicing the Mahayana, one must regard the benefit of all beings as paramount.

To accomplish this, practice cannot be simple or perfunctory, nor can it be undertaken merely for enjoyment as one might cultivate merit; one must concentrate on eliminating the habitual karma of the self. The self must be emptied before there can truly be benefit for all beings. The self must be eliminated before one can re-enter the emptiness of the Mahayana.

The bliss of nirvana must be relinquished before one can perceive one’s own Buddha-nature. This cannot be accomplished without perseverance, patience, diligence, and the willingness to endure hardship; hence the words CAPABLE OF RECEIVING. Only when one encounters difficulties without becoming discouraged will one’s faith not regress.

Therefore, the text says, “capable of receiving the Mahayana without regressing in faith.”

4. To enable sentient beings whose wholesome roots are meager to cultivate faith.

WHOSE WHOLESOME ROOTS ARE MEAGER refers to those who also possess wholesome roots, but whose wholesome roots are not like those described above. They believe in cause and effect, perform good deeds and avoid evil, make offerings, practice giving, and so forth, but do so inconsistently. When they hear that their own mind is Buddha, they do not reject the idea, yet they do not truly believe it either, and so forth; all such people belong to this level. The treatise was established to explain and present skillful means that would enable them to practice and further strengthen their faith in the Mahayana.

6. To reveal skillful means for eliminating the hindrances of evil karma, skillfully guarding one’s own mind, distancing oneself from delusion and arrogance, and escaping the net of error.

The fifth purpose for which the author composed the treatise was to reveal skillful means of practice. These means eliminate the hindrances of evil karma. EVIL KARMA refers to actions that bring suffering to all beings. When the cause is suffering, the result is suffering. A HINDRANCE is an obstruction, something contrary or obscuring. Evil karma causes one’s mind to grow increasingly distant from the wholesome mind and prevents one from realizing Buddha-nature; therefore, it is called a HINDRANCE.

DELUSION AND ARROGANCE refers collectively to all kinds of erroneous attachments.

It is called the NET OF ERROR because one error follows another, spreading over a person’s life like a net. One evil result becomes the cause of the next evil result. That subsequent evil result then becomes the cause of yet another evil result. In this way, they continue to extend and intertwine, encircling one’s life. Once entangled in delusion, arrogance, and evil karma, one is like a fish caught in a net. Without revealing skillful means, it would be difficult to escape that net; therefore, the treatise had to be composed to reveal them. These skillful means are intended for those who have no wholesome roots or whose wholesome roots are meager.

If one can guard the mind so that evil thoughts do not arise, evil karma will not be produced. Therefore, the text says, SKILLFULLY GUARDING ONE’S OWN MIND.

6. To reveal the cultivation of calm abiding and insight, thereby counteracting the mistaken minds of ordinary beings and practitioners of the Two Vehicles.

This means of skillful practice is intended for those whose wholesome roots are fairly mature; hence it says, “TO COUNTERACT the erroneous minds of ordinary beings and those of the Two Vehicles.” Although their wholesome roots are mature, they are still called ORDINARY BEINGS; this refers generally to those who have aroused the aspiration to cultivate the Buddha Way, whether monastic or lay. Those of the Two Vehicles are those who take the attainments of arhatship and pratyekabuddhahood as ultimate.

Since those attainments are not the true ultimate, they are called ERRONEOUS. Without both CALMING and CONTEMPLATION, one cannot still the mind, put an end to deluded thoughts, and awaken again to one’s own Buddha-nature. Therefore, the method of CALMING AND CONTEMPLATION must be set forth for cultivation.

7. To reveal the skillful means of “single-minded recollection,” whereby one is born in the presence of a Buddha and assuredly never again loses faith.

This is also intended for those who already possess wholesome roots. Yet people with these wholesome roots are not suited to the preceding means of CALMING AND CONTEMPLATION, so the skillful means of “single-minded recollection” must be revealed. SINGLE-MINDED RECOLLECTION refers to the recollection of the Buddha. It is not called simply recollection of the Buddha but SINGLE-MINDED RECOLLECTION because this recollection must be practiced diligently and without interruption. Only through SINGLE-MINDEDNESS can the current of deluded thoughts be cast aside. Only when one’s RECOLLECTION consists entirely of the recollection of the Buddha does one’s realm become the realm of the Buddha.

This SINGLE-MINDED RECOLLECTION also has the power to cast aside the current of deluded thoughts, like the skillful means of CALMING AND CONTEMPLATION. Yet it is easier to apply and more universally accessible because it accords with beings’ CAPACITY TO GIVE RISE to thoughts. Instead of engaging in idle talk or scattered thinking, we recollect the Buddha. Thus, thoughts may still arise, but what arises is the RECOLLECTION of the Buddha.[5] The treatise was composed so that beings of every capacity might have a means of escaping suffering. Therefore, it could not set forth only the skillful means of CALMING AND CONTEMPLATION; it also had to include this section on SINGLE-MINDED RECOLLECTION.

8. To reveal the benefits and encourage cultivation.

This is the final reason the author composed the treatise. TO ENCOURAGE CULTIVATION means that after reading, studying, and understanding it, one should… remember to practice! Practice is the essential matter. No matter how much one reads and studies, without practice one cannot bring suffering to an end. Yet suffering is the general cause and condition that moved the author to compose the treatise. Therefore, he had to encourage cultivation. ENCOURAGEMENT means neither compelling nor coercing anyone, but clearly explaining every matter while also revealing the benefits of cultivation so that each person may spontaneously arouse the resolve to practice. Thus, REVEALING THE BENEFITS of cultivation is necessarily an indispensable part of the treatise.

Because of causes and conditions such as these, the treatise was composed.

This is the general conclusion concerning the causes and conditions for composing the treatise. Since the bodhisattva’s original intention was to deliver sentient beings, it was for their sake that the causes and conditions for composing the treatise arose. Of these eight causes and conditions, the first is a general statement, while the remaining seven specific causes encompass the entire treatise. They will be fully discussed again below. [6]

Next, a question is posed to expand upon the causes and conditions for composing the treatise.

Question: Since the sutras already contain all these teachings, why repeat them?

Since the teachings are already complete within the sutras, why was it still necessary to compose this treatise?

Answer: Although these teachings are present in the sutras, the faculties and practices of sentient beings are not the same, and therefore the causes and conditions through which they receive understanding differ. That is to say, while the Tathagata was still in the world, sentient beings possessed keen faculties, and the person who taught had supremely excellent karma of body and mind. When his perfect voice spoke, beings of every different kind all gained understanding; hence there was no need to compose treatises.

SUTRAS are the canonical discourses and refer generally to the Buddha’s scriptures. “Canonical” has two meanings: accord with principle and accord with the capacities of beings. “Discourse” has two meanings: threading the characteristics of the Dharma together so that they are not scattered, and preserving what is taught.

THESE TEACHINGS refers to “the fundamental meaning of the Tathagata.”

THE FACULTIES AND PRACTICES OF SENTIENT BEINGS ARE NOT THE SAME means that the degree of purity of mind differs from person to person. PERFECT VOICE refers to the Buddha’s voice. It is called perfect because its functioning is unobstructed and all-pervasive. The purer one’s karma, the more extensive its functioning. The purer one’s karma, the more deeply one understands the great Dharma. Those who encountered the Buddha already possessed quite profound wholesome roots. Thus, while the Buddha was still in the world, his teaching extended widely to beings of every kind, and they could readily attain a clear and thorough understanding of the great Dharma. At that time, composing treatises was unnecessary.

However, after the Tathagata entered nirvana, some sentient beings, through their own power, gain understanding upon hearing much. Other sentient beings, also through their own power, hear little yet understand much.

This describes the condition of sentient beings after the Buddha entered nirvana. THROUGH THEIR OWN POWER means that, without relying on any further explanation, they themselves read and study the scriptures and thereby comprehend the meaning spoken by the Tathagata. They can rely on their own power because their minds are not greatly disturbed and their afflictions have grown thin. The faculties of these two kinds of people remain lucid; thus, by hearing or reading the sutras themselves, they can realize their own Buddha-mind.

Some sentient beings lack sufficient power of their own minds and must rely upon extensive treatises before they can understand. Still other sentient beings find “extensive treatises with copious text” burdensome and wish to grasp “a small amount of text that encompasses many meanings” so that they may understand.

The minds of these people are less lucid, and they cannot understand the Buddha’s teachings in the sutras by themselves. Hearing the sutras is like a duck hearing thunder, so the patriarchs had to compose treatises. Treatises were composed to explain meanings and elucidate every detail in the language of each age, in ways suited to different capacities so that people could readily understand.

Such people are divided into two kinds. The first must rely upon extensive treatises before they can understand. Although they do not understand the sutras when reading them, they can understand long and comprehensive treatises.

The second kind fears an abundance of words yet wants to grasp many things. Their minds desire much, but their power of patience is insufficient; therefore, they cannot endure long treatises whose doctrines are exceedingly vast and detailed. Hence, treatises with few words but abundant meaning had to be composed for them.

This treatise is of that kind. It was composed in order to comprehensively encompass the profound, vast, and boundlessly meaningful Dharma of the Tathagata.

“THIS TREATISE IS OF THAT KIND” means that it is a treatise containing few words but abundant meaning, composed to serve people of the last-mentioned capacity. Although this translation and explanation may appear lengthy, the Chinese text contains only slightly more than 11,000 characters. Yet all the principles taught by the Tathagata are fully gathered within it.

Truly, its words are exceedingly few, while its meaning is exceedingly vast. Its WORDS ARE EXCEEDINGLY FEW because the details have been abridged and condensed. Its MEANING IS EXCEEDINGLY VAST because, although abridged, its profound principles remain complete.

Master Hanshan said, “Within it are comprehensively encompassed all the profound, vast, boundless, and wondrous meanings of the Tathagata’s Dharma. That is to say, it gathers without limit the profound meanings of the hundred Mahayana treatises and unfolds the Dharma-realm of the One Mind as plainly as seeing a fruit in the palm of one’s hand. It is truly the mysterious gateway for entering the principle and the wondrous purport of cultivation!

How could students not devote themselves wholeheartedly to it?”

“How could they not devote themselves wholeheartedly to it?”—because this treatise is beyond reproach. In principle, it is comprehensive and clear. In practice, its instructions are complete. It is suited to every capacity, from the lowest to the highest; therefore, one should wholeheartedly read, study, and practice it, so as not to disappoint the ancient worthies.

The Causes and Conditions having been explained, the Section on Establishing the Meaning follows.

This concludes the preceding section and introduces the next.

Section on Establishing the Meaning

Generally speaking, Mahayana has two aspects. What are the two? The first is Dharma; the second is meaning.

GENERALLY SPEAKING means to speak briefly or from an overall perspective. The division into two clarifies the matter.

I. DHARMA: What is called the Dharma is the mind of sentient beings. This mind encompasses all worldly and supramundane dharmas. On the basis of this mind, the meaning of Mahayana is revealed. Why is this so? Because the characteristic of true suchness in this mind indicates the essence of Mahayana, while the characteristic of dependent origination, arising and ceasing, in this mind indicates the intrinsic essence, characteristics, and function of Mahayana.

Apart from the Buddha, all are called SENTIENT BEINGS.

THAT DHARMA refers to the eternally abiding and unchanging essence of suchness, which is the Dharma-essence of the Mahayana. Master Hanshan said, “THAT DHARMA is the ESSENCE of the Dharma-gate of the one true Dharma-realm in its great, all-encompassing characteristic.”

Question: The main text says, “That Dharma is the mind of sentient beings.” Why, then, is THAT DHARMA explained as the ESSENCE of the one Dharma-realm? If it is the eternally true ESSENCE, it neither arises nor ceases, whereas the mind of sentient beings undergoes arising and cessation. If THAT DHARMA is the essence of the one Dharma-realm, why does the text not directly say that it is the ESSENCE of the one Dharma-realm, but instead say, “That Dharma is the mind of sentient beings”?

Answer: To say that it is the ESSENCE of “the Dharma-gate of the one Dharma-realm in its great, all-encompassing characteristic” is to speak of the profound meaning of the Mahayana. Practice is an entire process of transformation from the ordinary to the noble, from arising and cessation to non-arising and non-cessation. Accordingly, the Mahayana has both shallow and profound levels.

Therefore, the text does not directly say that THAT DHARMA is the ESSENCE of the one Dharma-realm. Although it does not say so directly, we know with certainty that THAT DHARMA does not refer merely to the deluded, conceptualizing mind. For at the beginning, the author of the Treatise says, “The Mahayana has two aspects: first, the Dharma; second, the meaning.” The subsequent section on MEANING discusses the THREE GREATNESSES, which are also the three GREATNESSES of wholesome mundane and supramundane dharmas.

It speaks of the mind of sentient beings rather than directly of the eternally true essence so that sentient beings may know that THAT DHARMA does not exist apart from their own minds. That mind is precisely the basis upon which the Mahayana is established. Without that mind, the Mahayana could not be established.

Therefore, when speaking of the DHARMA, it first says that it is the mind of sentient beings. To explain it in terms of ESSENCE is to reveal that, precisely within arising and cessation, there is non-arising and non-cessation. No matter how defiled by arising and cessation it may be, whether ordinary or noble, whether in hell or among animals, that mind remains ever present, inexhaustible throughout all ages.

It merely appears different because of delusion or awakening; there is never another mind. It is like a rope: because of dimness, one person sees it as a snake, while another sees it as a dry branch. According to each person’s mistaken perception, the rope becomes a snake or a dry branch, yet its true nature remains a rope.

In explaining it, one speaks of the rope rather than of the snake or dry branch in order to reveal it exactly as it is. So it is with the mind. Although it is the mind of sentient beings, from beginningless time until now that mind has always been the eternally abiding and unchanging Dharma-essence of suchness.

Therefore, although “That Dharma is the mind of sentient beings,” THAT DHARMA remains “the Essence of the Dharma-gate of the one Dharma-realm in its great, all-encompassing characteristic.”

“THIS MIND encompasses all mundane and supramundane dharmas” because the essence and characteristics of this mind do not obstruct one another. Defilement and purity both depend upon this mind. Whether following the current of non-awakening or reversing the current and returning to purity, it is this one mind that turns. If it follows defiled conditions, it becomes non-awakening and encompasses mundane dharmas. As intrinsic awakening and initial awakening, it encompasses supramundane dharmas.

“BASED UPON THIS MIND, the meaning of the Mahayana is revealed,” because without the mind of sentient beings, the meaning of the Mahayana could not be established. Because the mind of sentient beings exists, the meaning of the Mahayana is established on the basis of that mind. The mind of sentient beings is the basis upon which the Mahayana is established; therefore, the text says, BASED UPON THAT MIND. Since the meaning of the Mahayana is established precisely within that mind, everyone can give rise to right faith in the Mahayana, everyone has the capacity to become a Buddha, and practice must be undertaken precisely within that mind; one cannot depend upon seeking outside it.

CHARACTERISTIC and ESSENCE—also called NATURE—are Buddhist terms referring to the appearance and intrinsic nature of a dharma. Ordinary people commonly regard the world and the myriad dharmas presently existing as real; that is, they conflate CHARACTERISTIC and NATURE, taking CHARACTERISTIC itself to be NATURE. From the Buddhist perspective, the CHARACTERISTIC of a dharma can be perceived, but its NATURE cannot.

The sutras often call this the NATURE OF EMPTINESS. To say that a dharma is EMPTY does not mean that its appearance is nonexistent, but that this appearance has no real substance; that emptiness is not an appearance that can be seen. Whatever remains an object of seeing is delusive, even if it is an appearance of emptiness.

The myriad dharmas are therefore merely like a mirage or spots seen in the sky: they have appearance but no substance.

Every mundane dharma has these two aspects of characteristic and nature. Yet CHARACTERISTIC and NATURE are spoken of in order to grasp the matter; they cannot actually be separated into two as they are distinguished here. Because they cannot be separated, “the characteristic of the mind’s conditioned arising and cessation” does not include only the two aspects of CHARACTERISTIC and FUNCTION; it must also include the ESSENCE distinguished in the section on the Characteristic of Suchness.

Water, ice, and vapor, for example, all have H2O as their intrinsic substance. H2O is called the ESSENCE of those three. The forms of water, ice, or vapor that we perceive are called their CHARACTERISTICS.

Although they share the same ESSENCE, their CHARACTERISTICS differ according to conditions. Under the condition of ordinary temperature, there is water. Under the condition of high temperature, there is vapor.

Under the condition of low temperature, there is ice. Yet whatever form they assume, they never depart from the ESSENCE of H2O. Without this ESSENCE, those characteristics and functions could not exist.

Therefore, conditioned characteristics fully possess all three—ESSENCE, CHARACTERISTIC, and FUNCTION—not merely two, even though ESSENCE has already been distinguished under the Characteristic of Suchness.

CHARACTERISTICS exist only through dependent origination; hence they are called CONDITIONED CHARACTERISTICS. Because characteristics arise from causes and conditions, they lack intrinsic nature. Since they lack intrinsic nature, dharmas have no fixed characteristics but continually arise, cease, and change. For this reason, they are called CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDITIONED ARISING AND CESSATION.

