釋禪波羅蜜次第法門

Chapter 6

DISTINGUISHING THE PRELIMINARY EXPEDIENT MEANS OF DHYANA PARAMITA

(A discussion of the preliminary expedient means of meditation practice for those who wish to develop their inner mind and settle it for cultivation. First, the external expedient means—that is, the twenty-five expedient means—are explained; next, the internal expedient means are discussed.)

If practitioners can thoroughly understand the discussion of the five kinds of Dhyana Paramita in the preceding chapter and clearly comprehend the characteristics of the various dhyanas, faith will arise from within. If they wish to settle their minds and study meditation, they must skillfully understand expedient means. The expedient means for cultivating meditation will now be explained in two parts.

– External expedient means: methods of applying the mind before samadhi has been attained.

– Internal expedient means: methods of applying the mind while in meditative concentration.

These two methods are collectively called expedient means and are also called “skillful cultivation and training.” Because beginning practitioners of meditation skillfully employ methods of cultivation, these are called expedient means. Broadly speaking, external expedient means may also be used during meditative concentration, and internal expedient means may also be used outside meditative concentration. Here they are divided into the external and internal methods according to their predominant application.

EXTERNAL EXPEDIENT MEANS

There are five kinds:

D. Regulating five matters

E. Practicing the five dharmas

Each of these five kinds of expedient means comprises five dharmas, making a total of twenty-five methods, all to be employed before meditative concentration has been attained. These are called the characteristics of the expedient means used when one first begins to subdue the mind.

A. FULFILLING THE FIVE CONDITIONS

I. Observing the precepts purely

II. Having sufficient food and clothing

III. Dwelling in a quiet and secluded place

IV. Severing entangling conditions

V. Drawing near to spiritual friends

I. OBSERVING THE PRECEPTS PURELY

This is divided into three topics:

1. Possessing the precepts and not possessing the precepts

2. Observing and violating the precepts

3. Methods of repentance

1. Possessing the precepts and not possessing the precepts

After one has renounced the household life and received the prohibitory precepts, one is said to possess the precepts. This is divided into three topics:

a) The conditions through which the precepts are obtained are not all the same

There are ten kinds:

1. Naturally obtaining the precepts: Only the Buddha, though without a teacher, spontaneously brought forth the essence of the precepts.

2. Obtaining the precepts through a personal vow: For example, Mahakasyapa originally possessed the spiritual capacity of a pratyekabuddha. Encountering the Buddha’s appearance in the world, he ultimately entered the ranks of the sravakas. He said to the Buddha, “The Buddha is my Teacher, and I am the Buddha’s disciple.” As soon as he finished speaking, he obtained the essence of the precepts.

3. Obtaining the precepts upon seeing the Truth: (obtaining the precepts by eliminating delusions of view), as in the case of the five ascetics led by Kaundinya. When the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel and taught the Four Noble Truths, they immediately realized the first fruition and thereby obtained the precepts.

4. Obtaining the precepts by taking refuge in the Three Jewels: Before the karman procedure (1) had been established, one needed only to hear the Buddha recite the refuges three times to obtain the grade of precepts. Such persons possessed pure spiritual capacities.

5. Obtaining the precepts by accepting the Eight Principles of Respect: The Buddha’s maternal aunt wished to renounce the household life, although previously the Buddha had not permitted women to do so. Because of his aunt’s request, the Buddha instructed Ananda to tell the women to accept the Eight Principles of Respect (2), whereupon the full ordination precepts arose in them.

6. Obtaining the precepts through doctrinal discussion: For example, a novice named Sudana discussed doctrine with the Buddha. The Buddha questioned him about impermanence and other principles, and he was able to answer every question. Finally, the Buddha asked, “Where is your home?” He replied, “The three realms are all empty; why, World-Honored One, do you ask where my home is?” The Buddha instructed Ananda to bring Sudana back to the Sangha and confer the full ordination precepts (3) upon him. At that time, he was only seven years old.

7. Obtaining the precepts through the words “Come, bhiksu”: When a person’s spiritual capacity had matured, the Buddha would say, “Come, bhiksu,” and that person would immediately obtain the precepts.

8. Obtaining the precepts by having another receive them on one’s behalf: For example, the woman Bhiksuni Utpalavarna was extraordinarily beautiful and inspired affection in everyone. She wished to renounce the household life and receive the precepts, but the people of the country feared that she might encounter misfortune along the way. They therefore sent someone to the monks’ monastery to receive the precepts on her behalf, after which that person returned to the nuns’ monastery to perform the ordination ceremony for her.

9. In a border region where there are few bhiksus who are nevertheless pure and in accord with the Dharma: It is sufficient for five members of the Bhiksu Sangha to bear witness for the candidate to obtain the precepts.

10. In a region where the Buddhadharma flourishes: Ten members of the Bhiksu Sangha must bear witness before the candidate can obtain the precepts.

The above are the ten circumstances in which the precepts may be obtained. In the present age, ten pure bhiksus must perform the karman procedure before a candidate can obtain the precepts. This is the discussion of the characteristics of possessing the precepts.

b) Explaining the essence of the precepts

There are two differing doctrinal explanations:

– The teachings of the Lesser Vehicle hold that the precepts are “uncreated wholesome dharmas.” Provided that all the causes and conditions for receiving the precepts are complete, if the uncreated precepts arise, then afterward—even while one sleeps, rests, or enters samadhi—these wholesome dharmas naturally continue to develop without requiring the body, speech, or mind to perform any action. Thus, the “uncreated” is taken as the essence of the precepts. According to the explanation of the Sarvastivada school, the uncreated precepts are unmanifest form; that is, invisible form that cannot be seen.

– According to the explanation of the Dharmaguptaka school, the “essence of the uncreated precepts” is a dharma that is neither form nor mind (because it has no shape, it is not form; because it does not engage in cognitive apprehension, it is not mind). The doctrines of the various schools differ, and one cannot rigidly cling to only one position. In general, the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle all take the “uncreated” as the essence of the precepts, and this meaning is not mistaken. According to the teachings of the Great Vehicle, however, the precepts arise from the mind; thus, the wholesome mind is taken as their essence. This meaning is taught in the Jeweled Necklace Sutra. Some masters further say, “The Mahasanghika school maintains that the uncreated precepts are precisely a dharma of mind.”

c) Explaining the characteristics of the precepts

There are two differing explanations:

– When the seven assemblies (5) of the Lesser Vehicle arouse the resolve to receive the precepts, the ritual procedures performed during ordination differ; therefore, the precepts obtained also vary in superiority. For example, male and female lay practitioners, upasakas and upasikas, possess the characteristics of the five precepts. Before becoming a disciple of the Buddha, if a man or woman has not committed any of the five heinous offenses—killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, killing an arhat, disrupting the harmony of the Sangha, or shedding the blood of a Buddha—and encounters a good teacher who instructs them to take refuge in the Three Jewels and receive the five precepts, then, when the ritual procedure has been successfully completed, the uncreated precepts arise. From that point onward, the person is called a pure male or female lay devotee.

Furthermore, novices possess the characteristics of the ten precepts. If the upadhyaya and acarya confer refuge in the Three Jewels purely and in accordance with the Dharma, enabling the candidate to follow the Buddha in renouncing the household life, and if the two teachers successfully complete the ritual procedure, the essence of the uncreated precepts immediately arises. These are called the novice precepts.

The fully ordained Sangha possesses the characteristics of the precepts. If a novice has not committed a grave offense, and ten pure masters—three upadhyayas and seven acaryas—successfully perform the karman procedure in accordance with the Dharma, this is called the full ordination of a great bhiksu. The characteristics of the precepts for novice nuns, siksamanas, and fully ordained bhiksunis are likewise.

If disciples among the seven assemblies who have not previously violated a grave precept encounter a good teacher and favorable conditions, perform the Great Vehicle Vaipulya repentance ritual, and successfully behold auspicious signs, then, upon subsequently receiving the precepts, they also obtain the essence of the uncreated precepts. If the circumstances are contrary to those described above, this is called failing to obtain the essence of the precepts and is also called being without precepts.

– Whether those who practice the bodhisattva conduct have received the precepts cannot necessarily be known. Why is this? Because bodhisattvas have cultivated over many lifetimes, or, when first arousing the aspiration, may immediately encounter favorable conditions, receive the precepts, and obtain them.

2. Observing and violating the precepts

There are three topics:

a) A brief explanation of observing and violating the precepts

b) A detailed explanation of observing and violating the precepts

c) An explanation of whether or not the precepts arise

a) A brief explanation of observing and violating the precepts

There are two parts:

a.1. The characteristics of observing the precepts

a.2. The characteristics of violating the precepts

a.1. The characteristics of observing the precepts: This means guarding and upholding them. After receiving the prohibitory precepts, the Buddha’s disciples guard them and refrain from violation because of ten benefits. The ten benefits are stated in the Vinaya:

1/ To gather the Sangha together

2/ To embrace and accept virtuous persons

3/ To enable the Sangha to dwell in peace and happiness

4/ Subduing those whose minds are arrogant and conceited

5/ Those who possess shame and moral dread attain peace and happiness

6/ Those without faith come to possess faith

7/ The faith of those who already possess faith grows stronger

8/ Bringing an end to the outflows of this life

9/ Cutting off evil in future lives

10/ Those who practice the pure life attain longevity

With single-minded reverence and care toward the precepts, the practitioner does not dare violate them. Like someone holding fast to a flotation device upon the water, not daring to slight it or cast it away, this is called safeguarding. Upholding the precepts is also like carrying a bowl filled with oil in both hands without spilling a single drop; this is therefore called the characteristic of upholding the precepts.

a.2. The characteristic of violating the precepts: “Violation” means transgression. Although one has received the Buddha’s precepts and wishes to escape the cycle of birth and death and seek liberation, when one encounters adverse conditions and cannot restrain one’s own mind, one violates the precepts midway, whether a minor or a grave precept. This is called the characteristic of violating the precepts.

