釋禪波羅蜜次第法門

PREFACE TO THE DHYANA PARAMITA

In the table of contents of the Supplementary Practices for the Great Calming and Contemplation, the Decisions for Its Transmission and Propagation, fascicle 46, p. 141, no. 1912, by Master Zhanran, the Dhyana Paramita is called the Sequential Dhyana Gate. The Gradual Calming and Contemplation records that Great Master Zhiyi delivered these teachings at Waguansi Monastery and Dazhuangyansi Monastery. His disciple Fashen recorded them, and they were later edited by Dhyana Master Guanding of Zhang’an into ten fascicles, divided into ten chapters:

1. GENERAL MEANING

2. EXPLANATION OF THE NAME

3. CLARIFICATION OF THE GATES

4. DISCERNMENT OF THE SEQUENCE

5. DHARMA AND MIND

6. EXPEDIENT MEANS

7. CULTIVATION AND REALIZATION

8. FRUIT OF RECOMPENSE

9. ESTABLISHING THE TEACHING

10. FINAL PURPORT (the last three chapters have been omitted)

The explanation of cultivation and realization is divided into four

kinds of dhyana, but the exposition extends only through Chapter 7, concerning

cultivation and realization. The last three chapters were omitted. The section on cultivation and realization is itself divided into four kinds of dhyana: 1. Mundane; 2. Both mundane and supramundane; 3. Supramundane;

4. Neither mundane nor supramundane.

Within these are two divisions: remedial undefiled practice and undefiled practice that takes principle as its object. Remedial undefiled practice is further divided into nine kinds of dhyana: the nine perceptions, eight recollections, ten perceptions, eight liberations, eight spheres of mastery, total spheres, nine successive concentrations, vigorous advancement, and transcendence. The states experienced in cultivation and realization cannot be fully described.

Tradition recounts that the Great Master once said: “If I were to explain the successive stages of meditative concentration, an entire year would suffice to expound only one section; if annotations were added, it would require as many as fifty fascicles.” It is now reengraved for widespread transmission, in the hope that students will clearly understand root and branch and not go astray.

ORIGINAL TEXT

This book explains the successive stages of the Dharma gate of the Dhyana Paramita and is divided into ten chapters. Chapter 1: The General Meaning of Cultivating the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 2: Explanation of the Name “Dhyana Paramita.” Chapter 3: Clarification of the Gates of the Dhyana Paramita.

Chapter 4: Discernment of the Sequence of the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 5: Exposition of the Dharma and Mind of the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 6: Differentiation of the Preliminary

Expedient Means of the Dhyana Paramita.

Chapter 7: Explanation of the Cultivation and Realization of the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 8: Revelation of the Fruits of Recompense of the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 9: Establishing the Teaching from the Dhyana Paramita. Chapter 10: Concluding and Uniting the Dhyana Paramita in Its Final Purport. These ten chapters are used to organize and explain

the Dhyana Paramita in written form; this is the method

by which all Buddhas, from ancient times to the present, have taught and transformed beings. In meaning and principle, it penetrates all things and reveals the Tathagata’s treasury of secrets and the wondrous, perfectly complete Dharma realm. Whether teaching, practice, and realization, or phenomenal characteristics and essential principle, it encompasses the direct cultivation from the stage of an ordinary being to Buddhahood; the causal cultivation and resultant realization are all fully contained within it.

If practitioners can comprehend and deeply enter the purport of dhyana, they will naturally understand the entirety of the Buddha Dharma and need not run east and west, relying on other places in their search. Therefore, the Mahayana Sutra states: “It is like pulling diagonally at a robe: the entire body moves.”

Chapter 1: The subject explained is THE GENERAL MEANING OF THE METHOD FOR PRACTICING THE DHYANA PARAMITA. It concerns a bodhisattva who gives rise to the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration in quest of the path of bodhi. Meditative concentration is precisely the subtle, pure method by which realization is attained; therefore, one must know what is genuine and what is false, as well as the essential instructions for meditative concentration. If one wishes to possess the complete treasury of all the Dharmas of the Buddhas, the method of meditative concentration is supreme. It is like arriving at a place filled with pearls, gold, and jade, where every treasure may be obtained. Therefore, one should give rise to the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration.

Chapter 2: Nevertheless, after giving rise to the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration, one must know the names of its various kinds before one can understand the meaning of each gate of concentration. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE NAMES OF DHYANA.

Chapter 3: By proceeding from the names of meditative concentrations to seek and deeply enter the principle of dhyana, there is no gate one cannot penetrate. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE GATES OF DHYANA.

Chapter 4: Meditative concentration is extremely subtle and profound and cannot be accomplished immediately. One must proceed from shallow to deep, cultivating according to the proper sequence. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE SEQUENCE OF MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATION.

Chapter 5: If one wishes to enter meditative concentration from lower to higher and from shallow to deep, one must understand the states and wisdom within meditative concentration. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS DHARMA AND MIND.

Chapter 6: After distinguishing and clearly understanding Dharma and Mind, one must employ skillful means while cultivating meditative concentration. Therefore, this chapter CLEARLY SETS FORTH THE DHARMAS OF SKILLFUL MEANS.

Chapter 7: If one cultivates meditative concentration in accordance with these skillful methods, one will certainly attain realization. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE CULTIVATION AND REALIZATION OF THE VARIOUS MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATIONS.

Chapter 8: If the cultivation of meditative concentration accords with the inner mind, then the cause is present and the result naturally follows. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE FRUITS OF RECOMPENSE OF MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATION.

Chapter 9: To proceed from cultivating the cause to realizing the result means that one’s own practice has been perfectly fulfilled; therefore, the merit and virtue of benefiting sentient beings are also perfectly complete. Hence, this chapter EXPLAINS THE GATE OF TEACHING.

Chapter 10: Since the principles of the Dharma and the characteristics of the teaching have been perfectly fulfilled, all characteristics of the teaching return together to the single true and equal essence of the path. Therefore, this chapter EXPLAINS THE FINAL PURPORT.

The meanings and principles of these ten chapters are connected with one another, layer upon layer. Taken as a whole, the chapters explaining the Dhyana Paramita can comprehensively encompass all Dharma gates of cultivation. If practitioners study the passages below, they will naturally be able to understand them.

The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “From the time bodhisattvas first give rise to the resolve and begin cultivating, they abide in the paramita of meditative concentration and fully cultivate all Buddha Dharmas. When they sit at the place of enlightenment, they awaken to and accomplish omniscience, the wisdom of a Buddha. They then arise from meditative concentration, turn the Dharma wheel, and teach and transform sentient beings.” This is called the bodhisattva’s sequential cultivation, sequential learning, and sequential attainment of the path.

Chapter 1

THE GENERAL MEANING OF THE METHOD FOR PRACTICING THE DHYANA PARAMITA

(A statement of the general meaning of the entire work, a brief discussion of the mind of great compassion, and a clear presentation of the bodhisattva’s Four Great Vows)

We shall now clearly explain the bodhisattva’s cultivation of the Dhyana Paramita. It is divided into two parts:

A. Cultivating meditative concentration for improper reasons

B. The cultivation of meditative concentration by those who practice the bodhisattva conduct

A. CULTIVATING MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATION FOR IMPROPER REASONS

There are ten kinds of people who give rise to the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration for differing reasons. As a result, they fall into biased and erroneous modes of conduct and thought and therefore cannot enter the Dharma gate of the Dhyana Paramita.

These ten kinds of people are:

1. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana for the benefit and sustenance of their own physical lives. Most of these people possess the mind of hell beings.

2. Those who give rise to deceitful thoughts and wrong views and resolve to cultivate dhyana out of craving for fame and praise. Most of these people possess the mind of ghosts and spirits.

3. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana because they wish to protect and support their relatives and kin. Most of these people possess the mind of animals.

4. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana out of jealousy and the desire to surpass others. Most of these people possess the mind of asuras ⁽¹⁾.

5. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana because they fear rebirth in the evil destinies and the painful results experienced there, and because they wish to extinguish all unwholesome karmic forces. Most of these people aspire to be reborn as human beings.

6. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana because they wish to nurture their wholesome minds and seek peace and happiness. Most of these people aspire to be reborn in the six heavens of the Desire Realm ⁽²⁾.

7. Those who give rise to the resolve to cultivate dhyana because they wish to acquire power, spiritual abilities, and mastery. Most of these people possess the mind of rakshasas ⁽³⁾.

8. One gives rise to the resolve to practice meditation because one wishes to become intelligent and quick-witted, with keen responsiveness. This belongs to the mind of non-Buddhist practitioners⁽⁴⁾.

9. One gives rise to the resolve to practice meditation because one wishes to be reborn in the Brahma heavens. This belongs to the Form and Formless realms⁽⁵⁾.

10. One gives rise to the resolve to practice meditation because one wishes to escape the suffering of birth, aging, sickness, and death, hoping swiftly to realize nirvana. This belongs to the mind of practitioners of the Two Vehicles.

Although these ten kinds of practitioners of meditative concentration differ in whether the resolve they arouse is wholesome or unwholesome, and although their states of liberation or bondage also differ, because they lack the mind of great compassion and the purpose for which they arouse the resolve is improper, they consequently fall into the two extremes—annihilationism and eternalism⁽⁶⁾—and do not enter the Middle Way⁽⁷⁾. If they practice meditative concentration with such a mind, ultimately they will still be unable to comprehend or accord with the perfection of meditation.

B. PRACTITIONERS OF THE BODHISATTVA CONDUCT CULTIVATE MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATION

There are two points: I- Why is it called a bodhisattva’s arousal of the resolve?

II- Why must a bodhisattva practice meditation?

I- WHY IS IT CALLED A BODHISATTVA’S AROUSAL OF THE RESOLVE?

A bodhisattva’s arousal of the resolve means the mind of bodhi. That is, when a bodhisattva contemplates the Middle Way and the true aspect of all dharmas, out of compassion for all sentient beings the bodhisattva gives rise to the mind of great compassion and thereby makes the Four Great Vows, namely, these four vast vows:

1. Those who have not yet been liberated, I must liberate; this is also called: Sentient beings are boundless; I vow to liberate them.

2. Those who do not yet clearly understand the Buddha-Dharma, I must clearly explain the Buddha-Dharma to them; this is also called: Dharma gates are immeasurable; I vow to learn them.

3. Those who have not yet attained peace and happiness, I must bring to peace and happiness; this is also called: Afflictions are immeasurable; I vow to sever them.

4. Those who have not yet realized nirvana⁽⁸⁾, I must lead to the realization of nirvana; this is also called: The Buddha Way is unsurpassed; I vow to accomplish it.

These Four Great Vows are precisely the Dharma gate of the Four Truths. Therefore, the Garland Sutra records: “Those who have not yet been freed from the Truth of Suffering are enabled to be freed from the Truth of Suffering. Those who do not yet clearly understand the Truth of the Origin of Suffering must clearly understand the Truth of the Origin of Suffering. Those who do not yet abide in the Truth of the Path must abide in the Truth of the Path. Those who have not yet realized the Truth of Cessation are enabled to realize the Truth of Cessation.”

When these four dharmas are approached with the mind of practitioners of the Two Vehicles, they are called the Four Noble Truths. The Four Truths are dharmas arising through causes and conditions. Because this principle is true and not false, they are called the Dharmas of Truth. Yet when these four dharmas are approached with the mind of a bodhisattva, they are called the Four Great Vows. Why is this so? Although bodhisattvas clearly know that these four dharmas are ultimately empty and quiescent, for the benefit of sentient beings they employ these four dharmas as skillful means.

What are the Great Vows?

– Because the capacity of a bodhisattva’s mind is vast and expansive, they are called great.

– Because, with a mind of loving-kindness and compassion, bodhisattvas pity sentient beings and therefore firmly resolve that they must liberate them, giving rise to a steadfast and enduring resolve like vajra, preserving this aspiration without retreat until it is assuredly brought to perfect fulfillment, they are called vows.

If practitioners can make these four vows and clearly understand these four aspirations, they will know that they encompass every mind; that every mind is in truth precisely the one mind, yet is not the one mind; and that the mind is inherently endowed with all things. It is therefore called the pure mind of bodhi. Because one gives rise to the pure mind of bodhi, one is called a bodhisattva. Thus, the Mahayana Treatise records:

At the very moment the resolve first arises,

One vows to become a Buddha;

Having already transcended the world,

One should receive offerings.

II- WHY MUST A PRACTITIONER OF THE BODHISATTVA CONDUCT CULTIVATE MEDITATIVE CONCENTRATION?

When a bodhisattva gives rise to the mind of bodhi, the bodhisattva reflects that, in order to bring the Four Great Vows to complete fulfillment, one must certainly practice the bodhisattva path.

– Why must one practice the bodhisattva path?

To have a vow but not put it into practice is like wishing to carry people across a river while refusing to build a boat or raft; one will forever remain on this shore, with no means of carrying anyone across. It is like a sick person who needs medicine for treatment but, after obtaining it, refuses to take it; how then could the illness be cured? It is like an impoverished person who wishes to possess jewels but, upon seeing them, refuses to take them and thus must forever endure poverty. It is like a person who wishes to travel far but refuses to take a step; that person certainly cannot reach the destination. A bodhisattva who makes the Four Great Vows but refuses to cultivate these four practices is likewise.

The bodhisattva reflects: “Which Dharma gate must I cultivate in order to practice the bodhisattva path and thereby bring the Four Great Vows to perfect fulfillment?” One must therefore understand and abide deeply in meditative concentration before the four vows can be fulfilled. Why is this so? Without attaining the Six Superknowledges and the Four Unobstructed Eloquences, how could one liberate sentient beings?

Without accomplishment in meditative concentration, the Six Superknowledges will not arise. Therefore, a sutra records: “Only through truly profound meditative concentration can the Five Superknowledges be attained.” If one wishes to eliminate afflictions but lacks meditative concentration, wisdom will not manifest. Only wisdom arising from meditative concentration can sever the fetters, for wisdom without meditative concentration is like a lamp exposed to the wind.

We should clearly understand that all the merit and wisdom are contained within the Dharma gate of meditative concentration. The Mahayana Treatise records: “The Buddhas attain the Way, turn the Dharma wheel to liberate sentient beings, and, when their conditions are exhausted, enter nirvana; all these merits are contained entirely within meditative concentration.”

Furthermore, when a bodhisattva enters the samadhi of the abode of immeasurable meanings⁽⁹⁾, the myriad practices are complete within a single mind, and only then can the bodhisattva penetrate all the immeasurable Dharma gates. If one wishes to perfect the unsurpassed Buddha Way but does not cultivate meditative concentration, one will be unable to attain even the heavens of the Form and Formless realms or the states of shravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas,

much less the fruit of unsurpassed bodhi. One should therefore know that, to realize unsurpassed wondrous awakening, one must first enter vajra samadhi; only then will the Buddha-Dharma manifest before one. Thus, after carefully examining, contemplating, and clearly determining the matter, the bodhisattva understands that only meditative concentration can bring the Four Great Vows to complete fulfillment. As a verse in the Mahayana Treatise records:

Meditation is the treasury of wisdom,

The field of merit for all virtues;

Meditation is like pure water,

Whose power washes away the dust.

Meditation is vajra armor,

Which wards off the arrows of affliction;

Though the unconditioned⁽¹⁰⁾ is not yet realized,

One has a share in the fruit of nirvana.

Attaining vajra samadhi⁽¹¹⁾,

One shatters the mountain of fetters;

Realizing the Six Superknowledges,

One liberates immeasurable sentient beings.