FUNCTION refers to the operative aspect of a dharma. Every dharma has its own function. For example, water is used for drinking, ice for applying to the head, and steam for powering trains, and so forth. There must be ESSENCE for CHARACTERISTIC to exist. When ESSENCE and CHARACTERISTIC are present, there is FUNCTION.

SUPRAMUNDANE dharmas refer to the four noble ones: shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas. MUNDANE dharmas refer to the six ordinary destinies: hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, humans, devas, and asuras. Because this mind is originally suchness, it encompasses supramundane dharmas. Because birth and death arise based upon karmic consciousness, it encompasses mundane dharmas. TO ENCOMPASS means to gather in and contain.

The foregoing has indicated the true and deluded aspects of the Dharma of mind, clarifying the Dharma-essence of the Mahayana. What follows explains the MEANING of that Dharma.

II. MEANING: There are three kinds. What are the three?

1. GREATNESS OF ESSENCE, because it is the equal suchness of all dharmas, neither increasing nor decreasing.

2. GREATNESS OF CHARACTERISTIC, because the Tathagata-garbha is replete with immeasurable qualities of virtue.

3. GREATNESS OF FUNCTION, because it can give rise to all wholesome mundane and supramundane causes and effects.

This is the fundamental basis upon which all Buddhas rely. All bodhisattvas rely upon this Dharma to reach the ground of the Tathagata.

MEANING corresponds to “doctrinal significance” or “content.” This section on MEANING is established to explain why it is called the Mahayana. It is called GREAT because it possesses the three boundless meanings of great essence, characteristic, and function. It is called VEHICLE because through it Buddhas and bodhisattvas can perfect the fruit of Buddhahood.

VEHICLE means that upon which one relies and by which one is conveyed. Because one relies upon it in order to proceed, it is called a VEHICLE. Master Hanshan said, “Because, based upon the two dharmas of the true and the deluded, there are two transformations of the basis, it is called a VEHICLE.” The two transformations of the basis are the transformation of afflictions into nirvana and the transformation of the cognitive obstructions into bodhi.

Buddhas and bodhisattvas rely upon these two transformations to reach the ground of the Tathagata; hence it is called a VEHICLE. Because only Buddhas and bodhisattvas are capable of undertaking this vehicle, it is called GREAT.

These three—essence, characteristic, and function—are clearly explained in the Exposition section, so they will not be discussed in detail here.

FUNDAMENTAL BASIS refers to the Mahayana. It is FUNDAMENTAL because without it, the attainment of Buddhahood would be impossible.

THE GROUND OF THE TATHAGATA refers to the “Dharma-nature of true suchness” inherently complete within every sentient being. Although it is spoken of as being REACHED, one recognizes it right here, cultivates it right here, and realizes it right here. “Right here” means precisely within this very mind of ours that undergoes arising and cessation. Let go entirely of discriminations, joy, sorrow, thoughts, longings, and so forth; right there is the ground of the Tathagata.

Having presented the Establishment of the Meaning, next comes the Explanation.

The Explanation

The explanation has 3 parts. What are the 3?

1. Revealing the correct meaning.

2. Counteracting erroneous attachments.

3. Distinguishing the characteristics of the path of generating the aspiration.

These 3 parts of the Explanation elucidate everything set forth in the Establishment of the Meaning.

REVEALING THE CORRECT MEANING means explaining and clearly revealing the DHARMA and MEANING of the Mahayana in the Establishment of the Meaning.

COUNTERACTING ERRONEOUS ATTACHMENTS means eliminating mistaken views or attachments so that one may understand, cultivate, and completely realize the Dharma-nature of true suchness.

DISTINGUISHING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PATH OF GENERATING THE ASPIRATION means revealing practitioners’ levels of cultivation at each stage along the journey from sentient being to Buddha.

I. REVEALING THE CORRECT MEANING

Based upon the Dharma of the one mind, there are 2 gateways. What are the 2? The first is the gateway of the mind as true suchness. The second is the gateway of the mind as arising and cessation. Each of these 2 gateways encompasses all dharmas. What does this mean? These 2 gateways are not separate from one another.

Regarding BASED UPON THE DHARMA OF THE ONE MIND, Master Xianshou explains only ONE MIND and does not appear to mention the word DHARMA, as follows: “ONE MIND is the single mind of the Tathagatagarbha, which comprises 2 aspects. The first is considered in terms of its essence, which transcends all characteristics, and is called the gateway of true suchness. The second is considered in terms of its meaning of conditionally following circumstances in arising and cessation, and is called the gateway of arising and cessation.” If the word DHARMA is understood so that the phrase reads BASED UPON THE DHARMA OF THE ONE MIND, it refers to the mind of sentient beings.

Based upon the one mind of sentient beings, 2 gateways are established. Although there are 2 gateways, they are of the same one mind, because true suchness refers to the essence of that mind, while arising and cessation refer to the essence, characteristics, and function of that mind. The 2 gateways do not constitute 2 minds; hence it is called the DHARMA OF THE ONE MIND.

Whichever way it is understood, the meaning of “one mind having 2 gateways” remains unchanged.

TRUE SUCHNESS refers to the ESSENCE that has no characteristics that can be seen; it is eternal and immutable, neither arising nor ceasing, neither coming nor going, neither defiled nor pure, uniformly equal in its single flavor, and without differentiation in nature. In the mundane and supramundane realms, it bears neither the characteristic of unity nor duality, and it has no characteristic of verbal expression. Therefore, in the Lankavatara Sutra, the Tathagata answered in general the 108 questions of Mahamati with the single word NO. Because this is a point that cannot be directly disclosed, negating words alone are used so that people may inwardly awaken to it.

Master Xianshou said: “ARISING AND CESSATION refers to the aspect of true suchness that follows conditions in arising and cessation. Through the movement of perfuming, defilement and purity come to be. Although defilement and purity come to be, the nature remains forever unmoving. Because defilement and purity arise from the unmoving, the unmoving is also present within the gateway of movement.” THE UNMOVING refers to the gateway of true suchness. THE GATEWAY OF MOVEMENT refers to the gateway of arising and cessation. This is why the gateway of arising and cessation includes even ultimate enlightenment, the state of the non-arising and non-ceasing mind that is free from thought.

Although divided into 2, they cannot be two; therefore, each gateway encompasses all dharmas. Why they are 2 yet cannot be two will be clarified by the author of the Treatise in the section on the mutual perfuming of the true and the deluded.

Master Hanshan said: “That each of these 2 gateways comprehensively encompasses all dharmas reveals that the Tathagatagarbha and the storehouse consciousness—the true and the deluded in conjunction—each possesses the power and function of mutually encompassing the other. At the same time, it reveals the wondrous and inconceivable nature of transformation through perfuming. The Tathagatagarbha is endowed with immeasurable pure merits.

When it is now deluded and becomes the storehouse consciousness, it transforms those immeasurable pure merits into defiled conditions. The present statement EACH ENCOMPASSES means: If the perfuming pertains to pure dharmas, the true has power and the deluded lacks power; consequently, defiled conditions are transformed into pure dharmas. That is, the defiled conditions within the Tathagatagarbha are comprehensively encompassed and become all inconceivable pure functions.

If the perfuming pertains to the defiled condition of ignorance, the deluded has power and the true lacks power; consequently, pure merits are transformed into defiled conditions. That is, the merits within the storehouse consciousness are encompassed and become all inconceivable karmic functions [7].”

A. The mind as true suchness is precisely the essence of the Dharma-gateway of the great, all-encompassing characteristic of the one dharmadhatu. That is, the nature of mind neither arises nor ceases. All dharmas differ only in dependence upon deluded thoughts. If deluded thoughts are relinquished, there are no characteristics of any realms whatsoever. Therefore, from the beginning, all dharmas have been free from the characteristic of verbal expression, free from the characteristic of names and words, and free from the characteristic of being objects of mental cognition. They are ultimately equal, without alteration, and indestructible. They are solely the one mind; hence this is called true suchness.

ONE DHARMA means that there are not 2 dharmas. DHATU refers to the seeds within the storehouse consciousness, which are the causes giving rise to every cause and effect, sage and ordinary being, throughout the ten dharmadhatus. Regarding DHARMADHATU, the Madhyantavibhaga says: “Because it has the meaning of being the cause of the noble Dharma, it is called the dharmadhatu.” The Mahayana-samgraha says: “The dharmadhatu is the cause of all dharmas.” The Mahayana-samgraha’s view of the dharmadhatu is broader than that of the Madhyantavibhaga, but both share the common meaning of CAUSE—the source from which the myriad dharmas arise.

Whether it is the cause of all dharmas or only the cause of the noble path, however, is established in dependence upon delusion and awakening. In delusion, it is concealed; in awakening, it is revealed. They appear different, but in truth they are not different.

Because nothing can exist outside that dharmadhatu, it is called GREAT. Equal in its single flavor and free from differentiated characteristics, yet encompassing all differentiated characteristics, it is called ALL-ENCOMPASSING CHARACTERISTIC. Regarding DHARMA-GATEWAY, Master Xianshou said: “That which serves as a standard and gives rise to beings’ understanding is called Dharma. That through which noble wisdom freely penetrates is called a gateway.” This means that principles which enable people to understand things are called DHARMA. That which noble wisdom penetrates is called a GATEWAY.

That ONE DHARMADHATU is without differentiated characteristics, equal in its single flavor, and nothing can exist outside it; moreover, it is the common point through which sages enter the path. Therefore, it is called THE DHARMA-GATEWAY OF THE GREAT, ALL-ENCOMPASSING CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ONE DHARMADHATU.

TRUE SUCHNESS is the ESSENCE of that one dharmadhatu. The expression NATURE OF MIND is intended to emphasize the word NATURE. It has the same meaning as such terms as fundamental essence, essence, and source. NEITHER ARISING NOR CEASING is a quality of that nature. Master Xianshou said: “This neither arising nor ceasing explains the essence of Dharma. It does not arise in accordance with delusion, nor does it cease when delusion is eliminated. It does not arise through corrective cultivation, nor does it cease amid defilement.”

The arising and cessation presently experienced are due to deluded thoughts. THOUGHT is a characteristic of mind and refers generally to whatever arises within the mind. It is called DELUDED because these things have no true existence. Although THOUGHTS assume myriad forms and appearances, those characteristics possess no true substance; hence they are called DELUDED THOUGHTS. Precisely because they possess no true substance, thoughts arise and then cease, cease and then arise, continuing endlessly. Because they possess no true substance, we are able to eliminate deluded thoughts and return to our own true mind.

“ALL DHARMAS differ only in dependence upon deluded thoughts” has 2 meanings:

1. Differentiation produced by causes and conditions: The realms of sentient beings arise through the inconceivable powers of PERFUMING and TRANSFORMATION belonging to the seeds perfumed within the storehouse consciousness. According to the type of thought and the degree of perfuming, immeasurable and boundlessly differentiated characteristics appear within this dharmadhatu. For example, when a thought of greed is the cause, the result is the realm of hungry ghosts. When a thought of anger is the cause, the result is the form of an animal. When thoughts of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity are the cause, the result is the form of a bodhisattva, and so forth...

2. The distinctions produced by discriminative transformation: Because one does not know that the objects presently before one are transformations of consciousness, one further gives rise to discrimination and grasping with regard to those objects. Thought after thought continues without interruption, causing the objective realm to become increasingly differentiated. Thus, with regard to the very same scene, when one is joyful one sees it as fresh and radiant, whereas when one is sorrowful one sees it as desolate and mournful. Or, with regard to the very same person, one observer sees that person as beautiful while another sees that person as ugly. The many different distinctions that arise in the objective realm are due to differences in each person’s state of mind and views.

Because of the two kinds of deluded thought described above, innumerable distinct characteristics of the objective realm appear within this dharmadhatu.

The CHARACTERISTICS OF ALL OBJECTIVE REALMS arise from deluded thought in this way; therefore, “If one is free from deluded thought, there are no characteristics of any objective realm.” The ultimate state of the Two Vehicles is the cessation of thought, and thus their practitioners enter the state of emptiness. That emptiness is profoundly blissful and is therefore called nirvana. The bodhisattva’s state of freedom from thought is to be free from thought in the very midst of thought—that is, to remain equanimous toward objects in the very midst of objects. This is the state of no-mind spoken of in Zen: “When the mind is unmoved before objects, do not ask about Zen.”

“Therefore, all dharmas FROM THE BEGINNINGLESS PAST UNTIL NOW…” expresses the TRUE CHARACTER of the world in which we live, of this vast dharmadhatu. However manifold its countless forms may be, they are merely shadows of a single ESSENCE that is transparent and radiant, that has never arisen or ceased, and has never come or gone.

This ESSENCE cannot be penetrated by this conditioned mind of arising and cessation; therefore, it is said to be “free from the characteristic of SPEECH, free from the characteristic of NAMES AND WORDS, and free from the characteristic of MENTAL CONDITIONING.” Because it is not governed by the characteristics of arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing, it is said to UNDERGO NO CHANGE. Because it does not belong to the conditioned, it CANNOT BE DESTROYED.

Because all speech and provisional names are unreal, merely following deluded thoughts and incapable of being apprehended, suchness itself is also without characteristics. It is merely the ultimate limit of speech: relying upon speech in order to relinquish speech. The essence of suchness cannot be discarded, because all dharmas are entirely real. Nor can it be established, because all dharmas are entirely identical in suchness. One should know that because all dharmas cannot be spoken or conceived, they are called suchness.

This explains why it was said above that suchness is FREE from speech and names, while here it is nevertheless given the name “suchness.” The name SUCHNESS is established so that people may know of its presence and so that it may provisionally be distinguished from the minds of sentient beings that arise and cease. It is not, however, an object that we can grasp or imagine, like a bowl or an ox corresponding to the name it bears; nor is it something that has a name but no reality, like a turtle’s hair or a rabbit’s horn.

How do we know that the ESSENCE of suchness can neither be discarded nor established? If it were DISCARDED, the myriad dharmas would have no basis upon which to arise as they presently do. Thus, we know that the essence of suchness EXISTS and is not nonexistent. It EXISTS, yet it cannot be ESTABLISHED. For if it were established, the essence of suchness would become identical with dharmas subject to arising and cessation, thereby falling into annihilation. If annihilated, once it had ceased it could no longer arise, and the myriad dharmas could not continue arising as they presently do. Therefore, one should know that “The essence of suchness can neither be discarded nor established.”

To ESTABLISH it here is merely to borrow speech in order to reveal the existence of the mind of suchness. Yet to realize that mind, words, conceptual thoughts, and grasping must utterly cease.

“ALL dharmas cannot be spoken or conceived and are therefore called suchness” means that the realm of suchness can be revealed only through ultimate freedom from thought. It is not a realm that is seen or known. Since there is nothing seen or known, there is likewise no one who sees or knows.

Question: If this is the meaning, how can sentient beings accord with it and enter it?

Answer: If one knows that, although all dharmas are spoken, there is neither a speaker nor anything spoken, and although they are conceived, there is neither one who conceives nor anything conceived, this is called according with suchness. If one is free from thought, this is called entering it.

The question points out the difficulty that arises when suchness is described as something beyond worldly reasoning and cognition, as well as the ultimate state free from characteristics. How can sentient beings enter it again by means of this mind filled with speech and thought?

SUBJECT refers to the acting subject. OBJECT refers to that which is acted upon. SUBJECT refers to that which performs an action, while OBJECT refers to that upon which the action is performed. They form a pair arising dependently. This is called dependent arising because each serves as a condition for the other to arise. Because they arise dependently, when one exists, both exist; when one does not exist, neither exists. The SPEAKING SUBJECT refers to the speaker. The SPOKEN OBJECT refers to what is spoken, such as speech, written words, and so forth. The SPOKEN OBJECT may also be understood as the listener, the object toward which that speech is directed. This SPEAKING is the coarse aspect of THOUGHT.

THOUGHT has a very broad meaning. It assumes many coarse and subtle forms, but it may generally be understood as follows: Whatever arises in the mind is called a thought. When one sees an object and thinking arises, that thinking is called thought.

When one directs one’s attention toward a particular characteristic, that attention is called thought. Recollection of the Buddha means that the mind begins to recite the Buddha’s name or visualize the Buddha’s form. Thought also means remembering and discriminating.

The CONCEIVING SUBJECT refers to the subject. The CONCEIVED OBJECT is the object of that CONCEIVING SUBJECT. In recollection of the Buddha, for example, the CONCEIVING SUBJECT is the practitioner who recollects—or, more precisely, the mind that is recollecting.

The Buddha is the CONCEIVED OBJECT. When one concentrates upon a bubble, the mind engaged in concentration is the CONCEIVING SUBJECT, while the bubble is the CONCEIVED OBJECT.

To reenter the mind of suchness from the mind of arising and cessation, the treatise sets forth two stages: first according with it, and afterward entering it.

ACCORDING WITH means that one has not yet become one with the mind of suchness, but is already turning in harmony toward it and gradually entering it again. For example, if one’s destination is Trúc Lâm, one has not yet arrived but is already traveling along the road toward Trúc Lâm; this is called according with it. To accord with suchness so as to enter it, whenever one is speaking or conceiving, one contemplates and knows these activities to be empty. EMPTY means that these things have no real essence. Their characteristics appear to exist, but their nature is empty.