Furthermore, “violation” is also called defiling contact. It is like a sick person who takes medicine and is advised by the physician to abstain from harmful and poisonous foods and drinks. Yet because the patient does not heed the physician’s instructions and continues consuming poisonous foods, the illness grows increasingly severe and may even lead to death. The characteristic of violating the precepts is likewise; hence it is called violation.

b) A detailed explanation of upholding and violating the precepts

From the initial aspiration to the fruit of Buddhahood, there are ten kinds of upholding and violating the precepts:

1. Upholding the precepts without deficiency: Preserving the four grave precepts without violating them.

2. Upholding the precepts without breach: Not violating the thirteen Sanghavasesa precepts.

3. Upholding the precepts without puncture: Not violating the three thousand Pacittiya precepts.

4. Upholding the unmixed precepts: Not giving rise to perverse thoughts, miscellaneous afflictive thoughts, or discursive examination and reflection. This is also called the morality associated with concentration.

5. Upholding the precepts that accord with the Path: The mind practices the sixteen contemplations, giving rise to wisdom, patience, and the contemplation of suffering.(6) This is also called the morality associated with the Path.

6. Upholding the precepts of non-attachment: If one who has attained the fruit of an anagamin cuts off the nine grades of cognitive delusion in the Desire Realm, this is called the morality of restraint through abandonment. This extends to completely eliminating the afflictions and fetters, including craving for the Form Realm and the Formless Realm; all of these are called the precepts of non-attachment.

7. Upholding the precepts praised by the wise: A bodhisattva gives rise to the mind of bodhi and upholds the precepts so that all sentient beings may attain nirvana. Such observance is praised by the wise, as in upholding the ten grave precepts and forty-eight minor precepts of the bodhisattvas. Because upholding these precepts has the power to lead to the fruit of Buddhahood, it is praised by the wise.

8. Upholding the precepts with mastery: Bodhisattvas uphold the precepts and remain free and masterful even amid conditions that could lead to their violation. It may also be said that bodhisattvas clearly understand that neither offense nor non-offense can ultimately be apprehended. They uphold the precepts solely in accordance with what benefits sentient beings, without attachment in their minds; hence these are called the precepts of mastery.

9. Upholding the complete precepts: Bodhisattvas are able to uphold fully all the precepts observed by every kind of sentient being, as well as the superior precepts of bodhisattvas.

10. Upholding the precepts in accordance with concentration: Without emerging from the concentration of the cessation of perception and feeling, bodhisattvas manifest the dignified conduct and precept practices in order to teach and liberate sentient beings.

The first four kinds of upholding the precepts are the pure morality of the mundane world, and they can also give rise to supramundane morality. Their meaning has already been explained fully above and should be carefully distinguished. The two kinds of upholding the precepts in the middle are supramundane pure morality. The final four kinds are pure morality that transcends even the supramundane. If one can receive, uphold, and preserve the characteristics of the precepts described above, this is called the characteristic of upholding the precepts. Acting contrary to what has been explained above is called the characteristic of violating the precepts.

This is called the sequential analysis, from shallow to profound, of the characteristics of upholding and violating the precepts, from the initial arising of the aspiration to the fruit of Buddhahood. Therefore, a sutra states: “Only a Buddha fully possesses pure morality; all others are said to violate the precepts.”

Furthermore, in the present explanation of upholding the precepts, one should practice according to one’s capacity and gradually advance, little by little attaining purity. Otherwise, the various kinds of meditative concentration cannot arise.

Bodhisattvas who cultivate the perfect and sudden Dharma can employ wisdom and skillful means so that, in the very first thought in which they give rise to the aspiration and begin practice, they immediately receive and fully uphold all ten kinds of precepts. Therefore, a sutra records: “The arising of the aspiration and the ultimate attainment are neither two nor different.”

c) An explanation of “concealed manifestation,” the manifestation and non-manifestation of the precepts.

There are two points:

c.1. Why they are called manifestation and non-manifestation

c.2. An analysis of the indeterminacy of manifestation and non-manifestation

c.1. Why they are called manifestation and non-manifestation: If practitioners uphold the precepts, meditative concentration arises; if they violate the precepts, meditative concentration does not arise. If practitioners uphold the mundane precepts, mundane meditative concentration unfolds. If their observance of the precepts is impure, mundane meditative concentration is obstructed.

If practitioners uphold the supramundane precepts and the highest precepts transcending even the supramundane, meditative concentration will unfold. If they violate the precepts, meditative concentration will be obstructed.

c.2. An analysis of the indeterminacy of manifestation and non-manifestation: Because sentient beings who cultivate meditation possess many different and indeterminate capacities, the matter is analyzed in four propositions:

– Some people attain meditative concentration despite violating the precepts. Some uphold the precepts, yet meditative concentration does not arise.

– Some violate the precepts, and therefore meditative concentration does not arise. Some uphold the precepts and attain meditative concentration.

– For some, meditative concentration arises whether they uphold or violate the precepts.

– For some, meditative concentration does not arise whether they uphold or violate the precepts.

1/ Those who violate the precepts while cultivating meditative concentration yet still attain it do so because, in previous lives, they possessed profound causes and conditions and wholesome roots, and had formerly cultivated meditative concentration. Although they commit offenses in the present, the power of their wholesome roots from previous lives is exceedingly strong. Moreover, in this life they also diligently cultivate meditative concentration, or they give rise to shame and remorse regarding the offenses they have committed, like a debtor who must repay a debt. Therefore, although they violate the precepts, they still attain meditative concentration.

2/ Those who uphold the precepts and cultivate meditation yet do not attain meditative concentration fail to do so because they did not plant the causes of meditative concentration in the past. Thus, although they uphold the precepts and cultivate meditative concentration in this life, meditative concentration does not arise.

3/ Some attain meditative concentration whether they uphold or violate the precepts.

4/ Some do not attain meditative concentration whether they uphold or violate the precepts. These cases may be explained generally as above; hence there are four different kinds.

If their origin is traced to its ultimate source, meditative concentration must arise on the basis of upholding the precepts. Violating the precepts does not invariably obstruct meditative concentration. Why is this? If one attained meditative concentration in the past, this indicates that one formerly upheld the precepts and thereby attained meditative concentration, which then became a cause of cultivation in this life. Because in the present life one possesses shame and remorse, and attains purity through repentance as a supporting condition, the wholesome roots from former lives are activated, enabling meditative concentration to be attained in the present.

3. The method of repentance

There are two points:

a) Giving rise to the mind of repentance

b) The method of repentance

a) Giving rise to the mind of repentance

If a person has never committed evil, there is no offense to repent. If practitioners are not firmly resolved to uphold the precepts, or if, upon encountering adverse conditions, they break the precepts, whether minor or grave, this is in every case a violation of the precepts. Because their observance is impure, samadhi does not arise. Just as soiled clothing cannot be dyed, repentance is therefore necessary. Through repentance, the aggregate of morality becomes pure, and only then can samadhi arise. It is like soiled clothing: only after it has been washed clean will it absorb the dye.

Having reflected in this way, if the practitioner’s precepts are not pure, the practitioner must resolve to repent. A sutra states: “Within the Buddha-Dharma, there are two kinds of courageous people: those who by nature commit no evil deeds, and those who, having committed evil, know remorse and repent.” Those who have committed offenses yet know to repent are called true persons of valor.

Repentance means: “Confession” is an expression of contrition, acknowledging one’s offenses before the Three Jewels and all sentient beings. “Repentance” means feeling shame for one’s faults, asking to correct them and never transgress again, and making this vow: “If the offenses I have committed in this life are eradicated, then in the future, even at the cost of my life, I shall never dare to repeat such faults or create such karma of suffering again.” A bhiksu said to the Buddha: “I would rather leap into a great fire and be burned than ever dare to violate the pure precepts established by the Tathagata.” To arouse such a mind of repentance and beseech the Three Jewels to bear witness and accept one is called repentance.

Furthermore, “confession” means not concealing anything outwardly, while “repentance”

means reproaching and restraining the mind within; “confession” means recognizing that the offenses

one has committed are evil, while “repentance” means fearing the retribution one will undergo. The meanings of repentance are numerous and will not be discussed extensively here.

In brief, only by clearly knowing that all dharmas are illusory and false can one completely sever evil karma and cultivate wholesome karma. This is called repentance.

b) Methods of repentance

This is divided into three parts:

b.1. Explanation of repentance through prescribed procedures
b.2. Explanation of the successive stages of eradicating offenses

b.3. Explanation of restoration and non-restoration

b.1. Explanation of repentance through prescribed procedures

The eradication of offenses necessarily has its methods. For example, if clothing is stained with oil and grime, water alone cannot wash away the oil; ashes, soap-pods, or cleansing agents must be used before it can be completely removed. The method of eradicating offenses is likewise.

The methods of repentance taught in the doctrinal teachings are numerous, but generally they do not go beyond three kinds:

– Repentance through prescribed procedures: repentance explained according to the Vinaya.

– Repentance through contemplation of signs: repentance explained according to the methods of dhyana and samadhi.

– Repentance through contemplation of non-arising: repentance explained according to wisdom.