Dust obscures the orb of the sun;

A great rain washes it all away.

The winds of initial and sustained thought stir the mind;

Meditative concentration stills those winds.

This verse demonstrates that only through cultivating meditative concentration can the Four Great Vows be brought to complete and perfect fulfillment.

QUESTION: To bring the Four Great Vows to complete and perfect fulfillment, a bodhisattva must practice the Ten Perfections (generosity, moral discipline, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, prajna, skillful means, knowledge, vows, and powers). Why, then, is only meditative concentration praised?

ANSWER: In comparison, the first four dharmas are inferior, while the latter five all arise entirely from meditative concentration; therefore, only meditative concentration is discussed separately here. Why? Through cultivating meditative concentration, a bodhisattva fully perfects the first four dharmas, while the latter five become even more excellent. For example, one who has aroused the bodhisattva resolve, wishing to cultivate meditative concentration, relinquishes all household possessions: inwardly, one leaves behind spouse, children, and relatives; outwardly, one relinquishes material wealth; one does not begrudge even body or life and dwells only in a secluded and quiet place. Giving everything away without attachment is called Great Generosity.

Furthermore, because the bodhisattva cultivates meditative concentration, body and mind do not become agitated, and the six sense faculties⁽¹²⁾, and so forth, are restrained…

Evil thoughts cannot penetrate; this is called great observance of the precepts.

Because bodhisattvas cultivate meditation, they can patiently endure what is difficult to endure, remaining peacefully forbearing in the face of both honor and slander. Even when adverse circumstances arise, fearing that they may obstruct right concentration, they do not give rise to the slightest affliction of anger. This is called great patience.

– Because bodhisattvas cultivate meditation, they diligently apply themselves with single-minded resolve. Even when their bodies are afflicted by illness and suffering, their resolve does not retreat, nor do they rest. They are like one drilling wood to make fire, never pausing even for a moment; until fire appears, they are determined not to stop. Bodhisattvas frequently sit in meditation and seldom lie down. They constantly restrain their thoughts so that deluded thinking does not arise, and they are never heedless or indolent. Even if many years and months pass without realization, their resolve neither retreats nor weakens. When bodhisattvas undertake such difficult practices, this is called great diligence.

Through the causes and conditions of cultivating meditation, even though bodhisattvas do not deliberately cultivate these four qualities, the four qualities are naturally perfected.

– Why do bodhisattvas who cultivate meditation fully attain the Prajnaparamita perfection of wisdom?

When bodhisattvas cultivate meditation, their single-pointed minds abide in right concentration. Because their minds are securely established in concentration, they can clearly know all the arising and cessation of the characteristics of worldly dharmas, and wisdom consequently springs forth, like a stream of water gushing from a rock. The Mahayana Treatise states:

The wisdom of Prajnaparamita

Is the true and undeluded Dharma;
Defiled deluded thoughts have been extinguished,
And words and written characters are utterly stilled.

Karmic hindrances from immeasurable kalpas have ceased;

Within the purified mind, the one characteristic always remains,
And one naturally beholds the true Dharma.

– Why do bodhisattvas who cultivate meditation fully attain

The perfection of skillful means?

Such skillful means can be employed only after clearly discerning the capacities of sentient beings. If bodhisattvas cannot enter deeply into meditation, how could they clearly know the capacities of sentient beings and thereby employ the appropriate skillful means to guide them?

– Why do bodhisattvas who cultivate meditation fully attain

The perfection of powers?

All sovereign transformations depend upon the power of supernatural faculties, and the power of supernatural faculties can arise only through reliance upon meditation.

– Why do bodhisattvas who cultivate meditation fully attain

The perfection of vows?

The Mahayana Treatise states: “The meditation of bodhisattvas is like the harp of an asura⁽¹³⁾. (When one wishes to hear the harp, there is no need to pluck it, yet it produces sound by itself; this is due to the merit of the asura.) This illustrates how the minds of bodhisattvas no longer discriminate, but naturally respond to the capacities of sentient beings and employ skillful teachings to instruct and transform them.” This is precisely the characteristic of bodhisattvas’ fulfillment of their great vows.

– Why do bodhisattvas, through cultivating meditation, fully attain

The perfection of knowledge?

If meditation does not become manifest before them, there is no means by which knowledge of the varieties of the Path⁽¹⁴⁾, omniscience, and knowledge of all aspects⁽¹⁵⁾ can arise. This meaning may readily be understood.

Therefore, practitioners need only cultivate meditation skillfully, and they will naturally perfect the ten paramitas and fulfill the myriad practices together with all Dharma gates. Thus, bodhisattvas who wish to fulfill their vows and practice the

Paramitas must certainly cultivate meditation. This matter is explained extensively in the Mahayana Treatise.

QUESTION: The practice of bodhisattvas is to liberate sentient beings. Why, then, do they live alone and distance themselves from sentient beings? Is it merely so that they may enjoy leisure and ease?

ANSWER: Although bodhisattvas have relinquished their bodies, deep within their minds they never abandon sentient beings. This is like a sick person who must take medicine to receive treatment and nourish the body, and therefore temporarily sets aside all work, returning to it only after recovering from the illness. Bodhisattvas are the same: although their bodies remain apart from sentient beings, their minds constantly recollect and compassionately care for them without cease.

In tranquil and secluded places, bodhisattvas take the medicine of meditation, attain true wisdom, and completely eliminate ignorance and afflictions. After their cultivation has been accomplished and they have attained the six supernatural faculties, they will be reborn within the six realms and extensively liberate sentient beings.

For these reasons, bodhisattvas arouse the resolve to cultivate the perfection of meditation. Their determination is as firm as vajra, and neither celestial maras, non-Buddhist practitioners, nor followers of the Two Vehicles have any means of destroying it.

Notes to Chapter 1:

⁽¹⁾ Asura: a warlike class of spirits in India, regarded as malevolent deities who frequently battle with the god Shakra;

one of the six realms, one of the eight classes of beings, and one of the ten realms.

According to the “Asura’s Wheel” chapter in fascicle 3 of the Ekottarika Agama Sutra, the body of an asura is 84,000 yojanas tall, and its mouth measures 1,000 yojanas across in every direction. The “Asura” chapter in fascicle 20 of the Dirgha Agama Sutra, the “Asura” chapter in fascicle 2 of the Great Lokasthana Sutra, and fascicle 5 of the Sutra on the Arising of the World and Its Original Causes all clearly record the dwelling places and accounts of the asuras. The sutras commonly state that three causes—anger, pride, and doubt—lead sentient beings to be reborn among the asuras. However, the Sutra Spoken by the Buddha to the Householder Shuka on the Differences in Karmic Retribution lists ten causes for rebirth among the asuras:

1/ Committing minor evil deeds with the body, 6/ Overweening pride,

2/ Speaking mildly evil words, 7/ Great pride,

3/ Entertaining minor evil thoughts, 8/ Perverse pride,

4/ Giving rise to arrogance, 9/ Pride in pride,

5/ Giving rise to self-conceit, 10/ Regression of wholesome roots.

There are various accounts of the appearance of asuras. Some say that an asura has nine heads, 1,000 eyes, and 990 arms; or 10,000 heads and 20,000 arms; or three heads and six arms. Elsewhere, it is said that an asura has three faces, is dark blue in color, manifests six arms, and appears naked and wrathful.

⁽²⁾ The Six Heavens of Desire (the six heavenly realms of the Desire Realm):

1/ The Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings (the Great Heavenly Kings, the Heaven of the Four Kings): comprising the four divine princes Dhritarashtra, Virudhaka,

Virupaksha, and Vaishravana, together with their attendant celestial hosts.

2/ The Heaven of the Thirty-Three (Trayastrimsha Heaven): comprising thirty-three realms, with the god Shakra at the center and eight heavenly realms in each of the four directions. 3/ The Yama Heaven (Yama Heaven, Flame Heaven, Heaven of the Divisions of Time): the presiding deity of this heaven is Suyama. 4/ The Tushita Heaven (Tushita Heaven, Contentment Heaven): the presiding deity of this heaven is Santushita. 5/ The Heaven of Delight in Transformation (Heaven of Enjoying Transformations, Heaven Without Arrogant Delight, Heaven Without Haughtiness, Nirmana-rati Heaven): the presiding deity of this heaven is King Sunirmita. 6/ The Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Transformations (Heaven of Transforming What Others Create, Heaven of Enjoying Others’ Transformations,

Heaven of Manifested Responsive Sounds, Paranirmita-vashavartin Heaven): the presiding deity of this heaven is Vashavartin.

Among these, the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings is situated midway up Mount Sumeru, while the Trayastrimsha Heaven is situated at its summit; these two heavens are therefore called the Earth-Dwelling Heavens. The four heavenly realms beginning with the Yama Heaven, as well as the heavens of the Form Realm, abide in space and are therefore called the Space-Dwelling Heavens. Although the beings of these six heavens of the Desire Realm experience three different kinds of worldly enjoyment, all partake of sensual pleasures and are therefore called those born in the Desire Realm. (tđphhq)

⁽³⁾ Rakshasa (Fearsome One, Swift Ghost, Protector): a class of malevolent demons in Indian mythology, first recorded in the Rigveda. Tradition holds that Rakshasa was originally the name of an indigenous people of India. After the Aryans conquered India, the term became a general designation for evildoers and gradually came to be used as a collective name for malevolent demons.

Male rakshasas have black bodies, red hair, and green eyes; female rakshasas are called Rakshasis. They resemble beautiful, alluring women and specialize in eating human flesh and drinking human blood. Tradition holds that on the island of Lanka (Sri Lanka) there is a realm of female rakshasas. These rakshasas are recorded in the Buddhacarita Sutra, fascicle 49, the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya, fascicle 47, Huilin’s Sounds and Meanings, fascicle 7, and so forth. Rakshasa demons possess supernatural powers and can fly swiftly through the sky or travel rapidly over the ground; they are violent, cruel, and terrifying.

The term rakshasa also refers to a kind of demon in hell charged with punishing sinners. Beings of this kind may have an ox’s head and human hands, or claws on their hands and feet, or the head of a deer, goat, rabbit, and so forth. Besides the rakshasas described above, the sutras also record a kind of rakshasa who serves as a guardian deity of Buddhism, called a Rakshasa Deva.

⁽⁴⁾ The Form Realm (Form Heavens, Heavens of Form Activity): the general designation for the world and beings possessing refined forms; it is the dwelling place of the devas in one of the three realms. Although beings in this realm are free from sexual desire and are not attached to coarse material forms, they remain bound by subtle, pure forms. It therefore lies between the Desire Realm and the Formless Heavens. The devas of this realm are not distinguished as male or female; their garments appear

spontaneously, and they use light as both food and language.

According to the depth of meditative absorption, this realm is divided into four stages: the First Dhyana is called Joy and Bliss Born of Seclusion; the Second Dhyana, Joy and Bliss Born of Samadhi; the Third Dhyana, Wondrous Bliss Apart from Joy; and the Fourth Dhyana, Purity of Equanimity and Mindfulness. According to fascicle 8 of the Abhidharmakosa: the First, Second, and Third Dhyanas each separately contain three heavens, while the Fourth Dhyana contains eight heavens, making seventeen heavens in all.

The heavens of the First Dhyana are the Heaven of Brahma’s Assembly, the Heaven of Brahma’s Ministers, and the Great Brahma Heaven. The three heavens of the Second Dhyana are the Heaven of Lesser Light, the Heaven of Limitless Light, and the Heaven of Utmost Radiant Purity. The three heavens of the Third Dhyana are the Heaven of Lesser Purity, the Heaven of Limitless Purity, and the Heaven of Pervasive Purity.

The eight heavens of the Fourth Dhyana are the Cloudless Heaven, the Heaven Born of Merit, the Heaven of Abundant Fruit, the Heaven Free from Affliction, the Heaven Free from Heat, the Heaven of Excellent Manifestation, the Heaven of Excellent Vision, and the Akanistha Heaven. These seventeen heavens, comprising both the receptacle-world and its sentient beings, are collectively called the Form Realm; however, there are various differing accounts concerning the classification of its heavens.

The Formless Realm (Formless Heavens, Heavens of Formless Activity): the world that transcends material form. Those who have become disenchanted with material form and cultivate the Four Formless Samadhis are reborn in this realm after death. Existence in this world is entirely devoid of material form and spatial location, so there are no distinctions of higher and lower in space. Nevertheless, because of differences in karmic retribution, whether superior or inferior, it is divided into four stations.

There are various differing accounts concerning the lifespans in these four heavens. According to fascicle 84 of the Mahavibhasa: “The devas in the Sphere of Infinite Space live for twenty thousand kalpas; those in the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness live for forty thousand kalpas; those in the Sphere of Nothingness live for sixty thousand kalpas; and those in the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception live for eighty thousand kalpas.” According to fascicle 20 of the Dirgha Agama Sutra, their lifespans in sequence are 10,000 kalpas, 21,000 kalpas, 42,000 kalpas, and 84,000 kalpas.

According to fascicle 7 of the Lokasthana Abhidharma Treatise, each of the four heavens is divided into three grades—upper, middle, and lower—from the 17,500 great kalpas of the lower grade of the Sphere of Infinite Space to the 80,000 great kalpas of the upper grade of the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, thus producing twelve distinct grades of lifespan. Moreover, because the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception is the highest level of sentient existence, it is also called the Heaven of the Summit of Existence.

Sentient beings in the Formless Heavens are all male, but possess no male organ.

⁽⁵⁾ Non-Buddhist Irthakas (non-Buddhist religions, non-Buddhist teachings, non-Buddhist schools): all religions other than Buddhism, corresponding to the Confucian term “heterodoxy.” The original meaning of the term irthaka referred to a deity or a venerable recluse. Initially, it was a term used by Buddhists for other religious schools, such as proponents of dogmatic doctrines and practitioners of asceticism. Buddhism called itself the Inner Way; Buddhist scriptures were called inner texts, while scriptures outside Buddhism were called outer texts. In later generations, the additional meanings of “deviant views” and “false doctrines” gradually developed, and thus the term “non-Buddhist path” became disparaging and contemptuous, signifying teachings that do not accord with the truth.

The first fascicle of the Profound Meaning of the Three Treatises states: “The ultimate subtlety is empty and open; this is called the Way. When the mind abides outside the Way, this is called an outside path.” The sutras and treatises mention many non-Buddhist schools, most commonly the group known as the Six Non-Buddhist Teachers: Purana Kasyapa, Maskarin Gosaliputra, Sanjaya Vairatiputra, Ajita Kesakambala, Kakuda Katyayana, and Nirgrantha Jnatiputra; and the six philosophical schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Sabda, and Vedanta.

There are also the classifications known as the Four Attachments, Four Views, Four Reckonings, and Four Schools of non-Buddhists: those who cling to the view that dharmas are identical or different; who hold that dharmas are neither identical nor different; who hold that the world is permanent or impermanent; and who hold that cause and effect either exist or do not exist. The six non-Buddhist schools are Self-worshippers, Abyss-plungers, Fire-servants, Habitual Sitters, Practitioners of Stillness, and Ox-and-Dog Ascetics (non-Buddhists who imitate oxen and dogs in hopes of being reborn in a higher realm).

The Sixteen Non-Buddhist Schools (the Sixteen Heterodox Treatises, the Sixteen Non-Buddhist Paths, the Sixteen Reckonings) and the ninety-six non-Buddhist schools are also spoken of. According to fascicle 4 of the Mahavibhasa, each of the Six Non-Buddhist Teachers had fifteen disciples who propounded fifteen deviant views, totaling ninety deviant views. Since the teachings of the masters differed from those of their disciples, the ninety disciples together with the six masters constituted ninety-six different schools.