Why is their nature said to be empty? Because this SUBJECT–OBJECT duality exists through conditions. When the conditions end, SUBJECT and OBJECT also cease to exist. Because whether a dharma EXISTS or DOES NOT EXIST depends upon conditions, we know that these characteristics have no intrinsic nature. Because they have no intrinsic nature, the Buddha calls them delusions. To “KNOW that, although all dharmas are spoken, there is neither a speaker nor anything spoken, and although they are conceived, there is neither one who conceives nor anything conceived” means KNOWING that everything we are presently employing is delusive. KNOWING them correctly to be delusive is called ACCORDING WITH.

The condition for reentering the mind of suchness is that one must be FREE FROM THOUGHT. This freedom from thought also has coarse and subtle levels. According to the degree of coarseness or subtlety, one either enters completely into the Dharma-nature of suchness or enters only the state of equality of suchness. [8]This equality also has coarse and subtle levels.

Question: Why does the passage above discuss the SPEAKING SUBJECT and the CONCEIVING SUBJECT, but when speaking of entering suchness, it mentions only freedom from thought and does not mention abandoning speech?

Answer: Because SPEECH is the coarse aspect of THOUGHT. Once the SUBTLE has been abandoned, there is no need to mention the COARSE.

Furthermore, based upon distinctions made through speech, suchness has two meanings. The first is “truly empty,” because it ultimately reveals reality. The second is “truly not empty,” because its own essence is endowed with immeasurable qualities and virtues.

Here, words and discourse are provisionally employed to elucidate the realm of suchness. It is called TRUE REALITY because it is not delusive. TRUE REALITY AS EMPTY refers to the intrinsic EMPTINESS of all dharmas. The sutras often call this “the nature of emptiness.” TRUE REALITY AS NOT EMPTY means understanding that this true emptiness is itself devoid of inherent nature. Because it is devoid of inherent nature, it is not an emptiness that is merely vacant like space, but is replete with immeasurable attributes and merits; it is not the emptiness of annihilation.

A1. EMPTY means that, from beginningless time, all defiled dharmas have never been in correspondence with it. It is free from the differentiated characteristics of all dharmas because it contains no false thoughts.

One should know that the intrinsic nature of suchness is not the characteristic of existence, not the characteristic of nonexistence, not the characteristic of neither existence nor nonexistence, and not the characteristic of both existence and nonexistence. It is not the characteristic of identity, not the characteristic of difference, not the characteristic of neither identity nor difference, and not the characteristic of both identity and difference.

To speak of it comprehensively: because all sentient beings have deluded minds and make discriminations thought after thought, none of which correspond with it, it is said to be empty. If the deluded mind is relinquished, there is truly nothing that is empty.

This broadly reveals the meaning of the EMPTINESS of suchness.

DEFILED DHARMAS refers to dharmas corresponding with ignorance and arising from ignorance, such as the nine characteristics belonging to non-enlightenment, and so forth.

THE INTRINSIC NATURE OF SUCHNESS refers to this aspect of EMPTINESS. It is precisely the cause of Buddha-nature within every sentient being. Directly realizing this is called seeing one’s nature—seeing one’s own intrinsic nature. Defiled dharmas cannot correspond with this EMPTINESS. Within this EMPTINESS, there are also no differentiated characteristics of any dharma. Why? Because there are no false thoughts. That is, within this EMPTINESS there are none of the three subtle and six coarse characteristics discussed in the section on the Mind Subject to Arising and Ceasing. Conversely, only when the characteristics of the three subtle and six coarse aspects are absent can one be said to have directly realized this emptiness.

“ONE SHOULD KNOW that the intrinsic nature of suchness is not the characteristic of existence, not the characteristic of nonexistence…” is intended to reveal that the TRUE ESSENCE of suchness does not fall into the discriminations of the two extremes. More broadly, it does not fall into the four propositions. THE FOUR PROPOSITIONS OF EXISTENCE AND NONEXISTENCE are: existence, nonexistence, neither existence nor nonexistence, and both existence and nonexistence. THE FOUR PROPOSITIONS OF IDENTITY AND DIFFERENCE are: identity, difference, neither identity nor difference, and both identity and difference.

Existence, nonexistence, identity, difference, and so forth are the views held by worldly people concerning human life and the world. For example, when we regard the world in which we live as real, we become entangled in the view of EXISTENCE. When we regard this world as wholly nonexistent, we fall into the view of NONEXISTENCE.

When we regard one dharma as existing independently of another, each possessing its own intrinsic essence, we fall into the views of IDENTITY, DIFFERENCE, and so forth. Most such views were formed through meditative experiences and transmitted from generation to generation down to the present day. Because realization was incomplete, the view of dharmas became distorted.

It is like blind people touching an elephant: each touches one part of the elephant and takes that part to be the elephant itself. The same is true here. To see dharmas as EXISTENT, NONEXISTENT, IDENTICAL, DIFFERENT, and so forth is to see them that way according to conditions.

Since such a view depends upon conditions, the condition-dependent characteristics cannot be taken as the true characteristics of all dharmas.

They are not those characteristics, yet the truth cannot be directly indicated, because the true characteristic of all dharmas is neither something known nor an object of perception, even if that object is a characteristic of emptiness. Therefore, one can only borrow the four terms NONEXISTENT, NOT, NEITHER, and FREE FROM to reveal through negation that which cannot be seen, yet is not nonexistent. Master Ham Thi said, “These are words of direct indication.

They merely bar what is wrong without stating what is right. If there were something right, how would it differ from what is wrong? It is like making ornaments from gold.

To say that gold is not a bracelet, not a hairpin, and so forth, enables a person to penetrate, right there, that what is ‘not’ a bracelet and ‘not’ a hairpin is gold itself.”

Human life and the world appear before us as realities, yet even their true characteristics cannot be fathomed through the FOUR PROPOSITIONS; how much less can true reality itself be so fathomed? Therefore, it is said, “One should know that the intrinsic nature of suchness is not the characteristic of existence, not the characteristic of nonexistence…” This corresponds to the EIGHT NEGATIONS of the Madhyamaka Shastra and the 108 instances of NEITHER in the Lankavatara Sutra.

Question: The EIGHT NEGATIONS of the Madhyamaka Shastra state, “Neither arising nor ceasing…” How is this different from the “neither existent nor nonexistent” of the FOUR PROPOSITIONS, such that one is accepted while the other is rejected?

Answer: “Neither existent nor nonexistent” is taught so that sentient beings will relinquish both EXISTENCE and NONEXISTENCE. Because dharmas are not EXISTENT, they are said to be EMPTY. Yet when worldly people hear EMPTY, they again cling to the view that all dharmas are NONEXISTENT; hence, NONEXISTENCE IS ALSO NEGATED.

There can only be negation, not direct indication, because true reality is not a phenomenal characteristic that can be described. One need only ensure that the mind does not remain in the ordinary person’s state of arising and ceasing—that is, is not entangled in EXISTENCE—and also does not abide in the emptiness of the practitioners of the Two Vehicles—that is, does not cling to NONEXISTENCE. Right there is “neither existent nor nonexistent.” By contrast, the “neither existent nor nonexistent” of the FOUR PROPOSITIONS is a type of negative view.

Upon hearing “neither existent nor nonexistent,” one again clings to the assertion that dharmas are “neither existence nor nonexistence.” From this, a new kind of view is formed. This is the distinction between the EIGHT NEGATIONS and the FOUR PROPOSITIONS. The difference lies in the single matter of clinging or relinquishing.

“TO SPEAK OF IT comprehensively…” is intended to reveal that this TRUE REALITY AS EMPTY is devoid of inherent nature, thereby introducing the subsequent section on NOT EMPTY. EMPTINESS is taught to reveal the falsity of the present mind subject to arising and ceasing. Those thoughts have absolutely no real essence; there is nothing among them that cannot be eliminated, and hence they are said to be empty. Once those false thoughts have ceased, immeasurable attributes and merits are revealed. That ESSENCE is not nonexistent; hence it is said, “IF DELUDED thoughts are relinquished, there is nothing that is empty.”

A2. NOT EMPTY means that, once it is understood that the essence of dharmas is “empty” and free from delusion, it is precisely the true mind, eternally abiding and immutable, replete with pure dharmas; hence it is called not empty. Nor does it possess any characteristic that can be grasped, for only realization corresponds with the realm free from thought.

This clarifies the meaning of NOT EMPTY.

NOT EMPTY means not nonexistent. Master Han Son said, “This NOT EMPTY is not some other dharma. It was previously revealed that the essence of dharmas is empty and free from delusive defilement; this is precisely the true essence of suchness, eternally abiding and immutable.

Yet within that empty essence there are originally immeasurable pure merits. They could not be revealed only because they were previously obstructed by delusive defilements. Now that delusive defilements have ceased, the pure dharmas originally present are fully manifest.

For this reason, it is called NOT EMPTY. It is not that there is some separate real dharma that can be grasped. This essence of NOT EMPTY cannot be penetrated by delusive, discriminating thoughts.

It is the realm free from thought, with which only realization can correspond.”

Thus, the NOT EMPTY spoken of here is the characteristics and functions of EMPTINESS. It manifests only when our false thoughts have ceased; NOT EMPTY does not refer to those false thoughts themselves. As long as false thoughts remain, FREEDOM FROM THOUGHT must be taken as the destination. Only after one is FREE FROM THOUGHT does that EMPTINESS become NOT EMPTY. Therefore, if the Huayan realm of the unobstructed interpenetration of all phenomena is fathomed through mathematical knowledge and discriminating intellect, that Huayan realm cannot escape the vicious cycle and sea of suffering of the defiled Saha world. All of this arises from the deluded, conceptualizing mind.

The explanation of the section on the Mind as Suchness is now complete.

B. The mind subject to arising and cessation exists because, dependent upon the Tathagatagarbha, there is a mind subject to arising and cessation. That is, the non-arising and non-ceasing combines with arising and cessation; they are neither one nor different. This is called the alaya consciousness. This consciousness has two meanings by which it can encompass all dharmas and give rise to all dharmas. What are the two? The first is the meaning of awakening. The second is the meaning of non-awakening.

In the Lankavatara Sutra, the Buddha said, “Mahamati! At times I speak of emptiness, signlessness, the Dharma-body, Dharma-nature, non-arising and non-ceasing … Expressions such as these all refer to the Tathagatagarbha.” Thus, Tathagatagarbha is another name for the Dharma-nature of true suchness.

The Tathagatagarbha is originally free from arising and cessation. Because it has no self-nature, it does not preserve itself; through non-awakening, thoughts stir and, by perfuming, form ignorance, whereupon arising and cessation exist. Since arising and cessation come about through the non-awakening of that which neither arises nor ceases, it is said, “Dependent upon the Tathagatagarbha, there is a mind subject to arising and cessation.” However arising and cessation may occur, they never depart from that which neither arises nor ceases; therefore it is said, “THE NON-ARISING and non-ceasing combines with arising and cessation.” Master Xianshou said, “Through movement, the mind subject to arising and cessation is formed.

Because they are not separate from each other, it is called ‘combination’; it is not that some separate dharma of arising and cessation comes and combines with the true.”

“Neither one nor different” describes the relationship between arising and cessation and non-arising and non-ceasing. Since arising and cessation do not depart from non-arising and non-ceasing, they are NOT DIFFERENT. Yet arising and cessation are not themselves the non-arising and non-ceasing; the characteristics of arising and cessation can be relinquished, but the essence of arising and cessation cannot be relinquished, so they are NOT ONE.

ALAYA, also called the storehouse consciousness or the eighth consciousness, is called a STOREHOUSE because it is capable of containing and maintaining the wholesome and unwholesome seeds of the conditioned and unconditioned, the contaminated and uncontaminated. Although it is said to contain them, one should not imagine alaya as a preexisting storehouse. Alaya exists only through the continuous aggregation of seeds.

Venerable Thich Thien Sieu used the image of objects to describe the alaya consciousness as follows: “The storehouse consciousness is like a heap of objects containing every kind of good and bad thing. Objects arise from that heap. Every object is placed into that heap.

Without objects, there is no heap of objects. Without the heap of objects, there are likewise no objects … The storehouse consciousness is the same.

Without the seeds of all dharmas, there is no storehouse consciousness; without the storehouse consciousness, there are no seeds of all dharmas.”[9] Thus, alaya means both THAT WHICH STORES and THAT WHICH IS STORED. Moreover, because it is that upon which sentient beings depend and which they grasp as a self, it is also called THE STOREHOUSE GRASPED BY ATTACHMENT TO SELF.

This alaya consciousness is extremely subtle. Sentient beings who lack the disposition for awakening cannot know it to its ultimate foundation. Even practitioners of the Two Vehicles who incline toward quiescent cessation cannot fully comprehend it.

Besides preserving all seeds, this consciousness also functions as the impartial basis of all dharmas and maintains both cyclic transmigration through the various realms and the return to cessation in nirvana. From beginningless time until now, this consciousness has arisen and ceased thought after thought, changing from one moment to the next, with causes ceasing and results arising. Because it is not permanent and unitary, it can serve as the basis upon which the seven evolving consciousnesses perfume seeds into being.

Like a swiftly flowing current, it is neither annihilated nor permanent but continues without interruption, and thus sentient beings drift and sink within it. This is a brief account of the alaya consciousness. [10]

THIS CONSCIOUSNESS refers to alaya. This consciousness has two meanings: awakening and non-awakening. Both awakening and non-awakening are capable of ENCOMPASSING all dharmas and GIVING RISE TO all dharmas. ENCOMPASSING means receiving perfuming and becoming the repository of seeds. GIVING RISE means transforming and manifesting as realms of experience. NON-AWAKENING accords with ignorance and therefore GIVES RISE TO the three subtle and six coarse aspects, as well as all contaminated dharmas of the world. AWAKENING goes against the current of ignorance and therefore GIVES RISE TO pure dharmas and the four kinds of transmundane sages.

The following section explains AWAKENING and NON-AWAKENING.

B1. AWAKENING is the essence of mind free from thoughts. The characteristic of freedom from thoughts is identical to the realm of space, pervading everywhere without exception.

“IDENTICAL TO THE REALM OF SPACE, pervading everywhere without exception” describes the state of mind when every stirring thought has utterly ceased. THE ESSENCE OF MIND refers to the fundamental essence, or the self-nature of true suchness. FREEDOM FROM THOUGHTS is the condition through which the mind becomes identical to the realm of space and pervades everywhere without exception.

That is, when arising and cessation have ceased, the non-arising and non-ceasing is revealed right there. Master Hanshan said, “If one can be free from thoughts, the fundamental essence is open and empty like vast space, pervading everywhere without exception. All the differentiated realms of deluded thought merge into the single flavor of true mind, which is simply the Dharma-realm of the one characteristic, free from all duality.”

FREEDOM FROM THOUGHTS means not adhering to thoughts, or having no thoughts. When a thought arises and we do not adhere to it, or bring it back to emptiness, this is called AWAKENING. This AWAKENING has varying degrees of depth, which are clearly explained below in the section on the four characteristics. AWAKENING in which the mind is identical to the realm of space refers to the thought-free essence of mind.

The Dharma-realm of the one characteristic is the impartial Dharma-body of the Tathagata. Based upon that Dharma-body, the term original awakening is established. Why? The meaning of original awakening is expressed in relation to initial awakening, because initial awakening is identical to original awakening. The meaning of initial awakening is that, dependent upon original awakening, there is non-awakening; and dependent upon non-awakening, initial awakening is said to exist. Furthermore, because awakening reaches the ultimate source of mind, it is called ultimate awakening. If awakening does not reach the ultimate source of mind, it is not ultimate awakening.

This explains the origin of the three terms: original awakening, non-awakening, and initial awakening. ORIGINAL means the root, the primordial, the first, and so forth. ORIGINAL AWAKENING refers to primordial, original AWAKENING—the impartial Dharma-body of the Tathagata, neither increasing nor diminishing, equally possessed by Buddhas and sentient beings. It is called the first because there is a second, a third, and so forth. If there were no second or third, there would be no reason to speak of the first. Here, the second and third refer to NON-AWAKENING and INITIAL AWAKENING.

ORIGINAL AWAKENING refers to the fundamental essence that is originally free from arising and cessation. Because that fundamental essence of true suchness has no fixed nature, NON-AWAKENING perfumes it and forms ignorance. NON-AWAKENING means being neither aware nor illumined.

Thus, non-awakening arises from original awakening, and non-awakening exists dependent upon original awakening. Once perfumed by NON-AWAKENING, beings revolve through the five realms and become sentient beings. Yet however they may revolve, that wondrously luminous fundamental essence remains ever-present and is never absent.

That which is never absent is the POWER that causes sentient beings to grow weary of the suffering of birth and death, turn their minds around, and undertake practice. Based upon that power, the wisdom of INITIAL AWAKENING is established. Functions such as guarding against wrongdoing, preventing evil, repenting transgressions, reciting sutras, being mindful of the Buddha, practicing meditation, and so forth are all functions of the wisdom of INITIAL AWAKENING.