The meanings of these three methods of repentance encompass both the Tripitaka and the Mahayana. Generally speaking, however, the first method belongs chiefly to the practices of repentance in the Lesser Vehicle, while the latter two are chiefly methods of repentance applied in the Mahayana.

b.1.a) Explanation of repentance through prescribed procedures

Performing wholesome deeds to reverse the evil deeds already committed is therefore called repentance. In the Vinaya, this method is commonly used to eradicate offenses. Why is this so? For example, according to the method of repentance prescribed for the second category of offenses in the Vinaya, twenty bhiksus perform the karma procedure, imposing separate residence, absolving the offense, and so forth. When the prescribed procedure is successfully completed, this is called the eradication of the offense.

This does not necessarily require seeing any signs, nor does it involve the wisdom that contemplates emptiness. It should therefore be understood as repentance performed solely through prescribed procedures.

Karma is translated as “prescribed procedure.” Among the (five categories) five divisions of the bhiksu Vinaya, the latter (three categories) three divisions all concern repentance through prescribed procedures. This is also easy to understand. The foregoing principles are discussed extensively in the Vinaya, but it does not clearly explain how one should repent of the four grave offenses.

The Sutra of the Most Sublime Initial Teaching alone states: “Twenty pure members of the bhiksu Sangha should be invited to assemble. Before the great assembly, the offending bhiksu must personally disclose the offense committed, and the Sangha shall perform the karma procedure for that bhiksu until it is successfully completed. Before the Three Jewels, the offending bhiksu shall practice in accordance with the Dharma while reciting the precepts (a thousand chapters) one thousand times, whereupon purity will be attained.”

It is also said that auspicious signs must be seen as confirmation that the offense has been eradicated and the precepts have become pure. It should therefore be understood that the Vinaya contains no method for repenting of the four grave offenses, but the sutras clearly record this karma procedure. The form of this prescribed procedure is explained extensively in the Sutra of the Most Sublime Initial Teaching.

b.1.b) Explanation of repentance through contemplation of signs

Following the methods of repentance taught in the sutras, the practitioner applies the mind with single-minded concentration and, when the mind is tranquil, beholds various signs and states. As stated in the Bodhisattva Precepts: “To repent of the ten grave offenses, one must see auspicious signs; the offenses will then be eradicated.” Such signs include seeing a Buddha come and stroke one’s head, seeing a Buddha emit various kinds of light, or seeing lotus flowers. The offenses will then be eradicated. If no auspicious signs are seen, repentance, though performed, is of no avail.

Among the dharani practices taught in the Mahayana Vaipulya Sutras are many methods of repentance of this kind. Within the Tripitaka, the Samyukta Agama Sutra also teaches methods of repentance. For example, the successful contemplation of such signs as hells, venomous snakes, and the white urna indicates that one’s offenses have been eradicated. Since all these occur while the mind rests in meditative stability, repentance through contemplation of signs is accomplished. Thus, it is taught chiefly on the basis of the practice of dhyana and samadhi.

QUESTION: When signs and visionary states are seen, how can one know that an offense has been eradicated?

ANSWER: The sutras offer differing explanations, and offenses arising from breaches of the precepts vary in severity; there is no fixed standard. Here they are presented only in general terms and do not go beyond four kinds of signs:

– Signs seen in dreams.

– While practicing the Path, hearing a voice in empty space, or seeing extraordinary signs, auspicious omens, and wondrous phenomena.

– While sitting in meditation, seeing various wholesome and unwholesome signs, signs of breaking or observing the precepts, and so forth.

– Seeing signs that the mind of the Path has opened and developed, and inwardly realizing various Dharma gates. These must be judged according to whether the offense is grave or minor; no fixed determination can be given. They will be discussed later in the section on verifying wholesome and unwholesome dispositions.

QUESTION: Mara can also manifest these signs. How, then, can they be distinguished?

ANSWER: Indeed, what is deviant and what is correct are truly difficult to distinguish, and no fixed judgment can be made. When such signs manifest, a good spiritual friend will immediately recognize them. Therefore, this matter can be determined only by directly confronting the actual circumstances; it cannot be set forth in writing.

Thus, when practitioners begin the practice of repentance, they must draw near to a good spiritual friend who can determine whether the signs are deviant or correct. Furthermore, the signs or phenomena that are seen appear suddenly, and even the person directly involved finds it difficult to distinguish whether they are deviant or correct; how much more so if one seeks an answer in written words. If one arouses a mind that longs to see such signs, one will most often become attached and fall into demonic disturbances.

QUESTION: If so, should this not be called repentance through
contemplation of signs?

ANSWER: It is called repentance through contemplation of signs because, while applying
the mind to the cultivation of dhyana and samadhi, signs appear when the practice reaches accomplishment. By judging according to them, one can know whether the offense has or has not been eradicated. It does not mean that, while practicing the Path, the mind remains fixed upon phenomenal signs and gives rise to attachment. If the mind is applied in that way, one will certainly fall into demonic disturbances.

QUESTION: What is the method of repentance through contemplation of signs?

ANSWER: The method is found in the Mahayana Vaipulya Sutras. Practitioners should study those sutras themselves and practice according to their texts.

b.1.c. Explanation of repentance through contemplation of non-arising:

As the verse in the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states:

Sit upright and contemplate ultimate reality.
Offenses are like frost and dew;

Whenever practitioners wish to undertake Great Repentance, they must arouse the mind of great compassion, have pity for all sentient beings, and thoroughly understand the origin of transgressions. Since all dharmas have from the beginning been empty and quiescent, even meritorious recompense does not exist—how much less the recompense of transgression? It is only because sentient beings do not contemplate skillfully and falsely cling to such notions as arising and ceasing that they give rise to the three poisons—ignorance, craving, and anger—and commit immeasurable and boundless grave transgressions. These also arise because, in a single thought, they have not yet awakened to the true mind.

If one wishes to eradicate them, one need only turn the light around and contemplate: From where does this ignorant mind arise? If it comes from the past, the past has already ceased. Dharmas that have ceased exist nowhere; since a dharma exists nowhere, it cannot be called mind. If the mind belongs to the future, the future has not yet arrived. A dharma that has not yet arrived does not exist; since the dharma does not exist, this mind likewise does not exist. If it arises in the present, then in the present it arises and ceases from one instant to the next without abiding. Within this characteristic of non-abiding, the mind also cannot be apprehended.

Furthermore, if it is said that the mind is present, is the present within or without, in the interval or on either side? If the mind is said to be within the body, it would not depend upon external conditions but would already exist inherently within. If it is said to be outside the body, what relation would it have to oneself?

External forms are insentient and unconscious; how could they possess mind? Since it is neither within nor without, how could it be in between? If it is not in between, then the mind has nowhere to abide.

When practitioners contemplate in this way, they see no form or appearance of mind and no place where mind abides. They should know that this mind is originally empty and quiescent. Having seen no mind, they also do not see the absence of mind.

Even the contemplating mind does not exist—how much less could an object of contemplation exist? Since neither the contemplator nor the contemplated exists, deluded and inverted thinking ceases of itself. Once inversion has ceased, there is no ignorance, craving, or anger.

If these three poisons do not exist, from where could transgression arise?

Furthermore, the myriad dharmas all arise from mind. Even the nature of mind does not exist—how much less the myriad dharmas? If the myriad dharmas do not exist, what could constitute the karma of transgression? If transgression cannot be apprehended, then there is no transgression. Contemplating that transgression is originally unborn can destroy all transgressive karma, because the origin of all transgressions lacks self-nature and is perpetually pure. Therefore, Vimalakirti told Upali: “These two bhiksus are originally without transgression. Do not further impute transgression to them. You should directly eliminate their transgressions; do not disturb their minds.”

Likewise, the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra records: “Contemplate that mind is originally no-mind; then dharmas have nowhere to abide. Since my mind is originally empty in itself, neither transgression nor merit has an owner; therefore, all dharmas are likewise. To practice repentance in this way is called Great Repentance, Adorned Repentance, Repentance That Destroys Discriminating Consciousness, and Repentance Free from the Characteristics of Transgression.

Those who practice this method of repentance have minds like flowing water, and in each and every thought they behold Bodhisattva Samantabhadra and the Buddhas of the ten directions.” One should therefore know that contemplating the non-arising of dharmas is called Great Repentance. Among methods of repentance, it is the most exalted and most profound. Thus, when Mahayana scriptures explain repentance, they all take this contemplation as their principal method.

If this method of repentance is abandoned, the practice cannot be called Mahayana repentance.

QUESTION: When cultivating the contemplation of repentance through non-arising, how can one know the signs that transgressions have been extinguished?

ANSWER: Contemplate with the mind according to the preceding method of repentance; in each thought, all transgressive karma will be extinguished thought after thought. Those who wish to know whether the transgressions obstructing their cultivation have been transformed must exert themselves diligently and single-mindedly without ceasing. Signs will naturally appear, and by observing them they will know clearly. As explained previously in the contemplation of signs, auspicious dreams and favorable omens will appear, meditative concentration will become manifest, wisdom will unfold, and so forth; all these signs will fully appear therein.

Furthermore, if the practitioner’s contemplation of mind accords with principle, this itself is the sign that transgression has been extinguished; there is no need to labor in seeking elsewhere. Thus, the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra records: “When the wisdom of emptiness and this mind correspond, one will know that in each thought one can eradicate the grave transgressions of birth and death accumulated throughout hundreds of myriads of kotis of asamkhya kalpas.” According to the testimony of the scripture above, if one realizes the wisdom of the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, one clearly knows the ultimate origin of transgressive karma. Through purity of moral discipline, one can cultivate meditative concentration.

b.2. Explanation of the Sequential Extinguishing of Transgressions

Because methods of repentance differ, the ways in which transgressions are extinguished likewise differ. Why is this so? Transgression has three grades:

– Transgression pertaining to non-manifest karma

– Essential nature

– Ignorance and afflictions

Transgression means destruction. In the present, it destroys and diminishes practitioners’ merit and wisdom; in future lives, it brings retribution in the three evil destinies. Because it can destroy practitioners’ physical bodies and minds of wisdom, it is called transgression.