This number is used figuratively to indicate the great multitude of non-Buddhist schools.

Fascicle 10 of the Nirvana Sutra lists ninety-five non-Buddhist schools. There were also other non-Buddhist groups, such as the Lokayatas, renunciants (as opposed to householders), ash-smeared ascetics, non-Buddhists masquerading under the Buddha’s Dharma, and the Kapalika non-Buddhists (those with matted hair), and so forth. The scriptures divide non-Buddhists into two principal kinds: external non-Buddhists and internal non-Buddhists.

External non-Buddhists refers generally to teachings and schools outside Buddhism and is synonymous with the broad meaning of “non-Buddhist.” Internal non-Buddhists refers to those who attach themselves to the Buddha’s Dharma, those who mistakenly cling to a particular interpretation within the Buddha’s Dharma, or those whose practice does not accord with the true Dharma. In Esoteric Buddhism, “non-Buddhist” has the same broad meaning described above, while internal non-Buddhists are of two kinds: first, followers of the Two Vehicles, namely sravakas and pratyekabuddhas; and second, schools belonging to Exoteric Buddhism.

⁽⁶⁾ The annihilationist view: the view that all worldly dharmas and the self must be annihilated. According to fascicle 26 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise, the annihilationist view is of two kinds: denying karmic retribution for wrongdoing and merit, suffering and happiness, and denying a future life; and maintaining that all dharmas are empty.

The eternalist view: the view maintaining that the world is permanent and unchanging and that the human self is likewise indestructible; after death, this self does not perish, but is capable of being reborn and continuously repeating its present condition—in other words, it asserts that the self is permanent. The Blessed One Sakyamuni inclined neither toward the eternalist view nor toward the annihilationist view. The doctrine of an immortal soul is one form of attachment to the eternalist view, while nihilism is one form of attachment to the annihilationist view. The Blessed One Sakyamuni taught that one should leave both extremes behind and practice the Middle Way.

⁽⁷⁾ The Middle Way: this is the true aspect of the universe. If one awakens to this principle, one will be able to act freely and at ease, entering the ten Dharma realms, from the realm of the Buddhas down to hell, because the source of transformation encompasses the principle of the Middle Way.

⁽⁸⁾ Nirvana: Nirvana is of three kinds: Nirvana of Purity of Nature, Nirvana of Perfect Purity, and Nirvana of Purity through Skillful Means. In order to save sentient beings, the Buddha manifested an illusory body subject to aging; when the conditions had run their course, he entered nirvana. Shravakas and pratyekabuddhas enter nirvana without remainder, after which they turn their minds back and direct themselves toward the Mahayana teaching; this is called returning to life from the state without remainder. At the same time, nirvana is the transcendence of all differentiated characteristics of dharmas and is therefore called freedom from characteristics.

According to the Pure Land School, Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land is unconditioned nirvana. According to the Consciousness-Only School, nirvana is of four kinds: Nirvana of the Originally Pure Self-Nature, Nirvana with Remainder, Nirvana without Remainder, and Non-Abiding Nirvana.

Among these four kinds of nirvana, Nirvana of the Originally Pure Self-Nature and Nirvana of Purity of Nature refer to suchness; that is, the original aspect of all things is the quiescent and extinguished principle of suchness. Non-Abiding Nirvana relies upon the wisdom that is free from the afflictive obstructions and cognitive obstructions and does not remain bound within the deluded realm of birth and death. Because of the great compassionate resolve to save sentient beings, one moves throughout the three deluded realms without abiding in nirvana. This is a distinctive feature of Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana: the teachings of the Great Vehicle.

⁽⁹⁾ Samadhi of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings: this samadhi is the right concentration entered by the Buddha when he was about to expound the Lotus Sutra. “Immeasurable” refers to immeasurable Dharma gates, such as the Three Vehicles and the Five Vehicles. The “abode of meanings” is that upon which the immeasurable meanings depend, namely the true aspect. From this samadhi of the true aspect, which is without characteristics, immeasurable Dharma meanings arise.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Unconditioned: a dharma that is not produced through activity, is free from arising, cessation, and transformation, and abides eternally and absolutely. It was originally another name for nirvana, but later generations established various kinds of the unconditioned in addition to nirvana. Consequently, many doctrines concerning the unconditioned arose, such as the Three Unconditioned Dharmas, the Six Unconditioned Dharmas, and the Nine Unconditioned Dharmas. The Sarvastivada School establishes three unconditioned dharmas: unconditioned cessation through discernment, unconditioned cessation independent of discernment, and unconditioned space.

⁽¹¹⁾ Vajra Samadhi: the right concentration that penetrates all dharmas. Because this concentration is firm and able to eradicate all afflictions, it is like a vajra, which can shatter every object.

⁽¹²⁾ The Six Faculties of Sentience (the Six Sense Faculties): because the scriptures, in the older translations, mostly rendered them as the six faculties of sentience, and because all six sense faculties possess sentient consciousness, they are called the six faculties of sentience.

⁽¹³⁾ The asura’s lute: through their merit, the asuras possess this lute. When an asura wishes to hear a melody, even though no one plays it, the lute spontaneously produces sounds according to the asura’s preference. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom uses this account of the lute as an analogy for bodhisattvas who have realized the Dharma body: their minds make no discriminations, yet they naturally respond to the capacities of sentient beings by expounding the Dharma and teaching them.

⁽¹⁴⁾ Knowledge of the Varieties of the Path: the wisdom that comprehensively knows all the differentiated Dharma gates, both worldly and supramundane; it is the bodhisattva’s immovable wisdom. The Tiantai School correlates this wisdom with contemplation of the provisional within the three contemplations of emptiness, the provisional, and the middle, and regards it as the wisdom for guiding beings that is perfected by eliminating delusions as numerous as grains of dust and sand.

⁽¹⁵⁾ Knowledge of All Things: the knowledge that clearly comprehends the characteristics of all internal and external dharmas; it is one of the three kinds of knowledge. Furthermore, in relation to Knowledge of All Modes, Knowledge of All Things has two meanings: general and specific.

General meaning: Knowledge of All Things is the Buddha’s knowledge. It is synonymous with Knowledge of All Modes. According to volume 16 of the Commentary on the Avatamsaka Sutra, when the Tathagata employs uncontaminated wisdom to know uncontaminated dharmas, that wisdom is called Knowledge of All Things.

Specific meaning: Knowledge of All Things is the wisdom of emptiness that views the world as equal; this is the wisdom of shravakas and pratyekabuddhas. Knowledge of All Modes is

wisdom concerning phenomenal characteristics and pertains to the differentiated world. It is the Buddha’s knowledge that thoroughly comprehends that “the characteristic of equality is itself the characteristic of differentiation.”

Chapter 2

EXPLANATION OF THE TERM DHYANA PARAMITA

The term “dhyana” will now be explained in three parts:

A. Distinguishing what is shared and what is not shared

B. Translation and explanation

C. General conclusion

A. DISTINGUISHING WHAT IS SHARED AND WHAT IS NOT SHARED

This is divided into two parts for explanation:

a) The shared term

Although there is but one term, “dhyana,” the meditative concentrations realized by ordinary beings, non-Buddhist practitioners, followers of the Two Vehicles, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas differ from one another; nevertheless, they are all generally called “dhyana.”

b) What is not shared

The three syllables “paramita” also mean reaching the other shore, but only Buddhas and bodhisattvas can realize arrival at the other shore.

The Mahayana Treatise states: “The meditative concentration of bodhisattvas is called paramita.” This is precisely what is not shared. Ordinary beings become attached; non-Buddhist practitioners cling to their views and understanding; and followers of the Two Vehicles lack the mind of great loving-kindness and great compassion, as well as the skillful means to liberate sentient beings. Therefore, they cannot fully cultivate all meditative concentrations. Because they do not reach the other shore, paramita is said to be what is not shared.

Furthermore, ordinary beings, non-Buddhist practitioners, followers of the Two Vehicles, bodhisattvas, and Buddhas can all attain the Four Dhyanas—the four fundamental levels of meditative concentration. Therefore, these are said to be shared.

“Paramita” is called limitless transcendence, meaning that no method of deliverance can surpass its power. Only bodhisattvas and Buddhas possess it fully. Because they can penetrate the Middle Way, realize Buddha-nature, bring forth the nine kinds of great dhyana (the Nine Kinds of Great Dhyana⁽¹⁾), and realize Great Nirvana⁽²⁾, they are unlike ordinary beings and followers of the Two Vehicles. Therefore, this is said to be what is not shared.

If discussed generally, there is no need for laborious analysis. Why? Because dhyana is divided into what is shared and what is not shared, and the term “paramita” is likewise. Thus, the Mahayana Treatise states: “In the language of India, whenever something is brought to completion, it is called paramita.”

B. TRANSLATION AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERM DHYANA

This includes what is shared and what is not shared:

I. TRANSLATION AND EXPLANATION OF THE SHARED TERM

This is divided into two parts:

1. Translation of the term dhyana

2. Explanation of the term dhyana

1. Translation of the term dhyana

The term “dhyana” is an abbreviation of dhyana (dhyna), a word from an Indian language. In China, the translation of the term dhyana was not fixed. Three meanings will now be briefly presented.

– In the Mahayana Treatise, the word “dhyana” is translated as cultivation through contemplation.

– For example, dana-paramita means the perfection of giving; therefore, dhyana-paramita is called the perfection of concentration. Here, the term dhyana is translated according to the meaning of meditative concentration.

– In the Abhidharma Treatise, the word “dhyana” is translated as a grove of merit and virtue.

2. Explanation of the term dhyana

The three meanings above are divided into two parts for explanation:

a) Separate explanation

The meaning of the term “cultivation through contemplation” refers to the cause. Why? Because contemplation means the mind’s reflection and consideration, while cultivation means concentrated study and practice; therefore, cultivation belongs to the cause.

The translation of dhyana as concentration refers to the result. Why is this so? Concentration is the stillness, quiescence, and tranquility of the inner mind. Practitioners bring the distracted mind to an end in order to seek quiescence—stillness and tranquility. Once the aim of cultivation has been attained, this belongs to the result.

Translating dhyana as a grove of merit and virtue is an explanation that encompasses both cause and result.

– The effort of cultivation is the cause.

– The accumulation of that effort until it becomes an ingrained quality is the result.

– The effort of cultivating the myriad practices is the cause.

– Their accumulation into the myriad virtues is the result.

Cause and result taken together are called merit and virtue. A grove of merit and virtue. “Grove” means that merit

and virtue are not of only one kind, just as there are many kinds of trees.

Dense growths of small grasses are called groves, while gatherings of many large trees are called forests. Dense growths of small trees may be likened to lesser merit within the cause, while forests of great trees may be likened to great virtue within the fruition. From this it may be inferred that the term “grove and forest of merit and virtue” fully encompasses both cause and fruition.

b) General explanation

The term Dhyana is translated with three meanings, all of which may be explained in relation to cause and fruition. The term “cultivation through reflection,” although primarily referring to the cause, may also be applied to the fruition. Why? Because the “serene reflection” within meditative concentration is itself reflection, while cultivation that progresses from lower to higher is called cultivation. This is the doctrine of the school of numerical causation and ninefold cultivation⁽³⁾, the Sarvastivada, and is based on the meaning of the word “cultivation.” Therefore, it may also be called reflection in relation to the fruition.

The term “concentration” may also refer to the cause. Among the ten universal mental factors⁽⁴⁾, even when the mind is distracted, concentration is still spoken of; how much more, then, when a practitioner single-mindedly gathers the thoughts without distraction—why could this not be called concentration? Therefore, concentration may also be spoken of within the cause.

The meaning of “grove and forest of merit and virtue” is also present within the cause, as explained previously. Through diligent effort, one cultivates the cause and accomplishes merit and virtue. The meaning of virtue within the fruition has also been explained. Thus, “merit” refers to the efficacious functioning of the fruition: being far removed from faults, inwardly quiescent, and using supernormal powers and transformations to benefit sentient beings is called merit. In brief, the accomplishment of all wholesome merit and virtue in both cause and fruition is collectively called the grove and forest of merit and virtue.

Because the sutras and treatises differ in how they translate the term and establish its meaning, dhyana is sometimes rendered as “casting off evil,” sometimes as “great swiftness,” and sometimes as “abiding in the great abiding,” meaning profound abiding. One should not cling rigidly to such differences in terminology and meaning.

II. DIFFERING TRANSLATIONS AND EXPLANATIONS OF THE TERM

This is divided into two parts:

1. Translation of the term

2. Explanation of the term

1. Translation of the term Paramita

The term Paramita (Pramit) is translated differently in three sources:

– In most sutras and treatises, Paramita is translated as

Arrival at the Other Shore.

– In the Mahayana Treatise, it is translated as Ultimate Perfection.

– In the Sutra of Auspicious Responses, it is translated as Boundless Crossing.

2. Explanation of the term Paramita

The meanings of these three terms are divided into two parts: separate explanation and general explanation, principally addressing phenomena and principle.

a) Separate explanation

Arrival at the Other Shore means reaching the farther shore. This shore is the shore of birth and death, while the other shore is the shore of nirvana. Afflictions are likened to a flowing current. With subtle, wondrous, signless wisdom, the bodhisattva boards the vessel of meditative concentration and crosses from the shore of birth and death to the other shore of nirvana. This explains Paramita from the standpoint of underlying principle.

Ultimate Perfection means that, through the bodhisattva’s great compassion for sentient beings, all phenomenal practices are cultivated fully and perfectly. Thus, the Mahayana Sutra states: “Through cultivating meditative concentration, the bodhisattva brings all undertakings to completion. Meditative concentration within the bodhisattva’s mind is called Paramita.” This explains Paramita on the basis of cultivation in the realm of phenomena.

Boundless Crossing refers generally to both phenomena and principle. Because both phenomena and principle possess subtle and profound meanings, it is collectively called Boundless Crossing. Since this bodhisattva practice can perfectly cultivate both phenomena and principle, it is called Paramita.

b) General explanation

The meanings conveyed by all three translations above fully encompass both phenomena and principle. Different terms are established according to conditions in order to teach and transform sentient beings.

Why is this so? If it is said that only signless wisdom can transcend birth and death, this pertains to practice in accordance with principle. Yet if it pertains to

principle, then whether or not a Buddha appears, the nature and characteristics remain eternally constant. Why, then, would signless wisdom be required in order to transcend birth and death? In truth, this is an explanation made in accordance with cultivation in the realm of phenomena.

Ultimate completion in phenomena is also named from the standpoint of principle. Alternatively, phenomenal cultivation arises from underlying principle. Thus, when the ultimate completion of phenomena is also understood as belonging to principle, it is called Paramita.

Boundless Crossing likewise does not necessarily have to encompass both phenomena and principle in order to be called Paramita. Why? Because the Buddhas benefit sentient beings according to their capacities and conditions, entering and departing without fixed patterns. Thus, the term Boundless Crossing may at times refer to phenomena and at other times to principle. How could there be any fixed standard?

One should therefore understand that terms pertaining to underlying principle and phenomenal characteristics mutually alternate and correspond, and need not be restricted to one side alone. From this, the meaning may be inferred.

The meaning of Paramita will be clearly explained in the concluding synthesis and final purport of Chapter Ten.