Its manifestations differ according to their degree of coarseness or subtlety.

INITIAL means newly arisen. INITIAL AWAKENING means newly awakening. It is called NEW not because it has only newly come into existence—the function of INITIAL AWAKENING is not different from original awakening and is merely the power of the inward perfuming of original awakening—but because it is established after non-awakening has arisen.

Because one first becomes non-awakened and only afterward AWAKENS, it is called INITIAL AWAKENING. That is, because one first becomes deluded and only afterward AWAKENS, it is called INITIAL AWAKENING. In practicing to return to the true source, proceeding from delusion back to awakening requires stages in which defilements are gradually eliminated.

Because the four characteristics, coarse and subtle, have not yet become identical, INITIAL AWAKENING is fundamentally identical to original awakening but is not necessarily original awakening itself. Therefore it is said to be IDENTICAL TO ORIGINAL AWAKENING. IDENTICAL means that initial awakening is originally original awakening; yet until it reaches the ultimate source, initial awakening cannot be original awakening.

TO means that initial awakening ultimately merges completely with original awakening.

Thus, from ORIGINAL ENLIGHTENMENT arises NON-ENLIGHTENMENT. Once there is NON-ENLIGHTENMENT, it is only by virtue of ORIGINAL ENLIGHTENMENT that INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT arises. INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT is spoken of because NON-ENLIGHTENMENT already exists.

Without non-enlightenment, there is no initial enlightenment, nor would the question of original enlightenment be raised. Yet if there were NON-ENLIGHTENMENT but no ORIGINAL ENLIGHTENMENT, there would likewise be no wisdom of INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT. Their dependent arising is intimately interconnected in this way; hence it is said, “Depending on original enlightenment, there is non-enlightenment; depending on non-enlightenment, initial enlightenment is spoken of.” This reveals the aspect of dependent arising among the three kinds of enlightenment.

ULTIMATE means the utmost point, the true source. ULTIMATE ENLIGHTENMENT is enlightenment carried to its utmost. It is the state in which initial enlightenment merges into oneness with original enlightenment; hence it is said, “Enlightening the mind to its ultimate source.” It does not speak directly of original enlightenment but calls it ULTIMATE ENLIGHTENMENT because the process of cultivation that goes against the current and returns to purity proceeds from sentient beings to Buddha, from the lower stages to the ultimate point....

Since there are successive stages, there is that which is ultimate and that which is not yet ultimate. The term ULTIMATE ENLIGHTENMENT distinguishes it from the three kinds of enlightenment below: non-enlightenment, approximate enlightenment, and partial enlightenment. According to the degree to which the mind is free from thought, INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT is divided into FOUR KINDS OF ENLIGHTENMENT corresponding to the four characteristics.

Thus, in their successive stages they have four names, but in general they are all INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT.

What does this mean? It is an explanation of the wisdom of INITIAL ENLIGHTENMENT and ULTIMATE ENLIGHTENMENT.

The following section discusses the characteristics of the FOUR KINDS OF ENLIGHTENMENT. Yet to understand these four kinds of enlightenment, one must first grasp the meaning of the four characteristics—arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing—through the nine characteristics of Non-Enlightenment discussed later. These four characteristics are established on the basis of the mind subject to arising and ceasing, and thus are merely provisional designations. The essential nature of suchness originally has none of these four characteristics; it is simply one open, unencumbered essence, replete with immeasurable pure virtues.

‘Neither existent nor nonexistent’; yet because of non-enlightenment, the phenomena of the three realms appear to EXIST and appear NOT TO EXIST. That essential nature is originally free from arising and ceasing, but because it lacks a fixed self-nature, it does not preserve itself and transforms into the nine characteristics enumerated in the section on Non-Enlightenment. The Treatise on Buddha-Nature says, “With respect to the preceding limit, all conditioned dharmas correspond to the characteristic of ARISING; with respect to the subsequent limit, they correspond to the characteristic of CEASING;

with respect to the intermediate interval, they correspond to the characteristics of ABIDING and CHANGING.” That which has just come into being is called ARISING—corresponding to the Characteristic of Karmic Activity, the first of the three subtle characteristics.

The final limit is called CEASING—corresponding to the Characteristic of Activating Karma, which is near the end of the six coarse characteristics. The seeming continuity after arising is called ABIDING—corresponding to the Characteristics of the Perceiving Subject, the Manifesting Subject, Discriminating Cognition, and Continuity, namely the latter two subtle characteristics and the first two coarse characteristics. Transformation occurring within that very continuity is called CHANGING—corresponding to the Characteristics of Attachment and of Reckoning Names, the two middle coarse characteristics.

This is only a brief survey to make the characteristics of the four kinds of ENLIGHTENMENT below easier to grasp.

From the true mind, non-enlightenment transforms and gives rise to the realm experienced by sentient beings, which then extends throughout samsaric birth and death; thus ARISING comes first and CEASING afterward. Yet in cultivation that goes against the current and returns to purity, one must begin from the present state of delusion and retrace what has already occurred. Therefore, the characteristic of CEASING is enlightened to first, and one gradually proceeds until enlightening to the characteristic of ARISING.

1. Ordinary people, for example, awaken to the fact that a preceding thought has given rise to evil, and so are able to stop the succeeding thought and prevent it from arising. Although this is called enlightenment, it is in truth non-enlightenment.

This describes the first characteristic of ENLIGHTENMENT. This ENLIGHTENMENT is discussed first because it is the coarsest of the four characteristics. Being the coarsest, its function is also the weakest, and it is the easiest to practice.

ORDINARY PEOPLE, FOR EXAMPLE, means that this enlightenment pertains to ordinary people. Why does it pertain to ordinary people? Because they awaken only to EVIL THOUGHTS. EVIL THOUGHTS refers to thoughts that harm others and injure oneself, such as greed, anger, and so forth. One awakens to evil thoughts so that they will not turn into actions for which the body must undergo retribution in the three evil destinies. Thus, although they are called ordinary people, they are ordinary people who have learned to believe in cause and effect, not ordinary people in the usual sense. Master Xianshou places them among those at the stage of the Ten Faiths.

Master Hanshan said, “Here one first awakens to the characteristic of ceasing. AWAKENING TO THE CHARACTERISTIC OF CEASING means that the karma-producing mind of sentient beings arises and ceases thought after thought without ever pausing, and now one awakens at the point where a single thought ceases.” It is called awakening to the ceasing of a thought because, by the time we AWAKEN to it, the evil thought has already arisen and is already present.

Since it is only after it has arisen that we awaken, we cannot awaken to the arising of the thought, but only to its ceasing. With reference to the mind’s CHARACTERISTIC OF CEASING, awakening to the characteristic of ceasing is precisely awakening to the Characteristic of Activating Karma—that is, awakening to it when it is about to turn into action. Master Xianshou said, “Through the power of ignorance, that pure mind has been impelled to the utmost limit, and there the coarse mode of its activity reaches its culmination; hence it is called the characteristic of ceasing.” This delay occurs because our AWARENESS is not yet as well trained and swift as the force of the current of deluded karma.

Thus, we can awaken to a thought only when it reaches the utmost limit of the characteristic of ceasing, but cannot yet awaken to it as soon as it arises.

Without cultivation, that evil thought will become an action, create karma, and bring suffering. Through cultivation, one RECOGNIZES its presence and stops it immediately, not allowing it to continue. ENLIGHTENMENT is precisely RECOGNIZING that an evil thought is already present; hence it is called AWAKENING AND KNOWING. When it is stopped at once, the evil thought does not continue; hence it is said, “Awakening to the fact that a preceding thought has given rise to evil, one is able to stop the succeeding thought and prevent it from arising.” ARISING here has two meanings: either the evil thought continues to arise in the mind, or the evil thought turns into action.

Take killing a person as an example. Killing is ordinarily the result of anger or greed. That anger or greed is precisely the evil thought. If, as soon as a thought of anger or greed appears in the mind, we recognize that the thought which has just appeared is evil and must not be continued, all will remain well. But because we are unaware that it is an evil thought, either the killing occurs immediately, or the thought is nurtured into skillfully devised plans and only later becomes action. Whether it means the continuation of a thought in the mind or its arising as an action, both express the meaning of ARISING here.

Why, despite being ENLIGHTENMENT, is it still called NON-ENLIGHTENMENT? Because one has only awakened to EVIL THOUGHTS, while one’s karmic retribution still remains within the heavenly and human realms; that is, one still sees the three realms as real. To see the three realms as real is still a deluded view, not the enlightenment of bodhisattvas and Tathagatas. There is enlightenment because one has awakened, yet that awakening has still not gone beyond delusion. Therefore, though it is enlightenment, it is still called NON-ENLIGHTENMENT.

Master Hanshan explained, “Although one awakens to evil thoughts and does not allow them to arise, in reality one merely suppresses them on the level of the mind subject to arising and ceasing and has not yet seen the nature that neither arises nor ceases.” Here the mind subject to arising and ceasing refers to the ‘fragmentary birth and death’ of sentient beings. Although this is called AWAKENING to thoughts, such awakening only gradually eliminates evil thoughts and has not yet escaped the control of the current of karmic force.

It is like standing amid a torrent and maneuvering back and forth so that the boat can follow the current without capsizing and bringing death; one has not yet escaped the torrent. Since thoughts subject to arising and ceasing are used to eliminate thoughts subject to arising and ceasing, although this is called ENLIGHTENMENT, it is still called NON-ENLIGHTENMENT.

2. Through the contemplative wisdom of practitioners of the Two Vehicles and bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the aspiration, they awaken at the point of changing thoughts and realize that thoughts have no characteristic of change. Because they relinquish the coarse characteristics of attachment and discrimination, this is called approximate enlightenment.

This is AWAKENING TO CHANGING THOUGHTS. This ENLIGHTENMENT pertains to practitioners of the Two Vehicles and bodhisattvas who have newly aroused the aspiration. THE TWO VEHICLES refers to the shravakas and pratyekabuddhas. CONTEMPLATIVE WISDOM is their mode of cultivation. Their practice consists in contemplating all dharmas as impermanent, suffering, empty, without self, and impure.... They ordinarily dwell in secluded places and constantly guard the sense faculties so that external objects cannot serve as conditions for generating karma, using a single thought of emptiness to eradicate the arising of the mind.

BODHISATTVA is a general designation for those who cultivate the Mahayana and seek the fruit of Buddhahood, whether monastic or lay. Shravakas and pratyekabuddhas who turn their minds toward cultivating the Buddha Way are also called bodhisattvas. NEWLY ASPIRING BODHISATTVAS refers to those who have vowed to cultivate the Mahayana and have begun to put its practice into effect. Without this practical cultivation, one is not a newly aspiring bodhisattva as spoken of here.

Both types of practitioners concentrate on eliminating what arises in the mind, thereby returning the mind to its empty and tranquil state. Therefore, whether a thought is unwholesome or wholesome, joyful or sorrowful, and so forth, they AWAKEN to it. All such states appearing in the mind are collectively called the MARK OF DIFFERENCE.

“Difference” means that they are not alike. Since these manifest phenomena do not remain in any fixed form, they are called DIFFERENT. Yet however manifold and varied thoughts may be, once one awakens to them, those thoughts immediately become empty.

That EMPTINESS is equal and has no differing marks; hence it is said, “Awakening to thoughts that differ, one sees that thoughts have no mark of difference.” Although the EMPTINESS attained by awakening to the mark of difference is close to the EMPTINESS of original enlightenment, it is not yet the emptiness of original enlightenment; therefore it is called SEMBLANT. Even upon attaining the ultimate fruit of the Two Vehicles, that ultimate EMPTINESS is only the emptiness of VOLITIONAL FORMATIONS;[11] CONSCIOUSNESS still remains.

In the EMPTINESS of Buddha-nature, even CONSCIOUSNESS is empty. Thus, although awakening to the mark of difference is also called AWAKENING, it is only SEMBLANT and not yet awakening itself.

Although the aims of the Two Vehicles and bodhisattvas who have aroused the aspiration to cultivate the Buddha Way differ, the characteristics of their practice and the results they attain are the same. Therefore, this section on AWAKENING TO THE MARK OF DIFFERENCE includes both practitioners of the Two Vehicles and newly aspiring bodhisattvas. The Two Vehicles are cited here to provide a clearer understanding of their position within the entire process of cultivating Buddhahood.

Practitioners of the Two Vehicles relinquish the MARK OF DIFFERENCE but cling firmly to that state of EMPTINESS as nirvana. Bodhisattvas relinquish the MARK OF DIFFERENCE but know that this emptiness is only a conjured city, not the place of treasure. Therefore, they do not abide in that bliss but advance further to break through the mark of abiding and return to the most genuine source—the One Mind, replete with immeasurable marks of pure merit and virtue.

THE MARK OF COARSE DISCRIMINATIVE ATTACHMENT refers to the marks of Grasping and Reckoning Names and Words in the section on Non-Enlightenment below. ATTACHMENT refers to the mark of Grasping. COARSE DISCRIMINATION refers to Reckoning Names and Words. Greed, anger, suffering, joy... all these varied forms express the mind’s state of attachment to objects. If these forms are empty, attachment no longer remains. When attachment is empty, one may be regarded as having awakened to and broken through the mark of Grasping. Once the mark of Grasping has been broken through, the mark of Reckoning Names and Words no longer has any basis; hence it is said, “Relinquishing the mark of coarse discriminative attachment.”

When these marks have been relinquished, the mind may be regarded as empty, but that emptiness is not yet the emptiness of Buddha-nature, because it is still entangled in the subtle discrimination of the Mark of Cognition.[12] Therefore, it is said, “BECAUSE one relinquishes the mark of coarse discriminative attachment, this is called semblant enlightenment.” Although the ultimate fruit of the Two Vehicles appears to break through the mark of continuity in the mind, in fact only its presently active portion has been overcome. Therefore, the treatise says only, “RELINQUISHING THE MARK of coarse discriminative attachment,” and does not speak of relinquishing the mark of continuity.[13]

4. Bodhisattvas of the Dharma-body, awakening to thoughts that abide, see that thoughts have no mark of abiding. Because they are free from the mark of coarse discriminative thought, this is called partial enlightenment.

THOUGHTS THAT ABIDE refers to the four marks of the Perceiving Subject, the Objective Realm, Cognition, and Continuity in the section on Non-Enlightenment below. THE PERCEIVING SUBJECT refers to one’s faculty of seeing. The body composed of the four great elements and the world in which one lives are both included under the OBJECTIVE REALM. Once there are a faculty of seeing and an objective realm that is seen, discrimination immediately arises regarding those objects. This discrimination is called the MARK OF COGNITION. After discrimination arises, craving and attachment develop; therefore, the mind becomes increasingly agitated, thoughts increasingly perfume it... and thus thought follows thought in unbroken continuity. This unbroken continuity is called the MARK OF CONTINUITY.

They are called THOUGHTS THAT ABIDE because, as soon as the Mark of Karma—that is, the mark of ARISING—appears, these four marks immediately unfold along with it; therefore, they are called thoughts that abide. Master Xianshou said, “Ignorance, together with the mark of arising, combines to turn that pure mind to this point. Its mode of activity is still subtle, and attachment to dharmas abides firmly; therefore, it is called the mark of abiding.”

BODHISATTVAS OF THE DHARMA-BODY refers to those who have directly realized the causal basis of Buddha-nature, precisely their own true-suchness self-nature, which is neither born nor extinguished. It refers to bodhisattvas of the Ten Bhūmis, whom this treatise calls THOSE WHO PRACTICE IN ACCORDANCE WITH REALITY. Because they have pierced the veil of ignorance and set foot upon the ground of the Tathagata, they are called bodhisattvas of the Dharma-body. Although they have all taken that single step, the complete fulfillment of the fruit of Buddhahood encompasses ten bhūmis, and they are not yet entirely equal to a Buddha; therefore, this is called “partial enlightenment.”

PARTIAL ENLIGHTENMENT means awakening part by part. Although they have realized the causal basis of Buddha-nature, the habitual tendencies accumulated over countless lifetimes have not yet been exhausted, and the Dharma-body cannot yet manifest in its fullness. After that thought-moment of sudden awakening, they presently remain bodhisattvas awakening to the mark of abiding; therefore, this is called awakening part by part.

BODHISATTVAS AWAKENING TO THE MARK OF ABIDING means that, although they have seen the nature, the body, faculties, objects, and cognition of these things still remain; discriminative cognition has not yet been exhausted; and although the stream of continuity is interrupted at times, it has not ceased entirely. For these reasons, it is called PARTIAL. In meditation, recognizing the true marks of these four marks is called AWAKENING TO THE MARK OF ABIDING. According to the degree of awakening, there are ten bhūmis. Master Hanshan said, “Breaking through in part and realizing in part, it is therefore called partial enlightenment.”