– Repentance through prescribed rites: This has the power to eliminate the transgression of “non-manifest karma” that obstructs the Path.

– Repentance through contemplation of signs: This has the power to eliminate the “essential nature” of the evil karma of transgression.

The Mahayana Treatise records: “If a bhiksu violates the precept against killing, although he practices repentance and regains the purity of the precepts, and although the transgression obstructing the Path has been extinguished, the karmic retribution for killing is not lost.” This can serve as evidence for the preceding method of repentance and also explains the immense efficacy of repentance through contemplation of signs, which is capable of eliminating the essential nature of transgression.

– Extinguishing transgressions through repentance by contemplating non-arising: This has the power to eliminate ignorance, habitual tendencies of the afflictions, and the causes of transgression. This is the ultimate method, eradicating transgression at its very root.

b.3. Explanation of Whether the Precepts Are Restored or Not Restored

QUESTION: After one has practiced repentance and attained purity, are the precepts restored?

ANSWER: People hold differing views. Some say they are not restored, just as a torn robe, though mended so that it no longer has a hole, is still not equal to when it was whole. Some say they are restored, just as a soiled robe, after being washed clean, is once again as fresh and beautiful as before. Some say they may or may not be restored. As clearly stated in the Five-Part Vinaya, violations of the first two categories cannot be restored, whereas violations of the latter three categories can be restored.

The Sutra of the Initial Teaching states: “By performing the repentance karman, all four grave transgressions can be restored.” Since the preceding statements are not definitive, the three foregoing methods of repentance should now be examined according to three meanings:

– The meaning of being restored.

– The meaning of surpassing the former state.

– The meaning of increasingly surpassing the former state.

Analogies will now be employed to illustrate these three meanings:

– Repentance through prescribed rites: After performing the rite of repentance, some people can be restored, while others cannot. It is like a person who catches a cold and takes ginger medicine. Although the illness is cured, the person’s health may either return to its former state or remain weaker than before.

– Repentance through contemplation of signs: Not only are transgressions eliminated, but meditative concentration can also unfold. This is the meaning of surpassing the former state. Why? Because previously there had been no attainment in meditative concentration. It is like a person who catches a cold and takes mineral powder medicine and the like: not only is the illness cured, but the person also becomes healthier and stronger than before.

– Contemplation of non-arising as repentance: Not only are offenses extinguished, but the various dhyana concentrations are also brought forth, even to the attainment of the fruits of the Path. This is the meaning of surpassing what came before. It is like a sick person who takes an elixir: not only is the illness cured, but the person also acquires the powers of an immortal and can perform transformations freely. From this analogy, one may infer that the result is not confined to any single kind.

QUESTION: This is so for one who has obtained the precepts, but what of one who has not obtained them?

ANSWER: One who has not obtained the precepts must receive them again. Alternatively, some bring forth the precepts through repentance. The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states: “Consider the case of the bodhisattva precepts.

In many previous lives, beings may have encountered spiritual benefactors, aroused the bodhi-mind, and received the bodhisattva precepts. Yet, because they revolved in the delusion of birth and death and created unwholesome karma, they forgot and consequently transgressed the prohibitive precepts. In this life, they again take refuge in the Three Jewels.

By resuming cultivation and practicing repentance, their moral discipline becomes pure. With this original foundation of precepts, they can also bring forth dhyana concentration. Although they do not receive the precepts anew, they already possess the bodhisattva precepts from before.”

Furthermore, the Mahayana Treatise states: “Shila was translated in the Qin dynasty as ‘delighting in goodness,’ meaning to delight in practicing wholesome deeds. To refrain personally from negligence is called shila. Whether one receives the precepts and practices goodness or practices goodness without having received the precepts, both are called shila.”

If one who practices goodness without receiving the precepts is said to possess shila, then, having shila, how could one not bring forth dhyana concentration and samadhi?

QUESTION: If that is so, why is it necessary to receive the precepts?

ANSWER: One should not speak in this way, because receiving the precepts has two purposes: assisting the Path and preserving the Buddha-Dharma. How, then, could one dispense with receiving the precepts?

QUESTION: The preceding section says that beginners learning seated meditation must practice repentance. Is this invariably necessary?

ANSWER: Certainly not. As the Sutra of Wondrous and Supreme Concentration states: “Simply applying the mind correctly in seated meditation is the finest repentance.” If, while practicing seated meditation, difficulties or obstacles arise that prevent one from applying the mind, then one must cultivate a method of repentance.

II. SUFFICIENT CLOTHING AND FOOD

1. The method concerning clothing

There are three kinds:

1/ Great beings who cultivate the Path in the Snow Mountains need keep only one robe, because they do not travel among human settlements and have perfected the ability to endure hunger and cold. This is the practice of those of superior capacity.

2/ Those such as the Venerable Kasyapa, who constantly practice the dhutanga austerities, keep only three robes made from discarded rags and store nothing extra. This is the rule of clothing for those of middling capacity.

3/ In places with extremely cold climates, those of lesser capacity cannot endure the cold. The Tathagata therefore permitted them to acquire, in addition to the three robes, 101 necessary articles. They must, however, perform the prescribed declaration of purity and know what constitutes a sufficient amount. Excessive craving and seeking will obstruct the mind of the Path.

2. Sufficient food and drink

There are four kinds:

1/ Great beings of superior capacity who dwell deep in the mountains, far removed from worldly people, sustain themselves only with vegetables and fruits according to the season.

2/ Those who constantly practice the dhutanga austerities obtain food through alms-round in accordance with the Dharma, eliminating the four kinds of wrong livelihood and living by right livelihood. Because this can give rise to the noble Path, it is called the Noble Lineage. The four kinds of wrong livelihood by which one supports oneself are: downward-looking livelihood, upward-looking livelihood, livelihood by looking in intermediate directions, and livelihood by looking toward the four quarters. These four forms of wrong livelihood were explained by the Venerable Sariputra for the woman Thanh-moc.

3/ Dwelling in a secluded place and receiving food brought by donors.

4/ Dwelling among the Sangha and taking meals together with the Sangha in accordance with the Dharma.

Possessing the conditions of clothing and food described above is called having sufficient supporting conditions, or sufficient clothing and food. Without these causes and conditions for sustaining the body, the mind will not be at ease, and the Path will be obstructed.

III. DWELLING IN A SECLUDED AND QUIET PLACE

Refraining from all activities is called “seclusion.” The absence of clamor is called “quietude.” There are three places suitable for cultivating dhyana concentration:

a) Deep in the mountains, entirely cut off from the sight of people coming and going.
b) In an aranya where the dhutanga practices are cultivated. An “aranya” is a secluded place far removed from villages, at least three or four miles away, where even children tending buffaloes and cattle do not go, and where all clamorous sounds have ceased.

c) In a pure and quiet sangharama—a monastery or place of practice—far removed from the dwellings of worldly people. All such places are called “secluded and quiet.”

IV. PUTTING AN END TO INVOLVEMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

There are many kinds of involvements and activities. In brief, there are four:

– Putting an end to livelihood activities: not engaging in worldly enterprises involving conditioned phenomena.

– Putting an end to social dealings with worldly people: not forming friendships or intimate associations and completely ceasing social visits.

– Putting an end to worldly arts and crafts: not practicing medicine, incantations, divination, physiognomy, or other worldly occupations.

– Putting an end to academic pursuits: relinquishing entirely such activities as reading books, debating, and studying.

Why must one put an end to all involvements and activities? Because if one remains bound by many tasks, the cultivation of dhyana concentration will be neglected; it will be difficult to gather in and subdue the distracted mind, and dhyana concentration will not manifest.

V. DRAWING NEAR TO SPIRITUAL BENEFACTORS

There are three kinds:

– Spiritual benefactors who provide external support: those who manage affairs, make offerings, and support practitioners without troubling or disturbing them.

– Spiritual benefactors who are fellow practitioners: those who cultivate together, admonish and encourage one another, and do not disturb one another.

– Spiritual benefactors who are instructors: teachers who explain skillful methods of practice and teach how to regulate and subdue the inner and the outer, so that students gain the benefit and bliss of Dharma joy.

The five supporting conditions have now been briefly explained in full.

B. REBUKING THE FIVE DESIRES

The sutras state: “Desires and unwholesome qualities are accompanied by initial and sustained thought.” To be free from desire means to distance oneself from the five kinds of desire; to be free from unwholesome qualities means to cast off the five hindrances.

The five kinds of desire are sights, sounds, odors, flavors, and tangible objects. In the world, these things constantly delude ordinary beings and destroy wholesome conduct. If one does not clearly recognize their faults and distance oneself from them, one cannot attain the various dhyanas and samadhis.

I. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR SIGHTS

The beautiful and stately forms of men and women—such as clear eyes, finely shaped eyebrows, red lips, and white teeth—as well as the precious objects of the world and exquisite colors such as blue, yellow, red, white, pink, purple, pale blue, and deep blue, constantly cause foolish people to give rise to craving as soon as they see them and thus create all manner of unwholesome karma. For example, King Bimbisara, driven by desire for beauty, ventured personally into an enemy kingdom and entered the chamber of the courtesan Amrapali.

King Udayana, because of his attachment to beauty, severed the hands and feet of five hundred seers. From causes such as these, one should understand how many offenses arise from the desire for sights. This is explained in great detail in the Mahayana Treatise.

II. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR SOUNDS

This refers to sounds such as those of zithers, flutes, vertical flutes, bamboo instruments, and stone chimes played as music, as well as the singing, chanting of poems, praises, and recitations of men and women. When ordinary beings hear these sounds, they may immediately become intoxicated by them and create all manner of unwholesome karma. For example, five hundred seers in the Snow Mountains heard the singing of the kinnari maiden and immediately lost their dhyana concentration, their minds becoming infatuated, frenzied, and confused. Because of causes and conditions such as these, one should understand that sounds give rise to offenses.

III. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR ODORS

The fragrances of the bodies of men and women, the aromas of food and drink, and the various perfumes and incenses of the world—all these, when foolish people fail to contemplate and examine their characteristics, cause attachment as soon as they are smelled, opening the gate to afflictions and fetters. For example, a bhiksu beside a lotus pond smelled the fragrance of the lotus blossoms and gave rise to delight and attachment. The deity guarding the lotus pond reproached him, saying, “Why do you steal my fragrance?” Because of his delight in the fragrance, the bhiksu caused his afflictions to arise. From causes such as these, one should understand the harm and offenses caused by intoxication with fragrances. This is extensively explained in the Mahayana Treatise.

IV- REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR FLAVORS

These are flavors such as bitter, pungent, sour, sweet, salty, and bland. Such delicacies can cause the minds of ordinary people to become attached and defiled, leading them to create evil karma. For example, a novice monk, because he delighted in the flavor of cream, was reborn after death as a maggot in the cream. One should therefore know that infatuation with the desire for flavors brings such harm and transgression. This is discussed extensively in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

V- REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR TOUCH

The soft, smooth skin and flesh of men and women; the warmth felt when touched in cold weather and the coolness felt when touched in hot weather—these are pleasurable tactile sensations. Foolish people without wisdom become immersed in them, thereby obstructing their cultivation of the Way. For example, the One-Horned Immortal lost his spiritual powers because of the desire for touch and was ridden upon the neck by a lustful woman. The desire for touch entails many such harms, as discussed extensively in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

QUESTION: Why must the five desires be rebuked?

ANSWER: Concerning the method of rebuking the five desires, the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise states: “Alas! Sentient beings are troubled and confused by the five desires, yet they pursue them endlessly. When these five desires are obtained, craving only grows more intense, just as adding firewood makes a flame burn more fiercely.

The five desires provide no true pleasure, like a dog gnawing a dry bone. The five desires provoke contention, like a flock of crows fighting over rotten flesh. The five desires burn people, like carrying a torch against the wind.

The five desires harm people, like stepping upon a venomous snake. The five desires are unreal, like finding treasure in a dream. The five desires are transient and do not endure, like sparks struck from stones.

Deluded people of the world greedily cling to the five desires and do not relinquish them even at death; in future lives, they must undergo immeasurable suffering.” All sentient beings share these five desires and are constantly driven by them, as though they were slaves to the five desires. Because of their excessive attachment to the five desires, they sink into the three evil destinies. Now that I cultivate meditative concentration, I am still obstructed by them.

They are ferocious bandits and must quickly be abandoned.

As a verse in the Dhyana Sutra(7) states:

Birth and death continue without end,
Because one delights in desires and craves flavors,

Neither clinging nor craving—
This is called true nirvana.

This is called the practice of dhutanga.

C. ABANDONING THE FIVE HINDRANCES

This means abandoning the five kinds of hindrances: sensual desire, anger, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.

I- ABANDONING SENSUAL DESIRE

Previously, we discussed the arising of desire toward the five external sense objects. Here we discuss desire arising specifically within the faculty of mind. That is, when a practitioner sits upright and cultivates meditative concentration, thoughts of desire arise and continue from moment to moment, covering the wholesome mind and preventing it from developing. Upon recognizing this, one must immediately abandon them. Why is this so? When lust arose in the mind of the woman Shubha, even her entire body was burned; how much more, then, will the fire of lust arising in the mind burn away wholesome dharmas?

One who harbors sensual desire is very far from the Way, for sensual desire is the source of all afflictions and mental confusion. If the mind cherishes sensual desire, it is difficult to draw near the Way. As the Verse on Removing the Hindrances states:

And sink into the five sense objects?
Having already abandoned the five desires,

Attain the profound joy of meditative concentration,
And one will no longer be deceived by them.

II- ABANDONING ANGER

Anger is the root from which all unwholesome dharmas arise, the cause of falling into the three evil destinies, the enemy of the Dharma of peace and happiness, a vicious bandit that assails the wholesome mind, and a storehouse of all manner of harsh and evil speech. Therefore, when a practitioner sitting in meditation gives rise to such thoughts as, “This person has harmed me and my relatives, and has praised my enemy,” the same applies to thoughts concerning the past and the future. These constitute the nine kinds of affliction. From anger arises resentment; from resentment arises the intention to kill others. Thus, because afflictions, anger, and resentment cover the mind, they are called a hindrance. They must be abandoned at once and not allowed to grow.

Thus Shakradevanam Indra asked the Buddha in verse:

What must be slain for happiness?
What must be slain to be free from sorrow?

What is the root of poison?
What devours all goodness?

The Buddha replied:

Knowing that anger is so dangerous, one should cultivate loving-kindness, compassion, patience, and forbearance to eliminate it and purify the mind.

III- ABANDONING SLOTH AND TORPOR

Inner darkness of mind is called torpor; relaxing and letting the limbs go slack, lying down and sinking into sleep, is called sloth. The dimming of mental consciousness is called torpor; when the five sense faculties are shrouded in darkness and stupor, it is called sloth. For these reasons, it is called the hindrance of sloth and torpor.

The Abhidharma Treatise says that sloth and torpor are among the associated mental factors (the fifty-one mental concomitants). They can destroy the mind’s true happiness in this life and future lives, and also destroy the merit that brings rebirth in the heavens in a future life. They are evil and truly unwholesome dharmas. Why is this so? Other kinds of hindrances that obscure the mind’s nature are easy to recognize, and thus methods can be used to counteract them. But when one is sunk in sleep, one is as though dead and incapable of awareness. Because one is unaware, it is difficult to eliminate.

A bodhisattva once admonished disciples who were sunk in sleep:

Rise! Do not embrace a foul corpse as you lie there;
This mass of impurities is merely called a person.
Like one gravely ill, with an arrow lodged in the body,
Filled everywhere with pain, how can you sleep at ease?
Like a bound man about to be taken away and killed,

With peril close at hand, how can you sleep?

The bandits of affliction remain neither destroyed nor removed;
It is like sharing a house with a venomous snake.
Like charging into battle amid flashing blades,
At such a time, how could you sleep at ease?

Sleep is dark delusion in which nothing can be seen;
Day after day, it robs us of our wisdom.

When sleep covers the mind, nothing can be perceived;
With such great harm, how can you sleep at ease?

Thus should sloth and torpor be admonished. One should use impermanence as a warning, reduce sleep and rest, and not allow the mind’s nature to become obscured. If sloth and torpor weigh too heavily upon the mind, one should use the meditation staff to drive them away.

IV- ABANDONING RESTLESSNESS AND REMORSE

a) Restlessness: This means restless agitation.

There are three kinds: bodily, verbal, and mental.

– Bodily restlessness: The body delights in running about, playing, and fidgeting, and seldom sits still.

– Verbal restlessness: The mouth delights in singing, disputing right and wrong, discussing useless matters, and speaking of worldly affairs.

– Mental restlessness: The mind is unrestrained, thoughts flit about, and one thinks of literature, worldly crafts, evil matters, and so forth. This is called mental restlessness. Mental restlessness can destroy the mind of one who has renounced the household life. Even one who strives to collect the mind cannot attain concentration; how much less can one whose mind is scattered. A person with a scattered mind is like a drunken elephant without an iron hook, or a camel without a nose rope—impossible to restrain.

As a verse states:

You have shaved your head and donned the dyed robe,
Bearing your alms bowl, you enter the village to seek food;
Why, then, do you still delight in restless activity,

Indulging the mind and losing wholesome benefit?

Having lost the benefit of the Dharma within the Buddha’s teaching, one also loses worldly happiness. Knowing restlessness to be harmful, one must quickly abandon it.
b) Remorse: If restlessness is not accompanied by remorse, it does not yet constitute a hindrance. Why is this so? Because while restless activity occurs

externally, it is only upon entering meditative concentration that one regrets one’s previous deeds, causing sorrow and distress to cover the mind’s nature.

There are two kinds of remorse: doing what should not be done, and failing to do what should be done.

Remorse arises only after restless activity. It is like a person who has committed a grave offense and constantly harbors fear; the arrow of remorse penetrates deeply into the heart and is difficult to remove. A verse states:

Failing to do what should be done,
And doing what should not be done—

These are the marks of a fool.

One cannot claim they were not done.

By employing such causes and conditions to admonish and dispel the hindrances of restlessness and remorse, the mind becomes pure and unobstructed. When it constantly abides in wholesome states, it attains peace, joy, and tranquility; consequently, the inner mind becomes filled with bliss.

V. CASTING OFF DOUBT

Because doubt obscures the mind, one has no faith in the true Dharma. Without faith, one gains no benefit whatsoever from the Buddha-Dharma. It is like a person entering a mountain filled with treasures but, having no hands, being unable to take anything. There are many kinds of doubt, and they do not merely obstruct meditation alone.

Here we shall discuss the doubts that obstruct meditation. There are three kinds:

1. Doubt about oneself: A person may think, “I am foolish and burdened by grave karmic obstructions; I am not like those worthy ones.” When one gives rise to such self-doubt, meditation cannot arise. A practitioner who wishes to cultivate meditation must not disparage oneself, for who can fathom the wholesome roots planted in previous lives?