C. GENERAL CONCLUSION

As stated in the Mahayana Treatise:

QUESTION: Why are the Eight Liberations, the Eight Excellent Bases, the Ten Universal Bases, and so forth not called Paramitas, while Dhyana alone is specifically called a Paramita?

ANSWER: Dhyana is truly vast and supreme, like a sovereign king. Merely stating the term Dhyana Paramita encompasses everything. Within the Four Dhyanas are 108 samadhis, such as the Eight Liberations, the Eight Excellent Bases, the Ten Universal Bases, the Four Immeasurable Minds, the Five Supernormal Powers, the concentration of mastery through refined dhyana, the Fourteen Minds of Transformation, the samadhi of non-contention⁽⁵⁾, Vow, Wisdom, Summit, Dhyana, Surangama⁽⁶⁾, and so forth.

The 120 immovable samadhis of the Buddhas are also wholly contained within Dhyana.

The Buddhas’ attainment of the Way, turning of the Dharma wheel, entry into nirvana, and all their sublime and wondrous merits are contained within meditative concentration. Therefore, merely uttering the word “Dhyana” encompasses and includes everything. If any other concentration practice were named, it could not include them all. For this reason, Dhyana is called a Paramita.

Furthermore, within the Four Dhyanas, wisdom and the power of concentration are equal; therefore, they are called Paramita. In the concentration of the not-yet-arrived ground and intermediate dhyana, wisdom is abundant while the power of concentration is slight. In the four formless concentrations, wisdom is slight while the power of concentration is abundant. This is like a cart with two wheels, one rigid and the other excessively soft: it cannot move. Because wisdom and concentration are equal within the Four Dhyanas, they are called Paramita.

Using the term Dhyana to elucidate Paramita encompasses and subsumes all concentration practices.

Why? In China during the Qin dynasty, the word Dhyana was translated as “cultivation through reflection.” All these concentration practices are accomplished through the merit of reflection; therefore, all concentrations may also bear the designation Paramita. The Prajnaparamita Sutra speaks of one hundred kinds of Paramita, among which the Eight Liberations, the Eight Excellent Bases, and so forth are also called Paramitas. However, only the four fundamental dhyanas—the first, second, third, and fourth dhyanas—originally bear the name “Dhyana”; the other concentration practices are not called Dhyana.

QUESTION: Are the explanations of Dhyana, concentration, samadhi, Paramita, and so forth the same or different?

ANSWER: Generally speaking, their names and meanings are mutually interchangeable. When discussed separately, however, the names and meanings of these four dharmas each have their own distinctive characteristics.

Why? Because only the four fundamental dhyanas—the Four Dhyanas—are called Dhyana, rather than Concentration or Samadhi; therefore, they cannot be called Paramita.

The concentrations of the formless realm are called only Concentrations, not

Dhyana or Samadhi; therefore, they cannot be called Paramita.

The concentration of the not-yet-arrived ground and intermediate dhyana, although not genuine dhyana concentration but only skillful means, may be called Dhyana or Concentration. Because they are not Samadhi, they cannot be called Paramita.

The samadhi of emptiness, the samadhi of signlessness, and so forth are called only Samadhi, not Dhyana or Concentration; therefore, they cannot be called Paramita.

The contemplative practices of the Eight Liberations, the Eight Excellent Bases, the Six Supernormal Powers, the Four Unobstructed Eloquences, and so forth possess all three—Dhyana, Concentration, and Samadhi—but are not themselves called Dhyana, Concentration, or Samadhi; therefore, they cannot be called Paramita.

Although the nine successive absorptions fully possess all three qualities, they are called only “concentrations”; they cannot be called dhyanas or samadhis, and therefore are not dhyana-paramita.

Samadhis such as the Samadhi with Initial and Sustained Application, the Lion Samadhi, the Transcendent Samadhi, and the Samadhi of Non-Contention likewise fully possess the three qualities, but they are called only “samadhis,” not “dhyana” or “concentration”; nor are they paramitas.

The Vow, Wisdom, Summit, and so forth likewise possess all three qualities, but they are called only “dhyana,” not “concentration” or “samadhi”; therefore, they are not paramitas.

The nine kinds of great dhyana, the Shurangama Concentration, and so forth all fully possess the four qualities and are also called dhyana, concentration, and samadhi; these alone are truly paramitas. If the Shurangama Concentration is incorporated into the above three kinds of practice, they are all called paramitas. Therefore, all Dharma methods among the one hundred paramitas are called paramitas.

The foregoing analysis distinguishes the four terms dhyana, concentration, samadhi, and paramita. As for the noble ones, who skillfully accord with conditions to benefit sentient beings, no fixed explanation is necessary. Thus, the implications of the terms dhyana, concentration, samadhi, and paramita established in the sutras and treatises are truly difficult to discern, and one must therefore not cling to them mistakenly.

In the sutras and treatises, dhyana is most often used to elucidate paramita because the four fundamental dhyanas are the foundation of cultivation. All meritorious qualities arise from those four kinds of dhyana and abide in dependence upon them. Therefore, dhyana alone receives the designation “paramita.”

QUESTION: Does dhyana-paramita have only one name, or does it have other names?

ANSWER: The Nirvana Sutra records: “Buddha-nature has five names: Shurangama, Prajnaparamita, the Middle Way, Vajra Samadhi, and Great Nirvana.” Dhyana-paramita is also so called; that is, it is Buddha-nature.

It should be understood that the wondrous and supreme Dharma methods recorded in the scriptures have immeasurable names, all of which are alternative names for paramita. Therefore, the Mahayana Sutra says:

Just as when the sun rises,
The dew and frost immediately vanish.

How, then, could the term dhyana not encompass everything? If dhyana-concentration did not fully embrace all dharmas, its meaning would not be ultimate; how could it receive the designation “paramita”?

QUESTION: The true nature of all dharmas—Shurangama, reaching the other shore, and so forth—is called ultimate only in relation to a Buddha. Why, then, is the dhyana-concentration cultivated by bodhisattvas also called paramita?

ANSWER: This is to speak of the result in terms of the cause, in accordance with the bodhisattva’s partial realization. According to the Sudden Teaching: “The initial arousal of the mind and the ultimate realization are not different from each other.” For these many reasons, the dhyana-concentration cultivated by bodhisattvas is also called paramita.

Notes to Chapter 2:

⁽¹⁾ Nine kinds of great dhyana: nine kinds of Mahayana dhyana.

According to Volume 4 of The Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra, when compared with other kinds of dhyana, the nine kinds of great dhyana are like ghee: they are the highest of the highest supramundane dhyanas.

⁽²⁾ Great Nirvana (Mahaparinirvana) (Great Extinction and Deliverance, Great Perfect Quiescence): the state of complete liberation attained by all Buddhas.

According to the collected annotations to the Tiantai Outline of the Four Teachings, upper fascicle, “great” is the Dharma body, “extinction” is liberation, and “deliverance” is prajna; these are the three virtues of all Buddhas. The Nirvana Sutra (Northern version, Taisho 12, 521, middle) records: “When a bodhisattva-mahasattva cultivates Great Nirvana, he has no perception of anything among all dharmas. If he has any perception, he cannot see Buddha-nature, cannot cultivate prajnaparamita, and cannot enter the realm of Great Nirvana.”

⁽³⁾ Followers of the Numerical School (masters of the Numerical School, scholars of the Numerical School, persons of the Numerical School): alternative names for the Abhidharma Pitaka of the Sarvastivada school, a Hinayana school, and also terms used in place of “Sarvastivada.”

“Numerical” in “Numerical Treatise” has two meanings: first, enumerated wisdom; second, enumerated dharmas. In terms of enumerated wisdom, among the three trainings of the Tripitaka, the Sarvastivada school placed particular emphasis on the Abhidharma and was therefore called the Abhidharma School. The doctrine expounded by this school employed the training in wisdom to sever delusions and realize principle.

Yet because its teachings also emphasized mental factors, in ancient times it was called the School of Mental Enumerations. From this it can be understood that the school took the training in wisdom as its foundation, and therefore its Abhidharma Pitaka was also called the Numerical Treatise. In terms of enumerated dharmas, this teaching established seventy-five dharmas.

Moreover, the principles of this school constituted the fundamental enumeration of dharmas in Buddhism; therefore, both the doctrine it expounded and the Abhidharma Pitaka it revered were called the Numerical Treatise. From the period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties until the early Tang dynasty, Buddhists customarily called members of the Dilun School “Dilun masters,” members of the Satyasiddhi School “treatise scholars,” and members of the Shelun School “Shelun masters.” Accordingly, members of the Abhidharma School were called scholars, masters, or followers of the Numerical School.

In addition, among the six philosophical schools of India there was also one called the Samkhya, or Numerical, School. Its doctrine used discriminative knowledge to investigate and assess all dharmas. Although the name of this school resembled that of the Hinayana Numerical Treatise school of Abhidharma, its tenets and teachings differed greatly. It was therefore called the non-Buddhist Samkhya School to distinguish it from the Buddhist Abhidharma Numerical School.

⁽⁴⁾ Ten universal mental factors: the ten mental factors whose psychological functions correspond with and arise simultaneously with every mind: feeling, perception, volition, contact, desire, wisdom, mindfulness, attention, resolve, and samadhi. Samadhi means right concentration or mental equipoise—that is, single-minded concentration upon one object.

⁽⁵⁾ Samadhi of Non-Contention: right concentration that abides in the principle of emptiness and does not contend with others. Subhuti was foremost in comprehending the principle of emptiness; therefore, among the Buddha’s disciples, he was foremost in attaining the Samadhi of Non-Contention.

The Diamond Sutra, Taisho 8, 749, lower section, records: “The Buddha says that I have attained the Samadhi of Non-Contention, that I am foremost among human beings, and that I am the foremost arhat free from desire.” Yuanxian, in his Explanatory Commentary on the Abridged Commentary to the Diamond Sutra, held that one who enters and realizes the Samadhi of Non-Contention understands the principle of emptiness and therefore forgets both self and others, neither troubling sentient beings nor causing sentient beings to give rise to afflictions.

Practitioners at the initial gateway of the Perfect Teaching maintain that, when cultivating all undefiled practices in order to apply the contemplative dhyanas of Contemplation, Refinement, Perfuming, and Cultivation as counteragents, they immediately realize the noble fruit, become great arhats, fully possess the six superknowledges and the three insights, and simultaneously attain the Samadhi of Non-Contention.

⁽⁶⁾ Shurangama (Shurangama Samadhi, Shurangama Samapatti, Shurangama Concentration): its meanings include the Great Fundamental Concentration, the Samadhi of the Heroic General, the Concentration of Heroic Practice, the Heroic Concentration, and the Concentration of Courage. This concentration firmly embraces and sustains all dharmas. It is one of the 108 samadhis and is the kind of dhyana-concentration attained by all Buddhas and by bodhisattvas of the ten bhumis.

Volume 47 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Taisho 25, 398, lower section, records: “Shurangama Samadhi was translated during the Qin dynasty as ‘Heroic General.’ It distinguishes the characteristics of the samadhis—their depth or shallowness, their abundance or scarcity—just as a great general clearly knows whether the strength of his soldiers is great or weak. Moreover, when a bodhisattva attains this samadhi, the maras of affliction cannot destroy him, just as a Wheel-Turning Sage King, at the head of an army of skilled generals, subdues all wherever he goes.”

According to the Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sutra, upper fascicle, bodhisattvas from the First Ground through the Ninth Ground are not yet able to realize this samādhi; only bodhisattvas of the Tenth Ground can realize it. The Śūraṅgama Samādhi comprises one hundred aspects, including transforming the mind so that it is like empty space, observing the present thoughts of sentient beings, and discerning whether the faculties of sentient beings are keen or dull.

This samādhi cannot be understood through any single matter, condition, or meaning. All meditative concentrations, liberations, samādhis, supernormal powers exercised at will, and unobstructed wisdom are contained within the Śūraṅgama, just as all streams and rivers flow into the great ocean. Therefore, all the meditative concentrations of bodhisattvas and all Dharma methods—such as samādhi, meditative concentration, eloquence, liberation, dharani, supernormal powers, and liberation—are contained within the Śūraṅgama Samādhi.

The Nirvana Sutra, fascicle 25 (Southern edition), states that Buddha-nature is precisely the Śūraṅgama Samādhi. This samādhi has five names: Śūraṅgama Samādhi, prajnaparamita, Vajra Samādhi, Lion’s Roar Samādhi, and Buddha-nature. “Śūraṅgama” denotes the ultimate and “firmly steadfast”; hence this concentration is called Buddha-nature.

Chapter 3

EXPLANATION OF DHYANA PARAMITA

(Dhyana has two gateways: Form and Mind, and three kinds of dhyana: worldly, supramundane, and supreme supramundane)

After practitioners have understood the meaning of the term Dhyana Paramita and the essential nature of Dhyana Paramita, if they wish to advance in cultivation, they must have skillful means for entering its gateway. The skillful means for entering the gateway will now be presented in three parts:

A. Listing the gateways of dhyana

B. Explanation

C. General conclusion

A. LISTING THE GATEWAYS OF DHYANA

If one searches through the sutras and treatises, they are immeasurably numerous, but fundamentally there are only two: Form and Mind. As a verse recorded in the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Treatise states:

Among all dharmas,
There are only name and form;

Outside name and form.

Regarding Form, there are two Dharma gateways, as stated in the sutra: “The two gateways of ambrosia are contemplation of impurity and mindfulness of breathing.”

Regarding Mind, there is only one Dharma gateway, as stated in the sutra: “Contemplative illumination of the nature of mind is called the highest meditative concentration.”

The dhyana Dharma gateways of Form and Mind are now separately divided into three kinds:

– Worldly dhyana

– Supramundane dhyana

– Supreme supramundane dhyana

Therefore, the Great Collection Sutra speaks of three methods for gathering in the mind:

– Gathering in the mind by means of arising

– Gathering in the mind by means of cessation

– Gathering in the mind by means of neither arising nor cessation

B. EXPLANATION OF THE GATEWAYS OF DHYANA

Within these three gateways of dhyana, each Dharma gateway is explained in two parts.

I- Separate explanation

II- General explanation

I- SEPARATE EXPLANATION

The word “gateway” means a passage, like a doorway in the ordinary world through which one can freely pass back and forth or reach the desired destination.

– Using mindfulness of breathing as a gateway of dhyana

Using the method of mindfulness of breathing to gather in the mind can enable practitioners’ minds to penetrate the Four Dhyanas, the Four Formless Concentrations, the Four Immeasurable Minds, the Sixteen Extraordinary and Superior Practices, the Clear and Discerning Dhyana, and so forth. These constitute the Dharma gateway of worldly dhyana, also called gathering in the mind by means of arising. Generally speaking, this is based on the dhyana Dharma gateway of ordinary beings.

– Using contemplation of form as a gateway of dhyana

Using the contemplation of impurity to gather in the mind can enable the mind to penetrate the Concentration of the Nine Perceptions, the Eight Recollections, the Ten Perceptions, the Eight Liberations, the Eight Spheres of Mastery, the Ten Universal Spheres, the Nine Successive Concentrations, the Lion’s Vigorous Advance Samādhi, the Transcendent Samādhi, and so forth. These constitute the Dharma gateway of supramundane dhyana, also called gathering in the mind by means of cessation. Generally speaking, this is based on the dhyana Dharma gateway of the Two Vehicles.