THE MARK OF COARSE DISCRIMINATION is so called to distinguish it from the subtle discrimination of the Mark of Karma. “Subtle discrimination” refers to the discernment of the alaya consciousness, which is merely discernment without the participation of conceptual consciousness. Because of this very Mark of Karma, even if one attains an illuminating awakened mind in which the realm of the six sense objects no longer remains, that mind is still not the true-suchness Dharma-nature that pervades all and is shared equally by Buddhas and sentient beings. Therefore, it is said, “BECAUSE they are FREE FROM THE MARK of coarse discriminative thought, this is called partial enlightenment.”

None of the three marks above is yet called ULTIMATE ENLIGHTENMENT, because the source of the mind has not yet been reached.

4. When a bodhisattva at the culmination of the bhūmis has perfected skillful means, in a single corresponding thought-moment he awakens to the mind’s initial arising and sees that the mind has no mark of an initial arising. Because he is utterly free from subtle thought, he sees the mind-nature; the mind is then eternally abiding. This is called ultimate enlightenment.

This is awakening to the MARK OF ARISING.

A BODHISATTVA AT THE CULMINATION OF THE BHŪMIS is a bodhisattva at the stage immediately preceding Buddhahood. SKILLFUL MEANS are expedient methods and approaches through which practitioners attain ultimate nirvana, such as Buddha-recitation, seated meditation, calming and contemplation, and so forth. Skillful means encompass everything from TEACHING to PRACTICE, and from benefiting oneself to benefiting others. Master Hanshan said, “Skillful means are the various methods of contemplation, conduct, cultivation, and eradication.” Thus, PERFECTING SKILLFUL MEANS means that meritorious practices have been completed, defilements have been exhausted, and only the single true source of mind remains.

ONE-THOUGHT CORRESPONDENCE refers to the wisdom that severs the final portion of habitual tendencies, whereby original enlightenment becomes completely unified with fundamental enlightenment. THE MARK OF ARISING, or THE SUBTLE THOUGHT, refers to the Mark of Karma, the very first stirring of thought from which the mind’s transformations arise. This subtle stirring of thought is the initial movement that serves as the basis for the appearance of the Perceiving Subject and the Objective Realm.

AWAKENING TO THE MARK OF ARISING means awakening precisely to that thought which causes the mind to stir. Therefore, it is called AWAKENING TO THE MIND’S FIRST ARISING. Venerable Xianshou said, “THE MIND’S FIRST ARISING means that, because fundamental ignorance relies upon enlightenment, delusion arises and stirs that pure mind, causing subtle thought to arise.

Now, through enlightenment, one knows that apart from fundamental enlightenment there is no non-enlightenment, and that this stirring mind is originally quiescent and extinct. It is like mistaking the direction so that east becomes west. When the mistake ends, west is precisely east, and the western direction is entirely nonexistent; therefore, it is said that THE MIND HAS NO MARK OF FIRST ARISING.

In each of the preceding three awakenings, there was an object of awakening,[14] because the stirring of thought had not yet ceased. Thus, it was merely said that thought has no mark of change, mark of abiding, and so forth. Here, at the ultimate stage, all stirring thoughts have ceased, and there is only the one mind; therefore, it is said that the mind has no mark of first arising.”

Therefore, the Sutra says, “If there are sentient beings capable of contemplating non-thought, they are proceeding toward the wisdom of the Buddha.”

This is the concluding statement following the full exposition of the four marks of ORIGINAL ENLIGHTENMENT. The ultimate point to be reached is non-thought. NON-THOUGHT, understood simply, means not giving rise to thought.

The Dharma-nature of suchness is entirely without false and deluded thoughts. Therefore, in cultivating a return to the true source, one must contemplate non-thought. CONTEMPLATING NON-THOUGHT is the process of cultivation explained above, from the section on “semblance awakening” through “ultimate awakening.” THE WISDOM OF THE BUDDHA refers to the source—the one mind of suchness.

SENTIENT BEINGS is a general designation for all who have not yet become Buddhas, whether noble or ordinary, monastic or lay. Whether monastic or lay, whoever can practice this contemplation of non-thought at all times is proceeding toward the wisdom of the Buddha. It is called PROCEEDING TOWARD because contemplation still remains.

Furthermore, when the mind arises, there is no mark of first arising that can be known; yet it is said that knowing the mark of first arising is precisely non-thought. Therefore, all sentient beings are not called enlightened, because from beginningless time their thoughts have continued from moment to moment, and they have never been free from thought. Thus, this is called beginningless ignorance.

FURTHERMORE, WHEN THE MIND ARISES reiterates the above statement about awakening to the mind’s first arising. It is not that, upon awakening, one knows an existent mark of first arising; therefore, it is said, “There is NO mark of first arising that can be known.” Since there is no mark of first arising that can be known, why is it said that one knows the mark of first arising? It is explained that knowing the mark of first arising is precisely non-thought. It is like knowing, when the error has ended, that west is precisely east, while there is no mark of west whatsoever that can be known. To say that one knows the mark of west means that it is precisely east.[15]

THEREFORE means that, from what has just been said, one may infer what follows. “ALL sentient beings are not called enlightened.” Why are they not called enlightened? Because they have never been free from thought, not even from a fleeting idea in the mind that WANTS TO BE FREE.

No one dares to think that human beings could live without thoughts and these feelings of joy and sorrow. In truth, the fewer one’s thoughts and prejudices, the healthier and happier one’s life becomes. Never having awakened means never having become aware.

To be unaware is to be deluded. Because of delusion, it is called ignorance. Since it is unknown when this ignorance first appeared, it is called BEGINNINGLESS IGNORANCE.

Beginningless means that it has no initial boundary. It has no initial boundary because this ignorance possesses no real substance; because it is unreal, the place where it began cannot be found. Illumination and ignorance are merely two dependently arisen aspects of the one true mind, which permanently abides and never changes.

If one attains non-thought, one knows that arising, abiding, change, and cessation are marks of the mind, because they are equally non-thought. In truth, there is no alteration in original enlightenment, because the four marks exist simultaneously, none being independently established; from the beginning they are equal, sharing one enlightenment.

IF ONE ATTAINS NON-THOUGHT means when original enlightenment has become unified with fundamental enlightenment, when the Dharma-body has been fully revealed. BECAUSE THEY ARE EQUALLY NON-THOUGHT is the cause, or condition, for knowing that the four marks of arising, abiding, change, and cessation are marks of the mind. Why are they called marks of the mind?

Because the mind of non-thought is precisely the fundamental essence of these four marks. They are the dependently arisen aspect of an essence that is without thought; they themselves possess no separate intrinsic essence. It is called ARISING because there are CESSATION and ABIDING.

CESSATION and ABIDING are the causes through which the mark of ARISING is established. It is called CESSATION because there are ARISING and ABIDING. CESSATION is the cause through which ARISING and ABIDING are established.

The mark of CHANGE does not exist apart from the mark of ABIDING. These four marks always arise in dependence upon one another; therefore, when they exist, all exist together, and when they do not exist, all are absent together. There is no sequence of before and after such as we presently perceive.

We presently perceive them in this way because our perception is deluded.[16] Their simultaneous arising and simultaneous disappearance show that these four marks possess no intrinsic nature. If they possessed an intrinsic nature, ARISING could not occur simultaneously with CESSATION. Because they lack intrinsic nature and appear through conditions, it is said that NONE IS INDEPENDENTLY ESTABLISHED.

In the Middle Length Discourses, the Buddha said, “Whoever sees dependent arising sees the Dharma. Whoever sees the Dharma sees dependent arising.” TO SEE THE DHARMA is to see the true mark of all phenomena, which is precisely to return to one’s own true source. TO SEE DEPENDENT ARISING is directly to realize where cause and effect are simultaneous. Since they are simultaneous, original enlightenment has no sequence of before and after; therefore, it is said, “There is no ALTERATION in original enlightenment.”

FROM THE BEGINNING means that it has always been so. EQUAL, SHARING ONE ENLIGHTENMENT expresses the true mark of non-enlightenment and original enlightenment. It is only because of delusion and awakening that they appear to have different marks; this difference does not arise from the things themselves. It is like diseased eyes seeing circular halos around a lamp. It is not that the lamp changed from having no circular halos to having circular halos. Once the eye disease has ended, one knows that the lamp with halos was nothing other than the lamp without halos.

Furthermore, fundamental enlightenment, in accordance with defilement, differentiates and gives rise to two marks, which are not separate from that fundamental enlightenment. What are the two? The first is the Mark of Wisdom-Purity; the second is the Mark of Inconceivable Activity.

DEFILEMENT means pollution or contamination. It is like a white garment stained with ink, or a person who does not drink alcohol but, after staying near those who drink, begins drinking alcohol himself. Forms such as these are called defilement. Thus, defilement is spoken of in contrast to purity. It refers to things that are newly perfumed and have no true root. The Essential Exposition of the Ten Gates of Non-Duality speaks of DEFILEMENT in the mind as follows: “When one regards all phenomena through the presently fettered mind, the one and the many obstruct one another; clinging from thought to thought is called defilement.” It is called DISCRIMINATIVE DEFILEMENT because defilement exists through discrimination.

FUNDAMENTAL ENLIGHTENMENT IN ACCORDANCE WITH DEFILEMENT is also a kind of deluded mind, but it is not the kind of deluded mind through which sentient beings create karma and commit offenses. Rather, it is the deluded mind that restores purity, referring precisely to the mark of original enlightenment. Venerable Xianshou said, “This original enlightenment does not newly arise; it is precisely produced by fundamental enlightenment in accordance with defilement.”

Why is there accordance with defilement? Venerable Xianshou said, “Because it cannot be accomplished apart from defiling conditions, it is said to accord with defilement.” This means that these two marks are attained through that accordance with defilement which restores purity. Therefore, it is said, “In accordance with defilement, it differentiates and GIVES RISE TO TWO MARKS.” Fundamental enlightenment is precisely the essential nature of these two marks; therefore, after they arise, they do not depart from fundamental enlightenment and are thus NOT SEPARATE FROM ONE ANOTHER.

THE MARK OF WISDOM-PURITY derives its meaning from the two words WISDOM-PURITY. WISDOM-PURITY is the wisdom attained when fundamental enlightenment, in accordance with defilement, has restored purity.

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF INCONCEIVABLE KARMIC ACTIVITY corresponds to the section on Purity of Wisdom; its meaning lies in the words “inconceivable karmic activity.” KARMIC ACTIVITY refers to the functioning attained when original enlightenment, having followed defilement, returns to purity. This functioning cannot be conceived or discussed by the thinking mind; hence it is called INCONCEIVABLE. The thirty-two responsive bodies of the Great Being Avalokitesvara, and so forth, are all karmic functions of original enlightenment that follows defilement and returns to purity.

The following section examines these two characteristics in detail.

B1a. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF PURITY OF WISDOM means that, relying upon the perfuming power of the Dharma, one practices in accordance with suchness, fully perfects skillful means, breaks through the characteristic of the conjoined consciousness, extinguishes the characteristic of the mind’s continuity, reveals the Dharma-body, and attains utterly pure wisdom.

PRACTICING IN ACCORDANCE WITH SUCHNESS refers to those who have realized the causal basis of Buddha-nature. Relying upon that unborn cause, they cultivate the samadhi of suchness, without grasping and without thought; hence it is said that they RELY UPON THE PERFUMING POWER OF THE DHARMA. The term PERFUMING indicates that the PRINCIPLE directly realized must be contemplated throughout all PHENOMENA, so that PRINCIPLE and PHENOMENA perfectly interpenetrate, leading to entry into the perfect interpenetration of PHENOMENON with PHENOMENON.

Regarding this POWER OF THE DHARMA, both Master Xianshou and Master Hanshan explain it as not only the internal perfuming power of suchness but also the external perfuming power of the stream of the teachings. Relying upon these, one cultivates the provisions, preparatory practices, and wholesome roots,[17] realizes the unborn cause, enters the bodhisattva grounds, and cultivates the samadhi of suchness.

FULLY PERFECTING SKILLFUL MEANS refers to the practice of a bodhisattva at the culmination of the grounds. BREAKING THROUGH THE CONJOINED CONSCIOUSNESS means breaking through the karmic consciousness. This is precisely the “awakening to the initial characteristic” explained in the section on Ultimate Enlightenment. When the characteristic of the conjoined consciousness has been broken, arising and cessation have ceased, and only the unborn and unceasing essence remains; hence it is called UTTERLY PURE WISDOM.

The CHARACTERISTIC OF CONTINUITY mentioned here refers to subtle continuity. The Lankavatara Sutra calls it the continuous flow. At the First Ground, one has already broken through the characteristic of continuity in the stream of deluded thoughts, but only upon reaching the ultimate stage of the Tenth Ground does the subtle continuity of the mind cease completely, enabling entry into the fruition of Buddhahood.

According to whether the Dharma-body is revealed partially or perfectly, this characteristic of purity of wisdom is likewise partial or perfect.

What does this mean? All characteristics of mind-consciousness are ignorance. The characteristic of ignorance is not separate from the nature of enlightenment; it cannot be destroyed, yet neither is it indestructible.

It is like the water of the great ocean, which gives rise to waves because of the wind. The characteristics of water and wind are not separate from one another, yet water is not by nature in motion. If the wind ceases, the characteristic of motion necessarily ceases, but the nature of wetness is not destroyed.

The intrinsically pure nature of the minds of sentient beings is likewise so: it moves because of the wind of ignorance. Mind and ignorance are both without form and cannot be separated from one another, yet mind is not by nature in motion. If ignorance ceases, continuity necessarily ceases, but the nature of wisdom is not destroyed.

WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? explains why other characteristics of the mind, such as conjunction and continuity, all cease, while the CHARACTERISTIC OF PURITY OF WISDOM remains.

The characteristic of continuity and the characteristic of conjunction both cease because they belong to the arising-and-ceasing aspect of mind-consciousness. MIND-CONSCIOUSNESS is the true mind transformed into consciousness through the stirring of thought. The characteristic of arising and cessation exists only because that which is unborn and unceasing becomes subject to arising and cessation, just as ocean water becomes waves when it encounters wind.

When the wind ceases, the waves cease, but the ocean water remains. The absence of wind and waves does not mean that the water also ceases to exist. Thus, waves are the characteristic representing the ocean’s wet essence while in motion, whereas water is the characteristic representing the ocean’s wet essence while at rest.

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF PURITY OF WISDOM is precisely that water: the characteristic representing the unborn and unceasing essence. Therefore, when the wind of ignorance is absent, all other characteristics cease, but the characteristic of the original essence remains. The Lankavatara Sutra says, “It is not the intrinsic characteristic of true consciousness that ceases; only the karmic characteristic ceases.” This concisely restates the preceding analogy so that the point may be readily understood.

Ocean waves overturn boats, yet ocean water carries boats. This carrying is the function of water while in a state of stillness. This function refers to the CHARACTERISTIC OF INCONCEIVABLE KARMIC ACTIVITY discussed below.

B1b. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF INCONCEIVABLE KARMIC ACTIVITY means that, relying upon the Characteristic of Purity of Wisdom, it can produce every supremely subtle and wondrous realm. That is, its immeasurable characteristics of merit never cease; in accordance with the capacities and dispositions of sentient beings, it naturally manifests in every manner that corresponds to them, so that they may obtain benefit.

RELYING means depending upon it. This kind of karmic functioning exists only when the Characteristic of Purity of Wisdom has appeared. That is, only after original enlightenment has followed defilement and returned to purity does this kind of inconceivable karmic functioning become possible; hence it is said to RELY UPON THE CHARACTERISTIC OF PURITY OF WISDOM.

Concerning this SUPREMELY SUBTLE AND WONDROUS REALM, the Treatise on the True Nature says: “The bodies of all Buddha-Tathagatas are like empty space and are without characteristics. Solely for those of superior wisdom, they become realms experienced by the six sense faculties: manifesting magnificent forms, producing wondrous sounds, enabling everyone to smell the fragrance of the Buddha’s precepts, taste the Buddha’s wondrous Dharma, attain the samadhi of enlightenment,[18] and penetrate the profound and wondrous Dharma.[19] Therefore, these are called wondrous realms.” This realm does not belong only to Buddhas.

According to the Lankavatara Sutra, bodhisattvas from the Third Ground onward can already manifest innumerable illusory bodies and, in accordance with the thoughts of beings, appear to benefit sentient beings.

THAT IS introduces the explanation of how “the Characteristic of Purity of Wisdom can produce every realm.” It manifests according to the capacities and dispositions of sentient beings so that they may obtain benefit. BENEFIT means creating all kinds of supportive conditions for practice to help sentient beings gradually return to their own pure original mind. These conditions for practice have no fixed form.

They may take a magnificent form fully endowed with the power and functioning of supernormal abilities and unobstructed eloquence, as did Buddha Sakyamuni. They may take the gentle form of an Avalokitesvara or the wrathful form of the Venerable Flaming Face. They may take the form of an utterly destitute woman begging for food together with her small children…[20]] Yet regardless of the form, all represent an immeasurable embodiment of LOVING-KINDNESS AND COMPASSION.

Why is it called immeasurable? Because all have the same purpose: to help sentient beings “leave all suffering behind and attain ultimate happiness.”