2. Doubt about the teacher: One doubts the teacher, thinking, “With such an appearance and deportment, the teacher has not yet attained virtue in his own person; how could he teach me?” Giving rise to such doubt and arrogance obstructs meditation. The method for curing this ailment is taught in the Mahayana treatises: “It is like gold contained in a foul-smelling leather pouch; because we desire the gold, we cannot discard the foul-smelling pouch.” A practitioner is likewise: although the teacher may not yet be entirely pure, one should still regard him as a Buddha.

3. Doubt about the Dharma: Most worldly people tend to cling to their own thoughts as correct. Therefore, after receiving a teaching, they cannot immediately believe it, reverently accept it, and put it into practice. If the mind hesitates, it cannot comprehend the wondrous Dharma. Why is this so? As the verse reproaching doubt says:

And you will never be able to escape.
Although doubt may arise in the world,

Through faith one can enter the Buddha-Dharma. If a person has no faith, even though dwelling within the Buddha-Dharma, that person gains no benefit whatsoever. From such matters, one may fully understand that doubt is extremely harmful and must be cast off at once.

QUESTION: Evil deeds are as numerous as motes of dust and cannot all be counted. Why does this teaching instruct us to cast off only these five things?

ANSWER: These five include the three poisons and the equally apportioned afflictions. These four categories are fundamental and encompass all eighty-four thousand (84000) defilements. Namely:

– Sensual desire belongs to the poison of greed.

– Anger belongs to the poison of hatred.

– Drowsiness and doubt belong to the poison of delusion.

– Restlessness and remorse belong to the equally apportioned afflictions. Together they constitute the four categories of afflictions. Each category contains twenty-one thousand (21000), and the four together make eighty-four thousand (84000). Therefore, eliminating the Five Hindrances is to eliminate all unwholesome dharmas. Practitioners should use such methods to cast off the Five Hindrances. Once the Five Hindrances have been cast off, it is like a person being relieved of a heavy burden, like recovering from an illness, like a poor and starving person arriving in a prosperous country, or like someone surrounded by bandits being rescued and becoming secure and fearless. Practitioners are likewise: after eliminating the Five Hindrances, they become inwardly secure, refreshed, peaceful, and joyful. It is like the sun and moon, which cannot shine when obscured by five things: smoke, dust, clouds, mist, and the hand of an asura. The mind of a person obscured by these five things is likewise.

D. REGULATING FIVE THINGS

I. Regulating Food and Drink

II. Regulating Sleep and Rest

III. Regulating the Body

IV. Regulating the Breath

V. Regulating the Mind

Why is this so? We shall now use a concrete analogy so that this method of regulation may be more easily understood. A potter who wishes to make various vessels must first knead the clay until it is thoroughly pliable, skillfully ensuring that it is neither too hard nor too soft, and only then place it upon the mold to shape it.

Likewise, when one wishes to play a qin, one must first tune the strings so they are neither too taut nor too slack, and only then can one play melodies of subtle and wondrous sound. A practitioner cultivating the mind is likewise: by skillfully regulating these five things so that they are balanced and suitable, right concentration can easily arise. If even one of the five is not properly regulated, many hindrances and difficulties will arise, and wholesome roots will be difficult to develop.

I. REGULATING FOOD AND DRINK

Food and drink are principally for nourishing the body so that one may advance in cultivating the path. If one eats to excess, the stomach becomes full, the breath becomes labored, the hundred channels become obstructed, the mind becomes stifled, and one cannot sit in meditation peacefully. If one eats too little, the body becomes emaciated, the stomach becomes weak, and the mind grows weary, agitated, and unstable. In either case, concentration cannot be attained. If one consumes impure and defiling food, the mind-consciousness becomes dull and confused. If one consumes unsuitable food, old illnesses are aggravated, causing the four great elements to conflict with one another. Those newly cultivating meditation must be cautious and avoid these things. Therefore, the sutra says:

II. REGULATING SLEEP AND REST

Sleep is an obscuration by ignorance and should not be excessive. If a person sleeps too much, not only does one neglect cultivation, but all one’s efforts are also lost, causing the mind to become dark and dull and wholesome roots to dissipate. One must awaken to the principle of impermanence and regulate sleep so that the spirit remains clear and one’s thoughts remain lucid and pure.

Only then can the mind be directed toward the sacred realm and right concentration manifest before one. Therefore, the sutra records: “At the beginning of the night and toward dawn, do not be negligent. Do not allow the causes and conditions of sleep to make an entire lifetime pass in vain without any attainment.

One should reflect that the fire of impermanence consumes the whole world; swiftly seek self-liberation and do not indulge in sleep.”

III. REGULATING THE BODY

A practitioner who wishes to enter samadhi must apply the method of regulating the body. Before entering concentration, whether walking, standing, lying down, sitting, or engaging in any activity, all movements should be gentle and unhurried. If one’s movements are coarse and abrupt, the breath becomes coarse; when the breath is coarse, the mind becomes scattered and difficult to restrain, and when one sits down, the mind becomes restless and ill at ease.

Therefore, even before entering concentration, the practitioner must remain attentive and promptly find skillful means to restrain these tendencies gradually. When entering concentration, one must skillfully position the body so that it is stable. Upon reaching the meditation seat, one should first sit quietly until every part of the body feels settled.

Only after remaining thus for some time without feeling any obstruction should one begin to arrange the legs.

If sitting in the half-lotus posture(8), place the left foot upon the right thigh and draw it close to the body, with the sole of the left foot level with the right thigh and the sole of the right foot level with the left thigh.

If sitting in the full-lotus posture(9), draw the left foot up onto the right thigh. Loosen the belt and collar and arrange them properly so that they do not come undone while sitting. Place the left hand upon the palm of the right hand, with the fingers facing upward and the hands resting one upon the other. Bring the two thumbs together, then place the hands upon the feet, draw them close to the body, and position them directly at the center.

Next, straighten the body and move the body and its limbs seven times, as in the method of massage, without letting the hands shift position. Then keep the bones from bending or twisting. Next, straighten the neck and incline the head slightly. Keep the tip of the nose directly aligned with the navel, neither leaning nor crooked, neither raised nor lowered. Let the expression be serene and the seated body remain still and unmoving.

Next, use the mouth to exhale the turbid breath. When exhaling, open the mouth to let the breath out; it should be neither forceful nor hurried, but even and gentle. When inhaling, visualize pure air filling the entire body; wherever there is obstruction, it becomes open and unobstructed through the breath. Then open the mouth and exhale until all the breath has been expelled. Breathe in this manner three times. If the body and breath are already harmonized, breathing once is also sufficient. After exhaling, close the mouth, with the lips and teeth gently touching, and place the tongue against the palate. Slowly close the eyes, just enough to shut out the external light.

Sit with the body upright like a stone wall; the body, arms, and legs must not move. This is the method of regulating the body when first entering meditative concentration. In brief, being neither lax nor tense is the mark of a well-regulated body.

IV- REGULATING THE BREATH

The method of regulating the breath when first entering meditative concentration comprises four characteristics:

– The characteristic of wind

– The characteristic of panting

– The characteristic of coarse breath

– The characteristic of subtle breath

The first three are unregulated; the last is regulated.

– What is the characteristic of Wind? When sitting in meditation, if the breath entering and leaving through the nose makes an audible sound, this is the characteristic of Wind.

– What is the characteristic of Panting? When sitting, although the incoming and outgoing breath makes no sound, it is obstructed and does not flow freely; this is the characteristic of Panting.

– What is the characteristic of Coarse Breath? When sitting, although the incoming and outgoing breath makes no sound and is not obstructed, it is not gentle; this is the characteristic of Coarse Breath.

– What is the characteristic of Subtle Breath? When sitting in meditation, the breath makes no sound, is unobstructed and not coarse, and enters and leaves so gently that it seems to exist and yet not exist, while the mind is peaceful and at ease; this is the characteristic of Subtle Breath.

If the breath has the characteristic of Wind, the mind becomes scattered; if one breathes with the characteristic of Panting, there is obstruction; if the breath is Coarse, there is strain. Only with the characteristic of Subtle Breath can one attain peaceful concentration.

Furthermore, when sitting, the presence of the three characteristics—Wind, Panting, and Coarse Breath—is called lack of regulation. If one applies the mind in such a condition, illness can easily arise, and the inner mind will also find it difficult to become peacefully concentrated.

If one wishes to regulate the breath, one must rely upon three methods:

1/ Concentrate the visualization and settle the mind below the navel, at the dantian.

2/ Relax the body.

3/ Visualize the breath entering and leaving unobstructedly through all the pores of the body.

If the mind becomes subtle, the breath becomes gentle. When the breath is regulated, illnesses do not arise and the mind easily attains concentration. This is the method of regulating the breath when first entering meditative concentration. In brief, gentle and prolonged breathing is the mark of regulation.

V- REGULATING THE MIND

There are three aspects to regulating the mind: Entering, Abiding, and Emerging.

a) Entering: This has two meanings:

1/ Subdue discursive thoughts and do not allow them to run unrestrained.

2/ One must regulate the characteristics of Sinking, Floating, Laxity, and Tension.

What is the characteristic of Sinking?

If, while sitting, the mind is dim and unclear, mindfulness is absent, and the head tends to droop, this is the characteristic of Sinking. At that time, one must focus the mind on the tip of the nose, causing it to remain upon a single object and not allowing attention to become scattered. This is the method for remedying Sinking.

What is the characteristic of Floating?

If, while sitting, the mind tends to become unrestrained, distracted, and agitated, the body is also unsettled, and one thinks of miscellaneous matters, this is the characteristic of Floating. At that time, one should visualize the mind at the navel and restrain all distracted thoughts. The mind will then come to rest and easily attain peaceful concentration. In brief, neither Sinking nor Floating is the mark of regulation.