– Using contemplation of mind as a gateway of dhyana

By means of wisdom, turning the illumination back to contemplate the nature of mind enables practitioners’ minds to penetrate the great dhyanas and samādhis: the Lotus Samādhi⁽¹⁾, the Buddha-Recollection Samādhi⁽²⁾, the Pratyutpanna Samādhi⁽³⁾, Awareness of Mental Activity⁽⁴⁾, the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, and even the Dhyana of Intrinsic Nature, the Pure Purifying Dhyana, and so forth. These are the supreme supramundane dhyanas, also called gathering in the mind by means of neither arising nor cessation. Generally speaking, these are the bodhisattvas’ Dharma gateways of dhyana. For these reasons, these three Dharma gateways are taken as gateways for entering dhyana.

QUESTION: There are immeasurable Dharma gateways. Why are only these three Dharma gateways used as gateways of dhyana?

ANSWER: A brief explanation will now be given. There are three reasons for establishing these three Dharma gateways as gateways of dhyana:

a) They accord with the characteristics of dharmas
b) They are adapted to convenient and easy means

c) They encompass all dharmas

a) They accord with the characteristics of dharmas

The Great Collection Sutra records: “During the first seven days after conception, the embryo has three characteristics: life, warmth, and consciousness. The inhalation and exhalation of breath are called life. That which functions to prevent the embryo’s physical body from becoming foul and decomposing is called warmth.” This is precisely the power of karma that preserves the physical body composed of the four great elements, preventing it from decomposing and becoming foul.

The mental faculty within the mind is called consciousness. Consciousness is precisely the mind that knows and is aware in each instant. The conjunction of the three dharmas—warmth, breath, and consciousness—enables a person to proceed from initial birth to maturity without increase or decrease.

Yet deluded ordinary beings do not understand this and falsely cling to and discriminate notions of persons, selves, sentient beings, and so forth. They thereby create unwholesome and wholesome karma and develop attachment to defiled karmic activities. Because they do not understand the principle of causes, conditions, and karmic results, they undergo inverted cyclic birth and death, coming and going within the Three Realms.

If one traces life back to its ultimate source, it does not go beyond these three dharmas. Therefore, these three dharmas are taken as gateways—neither more nor fewer.

b) They are adapted to convenient and easy means

Because they accord with convenient and easy means, three dharmas are established as gateways of dhyana.

1. When one cultivates by contemplating the breath, there are two expedient advantages that make it easy to enter meditative concentration:

– One quickly attains meditative concentration.

– One easily awakens to impermanence.

2. When Form is used in the contemplation of impurity, there are also two expedient advantages:

– It eliminates thoughts of sensual desire.

– It facilitates thorough understanding of the illusory nature of all dharmas.

3. When the method of contemplating Mind is used, there are also two expedient advantages:

– It subdues all afflictions.

– It facilitates realization of the principle of emptiness.

c) They encompass all dharmas

Contemplation of the breath, contemplation of mind, and contemplation of the impurity of form are the three fundamental practices of the gateway of dhyana. Thus, only these three dharmas are presented as the essential points; if explained extensively, there would be immeasurable Dharma gateways.

– Within contemplation of the breath, one may sometimes use the method of counting the breaths, following the breaths, or contemplatively illuminating the breath. Thus, each Dharma gateway is different, and the states realized through cultivation also differ.

– Within contemplation of form, one may sometimes contemplate external form, internal form, loving-kindness and compassion, the Buddha’s excellent marks, or even the true aspect of all dharmas. Because the contemplations differ, the states attained also differ.

– Within contemplation of mind, one may cultivate either calming or contemplation, awareness or thorough understanding; one may awaken and comprehend that the minds entering awareness are not mind, and, awakening to the absence of mind, give rise to the Four Immeasurable Minds. Or some may awaken to the emptiness of mind, which is not a nihilistic empty mind, and thereby know that all minds are not mind. Because each method of contemplating mind differs, the state attained also differs.

Therefore, it is said that these three gateways encompass all Dharma gateways. The profundity and subtlety of this meaning will become apparent only in the explanations of cultivation and realization in Chapters 7 and 8.

II. GENERAL EXPLANATION

In fact, all three of these Dharma approaches encompass worldly dhyana, supramundane dhyana, and supreme supramundane dhyana. Why is this so?

– The contemplation of the breath is not necessarily confined to worldly dhyana. In the Vinaya Pitaka, the Buddha taught sixteen methods of contemplating the breath for his sravaka disciples; by practicing accordingly, they all attained the noble fruits. Therefore, breath counting is also a supramundane dhyana and a Mahayana Dharma approach. As recorded in the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra: “The practice of anapana is a practice of the Bodhisattva Mahayana

(Great Vehicle).” The Sutra on Invoking Avalokitesvara states: “The contemplation of the breath is used to discuss the ‘Six-Syllable Phrases’⁽⁵⁾ and to explain the fruits attained by practitioners of the Three Vehicles.” How, then, could the contemplation of the breath be merely a worldly dhyana practice?

– Using the contemplation of form as the gateway to dhyana

This is neither solely a practice of the Two Vehicles, nor is it identical to the practices of Mahayana followers or ordinary non-Buddhist practitioners. Why? The Nirvana Sutra states: “Non-Buddhist practitioners can apply contemplation as an antidote only to material phenomena; they cannot apply it as an antidote to the mind. My disciples, however, are highly skilled in treating the inner mind.” Thus, ordinary beings can also contemplate material phenomena. Regarding the Mahayana contemplation of form, the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Contemplating the physical body as swollen, decaying, and decomposing is a practice of the Bodhisattva Mahayana.” How, then, could the contemplation of form belong exclusively to supramundane dhyana?

– Using the contemplation of mind as the gateway to dhyana

This, too, is not solely a contemplation practiced by bodhisattvas. Why? Non-Buddhist practitioners can also contemplate the mind, thereby giving rise to the forty-eight kinds of views. By contemplating the mind, ordinary beings enter the four formless absorptions and gain access to the sravaka teachings. As the Nirvana Sutra states: “My disciples are skilled in treating the inner mind and therefore can free themselves from the bonds of the three realms.” Thus, the contemplation of mind and dharmas is not confined solely to supreme supramundane dhyana.

Therefore, these three dhyana approaches mutually interpenetrate and provide access to one another. Practitioners who apply their minds to cultivation also possess three different kinds of capacities; consequently, the dhyana states they develop and the paths they realize also differ. This meaning will be discussed more extensively in Chapter Nine, in the explanation of dhyana paramita.

C. GENERAL CONCLUSION ON THE GATEWAYS OF DHYANA

QUESTION: Since both the general and specific explanations have already been given, why was an additional distinction made in the preceding section?

ANSWER: All principles have both general and specific meanings. Since the teaching approaches differ according to the conditions and benefits of sentient beings, there is no fault in teaching the Dharma differently. Moreover, the meaning expressed in the preceding section was not yet definitive and should not be rigidly held as fixed.

QUESTION: If all three approaches intermingle and provide access to one another, can one attain dhyana states such as the nine perceptions, the eight liberations, and the dhyana of intrinsic nature by practicing only the contemplation of the breath?

ANSWER: This is not certain; some attain them, while others do not. Beginners in dhyana cannot attain them; practitioners of the Two Vehicles who have mastery over meditative concentration can

attain them; and bodhisattvas fully endowed with the skillful means of the paramitas can do so freely and without obstruction.

QUESTION: Why can beginners not attain them? What of those who practice contemplation of the breath yet still attain such dhyana states as the nine perceptions, the eight liberations, the Buddha-recollection samadhi, and loving-kindness?

ANSWER: These arise through the activation of causes and conditions from previous lives; they are not attained through practicing contemplation of the breath. When those conditions are exhausted, the states disappear. Without further progress, one cannot accomplish the Dharma approaches in their proper sequence. This meaning will be discussed more extensively and in greater detail in the section on inner skillful means, which explains the signs that arise when wholesome roots are activated. The same applies to the other two approaches.

Notes to Chapter Three:

⁽¹⁾ Lotus Sutra Samadhi (Lotus Sutra Repentance): This Lotus Sutra Samadhi is based on the Lotus Sutra and the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra and takes thirty-seven days as one period of practice. The practitioner recites the sutra or practices walking meditation and, whether standing or sitting, reflects upon and contemplates the principle of the true aspect of the Middle Way. This method of practice primarily involves repentance to eliminate obstacles caused by doubt; therefore, it is necessary to cultivate the five forms of repentance: repentance, exhortation and supplication, sympathetic joy, dedication of merit, and the making of vows. There are six periods of practice by day and night and three methods:

a) Bodily permission and restraint: “permission” means that walking and sitting are permitted; “restraint” means that one should not remain standing or lying down in one place.

b) Verbal recitation and silence: the mouth recites Mahayana scriptures without mixing in worldly affairs.

c) Mental calming and contemplation—this has two kinds:

– Practice with characteristics is based on the “Encouragement of Samantabhadra” chapter. Without entering meditative concentration, whether walking, standing, or sitting, one single-mindedly recites and recollects the Lotus Sutra and, throughout the six periods of day and night, repents of the karmic obstacles of the six sense faculties.

– Practice without characteristics is based on the “Peaceful Practices” chapter. One enters profound and subtle meditative concentration and contemplatively illuminates the six sense faculties so as to penetrate the Middle Way of the three truths.

⁽²⁾ Buddha-recollection samadhi: contemplating and recollecting the virtues of the Buddhas is of two kinds:

a) Buddha-recollection samadhi as causal practice: this is of three kinds—contemplating the Buddha’s marks and excellent characteristics, contemplating the true aspect of the Buddha’s Dharma body, and reciting the Buddha’s name.

b) Buddha-recollection samadhi as the resultant accomplishment: this means successfully cultivating the three kinds of causal practice. There are many different explanations concerning the characteristics and functions of this samadhi, all of which are collectively called Buddha-recollection samadhi. However, because the Buddhas differ according to the three times and ten directions, and because their Dharma bodies, reward bodies, and transformation bodies are distinct, the contemplation and recollection of the Buddhas and the recitation of their names also differ.

⁽³⁾ Pratyutpanna Samadhi: a kind of right concentration attained by practicing a Dharma approach in which one walks while recollecting and visualizing the Buddha.

⁽⁴⁾ Samadhi of Awakening to Mental Activity: the neither-walking-nor-sitting samadhi, the most important of the four kinds of samadhi established by the Tiantai school. At all times and while performing all activities, as soon as a thought arises, one knows it; as soon as a mental intention arises, one cultivates samadhi. The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra calls this the Samadhi of Awakening to Mental Activity, while Master Huisi calls it the Samadhi of Following One’s Own Mind.

⁽⁵⁾ Six-Syllable Phrases: one of four kinds of six-syllable dharani—the Six-Syllable Phrases Dharani of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Six-Syllable Mantra of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, the Six-Syllable Mantra of Bodhisattva Manjusri, and the Buddha’s Six-Syllable Great Illumination.

Chapter Four

EXPLANATION OF THE SEQUENCE OF DHYANA PARAMITA

(Explaining the successive stages of dhyana cultivation, from the initial awakening of the mind to Buddhahood)

Having understood the characteristics of the gateways of dhyana, practitioners should clearly understand the successive stages through which bodhisattvas cultivate meditative concentration, proceeding from shallow to profound, from the initial awakening of the mind until

the attainment of Buddhahood. We shall now draw upon the teachings in the sutras and treatises concerning meditative concentration in order to cultivate according to a clearly defined sequence. The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “The practice of a bodhisattva mahasattva has a sequence; learning has a sequence; and realization of the path has a sequence.”

The discussion of the sequence of meditative concentrations has two parts:

A. Explanation of the meaning of dhyana practiced in sequence

B. Explanation of the meaning of dhyana practiced without sequence

A. EXPLANATION OF THE MEANING OF DHYANA PRACTICED IN SEQUENCE

A practitioner cultivating meditative concentration must first uphold the precepts purely and, at the same time, become disenchanted with the afflictions of the desire realm. The practitioner cultivates mindful attention to the breath and enters desire-realm concentration; from desire-realm concentration, one attains access concentration; and from access concentration, one successively attains the first dhyana through the fourth dhyana. This is called inner form-realm concentration (concentration within the form realm).

Next, the practitioner performs great meritorious deeds and visualizes all sentient beings as contented and joyful, successively attaining the four immeasurable minds. This is called outer form-realm concentration (concentration outside the form realm).

Although these eight kinds of meditative concentration take the two realms of internal and external objects as their conditions, and the ways of entering concentration differ, they all belong to the form realm. When the practitioner abides in the concentration of the fourth dhyana, he becomes weary of the material afflictions of the form realm as though they were a prison, eliminates both internal and external form, single-mindedly takes space as the object, transcends the perils of the form realm, and realizes the four formless concentrations. These are called concentrations of the formless realm. These twelve gateways of meditation all belong to conditioned teachings with outflows.

Meditation may also be with outflows or without outflows. After the practitioner has realized the fundamental dhyanas, wishing to relinquish the mind’s attachment to views within these dhyanas, he then seeks to cultivate the Six Subtle Dharma Gates in the desire realm. Why? Because among the Six Subtle Gates, the three practices of counting the breath, following the breath, and cessation are skillful means for entering concentration, while the three practices of contemplation, returning, and purification are skillful means for contemplative wisdom.

The distinctive qualities of the Six Subtle Dharma Gates are concentration accompanied by craving and wisdom that urges one onward.

Concentration accompanied by craving: Because one craves and delights in meditative concentration, it is called “with outflows.”

Wisdom that urges one onward: Because one is impelled by wisdom, it is said to be “without outflows.” The contemplations of the “Six Subtle Dharmas” are for the most part fully present in desire-realm concentration, the concentration of the not-yet-arrived ground, and the four dhyanas; at times, cultivation may also extend to the concentrations of the formless realm.

Next is an explanation of the Sixteen Exceptional and Supreme Practices. Viewed horizontally, they correspond to the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. Viewed vertically, they extend from desire-realm concentration to the concentration of neither perception nor non-perception. This is because, when cultivating meditative concentration on each ground, one establishes the Four Foundations of Mindfulness to contemplate, analyze, and eliminate attachments; from this, meditation without outflows arises.

Next is an explanation of the practice of discerning contemplation. The contemplative method of the preceding Sixteen Exceptional and Supreme Practices employs contemplation of the whole and is therefore still coarse. The present practice of discerning contemplation employs analytical contemplation and is therefore extremely subtle. This practice likewise extends from desire-realm concentration to the concentration of neither perception nor non-perception, and even to the concentration of cessation. These three kinds of meditation are also called pure meditation. Together with the concentrations of the form realm and the formless realm, they constitute five kinds, all of which remain within the scope of fundamental meditation.

We shall now discuss the sequential characteristics of meditation without outflows. There are two distinct meanings: the sequence of practice and the sequence of wisdom.

I. THE SEQUENCE OF PRACTICE

There are four gateways of meditation: contemplation, refinement, permeation, and cultivation.

1. Contemplative meditation: This comprises six kinds:

a) First, cultivate the contemplation of the Nine Perceptions: Before attaining meditation without outflows, one uses the contemplation of the Nine Perceptions to counteract and eliminate the afflictions of the desire realm.

b) Next, cultivate the Eight Recollections: These eliminate the fear that arises while cultivating the contemplation of the Nine Perceptions.

c) Contemplate the Ten Perceptions: Those who cultivate the destructible approach in the desire realm practice the contemplation of the Ten Perceptions and thereby can eliminate afflictions throughout the three realms.

d) Cultivate the Eight Liberations: Those who cultivate the indestructible approach use this contemplation to counteract attachment to views concerning the fundamental dhyanas of the three realms.

e) Cultivate the Eight Bases of Mastery: This enables one, within meditative concentration, freely to contemplate the conditioned objects.

f) Cultivate the Ten Universal Bases: This is done so that, when one wishes to contemplate within concentration, mind and form may become all-pervasive. Even the cultivation and realization of the six superknowledges belong to contemplative meditation.