The responsive bodies and reward bodies of the Buddhas, as well as those of bodhisattvas who have entered the grounds, all manifest according to the capacities and dispositions of sentient beings. Thus, although it is said that they are PRODUCED, in truth there is no production; there is only RESPONSE arising from the CALL of sentient beings. This CALL AND RESPONSE is the inconceivable subtle wonder of the pure original mind.

The purer the minds of sentient beings, the more readily they encounter the Buddha. Hence it is said: “For those of superior wisdom, they become realms experienced by the six sense faculties.” THOSE OF SUPERIOR WISDOM refers to those whose minds are comparatively pure. This explains why, during the Buddha’s lifetime and for a short period thereafter, sentient beings who read and studied the sutras and treatises readily realized the noble path, and why many attained realization.

It was because their capacities and dispositions were inherently excellent and wondrous. Only because they were inherently excellent and wondrous could they encounter the Buddha and be born not long after the period in which the Buddha appeared. This does not mean that the farther removed we are from the Buddha, the more our capacities and dispositions necessarily deteriorate.

The farther removed we are from the Buddha, if we do not practice, the deterioration of our capacities and dispositions is inevitable. Yet the farther removed we are from the Buddha, if we practice all the more diligently, then although we may not behold the Buddha’s magnificent form adorned with the thirty-two excellent marks, we can directly enter into the very Buddha who is formless, non-abiding, and equally possessed by Buddhas and sentient beings.

This response and stimulus show that DEPENDENT ORIGINATION governs all things and phenomena in the world. Nothing appears by itself; everything has causes and conditions. The Buddhadharma is likewise.

There must be causes and conditions; nothing arises by itself. The wisdom and compassion of the Buddhas are complete and all-pervasive, but if sentient beings lack wholesome roots and do not know to turn toward them—that is, if there is no stimulus—then there is no responsive manifestation. When one seeks and receives a response, it is precisely because of the merit one has cultivated over many previous lives.

When one does not seek yet still receives a response, it is because one's wholesome roots are exceedingly mature. It is like water and the moon: wherever the water is clear and unobstructed, the moon immediately appears.

The MERIT spoken of here refers to the wondrous, pure, and boundless wisdom of the Dharma-nature of true suchness; hence it is said to be CONSTANT AND UNCEASING.

Furthermore, the characteristic of the essence of enlightenment has four great meanings, being like empty space and like a clear, pure mirror.

THE ESSENCE OF ENLIGHTENMENT means the essence of enlightenment itself, namely original enlightenment, or the mind of true suchness. This essence of enlightenment has four characteristics. Because it is vast and boundless, encompassing everything like empty space, it is called GREAT. Moreover, because it is perfectly luminous and capable of manifesting things like a clear, pure mirror, empty space and a mirror are used as analogies.

What are the four?

1. THE MIRROR OF TRUE EMPTINESS: it is free from all characteristics of the mind's objects; no dharma can appear within it, and it does not have the meaning of an illuminating awareness.

This is the meaning of TRUE EMPTINESS explained in the section on the Mind of True Suchness. It is called TRUE because this emptiness is the true ESSENTIAL NATURE of all dharmas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECTS refers to the body, faculties, and objects that we presently have. It also refers to any “realm of realization” that still remains within the duality of the knowing subject and the known object. If, while practicing meditation, one still perceives a realm—even if that realm is brilliantly luminous and boundless like empty space—then that realm remains something perceived and is not yet this ESSENCE of true emptiness.

It is called OF THE MIND because no characteristic of any object exists outside the mind. Since none exists outside the mind, none has true substance; all are formed solely through deluded thoughts and deluded awareness. It is like diseased eyes seeing flowers in empty space.

The flowers never truly exist. The characteristics of objects are likewise. Because the mind is diseased, the characteristics of objects appear.

The objects are originally empty. Therefore, it is said to be “FREE from all...”

The MIRROR is used as an analogy for TRUE EMPTINESS, showing that true emptiness has the nature of being able to manifest things. The statement “no dharma can appear” is made because things themselves are originally nonexistent, not because the mirror lacks the capacity to manifest them. Only by transcending the knowing subject and the known object can one penetrate this essential nature; therefore, it is said NOT TO HAVE THE MEANING OF AN ILLUMINATING AWARENESS.

2. THE MIRROR THAT IS THE CAUSE OF PERFUMATION is true non-emptiness. All worldly realms appear from within it; they neither emerge nor enter, are neither lost nor destroyed. The One Mind eternally abides, because all dharmas are precisely the true nature. Moreover, none of the defiled dharmas can defile it. The essence of wisdom is unmoving and, being fully endowed with the undefiled qualities, perfumes sentient beings.

This is the meaning of TRUE NON-EMPTINESS in the section on the mind of true suchness. It is called THE CAUSE OF PERFUMATION because this essence is that which is PERFUMED by the seeds; it is precisely the causal basis upon which all dharmas depend. It is called the CAUSAL BASIS because it is the SUPPORT upon which all dharmas depend and also the CAUSE that gives rise to the myriad dharmas. Defilement and purity, together with the direct causes and results throughout the Dharma realms of the ten directions, all manifest within this One Mind, just as a bright mirror manifests all forms and images. Apart from the mirror, no image exists; therefore, it is said that “ALL WORLDLY REALMS appear from within it.”

NEITHER EMERGE NOR ENTER... is intended to reveal that the myriad dharmas are merely reflections of one's own mind and have no intrinsic nature of their own. Seeing them as emerging or entering is only a perception born of delusion. Master Xianshou said, “The dharmas manifest only after awaiting perfumation; they cannot manifest by themselves without perfumation.

Therefore, it is said that they DO NOT EMERGE. Without a mind capable of perfuming, there are no dharmas; dharmas do not enter from outside. Therefore, it is said that they DO NOT ENTER.

Although dharmas neither emerge from within nor enter from without, they nevertheless manifest through dependent origination and are not nonexistent. Therefore, it is said that they ARE NOT LOST. Because they arise through the convergence of conditions, they have no place of origin and are not different from true suchness.

Therefore, it is said that they ARE NOT DESTROYED. They are like an image in a mirror, which a knife cannot cut. Because the image is identical in nature with the mirror, it cannot be destroyed.”

THE ONE MIND ETERNALLY ABIDES because the One Mind of true suchness is precisely the essence of those characteristics. The scenes appearing in a mirror and the mirror are not one, yet the essential nature of those scenes is precisely the mirror; that is, the objects and the mirror are not different. Because of this NON-DIFFERENCE, it is said, “Those dharmas are precisely the true nature.” Because of their NOT BEING ONE, it is said, “None of the defiled dharmas can defile it.” THEY CANNOT DEFILE IT because when a scene comes, it manifests the scene, and when an object comes, it manifests the object; it has no nature of retaining them once the objects and scenes are gone.

It is precisely because of this nature of non-retention that we know that, although the mirror's surface is filled with scenes and images, the essence of the mirror remains clear. Because it is undefiled, it is said that THE ESSENCE OF WISDOM IS UNMOVING. [21]

FULLY ENDOWED WITH THE UNDEFILED refers to the Dharma-nature of true suchness being fully endowed with pure merit. PERFUMES SENTIENT BEINGS means that this intrinsic essence serves as the inward cause of perfumation, causing people to grow weary of the suffering of samsara and delight in seeking the bliss of nirvana.

3. THE MIRROR OF THE DHARMA OF LIBERATION is the non-empty Dharma freed from the obstruction of the afflictions and the obstruction to knowledge, detached from the characteristic of conjunction, and utterly pure and luminous.

LIBERATION means leaving behind and becoming free. It is called THE MIRROR OF LIBERATION because that non-empty Dharma is freed from the bonds of the afflictions and the known. DHARMA refers to the Dharma-nature of true suchness.

THE OBSTRUCTION OF THE AFFLICTIONS and THE OBSTRUCTION TO KNOWLEDGE refer to the afflictive obstruction and the cognitive obstruction. To break through these two obstructions is precisely to break through the characteristic of conjunction between arising and ceasing and non-arising and non-ceasing; therefore, it is said to be DETACHED FROM THE CHARACTERISTIC OF CONJUNCTION. It is like a mirror: when it is free of dust, its polished, clear, and transparent surface becomes manifest.

Therefore, it is said to be “utterly pure and luminous.” UTTERLY means that there is nothing apart from this purity and luminosity. This is the point at which actualized enlightenment and original enlightenment become one.

4. THE MIRROR THAT IS THE CONDITION OF PERFUMATION: relying upon the Dharma of liberation, it universally illuminates the minds of sentient beings, causing them to cultivate wholesome roots, and manifests in accordance with their thoughts.

The second mirror above concerns the CAUSE of perfumation. This one concerns the CONDITION of perfumation. It is called a condition because it serves as an external condition that helps sentient beings cultivate wholesome roots. This section corresponds to the function of the characteristic of inconceivable activity discussed above. Here, however, it is discussed in terms of the ESSENCE, whereas there it is discussed in terms of WISDOM. One speaks on the basis of the Dharma of liberation, discussing cause as itself being result. The other speaks on the basis of original enlightenment following defilement and returning to purity, which is the process from cause to result.

This function exists only when the mind has passed beyond the two obstructions described in the section on the Mirror of Liberation above; therefore, it is said to RELY UPON THE DHARMA OF LIBERATION. THE DHARMA OF LIBERATION is precisely the essence of enlightenment shared equally by Buddhas and sentient beings. Master Hanshan said, “Previously, the Buddha-nature inherently possessed by sentient beings served as the cause of inward perfumation.

Now, through cultivation, they leave behind the obstructions and escape their entanglements, realizing the Dharma-body. They can then universally illuminate the minds of sentient beings, give rise to the great compassion of the shared essence, and manifest all kinds of bodily forms to tame sentient beings, thereby serving as the condition of external perfumation. The great, perfect mirror of equality becomes manifest, and it and the minds of sentient beings illuminate one another.

It is only because sentient beings are deluded that they do not know this. Because the wisdom of enlightenment is perfect and luminous, it can illuminate universally.”

MANIFESTS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR THOUGHTS means that, in accordance with the thoughts in the minds of sentient beings, transformation bodies and reward bodies are manifested to benefit sentient beings.

B2. NON-ENLIGHTENMENT means not knowing, in accordance with reality, that the Dharma of suchness is wholly one; thus, the unenlightened mind arises and gives rise to thought. Thought has no intrinsic characteristic of its own and is not separate from original enlightenment.

It is like a confused person who becomes mistaken by relying upon directions. If there were no directions, there would be no mistake. Sentient beings are likewise.

Because they depend upon enlightenment, there is delusion. If they were separate from the nature of enlightenment, there would be no non-enlightenment. Because there is the unenlightened mind of deluded thought, one can know names and meanings and speak of true enlightenment.

If the unenlightened mind were absent, there would be no intrinsic characteristic of true enlightenment that could be spoken of.

NON-ENLIGHTENMENT is spoken of in relation to ENLIGHTENMENT. NON-ENLIGHTENMENT is not enlightenment. Because the self-nature of true suchness has no self-nature, it does not maintain itself but moves delusively. That movement exists because of NON-ENLIGHTENMENT. NON-ENLIGHTENMENT means not knowing, in accordance with reality, the wholly unified One.

Original enlightenment represents that which is unmoving. Since there is now movement, it is called non-enlightenment. With non-enlightenment, thought arises. This thought exists because original enlightenment moves delusively; therefore, it has no separate substance of its own, and its substance is precisely original enlightenment. Hence it is said, “Thought has no intrinsic characteristic of its own and is not separate from original enlightenment.” It is like ripples arising from water: their substance remains water.

IT IS LIKE A CONFUSED PERSON … is an analogy for understanding that non-enlightenment exists in dependence upon enlightenment. Non-enlightenment is not original enlightenment, yet it is not separate from original enlightenment. THE NATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT refers to the essential nature of enlightenment itself; it is precisely original enlightenment, the substance of “emptiness in accordance with reality” mentioned above.

Because there is non-enlightenment, there are conceptual thoughts; because there are conceptual thoughts, there are words and written characters. NAME refers to characteristics and forms. MEANING refers to content, qualities, and significance. Likewise, in relation to true suchness, TRUE ENLIGHTENMENT is established because non-enlightenment exists. If non-enlightenment were absent, true enlightenment could not be spoken of either. Since it is devoid of an apprehending enlightenment and an apprehended object, and devoid of a seeing subject and a seen object, it cannot be fathomed or expressed through discriminative knowledge.

This sets forth the dependent origination of true enlightenment and non-enlightenment. Without true enlightenment, there is no non-enlightenment; and without non-enlightenment, true enlightenment is not established either. There is only the one eternally abiding substance, neither arising nor ceasing, neither coming nor going. Because of dependent origination, non-enlightenment itself is precisely enlightenment. Arising and ceasing themselves are precisely non-arising and non-ceasing. To recognize delusion as delusion is itself enlightenment. It is like a person who falls asleep and dreams: if, within the dream itself, one knows that one is dreaming, then at that moment there is no dream.

Furthermore, dependent upon non-enlightenment, three kinds of characteristics arise. They correspond with that non-enlightenment and are not separate from it.

DEPENDENT UPON NON-ENLIGHTENMENT, THERE ARISE … means that non-enlightenment is the cause from which the three kinds of characteristics arise. TO CORRESPOND means to accord without contradiction, like a lid fitting its pot. Those belonging to the same company and kind are said to correspond. Only when the cause of non-enlightenment exists can its effect, the three characteristics, exist. Without non-enlightenment, the three characteristics do not exist; hence it is said that they ARE NOT SEPARATE.

The preceding characteristic is the cause from which the subsequent characteristic arises. In their successive order, there are altogether nine characteristics, causing the pure and characteristicless true mind to give rise to worlds, sentient beings, karmic results, samsara … continuing without limit.

What are the three?

I. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE KARMA OF IGNORANCE: Because the mind moves in dependence upon non-enlightenment, it is called karma. Enlightenment is unmoving. Movement entails suffering, because the effect is not separate from the cause.

Regarding the meaning of IGNORANCE, Master Ham Thi said: “Within the Tathagata-garbha there are truly the two meanings of illumination and ignorance. Illumination means that the substance of enlightenment is originally luminous. Ignorance means that the substance of enlightenment is originally devoid of nature; because it is utterly true, it makes no discriminations.

Within this non-discrimination, its serene and eternal abiding is called wondrousness; within this non-discrimination, its obscurity and lack of awakening are called ignorance.” Under the force of that obscurity, the mind no longer remains in a state of tranquility and is therefore said to move. This characteristic of movement is called THE CHARACTERISTIC OF KARMA. “The characteristic of karma” refers to karma as a characteristic.

Karma refers to action or activity. Because tranquility has been lost and deluded movement has already arisen, it is called karma. It is called THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE KARMA OF IGNORANCE because this characteristic of karma exists due to ignorance.

The nature of the unmoving is permanence, bliss, self, and purity. Movement is the opposite of the unmoving; moreover, from this very movement arise the nine characteristics in this section on Non-Enlightenment, causing sentient beings to undergo the many sufferings and afflictions of birth and death. Hence it is said, “Movement entails suffering, because the effect is not separate from the cause.” CAUSE refers to the Characteristic of Karma. EFFECT refers to the Characteristic of the Suffering of Karmic Bondage, the last characteristic among the six coarse characteristics.

Master Xianshou said: “Although there is movement here, this moving thought is extremely subtle. Through dependent origination it forms a single characteristic, before subject and object have been differentiated. It is precisely the intrinsic-substance aspect of the alaya consciousness.”

II. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SEEING SUBJECT: Because of movement, seeing arises. When there is no movement, there is no seeing.

SEEING means to see. SUBJECT denotes the subjective aspect. THE SEEING SUBJECT refers to the subject that sees. Although it is called seeing, this does not necessarily mean that eyes are required in order to see; the mind-consciousness’s clear awareness is also called seeing. This will be explained clearly below in the section on the Characteristic of the Objective Realm.

It is called the SUBJECT because it is spoken of in relation to the OBJECT. The seen object refers to the Characteristic of the Objective Realm discussed below. This aspect of the Seeing Subject is transformed from the Characteristic of Karma; hence it is said, “Because of movement, seeing arises.” Although it exists because of non-enlightenment, it is a seeing that has not yet been defiled by the discriminations of the Characteristic of Cognition and the Characteristic of Continuity.

The Surangama Sutra calls it the ESSENCE OF SEEING, the seeing that still remains pure and unadulterated. Only when the deluded movement of the Characteristic of Karma exists does the Seeing Subject exist. Without that deluded movement, there is no Seeing Subject; hence it is said, “When there is no movement, there is no seeing.”

III. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE OBJECTIVE REALM: In dependence upon the Seeing Subject, the objective realm delusively appears. Apart from seeing, there is no objective realm.

Master Hanshan explains THE CHARACTERISTIC OF THE OBJECTIVE REALM as empty space and the four great elements. Within the present condition of extreme remoteness from the source, the realm experienced by a sentient being is precisely the Characteristic of the Objective Realm. In the human realm, for example, the Characteristic of the Objective Realm is precisely the world in which human beings live, including the body and the sense faculties, while the mind belongs to the Seeing Subject.