QUESTION: Does the concentrated mind also have the characteristics of Laxity and Tension?

ANSWER: It does indeed:

– The characteristic of Tension arises when, during sitting, one uses mindfulness to gather the mind and thereby enters concentration. As a result, the breath surges upward into the chest, causing stabbing pain. One must then relax and release that state of mind, visualizing the breath descending, and the ailment will immediately be cured.

– If the mind is afflicted by Laxity, mental awareness becomes dispersed, the body tends to lean or become crooked, saliva may flow from the mouth, or the mind may become dim and unclear. At that time, one must draw in the body and focus the mind through concentrated mindfulness, causing the mind to abide in one place and the parts of the body to support one another. In this way the ailment is remedied. Whether the mind is coarse and floating or dull and sinking can be known by examining these signs. This is the method of regulating the mind when first entering concentration.

When first entering concentration, one must proceed from the coarse to the subtle. The body is coarse, the breath is intermediate, and the mind is subtle. Therefore, one regulates them from the coarse to the subtle, causing the mind to become peaceful and tranquil. This is the initial expedient means before entering concentration.

b) Abiding: During a session of sitting, regulation involves three matters. Throughout a single sitting session, whether long or short, the practitioner applies the mind to gather mindfulness. During this time, one must clearly know whether the body, breath, and mind are regulated or unregulated. If, while sitting, one has already regulated the body but it becomes lax or constrained, or leans, bends, lowers, or raises itself and is no longer upright, then, upon recognizing this, one must immediately straighten it and make it stable. Neither lax nor tense, the body should remain naturally upright, abiding in a balanced state.

Furthermore, while sitting, although the body may be regulated, the breath may be unregulated. The characteristics of unregulated breathing have already been described: it may be Wind, Panting, or Coarse Breath, or the body may be filled with air. One must employ the methods described above, applying the appropriate remedy to each ailment, so that the breath becomes gentle, smooth, and prolonged, seeming to exist and yet not exist.

Next, during the period of sitting meditation, although the body and breath may be regulated, the mind may be Floating and agitated, Sinking, Lax, or Tense and thus not peacefully concentrated. At that time, one should use the methods explained above to regulate it and bring it into proper balance.

These three matters have no fixed order of precedence. Whichever is unregulated should be adjusted until it becomes regulated, so that throughout the sitting the body, mind, and breath are harmonized and mutually responsive, without conflict, blending into a nondual unity. This method can eliminate the ailments described above. If no obstacles arise, the practice of meditative concentration will certainly be accomplished.

c) Emerging: When the practitioner is about to conclude sitting meditation and wishes to emerge from concentration, one must first release the mind and let it engage another object, recite a verse of dedication of merit, and slowly open the mouth to exhale. At the same time, visualize the hundred vessels throughout the body flowing outward in accordance with the mind and breath, and visualize all afflictions and illnesses being completely expelled.

Afterward, move the body, the shoulders, the upper arms, and then, in sequence, the hands, head, and neck. Next, move both legs. Every movement must be gentle. Then use the hands to rub over all the pores of the body, rub the palms together until warm, and gently place them over the eyes. Only then open the eyes. Wait until the inner warmth of the body has completely dissipated before rising and departing as one wishes.

If this is not done correctly, then after the mind has been brought to abiding during sitting, releasing it too quickly upon emerging will leave the subtle elements
undispersed. They will remain in the body, causing headaches and making the hundred joints rigid, as though afflicted by a wasting wind disorder. During later meditation sessions, one will become restless and unable to find ease. Therefore, when first emerging from concentration, careful attention must be given to every step. This is the method of regulating the body, breath, and mind from the subtle to the coarse. It is called skillfulness in Entering, Abiding, and Emerging, as the verse says:

E. PRACTICING THE FIVE DHARMAS

I- Aspiration

II- Diligence

III- Mindfulness

IV- Skillful Wisdom

V- One-Pointedness

I- ASPIRATION

When a practitioner first cultivates meditation, having emerged from concentration within the desire realm, one aspires to realize the First Dhyana. Therefore, this is also called Resolve, Vow, Fondness, and Delight, because inwardly this person possesses the resolve and aspiration to cherish and delight in the meditative concentrations.

QUESTION: When a mind of expectation arises, it becomes an obstruction in meditation. What expedient means should be employed?

ANSWER: Aspiration refers to the resolve that delights in and wishes to accomplish a great purpose; therefore, it is called Aspiration. It does not mean that, while applying the mind, one again gives rise to thoughts and ideas of seeking. If longing arises, the mind cannot become settled and clear. If the mind is not settled and clear, right concentration cannot unfold.

II. DILIGENCE

There are two kinds: bodily diligence and mental diligence. If a practitioner is able to cultivate the twelve dhutanga practices, then both bodily and mental diligence are complete. As the Buddha taught Mahakasyapa: “Dwelling in an aranya, a bhikkhu abandons the two kinds of attachment pertaining to body and mind and purely practices the dhutanga observances.” The dhutanga practices comprise twelve observances:

1. Dwelling in an aranya, far removed from crowded villages.

2. Always practicing the alms round.

3. Going for alms in sequence, without choosing between rich and poor households.

4. Observing the practice of one meal a day.

5. Moderating the amount of food consumed.

6. Not drinking fruit juice after noon.

7. Wearing old, tattered robes.

8. Possessing only the three robes.

9. Dwelling in a charnel ground or cemetery.

10. Dwelling at the foot of a tree.

11. Dwelling in the open air.

12. Sitting only and never lying down.

These twelve dhutanga practices are explained very extensively in the Dhutanga Sutra.

“Dhutanga” is also rendered as “shaking off”; it means cultivating ascetic practices through which body and mind cast off unwholesome dharmas. When cultivating meditation, if one practices these methods, this is called the practice of heedfulness, in which bodily and mental diligence are complete. One should know that such a person can attain the noble fruits of the Three Vehicles, to say nothing of worldly meditative concentrations. Furthermore, the practitioner steadfastly upholds the precepts, casts off the Five Hindrances, and applies himself single-mindedly without negligence during the early and late watches of the night. He is like one kindling fire: until the fire has fully ignited, he does not stop. This is called the Dharma of Diligence.

As the Buddha taught Ananda: “Because all Buddhas applied themselves with single-minded diligence, they attained bodhi; how much more so can other wholesome dharmas be attained.”

III. MINDFULNESS

As stated in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise: “Contemplate the Desire Realm as impure, false, and inferior, and recollect the First Dhyana as a noble and precious dharma.” The meaning of this teaching is the same as that of the “Sixfold Contemplation,” differing only in terminology.

The Sixfold Contemplation consists of six methods of contemplation for progressively eliminating the afflictions of thought.

It means becoming disenchanted with three qualities of the lower plane—Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction—which is to contemplate the Desire Realm as impure, false, and inferior; and delighting in three qualities of the higher plane—Superior, Sublime, and Transcendent—which is to contemplate the First Dhyana as supremely noble and precious.

– EXPLANATION OF THE SIXFOLD CONTEMPLATION

This is divided into two aspects:

1. Explanation of the Results in the Sixfold Contemplation

2. Explanation of the Causes in the Sixfold Contemplation

1. Explanation of the Results in the Sixfold Contemplation

a) The result of the Desire Realm: Becoming disenchanted with the three qualities of Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction means becoming disenchanted with the heaviness, coarseness, and calamities of body and mind in the Desire Realm.

– Suffering: The practitioner reflects: “This present retributive body in the Desire Realm is oppressed by hunger, thirst, heat, cold, illness, warfare, and so forth; therefore, it is called Suffering.”

– Coarseness: This body is composed of thirty-six impure substances, such as feces, urine, blood, pus, and so forth; therefore, it is called Coarse. Coarse means ugly and unsightly.

– Obstruction: The material form of this body obstructs freedom and ease, or it is impeded by mountains, rivers, cliffs, and walls; therefore, it is called Obstruction.

b) The result of the Form Realm: This means delighting in the qualities of the higher realm—Superior, Sublime, and Transcendent:

– Superior: The practitioner thinks: “One knows that the bliss of the Form Realm is excellent, while the pleasure of the Desire Realm is suffering. The bliss of the Form Realm is excellent and sublime; therefore, when bliss is attained, one delights in it rather than in suffering.” Hence, it is called Superior.

– Sublime: One acquires a form body of the Form Realm, like a reflection in a mirror. Although it possesses shape and form, it has no substantial obstruction; therefore, it is called Sublime.

– Transcendent: Upon attaining the Five Superknowledges, one can see clearly through all kinds of external obstructions. Even mountain cliffs cannot obstruct one; therefore, it is called Transcendent.

2. Explanation of the Causes in the Sixfold Contemplation

a) The cause of the Desire Realm: This means the reasons for becoming disenchanted with the Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction of the Desire Realm.

– Suffering: The practitioner reflects: “If, while dwelling in this retributive body, mental thoughts arise and pursue sensual desire, one cannot become free from it.” As stated in the sutra: “All sentient beings are servants of craving.” Therefore, it is called Suffering.

– Coarseness: The mind engages the five sense objects of the Desire Realm, causing it to become agitated and scattered and to create evil karma; therefore, it is called Coarseness.

– Obstruction: Because the afflictions conceal and cover the mind, it is called Obstruction.

b) The cause of the Form Realm: This means delighting in the

Superior, Sublime, and Transcendent qualities of the Form Realm.

– Superior: The practitioner thinks: “The bliss of the First Dhyana is excellent because this joy unfolds from within the mind.” Therefore, it is called Superior. By comparison, the pleasure of sensual desire arising from the five external sense objects consists of afflictions and enmity and is inferior and unequal to it.