2. Refinement meditation

This refers to the nine successive concentrations. It encompasses both the contemplation and concentration described above, refining the mind until it is thoroughly disciplined so that, when entering meditative concentration, each successive mind-moment continues without interruption. Therefore, the three samadhis with applied thought and sustained thought, and so forth, also fall within the scope of refinement meditation.

3. Permeation meditation

This refers to the Lion’s Vigorous Advance Samadhi. One enters and emerges from the meditative concentrations sequentially in both forward and reverse order, permeating their cultivation so that concentration and contemplation become thoroughly mastered and clear, and the merit and benefit of meditative concentration increase.

4. Cultivation meditation

This refers to the Transcendent Samadhi. One leaps into and out of the various dhyanas because one has attained unimpeded freedom and liberation.

The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “A bodhisattva-mahasattva abiding in prajnaparamita employs dhyana-paramita and, apart from the samadhis of the Buddhas, practices and enters all other kinds of samadhi, such as the samadhis of the sravakas, the samadhis of the pratyekabuddhas, and the samadhis of the bodhisattvas.”

“Other samadhis” refers to the fundamental concentrations. The samadhis of the sravakas refer to the three kinds of samadhi—emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness—as well as the Thirty-Seven Factors of Awakening, the Four Noble Truths, and the Sixteen Practices. The samadhis of the pratyekabuddhas refer to the samadhi of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. The samadhis of the bodhisattvas refer to intrinsic-nature meditation and so forth; all are called samadhis.

Abiding in these samadhis, a bodhisattva can enter and emerge from the Eight Liberations in forward and reverse order. Relying on the contemplation of the Eight Liberations, the bodhisattva enters and emerges from the nine successive concentrations in forward and reverse order. Relying on the nine successive concentrations, the bodhisattva can enter and emerge sequentially from the Lion’s Vigorous Advance Samadhi in forward and reverse order.

Relying on the Lion’s Vigorous Advance Samadhi, the bodhisattva can enter and emerge sequentially from the Transcendent Samadhi in forward and reverse order. Relying on these samadhis, the bodhisattva realizes the characteristics of all dharmas and so forth, thereby becoming equal to those of the Two Vehicles whose practice of meditation without outflows is complete. Why is this so?

Because great arhats also realize the Transcendent Samadhi.

II. THE SEQUENCE OF WISDOM

– By hearing the teaching of the Four Noble Truths and cultivating the Thirty-Seven Factors of Awakening, one subsequently enters the Three Gates of Liberation—emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. Next, by means of the Sixteen Contemplative Practices⁽¹⁾, one employs sixteen contemplations to analyze the Four Noble Truths, realizes the Ten Knowledges⁽²⁾ and the three faculties without outflows⁽³⁾, accomplishes the nine cultivations⁽⁴⁾, and realizes the nine abandonments⁽⁵⁾. The foregoing introduces the sravakas’ practice of wisdom without outflows.

– The contemplation of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination is the pratyekabuddhas’ practice of wisdom without outflows.

– The bodhisattvas’ practice of wisdom without outflows sequentially accomplishes the stages of those in training and those beyond training of the Two Vehicles and realizes the wisdom of elimination⁽⁶⁾. This is called entering emptiness through the provisional and includes all contemplative practices.

Therefore, the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “When a bodhisattva-mahasattva practices prajnaparamita, through the power of skillful means, the bodhisattva proceeds from the ground of dry wisdom⁽⁷⁾ into the ground of nature⁽⁸⁾, the ground of the eight persons⁽⁹⁾, the ground of seeing⁽¹⁰⁾, the ground of freedom from desire⁽¹¹⁾, the ground of the arhat⁽¹²⁾, and the ground of the pratyekabuddha⁽¹³⁾, and is able to enter and practice on all these grounds without appropriating their realization.”

A separate explanation of the sequential dhyanas of bodhisattvas:

The nine kinds of great dhyana⁽¹⁴⁾:

1. Intrinsic-nature dhyana

2. Dhyana encompassing all meanings

3. Difficult dhyana

4. Dhyana of all gateways

5. Dhyana of good persons

6. Dhyana encompassing all practices

7. Dhyana that eliminates afflictions

8. Dhyana of happiness in this world and the next

9. Purely purified dhyana

By cultivating these nine kinds of dhyana, bodhisattvas realize the fruit of great bodhi and fully attain all Buddha-Dharmas, such as the Ten Powers⁽¹⁵⁾, the Four Fearlessnesses⁽¹⁶⁾, and the Eighteen Distinctive Qualities⁽¹⁷⁾.

The foregoing has briefly explained how bodhisattvas, from the time they first arouse the resolve to cultivate meditation, proceed through sequential cultivation, sequential training, sequential attainment of the path, and ultimately the sequential realization of Buddhahood. This is called “Abiding in profound meditative concentration, they attain great nirvana.” This meaning will be discussed fully in the section on cultivation and realization in Chapter Seven and in the section revealing the fruits of karmic recompense in Chapter Eight.

QUESTION: Because bodhisattva-mahasattvas wish to comprehend the profound and shallow characteristics of the various meditative concentrations and fully realize all Buddha-Dharmas, they must therefore cultivate and train sequentially, as explained above. But when beginners now first arouse the resolve to cultivate meditation, must they cultivate according to the foregoing sequence, or is it unnecessary to follow that sequence?

ANSWER: This sequence has now been established in order to clarify the profound and shallow characteristics of the various dhyanas.

If we discuss those who have newly aroused the resolve to practice meditation, only by skillfully knowing the appropriate method of counteraction according to their inclinations can they easily realize nirvana.

They need only begin their practice through the gates of expedient means of the various meditations; they are not necessarily required to follow the sequence set forth in the preceding section. This meaning will be extensively analyzed in the section on Inner Expedient Means, under the meditation gateway of settling the mind.

B. EXPLANATION OF THE MEANING OF THE MEDITATIONS PRACTICED OUT OF SEQUENCE

QUESTION: When bodhisattvas practice meditation, must they practice in sequence, or may they practice out of sequence?

ANSWER: There are four cases:

1. In sequence

2. Out of sequence

3. In sequence yet out of sequence

4. Out of sequence yet in sequence

1. In sequence

The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra states: “Bodhisattvas practice in sequence, learn in sequence, and realize the path in sequence.”

2. Out of sequence

Bodhisattvas who practice the Lotus Samādhi, the Samādhi of One Practice⁽¹⁸⁾, and so forth contemplate the Dharma-realm as equal, neither deep nor shallow; hence this is called practice out of sequence. The Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings states: “Traveling the great direct path, one encounters no hardships or obstructing difficulties.”

3. In sequence yet out of sequence

The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra states: “Venerable Subhūti addressed the Buddha: ‘Should the mind practice prajnaparamita in sequence, give rise to prajnaparamita in sequence, and cultivate prajnaparamita in sequence?’ The Buddha taught Subhūti: ‘Never departing from sarvajñāna (Buddha-nature) is to practice prajnaparamita, to give rise to prajnaparamita, and to cultivate prajnaparamita.’”

4. Out of sequence yet in sequence

Thus Venerable Subhūti addressed the Buddha: “All dharmas are without intrinsic nature; how, then, can bodhisattvas realize one bhūmi after another?” The Buddha said: “Because all dharmas are empty, bodhisattvas can realize one bhūmi after another.”

QUESTION: Do these four propositions concern only bodhisattvas, or are they also present in the meditation practice of those of the Two Vehicles?

ANSWER: Those of the Two Vehicles also have these cases. Why? Śrāvakas, too, may newly arouse the resolve and undertake the “practice of cultivation,” beginning with the fundamental First Dhyāna and continuing until, through the Transcendent Samādhi, they realize the fruit of arhatship. This is called practice in sequence.

Or a person of śrāvaka capacity, upon hearing the Buddha say, “Come, bhikṣu!” immediately fully realizes the Three Knowledges⁽¹⁹⁾, the Eight Liberations⁽²⁰⁾, and so forth. This is called practice out of sequence.

Or a person of śrāvaka capacity, while sequentially cultivating the practice of cultivation, may employ the practice of wisdom and skillfully contemplate the nature of emptiness. From the initial mind, that person realizes in sequence the fruit of arhatship. This is called practice in sequence yet out of sequence.

Or a person of śrāvaka capacity, immediately upon first arousing the resolve, practices the practice of wisdom and, through the arising of the “Lightning-Flash Samādhi,” realizes the Four Fruits, although the various meditative absorptions are not yet complete. Wishing to perfect conditioned merit and virtue, that person then cultivates in sequence all five kinds of meditative absorption. This is called practice out of sequence yet in sequence.

This meaning will become clear in Chapter 10 of Volumes 7 and 8, where the section on cultivation and realization and the disclosure of their fruits and recompenses is explained.

Notes to Chapter 4:

⁽¹⁾ Sixteen Modes of Contemplation: (Sixteen Practices, Sixteen Aspects of Practice, Contemplation of the Sixteen Aspects of Practice, Sixteen

Noble Practices, Sixteen Aspects of the Truths, Sixteen Aspects of the Four Noble Truths)

These are sixteen contemplations of the Four Noble Truths for eliminating erroneous views:

1/ Four contemplations of the Truth of Suffering: Impermanence: contemplating that the five appropriated skandhas arise through causes and conditions and continually arise and cease; Suffering: contemplating that the five skandhas are suffering because they are oppressed by impermanence; Emptiness: contemplating that the five appropriated skandhas possess neither a single characteristic nor distinct characteristics and therefore are empty—that is, they are emptiness; Non-self: contemplating that within the five skandhas, neither self nor what belongs to self can be apprehended; this is signlessness and is the practice of non-self.

2/ Four contemplations of the Truth of the Origin of Suffering: Accumulation: contemplating that afflictions, in conjunction with contaminated karma, bring about the fruit of suffering; Cause: contemplating the six causes that produce the fruit of suffering; Condition: contemplating the four conditions (clay, potter’s wheel, cord, and water) that produce the fruit of suffering; Arising: after birth has been assumed, the five skandhas arise once again.

3/ Four contemplations of the Truth of Cessation: Exhaustion: contemplating that in nirvana all suffering is exhausted; Cessation: contemplating that all the fires of affliction are extinguished; Sublimity: nirvana is supreme because no calamity remains; Detachment: contemplating that nirvana is far removed from worldly birth and death because all misfortunes have ceased.

4/ Four contemplations of the Truth of the Path: Path: contemplating that the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening have the capacity to lead to nirvana; Rightness: contemplating that the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening accord with truth; Course: contemplating that the thirty-seven factors of the path constitute the way traveled by noble ones; Vehicle: contemplating that the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening have the capacity to convey one to the three gates of liberation, unobstructed by the afflictions of craving and views.

The purpose of the sixteen aspects of practice is to counteract erroneous views. Contemplation of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self counteracts the views of permanence, pleasure, what belongs to self, and self. Contemplation of Accumulation, Cause, Condition, and Arising counteracts the views of causelessness, a single cause, a transforming cause, and a primordial cause. Contemplation of Exhaustion, Cessation, Sublimity, and Detachment counteracts the views of suffering, emptiness, meditative absorption, and eternity. Contemplation of Path, Rightness, Course, and Vehicle counteracts the views that there is no path, that a wrong path is the path, that another path is the path, and that the path is subject to regression.

⁽²⁾ Ten Knowledges: Ten kinds of knowledge distinguished according to whether they are contaminated or uncontaminated.

1/ Conventional Knowledge: knowledge that ordinarily apprehends conventional objects.

2/ Dharma Knowledge: uncontaminated wisdom that takes the principle of the Four Noble Truths as its object and eliminates the afflictions of the desire realm.

3/ Subsequent Knowledge: uncontaminated wisdom that arises in conformity with Dharma Knowledge, takes as its objects the Four Noble Truths of the form and formless realms, and eliminates afflictions.

4/ Knowledge of Suffering.

5/ Knowledge of the Origin of Suffering.

6/ Knowledge of Cessation.

7/ Knowledge of the Path: (These four knowledges—4, 5, 6, and 7—respectively eliminate the afflictions associated with the Four Noble Truths.)

8/ Knowledge of Others’ Minds: knowledge that clearly knows the minds and mental factors of the desire and form realms, as well as uncontaminated minds and mental factors.

9/ Knowledge of Exhaustion: the wisdom of a noble one at the stage of no-more-learning, who clearly knows: “I have known suffering; I have eliminated its origin; I have realized cessation; I have cultivated the path.” It is uncontaminated knowledge arising simultaneously with the “attainment” of the exhaustion of the contaminants.

10/ Knowledge of Non-Arising: the wisdom of a noble one at the stage of no-more-learning, who clearly knows: “I have known suffering, and there is nothing further to know; I have eliminated its origin, and there is nothing further to eliminate; I have realized cessation, and there is nothing further to realize; I have cultivated the path, and there is nothing further to cultivate.” It is uncontaminated knowledge arising simultaneously with the “attainment” of the unconditioned cessation not due to discernment.

⁽³⁾ Three Uncontaminated Faculties: the three faculties of the Path of Seeing, the Path of Cultivation, and the Path of No-More-Learning. These three uncontaminated faculties are established with

the nine faculties—mind, joy, pleasure, equanimity, faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom—as their substance. Because these three uncontaminated faculties possess predominant power and function and can give rise to pure, uncontaminated noble dharmas, they are called Faculties.

1/ The Faculty of One Who Does Not Yet Know but Is About to Know: the faculty belonging to the stage of the Path of Seeing. Since beginningless time, a person at this stage has never heard the truth of the Four Noble Truths. Wishing to know that truth, the person studies and cultivates the expedient means; therefore, it is also called the Faculty of One Who Does Not Yet Know but Desires to Know.

2/ The Faculty of One Who Has Known: the faculty belonging to the stage of the Path of Cultivation. This means that one has clearly known the truth of the Four Noble Truths and has also eliminated the afflictions involving delusion about principle. Solely in order to eliminate delusion about phenomena, one advances in contemplating the principle of the Four Noble Truths and clearly knows the objects of the Four Noble Truths.

3/ The Faculty of One Who Fully Knows: the stage of no-more-learning. This means clearly knowing the principle of the Four Noble Truths. Because the afflictions have been eliminated and all that had to be done has been accomplished, the nine faculties are called the Faculty of One Who Fully Knows. At this stage, one has realized the fruit of no-more-learning and therefore possesses this knowledge.

⁽⁴⁾ Ninefold cultivation (Nine grades of afflictions, nine grades of conceptual delusions): the nine grades of delusive obstructions are classified, according to their coarseness or subtlety, by dividing the four delusions—greed, anger, pride, and ignorance—into three levels: upper, middle, and lower. Among the nine realms, the Desire Realm contains all four cultivated delusions, whereas the Four Dhyanas and the Four Formless Attainments contain only three, anger being absent.

The total delusions of each ground are divided into nine grades, from upper-upper to lower-lower. Thus, the nine grounds comprise eighty-one grades of cultivated delusions, encompassing both the contaminated and uncontaminated. Ordinary beings can also eliminate the seventy-two grades belonging to the eight lower grounds.