Only because there is a Seeing Subject does the Characteristic of the Objective Realm exist. It is the SEEN OBJECT of this Characteristic of the Seeing Subject; hence it is said to DEPEND UPON THE SEEING SUBJECT. Without the Seeing Subject, there is no Characteristic of the Objective Realm; hence it is said, “APART FROM SEEING, there is no objective realm.” It is said to APPEAR DELUSIVELY because this realm has no real substance; only because of the unenlightened mind is an objective realm delusively perceived to exist.

It is like traveling through a desert and seeing water because of a mirage. That water has never truly existed. The seeing caused by the mirage represents the Seeing Subject.

The water represents the Characteristic of the Objective Realm. Because the Tathagata-garbha is deludedly misunderstood, a body, sense faculties, and an objective realm before one’s eyes appear to exist; hence it is said that they APPEAR DELUSIVELY.

The process by which the realm of sentient beings evolves from the true mind is clearly explained in the Surangama Sutra as follows: When Purna asked, “Why does the originally pure nature suddenly give rise to mountains, rivers, the great earth, and the various conditioned phenomena that successively change …?” After answering each detail, the Buddha concluded: “… All arise from the lucid awareness of enlightened illumination.

Because of awareness, characteristics arise. From deluded seeing arise mountains, rivers, the great earth, and the conditioned characteristics that successively change …” When it is said that characteristics arise because of awareness, the first characteristic seen is the OBJECT OF ILLUMINATION. The object of illumination is precisely ILLUMINATION.

Yet it is called the object of illumination because that illumination has become an object that we can apprehend.

That is to say, the NATURE OF AWAKENING is originally luminous; yet this NATURE does not fall within the division of perceiver and perceived, and therefore this LUMINOSITY is not an object that we can see. Because it has no self-nature and cannot sustain itself, the Aspect of Karma arises. Where there is karma, transformation occurs and gives rise to the perceived.

This is precisely the PERCEIVED LUMINOSITY. Once the perceived is established, the perceiver arises,[22] referring to the Aspect of the Perceiver. Perceiver and perceived are spoken of because that state of luminous, cool clarity is still something we can experience, not because it has become clearly divided into subject and object as we now perceive them.

It is purely a single, pristine LUMINOUS AWARENESS. This is the realm of nirvana of the pratyekabuddhas. [23]

When the perceived luminosity is established, the nature of awakening is obscured. Once the nature of awakening has become obscured, luminosity is concealed and ignorance appears; when perceived in reverse, it seems dim and dark—this is space. Dim, dark space has no master; stillness and motion, set in contrast, become mutually opposed and thus give rise to movement, producing the wind-wheel that sustains the world.

Through this movement, luminous awareness becomes increasingly solidified, and thus the golden wheel arises to uphold the lands. The wind element and the precious golden substance rub against each other, producing luminous fire. The radiance of the precious golden substance penetrates within and without; like crystal, it contains a moist vapor, and when fire is added, it turns into liquid.

Thus the water element pervades the ten directions, and so forth.[24] This describes the process by which space and the four great elements arise through transformation from the pure true essence. From that space and those four great elements, mountains, rivers, continents, and all conditioned dharmas then arise. All of these belong to the Aspect of the Objective Realm.

PERCEIVED LUMINOSITY is the subtle portion of what is perceived. At that time, neither the world nor the sense faculties and bodies of sentient beings yet existed; hence it is said, “Seeing does not necessarily require eyes; the clear awareness of consciousness is also called seeing.” Since no body with sense faculties yet existed, why establish the Perceiver? Because clear awareness of that luminosity could not be hearing, smelling, or tasting, but could only be seeing. Therefore, the Perceiver is established here, and only the Perceiver can be established; nothing else can be.

Because the objective realm serves as a condition, it further gives rise to six aspects.

THE OBJECTIVE REALM SERVES AS A CONDITION because the Perceiver is the cause. When cause and conditions are complete, the fruit comes forth; hence it is said to GIVE RISE TO SIX ASPECTS.

What are the six?

1. THE ASPECT OF INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION: Based upon the Objective Realm, the mind gives rise to discrimination, resulting in liking and disliking.

In speaking of the ASPECT OF INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION, its meaning lies in the word INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION. Thus, although it is said, “The mind gives rise to discrimination, resulting in liking and disliking,” the principal point lies only in the words GIVES RISE TO DISCRIMINATION. Why, then, are liking and disliking also included? Because only when LIKING and DISLIKING are present does this intellectual discrimination belong to non-awakening. Chan Master Tổ Nguyên said, “Skillfully discriminating without giving rise to love or hatred is called wisdom.”

Discrimination that gives rise to love and hatred occurs because one does not know that the objective realm before one is merely an appearance manifested by manifesting consciousness. DISCRIMINATION means seeing oneself as different from others, one person as different from another, one thing as different from another, and so forth. In general, all views that fall into the two extremes are called discrimination.

Because one sees everything as possessing its own separate self-nature, the mind gives rise to liking or disliking. Yet dharmas are by nature devoid of self-nature; they are merely delusorily manifested through the non-awakening of one’s own mind. Dharmas have no real substance, yet love and hatred arise toward them.

Thus it can be known that such love and hatred are the criteria by which this INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION is judged to be governed by ignorance. Therefore, the text does not merely say, “The mind gives rise to discrimination,” but also adds, “resulting in liking and disliking.”

2. THE ASPECT OF CONTINUITY: Based upon the Aspect of Intellectual Discrimination, suffering and happiness arise; the discerning mind gives rise to thoughts that correspond without interruption.

The principal meaning of this passage lies in the words “The discerning mind gives rise to thoughts that correspond without interruption.” BASED UPON THE ASPECT OF INTELLECTUAL DISCRIMINATION means that only because of discriminating self and others, good and bad, and so forth, do notions, thoughts, feelings, and the like arise. One thought follows another without interruption, forming a tightly bound continuity. This continuously successive characteristic is called the ASPECT OF CONTINUITY. Because we habitually turn outward and attend to objects more than to the mind, we do not perceive this continuity.

Those who practice meditation and illuminate and break through the deluded mind will perceive this uninterrupted continuity. The Lankavatara Sutra divides it into eleven subtle kinds. These eleven kinds are formed through attachment to dharmas and attachment to dualistic discrimination.

For example, continuity arises through attachment to the five skandhas, attachment to non-self, attachment to causes and conditions, and so forth. Master Hiền Thủ divides it into two kinds,[25] the other and the personal, as follows: “Based upon the preceding discrimination, one gives rise to delight toward pleasing objects and gives rise to pain, sorrow, and distress toward displeasing objects. Thought after thought arises continuously and remains present; this elucidates PERSONAL continuity.

Moreover, it can give rise to afflictions that further permeate karma and sustain birth and death; this is the OTHER continuity.”

3. THE ASPECT OF GRASPING: Based upon Continuity, one takes the objective realm as the object of thought, sustaining suffering and happiness, and the mind gives rise to attachment. TO CLING means to be unwilling to part from something. TO GRASP means to seize and retain it. Its meaning is equivalent to ATTACHMENT, with the additional sense of SUSTAINING.

TO TAKE THE OBJECTIVE REALM AS THE OBJECT OF THOUGHT means to attend to an object and then, by taking that object as a condition, give rise to suffering or happiness. SUFFERING AND HAPPINESS are two opposing states of consciousness. Although suffering and happiness are mentioned, they refer to all states that arise in the mind, such as greed, anger, delight, pain, and so forth.

They all manifest the taking of the objective realm as the object of thought. Because the mind is attached to objects, these states arise. Attachment is also manifested in being unable to rest content within oneself and continually turning outward to cling to sounds, forms, and so forth—as when one needs a book to read, needs someone with whom to converse, cannot endure silence, and so forth.

Conversely, being unable to endure noise and liking only quiet places also manifests an attached mind. Nevertheless, attachment to quietude is still closer to the Way than attachment to external objects.

ATTACHMENT arises because the continuity of the stream of deluded thoughts serves as the cause, while the objective realm before one serves as the condition. The continuity of the stream of deluded thoughts is precisely the uninterrupted connection of each person’s preconceptions and notions concerning the world in which they live. Because these are taken as the basis for judging and comparing the myriad dharmas, when things accord with them, delight arises and one wishes to grasp and retain them; when things oppose them, suffering and distress arise and one wishes to leave them behind. Both indicate attachment, which is precisely the Aspect of Grasping.

4. THE ASPECT OF RECKONING NAMES AND WORDS: Based upon deluded grasping, one discriminates the false characteristics of names and words.

TO RECKON means to calculate, compare, and measure. DISCRIMINATION here bears more the sense of deliberating, comparing, and calculating than does the discrimination of the Aspect of Intellectual Discrimination. The Aspect of Intellectual Discrimination contains discrimination alone and is not yet influenced by the Aspect of Continuity and the Aspect of Grasping. The discrimination of the Aspect of Intellectual Discrimination causes the mind to continue without interruption, but it does not yet have the function of creating karma as does the discrimination discussed here. Therefore, although bodhisattvas on the lower bhumis still possess discriminating cognition, they are not driven by the stream of karmic force to create karma as sentient beings are.

DELUDED GRASPING refers to the preceding Aspect of Grasping. It is called DELUDED because it is merely false, formed through long-standing permeation, and has no real substance. Yet because of this attachment, a calculating and deliberating mind arises with regard to the objects grasped, and then creates karma.

NAME AND WORDS refer to names and verbal expressions. Although it is called NAME, it encompasses both name and characteristic. A name is established only because there is a characteristic. WORDS are the verbal expressions of deluded conceptualization. These three—name, characteristic, and deluded conceptualization—always accompany one another. The Lankavatara Sutra says, “Characteristics and names follow one another, giving rise to various deluded conceptualizations.” They are said to be FALSE because characteristics are manifestations transformed from the mind and have no real substance. Names and deluded conceptualizations are established in dependence upon that which has no real substance, and therefore likewise have no real substance.

5. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF INITIATING KARMA: Depending upon names and words, one seeks names and clings to them, creating all kinds of karma.

INITIATING KARMA means initiating actions and activities. Its principal meaning lies in the words CREATING ALL KINDS OF KARMA. Performing wholesome deeds is called initiating wholesome karma. Performing evil deeds is called initiating unwholesome karma. However, because this passage is discussing the process of non-enlightenment, it speaks only of unwholesome karma and not of wholesome karma. Wholesome karma belongs to initial enlightenment. To awaken to the characteristic of cessation is to awaken so as to break through unwholesome thoughts and prevent them from becoming actions; this is precisely to break through the Characteristic of Initiating Karma. Without this characteristic, there is also no subsequent Characteristic of Suffering Bound by Karma.

DEPENDING UPON NAMES AND WORDS means that this aspect of Initiating Karma arises because of the preceding Characteristic of Reckoning Names and Words. Because discrimination has already acquired the quality of attachment belonging to the Characteristic of Grasping, one seeks names and clings to them. TO SEEK NAMES AND CLING TO THEM means to search for and hold fast to the names and characteristics one likes.

Once one has such thoughts concerning things one likes, one will also act in the opposite manner toward things one dislikes. If one likes something, one seeks to draw it in. If one dislikes something, one seeks to push it away.

This is the cause of creating karma. CREATING ALL KINDS OF KARMA means setting the body and speech in motion to perform actions that cause myriad beings to suffer. This aspect of Initiating Karma is the cause whose result is suffering.

6. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF SUFFERING BOUND BY KARMA: Depending upon karma, one undergoes retribution and therefore is not free.

BOUND means fettered. SUFFERING BOUND BY KARMA refers to the fettering power of karma from which suffering arises. DEPENDING UPON KARMA means relying upon the preceding Characteristic of Initiating Karma. Once a cause exists, when the requisite conditions are complete, the result will occur; therefore it is said, “Depending upon karma, one undergoes retribution.” TO UNDERGO RETRIBUTION means to receive the result of a cause previously planted.

FREE means unencumbered and unattached; it is the opposite of the word BOUND. A person whom nothing in the world can disturb or encumber cannot suffer. NOT FREE refers to this Suffering Bound by Karma.

People in the world create karma for many reasons: first, they create karma because they lack wisdom; afterward, they create karma because circumstances compel them. Compelling circumstances are the result of a previous unwholesome cause. That compulsion indicates the first kind of NOT BEING FREE. This is “undergoing retribution and therefore not being free.” Being compelled thereby to create still more unwholesome karma is the second kind of NOT BEING FREE. Once karma has become habitual, one becomes dependent upon that habit; this is the third kind of NOT BEING FREE. Because one is so tightly entangled by the two currents of karma and suffering, it is called the Characteristic of Suffering Bound by Karma.

The explanation of the nine characteristics of non-enlightenment is now complete. Regarding these nine characteristics, Master Xianshou says that the three subtle characteristics belong to the Alaya consciousness, while the six coarse characteristics belong to the mental consciousness. The Alaya consciousness and mental consciousness are presented through the three subtle and six coarse characteristics without mention of the Manas consciousness for the following reasons: Ignorance stirs the pure essence of mind and causes the arising of a state in which purity and defilement are combined; this is the meaning of the Alaya consciousness, not of the Manas consciousness.

Therefore, Manas is not discussed among the three subtle characteristics. As for the Characteristic of Discriminating Knowledge and the others, they arise because the mind takes external objects as its conditions. Manas cannot take external objects as its conditions, and therefore it is not discussed among the six coarse characteristics either.

Nevertheless, once the Alaya consciousness arises, the corresponding Manas consciousness is already present; and when the mental consciousness takes external objects as its conditions, Manas must also be present internally as its basis before the mental consciousness can arise. Therefore, only the mental consciousness and Alaya consciousness are mentioned, without reference to Manas. Although the classifications may appear different, the general meaning is no different between the sutras and the treatises.

It should be known that ignorance is capable of producing all defiled dharmas, because all defiled dharmas are characteristics of non-enlightenment. IGNORANCE refers solely to the initial non-enlightenment that produces the nine characteristics in the section on Non-Enlightenment. DEFILED DHARMAS refer to the nine characteristics above. Since they all arise from non-enlightenment, it is said, “They are all characteristics of non-enlightenment.”

Furthermore, enlightenment and non-enlightenment have two characteristics. What are the two? The first is the characteristic of identity; the second is the characteristic of difference.

This reveals the true characteristic of non-enlightenment and enlightenment. THE CHARACTERISTIC OF IDENTITY and THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENCE are intended to express that enlightenment and non-enlightenment are “neither identical nor different.”

1. The characteristic of identity: It is like all kinds of pottery, which are identical in possessing the nature and characteristics of minute particles. In the same way, all illusory karma—undefiled karma and the karma of ignorance alike—is identical with the nature and characteristics of true suchness.

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF IDENTITY speaks of the NON-DIFFERENCE between enlightenment and non-enlightenment, referring precisely to the ESSENCE that is the nature of true suchness. Although enlightenment and non-enlightenment have opposite characteristics, they share the same source, just as waves may overturn a boat while still water carries it, yet both share the same nature of wetness and the same characteristic of water. ALL KINDS OF POTTERY represent enlightenment and non-enlightenment. Although the various pieces of pottery differ in shape and appearance, they are all made from earth. Here, earth is called minute particles. THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MINUTE PARTICLES are an analogy for THE NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TRUE SUCHNESS.

Undefiled karma belongs to enlightenment. The karma of ignorance belongs to non-enlightenment. They are called illusory karma because both undefiled karma and the karma of ignorance arise through perfuming and have no real substance. These two opposing characteristics never depart from the essential nature of true suchness; therefore they are said to be IDENTICAL.

Therefore, in the Sutra—based upon this meaning—it is said, “All sentient beings have from the beginning constantly abided in and entered nirvana.” The Dharma of bodhi is not a characteristic that can be cultivated, nor a characteristic that can be created; ultimately, there is nothing to attain. Nor does it possess visible material form. Whatever material forms may be seen are merely produced by illusory karma in accordance with defilement; it is not that the nature of wisdom’s form is nonempty, for the characteristic of wisdom cannot be seen.

THEREFORE introduces the following conclusion. BASED UPON THIS MEANING means based upon the CHARACTERISTIC OF IDENTITY just discussed. Here the sutra is cited to reveal the identity of enlightenment and non-enlightenment.

Nirvana belongs to enlightenment. Sentient beings belong to non-enlightenment. To speak of SENTIENT BEINGS is to speak of birth and death.

The characteristic of birth and death is not the characteristic of nirvana. Enlightenment is not non-enlightenment. Yet because of the IDENTITY discussed above, it is known that “ALL SENTIENT BEINGS have from the beginning constantly abided in and entered nirvana.” Seeing birth and death as different from nirvana is merely a view arising from delusion and awakening.

Because of delusion, one sees birth and death as something to leave and nirvana as something to enter. Upon awakening, birth and death itself is nirvana. It is like falling asleep and dreaming that one goes here and there, amid a confusion of joy and sorrow.

Upon awakening from the dream, one realizes that throughout it all one has remained upon the bed.