– Sublime: By attaining the peaceful and joyful state of meditative concentration, the mind becomes secure and does not stir; thus, the joy of the Dharma is accomplished, and this is called Sublime. The pleasure of sensual desire causes the mind within to become scattered and agitated; therefore, it is called Coarse.

– Transcendent: This means that the mind within is freed from obstruction and attains the First Dhyana; therefore, it is called Transcendent. It is like water in a subterranean vein within rock: the water does not come from outside but gushes forth from within the crevices of the rock itself.

Here, the Sixfold Contemplation is used to explain the meaning of Mindfulness, and its implication can be discerned therein.

QUESTION: Since we are now discussing disciples of the Buddha cultivating meditative concentration, why is it necessary to explain the Sixfold Contemplation practiced by ordinary beings?

ANSWER: The preceding section explained the meditative concentrations within the Three Realms, so here it is also necessary to understand the causes underlying their practice. As for disciples of the Buddha, they employ the Noble Eightfold Path and cultivate the sixteen contemplations to free themselves from the Five Desires, with the intention of entering the First Dhyana. What fault could there be in that? This will be explained extensively in the section concerning undefiled meditation.

IV. SKILLFUL WISDOM

This means weighing and comparing the pleasurable state of the Desire Realm with the blissful state of the First Dhyana, examining their gain and loss, lightness and weight. This will now be explained in two parts:

1. Weighing and comparing: This means using wisdom to reflect and make comparisons.

2. Gain and loss: This means that pleasurable sensations in the Desire Realm are loss, while the blissful state of the First Dhyana is gain. The blissful dharma of the First Dhyana is free from faults; therefore, it is called gain. The pleasurable sensations of the Desire Realm are erroneous; therefore, they are called loss.

It may also be said that the blissful state of the First Dhyana is loss, while the pleasure of the Desire Realm is gain.

– The Desire Realm is gain: This means that the practitioner clings to the coarse pleasurable sensations of the Desire Realm as real and consequently gives rise to a mind that apprehends attainment.

– The First Dhyana is loss: This means that the practitioner recognizes this body as empty and quiescent and experiences an extremely subtle blissful sensation, seemingly existent yet seemingly nonexistent, unfixed and devoid of every characteristic of pleasure; therefore, it is called loss.

Lightness and Weight: This means that the Desire Realm is light, while the First Dhyana is weighty.

Why is the Desire Realm called light? Because the pleasurable sensations of the Desire Realm associated with the five consciousnesses are swiftly and easily lost; therefore, they are called Light.

Why is the First Dhyana called weighty? Because the blissful state of the First Dhyana is associated with mental consciousness and remains for a long time upon its object; therefore, it is called Weighty. Weighty means treasured and precious.

The Desire Realm may also be called heavy, and the First Dhyana light. Because the pleasures of the Desire Realm are conjoined with afflictions, the inner mind is heavily bound; hence it is called Heavy. The blissful state of the First Dhyana is not bound by mental activity; hence it is called Light.

Another master explains skillful wisdom as follows: “When practitioners first begin to cultivate meditation, they must understand both internal and external expedient means and employ them skillfully without losing what is appropriate. They will then swiftly attain meditative concentration; hence it is called Skillful Wisdom.”

V—ONE-POINTEDNESS

Practitioners skillfully apply the method of Skillful Wisdom to discern and compare, directing the mind adroitly so that it does not go astray. They then resolve solely to practice with one-pointed mind; hence this is called One-Pointedness. It is like travelers who must first know whether a road is open or blocked, and only afterward resolve to proceed along the road they have chosen. Thus it is said, “One who is not wise cannot cultivate meditation; without meditation, there is no wisdom.” This is precisely the meaning intended here.

Notes to Chapter 6:

(1) Karman (formal act): acts related to the precepts, such as receiving ordination, repentance, and establishing the boundaries of the Sangha. It refers to formal procedures that give rise to wholesome qualities and eliminate evil. At ordination, through the karman procedure, the ordinand successfully acquires the essence of the precepts.

(2) The Eight Garudhammas: eight rules according to which bhiksunis must show respect to the bhiksu Sangha:

1/ Even if a bhiksuni has one hundred years of seniority from the rains retreats, upon seeing a newly ordained bhiksu, she must still rise to welcome him, pay homage, and prepare a clean seat for him.

2/ A bhiksuni must not disparage or revile a

bhiksu.

3/ A bhiksuni must not accuse a bhiksu of an offense or speak of his faults; conversely, a bhiksu has the authority to speak of a bhiksuni’s faults.

4/ After a siksamana (probationary nun) has completed her training in the precepts, she should seek full ordination from the Sangha.

5/ A bhiksuni who commits a sanghavasesa offense must undergo the manatta discipline for half a month before both Sanghas.

6/ Every half month, a bhiksuni should approach the bhiksus to request instruction.

7/ A bhiksuni must not observe the rains retreat in a place where there are no

bhiksus.

8/ After completing the rains retreat, a bhiksuni should request the threefold invitation before the bhiksu Sangha for confession and repentance.

(3) Full ordination precepts (the Great Precepts): the complete body of precepts that bhiksus and bhiksunis must receive and uphold. According to the regulations of the precepts, one who receives and upholds the full ordination precepts officially acquires the status of a bhiksu or bhiksuni.

There are 250 precepts for bhiksus and 348 precepts for bhiksunis. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya records that the precepts may broadly be divided into

eight categories: parajika: 4 for bhiksus and 8 for bhiksunis. Sanghavasesa: 13 for bhiksus and 17 for bhiksunis. Aniyata: 2 for bhiksus. Naihsargika-payattika: 30 for bhiksus and 30 for bhiksunis. Payattika: 90 for bhiksus and

178 for bhiksunis. Pratidesaniya: 4 for bhiksus and

8 for bhiksunis. Saiksa: 100 for bhiksus and 100 for bhiksunis. Adhikarana-samatha: 7 for bhiksus and 7 for bhiksunis.

In addition, concerning the full ordination precepts, the Sarvastivada Vinaya, Mahisasaka Vinaya, Samantapasadika Vinaya Commentary, Pali Patimokkha, and Tibetan Pratimoksa contain differing accounts. When receiving these precepts, the ordination procedure must fulfill the requisite conditions: three preceptors and seven witnesses, and the karman consisting of one motion followed by three proclamations. A candidate for full ordination must not be subject to the thirteen impediments or the ten prohibitions. The preparatory means for full ordination consist in drawing from the full precepts, according to the capacities of practitioners, the Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, and so forth, and teaching these to them in due sequence.

In China, from the Sui and Tang dynasties onward, monks and nuns received ordination according to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya. In particular, besides receiving the full ordination precepts, monks and nuns also received the bodhisattva precepts, comprising ten major precepts and forty-eight minor precepts. Furthermore, anyone wishing to receive full ordination must be physically healthy, possess unimpaired faculties, and be free of disabilities such as blindness or deafness.

Body and mind must be pure, without such faults as having committed a grave offense, violated a bhiksuni, or fraudulently dwelt among the Sangha. The candidate must shave off the beard and hair, wear the kasaya robe, have already received the precepts of a sramanera or sramaneri, be at least twenty years old, and not more than seventy years old.

The full ordination precepts merely set forth the principal disciplinary rules, thereby helping those who uphold them to distance themselves from wrongdoing and perfect their wisdom and virtue. If considered in terms of their actual number, however, the precepts are truly immeasurable and boundless. They must be diligently cultivated and upheld in every circumstance, doing what is wholesome and abandoning what is evil.

(3) The Seven Assemblies: the seven classes of monastic and lay disciples who constitute the community established by the World-Honored One: bhiksus, bhiksunis, sramaneras, sramaneris, siksamanas, upasakas, and upasikas.

(4) The Mahayana Vaipulya rite of repentance: this consists in reverently bowing with the body, reciting the Buddha’s name and praises with the mouth, and mentally contemplating the Buddha’s wondrous marks. With diligent application of the three karmic activities, each performed in accordance with the prescribed rite, one repents of the unwholesome karma committed in the past and present.

(5) Wisdom and patience: on the Path of Seeing, through contemplation of the Four Noble Truths, undefiled patience and undefiled wisdom arise. Patience is the cause of Wisdom, and Wisdom is the fruit of Patience. Patience regarding Suffering is one of the eight Patiences.

The first four Patiences can confirm the Four Noble Truths of the Desire Realm; these are the four Dharma-patiences: Dharma-patience regarding suffering, Dharma-patience regarding its origin, Dharma-patience regarding its cessation, and Dharma-patience regarding the path. The latter four Patiences can confirm the Four Noble Truths of the Form Realm and Formless Realm; these are the four subsequent patiences: subsequent patience regarding suffering, subsequent patience regarding its origin, subsequent patience regarding its cessation, and subsequent patience regarding the path.

Because these four Patiences directly eradicate the delusive views of the three realms, they are called the Uninterrupted Path.

(6) The Meditation Sutra (The Samadhi of Seated Meditation)

(7) Half-lotus posture: a seated posture in which only one foot is placed upon the opposite thigh. There are two forms: 1/ Auspicious half-lotus posture: place the right foot upon the left thigh. 2/ Mara-subduing half-lotus posture: place the left foot upon the right thigh. In later periods, when bodhisattva images manifesting in female form were carved or painted, they were most often depicted seated in the half-lotus posture.

(8) Full-lotus posture (cross-legged lotus posture, lotus posture): this was the seated posture of the Tathagata when he attained perfect awakening beneath the Bodhi tree.

There are two types: 1/ Mara-subduing posture: first place the right foot upon the left thigh, then place the left foot upon the right thigh, with the soles of both feet turned upward and the left hand resting upon the right. 2/ Auspicious posture: the reverse of the Mara-subduing posture.