A noble one at the stage of the Path of Cultivation eliminates the first six grades of the Desire Realm and realizes the second fruit. By eliminating all nine grades of delusion in the Desire Realm, one realizes the third fruit. By eliminating all seventy-two grades of cultivated delusions in the Form and Formless Realms, one realizes the fourth fruit.

⁽⁵⁾ Nine eliminations (Nine Unobstructed Paths)

⁽⁶⁾ Elimination through wisdom (Elimination through wisdom and the virtue of wisdom): clearly illuminating the truth is called the virtue of wisdom, referring to bodhi; completely eliminating the afflictions is called the virtue of elimination, referring to nirvana.

⁽⁷⁾ Ground of dry wisdom: at this stage there is only wisdom and not yet concentration. It corresponds to the stage of the Three Worthies of the shravakas and to the bodhisattva’s stage of awakening, from the initial arising of the aspiration until before attaining Conforming Patience.

⁽⁸⁾ Ground of the nature: this stage corresponds to the Four Wholesome Roots of the shravakas and the bodhisattva’s Conforming Patience. Although one is attached to the true aspect of all dharmas, one does not give rise to wrong views and is endowed with wisdom and meditative concentration.

⁽⁹⁾ Ground of the eight persons (Eighth ground): this stage corresponds to the candidate for the fruit of stream-entry within the fifteen mental moments of the shravaka’s Path of Seeing, and to the bodhisattva’s Patience regarding the Non-arising of Dharmas.

⁽¹⁰⁾ Ground of seeing: a practitioner at this stage corresponds to the shravaka fruit of stream-entry and to the bodhisattva stage of avaivartika (non-retrogression). A practitioner of the bodhisattva vehicle at this stage eliminates all eighty-eight delusions of view in the three realms, gives rise to true uncontaminated wisdom, and clearly sees the truth of the Four Noble Truths. This is the subsequent knowledge of the Path, the final mental moment among the sixteen mental moments pertaining to the Four Noble Truths.

According to the Setting Forth Chapter of the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra, fascicle 6: “A bodhisattva abiding at this stage must practice ten dharmas of non-abandonment: not abandoning residence in an aranya; having few desires and knowing contentment; not abandoning the virtues of dhutanga; not abandoning the precepts and prohibitions; becoming disenchanted with sensual desires; having a mind disenchanted with the world; delighting in nirvana; relinquishing all possessions; keeping the mind from sinking into torpor; and begrudging nothing.”

Ground of attenuation (Stage of attenuation of desire): at this stage, one eliminates one of the nine grades of cultivated delusions in the Desire Realm; it corresponds to either the fruit of stream-entry or the fruit of once-returning. It also refers to bodhisattvas who have eliminated the afflictions but still retain subtle habitual tendencies, from the stage of non-retrogression upward until before the fruit of Buddhahood.

⁽¹¹⁾ Ground of freedom from desire: at this stage, all afflictions of the Desire Realm are eliminated. It corresponds to the fruit of non-returning and to the bodhisattva’s Ground of Freedom from Desire, where the five superknowledges are realized.

⁽¹²⁾ Ground of the arhat (Ground of what has been accomplished): this is the stage at which one attains the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising and realizes the shravaka fruit of arhatship, or the stage at which a bodhisattva perfects the ground of Buddhahood.

⁽¹³⁾ Ground of the pratyekabuddha: this refers to those who attain the Path as solitary realizers by contemplating the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination.

⁽¹⁴⁾ Nine kinds of great dhyana:

1/ Dhyana of intrinsic nature: by contemplating the intrinsic nature of mind, one clearly knows that all dharmas flow forth from the mind and that the mind gathers all things within itself like a wish-fulfilling jewel; or, abiding in the practice of calming, one gathers the mind so that it does not become distracted; or, abiding in the practice of insight, one discerns with clarity; or, cultivating calming and insight together, concentration and wisdom become equal.

2/ Dhyana encompassing all meanings: this dhyana attains all virtues of self-cultivation and teaching and transforming others. This dhyana is of two kinds: mundane and supramundane; within each there are again three kinds: a) Dhyana abiding in bliss in the present life: free from all delusive thoughts, with body and mind utterly stilled, this is the foremost dhyana. b) Dhyana that gives rise to the virtues of samadhi: it gives rise to various samadhis belonging to the immeasurable, boundless, inconceivable lineage of the ten powers, and enters all sublime virtues, unobstructed wisdom, freedom from contention, knowledge of aspirations. c) Dhyana benefiting sentient beings: giving to sentient beings

in order to remove their sufferings, clearly knowing which Dharma should be taught, recognizing kindness in order to repay it, and helping sentient beings escape fear, anxiety, and distress.

3/ Difficult dhyana: this kind of dhyana is extremely difficult to cultivate and comprises three kinds: a) After cultivating meditative concentration for a long time and attaining its supreme subtlety, with the mind sovereign in samadhi, one compassionately wishes to bring sentient beings to maturity and therefore relinquishes the bliss of the foremost dhyana to be born in the Desire Realm. b) Relying upon meditative concentration, one gives rise to profound, immeasurable, boundless, inconceivable samadhis. c) Relying upon meditative concentration, one realizes unsurpassed bodhi.

4/ Dhyana of all gateways: all meditative concentrations arise from this Dharma gateway. There are four kinds: a) The first dhyana of the Form Realm (dhyana with initial and sustained application). b) The second dhyana of the Form Realm. c) The third dhyana of the Form Realm. d) The fourth dhyana of the Form Realm.

5/ Dhyana of wholesome persons: encompassing all wholesome dharmas, this is the kind of dhyana cultivated by beings of great goodness. There are five kinds: non-attachment, loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.

6/ Dhyana of all practices: this encompasses all practices of the Mahayana. There are thirteen kinds of dhyana: wholesome, indeterminate, transformation of transformations, calming, insight, benefiting self and others, right mindfulness, giving rise to the virtues of supernormal powers, conditioned by names, conditioned by meanings, conditioned by the sign of calming, conditioned by the sign of arousal, and conditioned by the sign of equanimity.

7/ Dhyana that removes distress: cultivating this dhyana can eliminate the various sufferings and afflictions of sentient beings. There are eight kinds: a) Dhyana that serves as the basis for spells: the bodhisattva enters concentration and removes sufferings and calamities caused by poisons and the oppressive cold of frost. b) Dhyana that removes illness: it removes illnesses arising from the four great elements. c) Dhyana of clouds and rain: it continually showers ambrosial rain,

ending the calamity of drought and relieving the suffering of hunger and thirst. d) Dhyana of universal deliverance: it rescues humans and non-humans from dangers and fears on land and water. e) Dhyana of abundant benefit: it gives food and drink to hungry and thirsty sentient beings. f) Dhyana of subjugation: it uses material resources to subdue and train sentient beings. g) Dhyana of awakening and illumination: it awakens and enlightens deluded sentient beings. h) Dhyana of universal accomplishment: it enables all the undertakings of sentient beings to be accomplished.

8/ Dhyana of happiness in this world and the next: cultivating this dhyana enables sentient beings to attain peace and happiness in the present and the future. There are nine kinds: a) Dhyana that uses manifestations of supernormal powers to subdue and train sentient beings. b) Dhyana that manifests in accordance with speech to subdue and train sentient beings. c) Dhyana that manifests instructions to subdue and train sentient beings. d) Dhyana that reveals the evil realms in order to awaken sentient beings holding wrong views. e) Dhyana that uses eloquence to benefit sentient beings who have lost their eloquence. f) Dhyana that uses right mindfulness to aid sentient beings who have lost mindfulness. g) Dhyana that composes non-inverted treatises and extols the Matrka (treatises) so that

the true Dharma may long remain in the world. h) Dhyana that employs worldly skills to benefit, attract, and transform sentient beings. j) Dhyana that emits light to bring a temporary end to the evil realms.

9/ Purely purified dhyana: relying upon this meditative concentration, all afflictions, delusions, and karma are completely eliminated, and the fruit of pure great bodhi is attained. (The repetition of the word “pure” signifies that even the characteristic of purity cannot be apprehended.) There are ten kinds: a) Uncontaminated, pure mundane dhyana. b) Purely purified supramundane dhyana. c) Purely purified dhyana of skillful means. d) Purely purified dhyana that attains the fundamental state. e) Purely purified dhyana of supreme advancement beyond the fundamental state. f) Powerful, purely purified dhyana in entering, abiding, and emerging. g) Powerful, purely purified dhyana that, after relinquishing concentration,

enters it again. h) Purely purified dhyana possessing the power of supernormal abilities. j) Purely purified dhyana free from all attachments to views. k) Purely purified dhyana concerning the afflictive and cognitive obstructions.

⁽¹⁵⁾ The Ten Powers: the ten kinds of wisdom-power of the Tathagata are:

1/ The wisdom-power of knowing what is possible and what is impossible: “Possible” means being in accord with principle. The Tathagata knows with certainty all causes, conditions, and their resulting retributions; if one creates wholesome karma, one will certainly experience a pleasant result. This is called knowing what is possible.

2/ The wisdom-power of knowing the maturation of karma: (The power of karma) The Tathagata clearly knows the karmic conditions and resulting retributions, as well as the places of birth of sentient beings throughout the three times—past, present, and future.

3/ The wisdom-power of knowing meditative absorptions, liberations, samadhis, and attainments: (The power of concentration) The Tathagata is sovereign and unobstructed with respect to all meditative concentrations, and knows universally and as they truly are their successive degrees of depth and shallowness.

4/ The wisdom-power of knowing superior and inferior faculties: (The power of faculties) The Tathagata knows as they truly are the superior and inferior capacities of sentient beings and the fruits they attain.

5/ The wisdom-power of knowing the many kinds of inclinations: (The power of aspiration) The Tathagata knows as they truly are all the various desires and inclinations of sentient beings and their differences in wholesomeness and unwholesomeness.

6/ The wisdom-power of knowing the many kinds of dispositions: (The power of nature) The Tathagata knows universally and as they truly are the different dispositions of sentient beings in the world.

7/ The wisdom-power of knowing the paths leading everywhere: (The power of knowing former lives) The Tathagata knows universally and as they truly are that the destinations of contaminated practices are the “Six Realms,” while the destination of uncontaminated practice is “nirvana.”

8/ The wisdom-power of recollecting former abodes: The Tathagata knows universally and as they truly are former lives, from one lifetime to hundreds of thousands and tens of thousands of lifetimes, from one kalpa to hundreds of thousands and tens of thousands of kalpas: dying here and being born there, dying there and being born here, names, lifeways, suffering and happiness, and life spans.

9/ The power of knowing birth and death: (The power of the divine eye) With the divine eye, the Tathagata knows as they truly are the times of sentient beings’ births and deaths, their wholesome and unwholesome realms in future lives, and even the wholesome and unwholesome karmic conditions that result in beauty or ugliness, wealth or poverty.

10/ The wisdom-power of the exhaustion of the outflows: The Tathagata has completely eliminated all residual habitual tendencies so that they can never arise again; he knows this universally and as it truly is.

⁽¹⁶⁾ The Four Fearlessnesses: four qualities of confidence, fearlessness, courage, and serenity possessed by the Buddha and bodhisattvas when teaching the Dharma. According to fascicle 42 of the Ekottarika Agama Sutra, the Buddha’s Four Fearlessnesses are: Fearlessness in manifestly and perfectly awakening to all dharmas: he awakens to and knows all dharmas, abides in right view without yielding before anything, and possesses confidence and fearlessness; Fearlessness in the knowledge that all outflows have been exhausted: having completely eliminated all afflictions, he has no fear of external obstacles and adversities;

Fearlessness in definitively declaring that obstructive dharmas are not false: he extensively explains the methods of practice and their obstacles while fearing no challenge; Fearlessness in declaring the path of deliverance that fully leads to the realization of all things as they truly are: he teaches the supramundane path without fear of anything.

⁽¹⁷⁾ The Eighteen Exclusive Qualities: eighteen dharmas possessed by the Buddha alone and not shared with bodhisattvas, shravakas, or pratyekabuddhas. These eighteen exclusive qualities are recorded in the Chapter on the Extensive Vehicle, fascicle 5 of the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra. They are:

1/ No fault of bodily action: Since immeasurable kalpas ago, the Buddha has maintained pure precepts and perfected merit and virtue. All his afflictions have ceased; therefore, his body is without fault.

2/ No fault of verbal action: The Buddha possesses immeasurable wisdom, eloquence, and skill in exposition. The Dharma he teaches accords with the capacities of beings and enables them all to attain realization.

3/ No lapse of mindfulness: The Buddha cultivates all profound meditative concentrations; his mind is undistracted and unattached to any dharma, and he attains the serenity of the ultimate truth.

4/ No perception of distinctions: The Buddha equally guides all sentient beings to liberation, without discrimination in his mind.

5/ No unconcentrated mind: In all the Buddha’s activities—walking, standing, lying down, and sitting—he never departs from profound and supreme concentration. He gathers his mind and abides in wholesome dharmas, never losing realization of the true nature of all dharmas.

6/ No failure to know before relinquishing: With regard to painful and other sensations, the Buddha awakens to and knows their characteristics of arising, abiding, and ceasing in each instant, and abides in impartial quiescence.

7/ No diminution of aspiration: The Buddha is fully endowed with wholesome conduct and always aspires to guide sentient beings to liberation, never becoming weary or abandoning them.

8/ No diminution of diligence: The Buddha is diligent in both body and mind. To liberate sentient beings, he constantly employs skillful means without rest.

9/ No diminution of mindfulness: The Buddha’s Dharma and all his wisdom concerning the three times are always in accord and never regress.

10/ No diminution of wisdom: The Buddha possesses all wisdom. Because this wisdom is unobstructed with respect to the three times, it never diminishes.

11/ No diminution of liberation: The Buddha is far removed from all attachments and is fully endowed with conditioned liberation and unconditioned liberation. All habitual tendencies of the afflictions have been completely eliminated; therefore, his liberation never diminishes.

12/ No diminution of the knowledge and vision of liberation: The Buddha clearly knows and sees the characteristics of liberation without obstruction.

13/ All bodily actions are performed in accord with wisdom.

14/ All verbal actions are performed in accord with wisdom.

15/ All mental actions are performed in accord with wisdom. These three qualities mean that whenever the Buddha initiates the three kinds of karma—bodily, verbal, and mental—he first examines whether they are right or wrong and only then acts in accord with wisdom. Therefore, he is without fault, and everything he does benefits sentient beings.

16/ His wisdom and knowledge of the past are unobstructed.

17/ His wisdom and knowledge of the future are unobstructed.

18/ His wisdom and knowledge of the present are unobstructed. ⁽¹⁸⁾ The Samadhi of the Single Practice (the Samadhi of Suchness, the Samadhi of the Single Characteristic, the Samadhi Adorned with the Single Characteristic): right concentration cultivated by focusing the mind exclusively upon a single practice. There are two kinds:

1/ Principle: The Samadhi of the Single Practice is a kind of mental concentration that contemplates the Dharma-realm as equal and of a single characteristic. Upon entering this right concentration, the practitioner clearly recognizes that the Dharma-bodies of all Buddhas and the bodies of sentient beings are originally equal and nondual, without any differentiating characteristics. Therefore, in all activities—walking, standing, lying down, and sitting—there is solely one straightforward mind; without moving from the place of awakening, it immediately becomes the Pure Land.

Fascicle 47 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, Taisho 25, 401, middle, states: “When practitioners deeply enter the Samadhi of the Single Adornment, they contemplate all dharmas as one, or all characteristics as one, or all dharmas without characteristics as one; in this way, the immeasurable are all one.... This samadhi always has only a single practice. Within this samadhi corresponding to ultimate emptiness, there is no other kind of practice.”