THE CHARACTERISTIC OF BODHI is the enlightened nature of true suchness. “The characteristic of bodhi cannot be…” reveals the true nature of the Dharma of bodhi. It is “not a characteristic that CAN BE CULTIVATED…” because bodhi is a Dharma to be realized, not a dharma to be produced. It is like a lamp that merely causes the objects in a dark room to become clearly visible; the lamp does not create those objects. Bodhi is originally and inherently complete, but cannot manifest because of delusive defilements. Cultivation is precisely the expedient means of eliminating delusive defilements so that bodhi may manifest; it is not that bodhi did not exist before and only now comes into existence through cultivation. Therefore, it is said, “It is not a characteristic that CAN BE CREATED.”

NO ATTAINMENT, because bodhi is not a dharma to be attained. To speak of attainment is to speak from the standpoint of delusion. Within that very attainment, there is neither one who attains nor anything attained. When there is neither subject nor object, there is nothing that sees and nothing that is seen; hence it is said, “NO FORM-mark can be seen.” Such is the true nature of bodhi; therefore, whatever can still be seen by us arises entirely from DELUSORY DEFILEMENT.

NOT EMPTY may provisionally be understood as “existent.” THE NATURE OF WISDOM refers to the nature of emptiness. This emptiness does not belong to the worldly categories of EMPTINESS and EXISTENCE, nor is it something seen; hence it is said, “It is NOT that the nature of wisdom is not empty.” This states the reason for understanding why it is said, “The existence of form-marks that can be seen is created solely by delusory karma in conformity with defilement.” This is because the true suchness of Buddha-nature is entirely without form-marks, yet it has the capacity to manifest form-marks.

Such manifestation arises from the faculties and karma of sentient beings; it is not something that manifests by itself. DELUSORY KARMA IN CONFORMITY WITH DEFILEMENT refers to the faculties and karma of sentient beings. According to the degree of delusory defilement, one perceives either the Buddha’s response body or reward body.

2. The mark of difference: Just as with all kinds of pottery, each is unlike the others. So too, the undefiled and ignorance differ according to delusory defilement, because of the differentiated character of delusory defilement.

This explains the NON-IDENTITY between awakening and non-awakening, speaking of their MARKS. Their ESSENCE is the same, but their MARKS differ because they accord with conditions. When following pure conditions, it is called awakening. When following defiled conditions, it is called non-awakening. This is what DIFFERENCE means. A bowl and a vase are both made from clay, yet the forms and functions of the bowl and vase are entirely different. Hence it is said, “Each is UNLIKE the others.”

SO TOO means that the marks of awakening and non-awakening are like the forms of those kinds of pottery. Their essence is the same, but their marks differ. This difference is due to conditions.

When delusory defilement is pure, there are immeasurable marks of pure, undefiled merit. When delusory defilement is impure, there are immeasurable defiled dharmas of ignorance. The differentiated NATURE spoken of here must be understood as differentiation in PHENOMENA.

In general, the apparent differences among the marks of dharmas are merely created by differences in delusory defilement; it is not that the intrinsic nature of dharmas is itself differentiated. It is like a single face that, depending on how it is drawn, may take the form of an evil demon or a beautiful woman; the face itself is not inherently so.

Furthermore, the CAUSES AND CONDITIONS OF ARISING AND CEASING are that sentient beings evolve in dependence upon mind, mentation, and consciousness. What does this mean? Because, based upon the Alaya consciousness, it is said that there is ignorance: through non-awakening there arise the capacity to see, the capacity to manifest, and the capacity to grasp objects; and because thoughts arise in an unbroken succession, this is called mentation. This mentation has five names.

FURTHERMORE means that there is still more to be discussed. Here the intention is to reveal the CAUSES AND CONDITIONS that produce arising and ceasing. When MIND appears together with MENTATION and CONSCIOUSNESS, it refers to the conscious mind. When these three combine and arise, sentient beings appear, differing according to purity and defilement; hence these living beings are called SENTIENT BEINGS. Only when these three are present can sentient beings revolve through the five destinies; hence it is said, “They evolve in dependence upon mind, mentation, and consciousness.” EVOLVE means to arise and revolve in cyclic existence.

Thus mind, mentation, and consciousness are precisely the causes and conditions of arising and ceasing. Based on the statement, “THIS MENTATION HAS FIVE NAMES,” this aspect of mentation must be present before the Alaya consciousness appears; therefore, the MIND spoken of here refers to the Tathagata-garbha. Without this aspect of the mind-essence, mentation and consciousness would have nothing upon which to depend in order to arise. Thus, the causes and conditions of arising and ceasing presented here include mind, mentation, and consciousness in full.

These CAUSES AND CONDITIONS of arising and ceasing are twofold: first, MENTATION arises in dependence upon MIND; second, CONSCIOUSNESS arises in dependence upon that MENTATION. WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? is intended to clarify the process by which sentient beings evolve in dependence upon mind, mentation, and consciousness. Because of non-awakening, mind becomes consciousness and is called Alaya; therefore, it is said, “Based upon the Alaya consciousness, it is said that there is ignorance.” THERE IS IGNORANCE emphasizes the aspect of non-awakening within Alaya. [26]

THROUGH NON-AWAKENING THERE ARISES means that, because of ignorance, the mind-essence moves delusively; this refers to the Karmic Consciousness. THE CAPACITY TO SEE means that after the mind-essence moves delusively, it transforms into the previously discussed mark of the perceiving subject; this is called the Evolving Consciousness. THE CAPACITY TO MANIFEST means that the mind-essence has now become that which manifests; this refers to the Manifesting Consciousness.

TO GRASP OBJECTS means to grasp the objects manifested by the Manifesting Consciousness; this refers to the Discriminating Consciousness. GRASPING is said to refer to the DISCRIMINATING CONSCIOUSNESS because this grasping exists only through discrimination. That discrimination itself is the Discriminating Consciousness.

Once discrimination arises, THOUGHTS ARISE IN AN UNBROKEN SUCCESSION; this is called the Continuity Consciousness. These five aspects form the foundation upon which ordinary consciousness depends in order to arise; hence the treatise calls these five consciousnesses MENTATION. What follows lists them and clearly explains the mode of activity of each consciousness.

Above, non-awakening was divided into nine marks, with cause and effect and their preceding and succeeding stages clearly distinguished. Here they are gathered into two aspects: mentation and consciousness.

What are the five? This question is asked in order to list the five names belonging to MENTATION.

1. KARMIC CONSCIOUSNESS: Through the power of ignorance and non-awakening, the mind moves.

MOVEMENT is the meaning of karma. Therefore, this aspect of the moving mind, before subject and object have been differentiated, is called the Karmic Consciousness. It is the primary foundation for the existence of the conscious mind.

2. EVOLVING CONSCIOUSNESS: In dependence upon the movement of mind, the mark of seeing arises.

THE MOVEMENT OF MIND refers to the Karmic Consciousness above. Because there is movement, evolution occurs. EVOLUTION refers to change and transformation from the former state.

EVOLVING CONSCIOUSNESS refers to the state in which the mind is no longer quiescent but has entered arising and ceasing. Evolving consciousness is twofold: first, because ignorance causes movement, true nature evolves into that which is capable of seeing; this refers to the previously discussed mark of the perceiving subject. Second, the evolving consciousness belonging to the six consciousnesses—mental consciousness, eye-consciousness, and so forth—is stirred by external objects and thereby evolves into that which is capable of seeing.

The EVOLVING CONSCIOUSNESS spoken of here refers to the mark of the perceiving subject; and because this characteristic of EVOLUTION serves as the foundation, when conditions are complete, the six consciousnesses also evolve. In the Lankavatara Sutra, “evolving consciousness” refers to all seven consciousnesses.

3. MANIFESTING CONSCIOUSNESS: It is capable of manifesting all objects. Just as a bright mirror reflects forms and images, so too does the manifesting consciousness. Whichever of the five sense-objects presents itself is immediately manifested, without any before or after. Because it arises spontaneously at all times, it is always present.

The manifesting consciousness is the Alaya consciousness itself. Alaya is the repository that grasps and maintains the seeds of all dharmas, and it is also that from which all dharmas are manifested. Because emphasis is placed solely upon its aspect of manifestation, it is called the manifesting consciousness.

The Lankavatara Sutra says, “The inconceivable perfuming and transformation are the cause of the manifesting consciousness.” PERFUMING means that true suchness, devoid of thought, is perfumed through moment-by-moment non-awakening and becomes ignorance. TRANSFORMATION means that the three subtle marks are manifested simultaneously. This TRANSFORMATION is the cause of the manifesting consciousness and also the distinctive characteristic expressing the manifesting consciousness’s CAPACITY TO MANIFEST; hence it is said that it “IS CAPABLE OF MANIFESTING all objects.”

“JUST AS A BRIGHT MIRROR reflects forms and images” is an analogy enabling us to comprehend the manifesting consciousness. Whatever forms and images fall within the mirror’s scope are reflected simultaneously, without any before or after; hence it is said, “WHICHEVER PRESENTS ITSELF is immediately manifested, without any before or after.” Through the power of seeds in Alaya that have matured, it manifests the vessel-world, consisting of the four great elements and the five SENSE-OBJECTS of form, sound, scent, taste, and touch.

PRESENTS ITSELF refers to this maturation, when causes and conditions are complete. There is NO BEFORE OR AFTER because, once the conditions for arising are complete, they arise simultaneously, just as a mirror reflects images. This also describes the function of the Alaya consciousness: it merely cognizes or reflects the things that appear within it, like a mirror reflecting every image.

It is simply bare cognition, without analysis, deliberation, calculation, or comparison. According to the system of eight consciousnesses, deliberation, calculation, and comparison belong to the seven evolving consciousnesses.

The Alaya consciousness does not sometimes exist and sometimes not, as does the mind-consciousness. Rather, from beginningless time until now, its arising and ceasing have continued in an unbroken, constant succession. Whenever the requisite conditions are present, it immediately manifests; hence it is said, “At ALL times it arises spontaneously and is constantly present.”

4. DISCRIMINATING CONSCIOUSNESS: It discriminates between defiled and pure dharmas.

Discrimination is the distinctive characteristic of consciousness. Discrimination is the basis upon which the mind-consciousness assesses the myriad dharmas and then creates karma.

5. CONTINUOUS CONSCIOUSNESS: Because associated thoughts continue without interruption. It maintains the good and evil karma of immeasurable past lives, preventing it from being lost. It can also bring the resultant retributions of suffering, happiness, and so forth to maturity in the present and future without the slightest error. It can cause one, in the present, suddenly to recall things that have passed and, unawares, to worry and entertain deluded thoughts about things yet to come.

ASSOCIATED THOUGHTS CONTINUE WITHOUT INTERRUPTION elucidates the meaning of the two words CONTINUOUS CONSCIOUSNESS: one thought follows another, arising and ceasing without interruption. The passage beginning with “It MAINTAINS good and evil karma…” discusses the functions of continuous consciousness.

TO MAINTAIN means to preserve and sustain. “It MAINTAINS the good and evil KARMA of immeasurable past lives, preventing it from being lost. IT CAN ALSO bring the resultant retributions of suffering, happiness, and so forth to maturity in the present and future without the slightest error” refers to the continuity that is a function of the Alaya consciousness; whereas “IT CAN CAUSE one, in the present, suddenly to recall things that have passed and, unawares, to worry and entertain deluded thoughts about things yet to come” pertains to the mind-consciousness.

Therefore, the three realms are false and illusory, created by mind alone. Apart from mind, there are no objects of the six sense-objects.

The THREE REALMS are the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm. They are FALSE AND ILLUSORY because they possess no true substance. They exist only because, when the mind moves through non-awakening, there arise the perceiving subject and perceived objects; hence it is said that they are CREATED BY MIND ALONE.

The DESIRE REALM is what is perceived [27] by sentient beings who possess two kinds of desire: sensual desire and desire for food. The FORM REALM is what is perceived by those who have attained the four dhyanas. The FORMLESS REALM is what is perceived by those who cultivate the four formless concentrations: the sphere of infinite space, the sphere of infinite consciousness, the sphere of nothingness, and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. In this realm there are no bodies or material things; only the three consciousnesses remain, abiding in profound and subtle meditative concentration. It is therefore called formless.

According to the degree of purity or defilement of the mind, different sense-faculties, bodies, and worlds come into being; hence it is said that they are CREATED BY MIND ALONE.

The SIX SENSE-OBJECTS are form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharmas. APART FROM MIND may be understood in two senses:

1. Apart from the Tathagata-garbha. This is intended to reveal that the six sense-objects possess no substance of their own but take the Tathagata-garbha as their substance; hence it is said, “APART FROM MIND, there are no objects of the six sense-objects.”

2. Apart from the Alaya consciousness. That is, if there were no initial non-awakening through which the Aspect of Karma appears, there would be no second or third aspect through which the six sense-objects could arise; hence it is said, “APART FROM MIND, there are no objects of the six sense-objects.”

What does this mean? Because all dharmas arise from mind and are born of deluded thoughts. All discrimination is the discrimination of one’s own mind. Mind does not see mind; no characteristic can be apprehended. One should know that all objects in the world exist in dependence upon the ignorant, deluded minds of sentient beings. Therefore, all dharmas are like reflections in a mirror, possessing no substance that can be grasped; they are merely the false and deluded mind. For when mind arises, all dharmas arise; when mind ceases, all dharmas cease.

WHAT DOES THIS MEAN? explains why it is said, “The three realms are false and illusory, created by mind alone.” All dharmas exist because of deluded thoughts and are manifestations of one’s own mind through the two forces of causes and conditions and discrimination. This was explained in the section on the Mind as True Suchness.

Here, DISCRIMINATION, in its subtle form, refers to the Aspect of Cognizing, and in its coarse form, to the Aspect of Conceptualizing Names and Words. Because the myriad dharmas do not exist outside mind, it is said that “DISCRIMINATION is the discrimination of one’s own mind.” Yet mind cannot discriminate mind itself, just as the eye cannot see itself. To see the eye, one must rely upon a mirror. Thus, the eye that is seen is merely a reflection of the actual eye. The dharmas that one perceives are likewise like the eye in the mirror: although they are one’s own mind, they are merely reflections of one’s own mind. Hence it is said, MIND DOES NOT SEE MIND. Since they are reflections, they possess no true substance; hence it is said, “NO CHARACTERISTIC can be apprehended.”

“ONE SHOULD KNOW that all objects in the world exist in dependence upon the ignorant, deluded minds of sentient beings” reveals how the myriad dharmas arise and how they continue to exist. “THEREFORE, all dharmas are like reflections in a mirror, possessing no substance that can be grasped” is the conclusion drawn from what ONE SHOULD KNOW. SUBSTANCE refers to the intrinsic nature of the myriad dharmas. Since the myriad dharmas have no intrinsic nature, it is said that THEY CANNOT BE GRASPED.

FOR explains why it is said that they are MERELY THE FALSE AND DELUDED MIND. Because the mind, through non-awakening, stirs and gives rise to thoughts, it is said that MIND ARISES. Because the Aspect of the Objective Realm appears due to this stirring of thought, and the myriad dharmas flow forth from it, it is said that ALL DHARMAS ARISE.

Awakening to the very first thought that caused the mind to stir is called the CESSATION OF MIND. Once that first thought has been awakened to, the Perceiving Subject is empty. When there is no Perceiving Subject, there is no Aspect of the Objective Realm; hence it is said that ALL DHARMAS CEASE.

Because mind is the basis upon which the myriad dharmas depend and the source to which they return, it is said, MIND ALONE. Because they have no substance of their own and arise and cease according to conditions, they are said to be FALSE AND DELUDED.

Furthermore, the mind-consciousness is the continuous consciousness. Because ordinary beings cling deeply and repeatedly to self and what belongs to self, forming deluded attachments to each thing, following the objects they grasp, and discriminating the six sense-objects, it is called the mind-consciousness. It is also called the separating consciousness and the consciousness that discriminates objects. This consciousness increases through the afflictions of views and craving.

This passage discusses the mind-consciousness. IS means that it is precisely that, though not entirely identical with it. The mind-consciousness belongs to the continuous consciousness but does not constitute the whole of that continuous consciousness; hence the word IS is used.

Because this CONSCIOUSNESS takes the manas as the basis upon which it relies to arise, it is called the MIND-CONSCIOUSNESS. It is called the SEPARATING CONSCIOUSNESS because the mind-consciousness sometimes manifests independently of the five external consciousnesses, but ordinarily it separates into associations with those five external consciousnesses, each cognizing its respective sense-object. The Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only states: “The mind-consciousness not only apprehends the objects currently cognized by the five consciousnesses but also assists the five consciousnesses in arising.

Moreover, with respect to the objects cognized by the five consciousnesses, the mind-consciousness can apprehend them clearly in a manner different from the five consciousnesses. Therefore, the sacred teachings say that the mind-consciousness possesses discrimination, whereas the five consciousnesses do not.”[28] Thus one should understand that it is called SEPARATING because it separates to cognize the five sense-objects of the five consciousnesses, not because the mind-consciousness becomes the eye-consciousness when passing through the eye, the ear-consciousness when passing through the ear, and so forth.

It is called the CONSCIOUSNESS THAT DISCRIMINATES OBJECTS because this consciousness can discriminate every internal and external characteristic of things, such as coming and going.