2/ Practice: The Samadhi of the Single Practice is the Buddha-recollection samadhi attained through single-minded recollection of the Buddha. The latter fascicle of the Sutra of the Mahaprajnaparamita Spoken by Manjushri, Taisho 8, 731, middle, states: “Good men and good women, those who wish to enter the Samadhi of the Single Practice should dwell in a secluded place, relinquish deluded thoughts, refrain from grasping at appearances, and bind the mind to a single Buddha. Whichever direction that Buddha is in, they should sit upright facing that direction and continuously maintain right mindfulness of that one Buddha. In that very thought, practitioners will immediately behold the Buddhas of the past, present, and future.”

⁽¹⁹⁾ The Three Higher Knowledges (the Three Penetrations, the Three Dharmas of Realization): these mean luminous wisdom that penetrates three matters without obstruction:

1/ The higher knowledge of former lives: the wisdom that clearly knows the circumstances of one’s own and other sentient beings’ lives, from one lifetime to hundreds of thousands of myriads and kotis of lifetimes.

2/ The higher knowledge of birth and death: the wisdom that clearly knows the circumstances of sentient beings’ births and deaths—when they die and when they are born, their favorable or unfavorable appearance; whether, through causes and conditions involving false teachings, they engage in evil conduct and, after their lives end, are born into an evil realm; or whether, through causes and conditions involving the true Dharma, they accomplish wholesome dharmas and, after their lives end, are born into a wholesome realm.

3/ Knowledge of the extinction of the outflows: the wisdom that knows things clearly as they truly are and realizes the principle of the Four Noble Truths, liberates the mind from the outflows, and eradicates all afflictions… According to the Great Vibhāṣā Treatise, fascicle 102: “Through the knowledge of past lives, one sees past events and therefore gives rise to disenchantment. Through the knowledge of the divine eye, one sees future events and therefore gives rise to disenchantment.

Through the knowledge of the extinction of the outflows, because of disenchantment one delights in nirvana. Moreover, the knowledge of past lives eliminates the view of eternalism. The knowledge of the divine eye eliminates the view of annihilationism.

The knowledge of the extinction of the outflows enables one to depart from both and abide in the Middle Way. When correlated with the six superknowledges, these three knowledges respectively take the fifth, second, and sixth of the six superknowledges as their essential nature.”

⁽²⁰⁾ Eight liberations: that is, the Eight Renunciations.

Chapter 5

EXPLANATION OF DHARMAS AND MIND

(This chapter explains Mind and Dharmas, dividing them into four categories: with outflows, without outflows, both with and without outflows, and neither with nor without outflows. It also discusses the Buddha’s use of the causes and conditions of the Four Siddhāntas to expound these dharmas.)

The preceding chapter has finished explaining the sequence of the various dhyānas, but the characteristics of the Dharmas and Mind within those dhyānas must also be clearly understood. The discussion of dharmas and mind is divided into three sections:

A. Discussion of dharmas

B. Discussion of mind

C. Summary of mind and dharmas

A. DISCUSSION OF DHARMAS

Dharmas are of four kinds:

1. Dharmas with outflows

2. Dharmas without outflows

3. Dharmas both with and without outflows

4. Dharmas neither with nor without outflows

1. Dharmas with outflows

These are such dharmas as the Ten Wholesome Actions, the four fundamental dhyānas, the Four Immeasurable Minds conditioned by sentient beings, and the four formless concentrations. Why is this so? Because the essential nature of these twelve dhyāna dharmas is not the contemplative method of wisdom, they cannot illuminate and eradicate the afflictions.

2. Dharmas without outflows

These are the outflow-free dhyānas, such as: the Nine Perceptions, Eight Recollections, Ten Perceptions, Eight Renunciations, Eight Bases of Mastery, Ten Totality Spheres, Nine Sequential Concentrations, Lion’s Vigorous Advance Samādhi, Transcendent Samādhi, Four Noble Truths, Sixteen Practices, Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, Four Immeasurable Minds, Thirty-Seven Factors Conducive to Awakening, Three Samādhis, Wisdom of Aspiration⁽¹⁾, Summit Dhyāna⁽²⁾, Wisdom of All Things, Three Outflow-Free Faculties, and so forth. Why is this so? Because these dhyānas are all fully endowed with methods of counteraction and contemplative wisdom, and thus possess the power to eradicate the “three outflows”⁽³⁾.

3. Dharmas both with and without outflows

These are the Six Subtle Dharma Gates, Sixteen Excellent Practices, and Contemplation of Clear Insight. Why is this so? Although these three kinds of dhyāna contain contemplative wisdom, their power of counteraction remains weak; therefore, they are called both with and without outflows.

4. Dharmas neither with nor without outflows

These are the 108 samādhis: the Lotus Sutra Samādhi, Pratyutpanna Samādhi, Buddha-Recollection Samādhi, Śūraṅgama Samādhi, Nine Kinds of Dhyāna, Dhyāna of Intrinsic Nature, extending to Unconditioned Loving-Kindness, Great Compassion, Ten Pāramitās⁽⁴⁾, Four Unobstructed Knowledges⁽⁶⁾, Eighteen Kinds of Emptiness⁽⁵⁾, Ten Powers, Four Fearlessnesses, Eighteen Distinctive Qualities, Wisdom of All Modes, and so forth. Why is this so? Because those who cultivate these samādhis do not fall into the “two extremes”; therefore, they are called neither with nor without outflows.

QUESTION: Why are dharmas such as the Lotus Sutra Samādhi, Pratyutpanna Samādhi, and so forth all called dharmas neither with nor without outflows? The Lotus Sutra states: “The bodhisattva Virtue Treasury, whose mind has comprehended the outflow-free true aspect, will next become a Buddha named Pure Body.” Furthermore, the second of the Four Fearlessnesses is called fearlessness concerning freedom from outflows. Such dharmas and others are frequently described in the sutras and treatises as being without outflows. Why, then, are they here said to be neither with nor without outflows?

ANSWER: This classification is made in order to explain the distinctions among the Middle Way dharmas of bodhisattvas and Buddhas. Ordinary beings exclusively cultivate dharmas with outflows, while practitioners of the Two Vehicles exclusively cultivate dharmas without outflows. Here, however, the realizations attained by bodhisattvas and Buddhas are said to differ because, no longer clinging to either extreme, they do not fall into either extreme; hence they are said to be without outflows.

How do they avoid falling into the two extremes? It is precisely because the Dharma of the Middle Way does not belong to either extreme. Therefore, it is called neither with nor without outflows.

Although these two explanations differ in wording, their meaning is the same, and thus they do not contradict each other. If discussed on the basis of the principle of intrinsic nature, all are called dharmas neither with nor without outflows. Thus, the Large Prajñāpāramitā Sutra states: “Form is neither bound nor liberated, and so forth up to the Wisdom of All Modes, which is neither bound nor liberated.” Since the principle is neither bound nor liberated, when practice accords with the principle, how could it not likewise be called neither bound nor liberated? “Neither bound nor liberated” is simply another designation for neither with nor without outflows.

QUESTION: It is possible to distinguish concentration and wisdom by means of these four propositions, but what of the precepts?

ANSWER: The practices of the Ten Wholesome Actions⁽⁷⁾, Three Refuges, Five Precepts⁽⁸⁾, Eight Precepts of Fasting⁽⁹⁾, Ten Precepts of a śrāmaṇera⁽¹⁰⁾, 250 precepts of a bhikṣu, Ten Major Bodhisattva Precepts⁽¹¹⁾, and Forty-Eight Minor Precepts—these precepts may also be distinguished according to the meaning of the four propositions, but precepts do not fall within the scope of this discussion.

QUESTION: Chapter 4 explained the stages of dhyāna concentration, and Chapter 7 discusses cultivation and realization. Both first speak of “with outflows,” next of “both with and without outflows,” then of “without outflows,” and only thereafter of “neither with nor without outflows.” Why, in the present method of division into four propositions, is the order different, with the third proposition moved to the second position?

ANSWER: The earlier and later explanations both follow the sequence from cultivation to realization. Here, however, the purpose is to analyze the characteristics of Dharmas and Mind, and so the presentation follows the conventions of language; the sutras and treatises all state the four propositions in this way. Thus it is said: “The time of practice is not the time of exposition, and the time of exposition is not the time of practice.” This meaning is readily apparent.

B. DISCUSSION OF MIND

There are four kinds:

1. Mind with outflows

2. Mind without outflows

3. Mind both with and without outflows

4. Mind neither with nor without outflows

1. Mind with outflows

The minds of ordinary beings and non-Buddhist practitioners are fully possessed of the three kinds of outflows and are therefore called minds with outflows. Why is this so? When ordinary beings and non-Buddhist practitioners cultivate dhyāna concentration, their practice is divided into four stages, and therefore they cannot escape the bonds of affliction.

What are the four stages?

– Arousing the mind: When they first arouse the aspiration to cultivate dhyāna concentration, they have no mind of disenchantment with the world and seek only karmic rewards and the pleasures of meditative concentration.

– Cultivation: While in meditative concentration, they are unable to turn the light inward and contemplate their own minds; consequently, they give rise to attachment to views.

– Attainment: When they attain the various dhyāna concentrations, they cling to them as real. Not recognizing their illusory nature, they develop attachment to their own understanding and views at each level of dhyāna.

– Emerging from dhyāna: When they emerge from meditative concentration and encounter various objects, they again create binding karma.

Because of these four causes, the meditative concentration cultivated by ordinary beings and non-Buddhist practitioners is always called a mind with outflows.

2. Mind without outflows

This also has four stages:

– Arousing the mind: When practitioners of the Two Vehicles first arouse the aspiration to cultivate dhyāna concentration, because their minds are disenchanted with the calamities of the world, they do not crave the pleasurable states or karmic rewards of meditative concentration. They seek only to discipline the mind, and therefore the afflictions naturally wither away and cease to arise; through this, freedom from outflows may be brought forth.

– Practice: When cultivating meditative concentration, according to what they practice and realize, they clearly know that all states are illusory and unreal. Thus, they can subdue attachment to views and do not give rise to causes that create binding karma.

– Attainment: When entering the various meditative concentrations, if the wisdom of true emptiness⁽¹²⁾—the wisdom capable of eliminating the afflictions—unfolds within meditative concentration, the three kinds of outflows will forever cease to exist.

– Emergence from meditation: After practitioners of the Two Vehicles emerge from meditative concentration, they do not cling to any states or views and therefore do not create binding karma.

Because of these causes and conditions, this is called the outflow-free mind. Although the preceding two minds belong to the outflowed, they are nevertheless causes of the outflow-free. Since the fruit is spoken of in terms of its cause, they are also called outflow-free.

3. The Mind That Is Both Outflowed and Outflow-Free

This also has four stages:

– Arousing the mind: When practitioners first arouse the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration, yet inwardly remain doubtful and undecided, they may at times feel disillusioned and wish to leave birth and death behind, taking no delight in the bliss of meditative concentration; or they may give rise to attachment, longing for the peaceful and blissful states of meditative concentration and craving their pleasurable karmic rewards. Because they arouse a mind of disenchantment, subtle binding karma subsides; because they long for the bliss of meditative concentration, their afflictions increase and grow.

– Practice: When practitioners wish to arouse the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration without severing their wholesome roots, although they accomplish the five qualities of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom, these cannot yet be called the Five Faculties. Because practitioners cannot decisively subdue the afflictions, this is called “also outflowed.” Because they give rise to the five wholesome qualities of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom, this is called “also outflow-free.”

– Attainment (the seven kinds of trainees): When the seven classes of trainees wish to enter meditative concentration, although true wisdom has unfolded, their afflictions have not yet been entirely eliminated. Therefore, this is called both outflowed and outflow-free. This meaning applies even to an arhat subject to regression⁽¹³⁾. Why is this so? Because such an arhat has not yet attained the Knowledge of Non-Arising, this is called “also outflowed”; because such an arhat has attained the Knowledge of the Exhaustion of the Outflows, this is called “also outflow-free.”

– Emergence from meditation: After they emerge from meditative concentration, in relation to the various states, insofar as their afflictions have not yet been completely eliminated, they may still give rise to attachment; therefore, this is called “also outflowed.” If their afflictions have been completely eliminated, then even when encountering various states, their minds no longer give rise to binding karma; therefore, this is called “also outflow-free.”

4. The Mind That Is Neither Outflowed nor Outflow-Free

This is also divided into four stages:

– Arousing the mind: When bodhisattvas first arouse the resolve to cultivate meditative concentration, neither out of fear of birth and death nor in pursuit of nirvana, their minds do not fall into either of the two extremes.

– Practice: When bodhisattvas cultivate the perfection of meditation, they do not abide in the unconditioned, because they wish to perfect their merit; and they do not abide in the conditioned, because they possess wisdom.

– Attainment: When bodhisattvas enter the various meditative concentrations, if the wisdom of the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas⁽¹⁴⁾ arises within meditative concentration, their minds at that time accord with the Dharma-nature. Thus, they neither cling to birth and death nor become attached to nirvana.

– Emergence from meditation: When bodhisattvas emerge from meditative concentration, regardless of the states they encounter, their minds never depend upon either of the two extremes of existence and nonexistence.

Because of these causes and conditions, the bodhisattva’s mind is called the mind that is neither outflowed nor outflow-free.

C. GENERAL CONCLUSION ON MIND AND DHARMAS

QUESTION: The Buddhas teach that all dharmas are empty and that words and phrases are utterly transcended. As the verse in the Mahayana Treatise says:

Prajnaparamita
Is like a great pit of fire;

It cannot be grasped from any of the four sides,
And burns away all erroneous views.

Now, in employing the four propositions to make distinctions, does one not fall into conceptual proliferation?

ANSWER: In the Buddha Dharma, the principle of emptiness is unobtainable and unobstructed with respect to all dharmas. Precisely because the nature of emptiness is unobtainable, the twelve divisions of scripture and the entirety of the Buddha Dharma are expounded. Thus, there is no fault in now teaching the four propositions. This is analogous to empty space: although vacant and containing nothing, all things rely upon it for their growth. As the Mahayana Treatise says:

If one believes that all dharmas are empty,
One accords with the essential principle;

If one does not believe that dharmas are empty,
Everything becomes erroneous.

Now, skillful means are employed to open the knowledge and vision of practitioners of meditation by distinguishing the various kinds of Dharma gates. In reality, propositions contain no inherent meaning, yet discourse establishes propositions as having meaning. Therefore, there is no fault with respect to this principle. The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra says: “A proposition without meaning is precisely a proposition with meaning for bodhisattvas.”

If you wish to abandon the four propositions and so forth in the hope of attaining liberation, you will instead be bound by the dharma of emptiness.

For example, one may say: The four propositions exist; the four propositions do not exist; the four propositions both exist and do not exist; the four propositions neither exist nor do not exist. In this way, you are already bound by these four propositions. How, then, could you escape the four propositions of existence, nonexistence, both existence and nonexistence, and neither existence nor nonexistence?

You should know that if you thoroughly understand that the four propositions are not the four propositions, while the meanings of the four propositions remain mutually unobstructed, then liberation is attained. Liberation is not attained by seeking to abandon the four propositions and dwelling where there are no propositions. As the goddess said to the Venerable Sariputra: “The characteristic of liberation cannot be expressed apart from written words; freedom from the intrinsic nature of written words is itself the characteristic of liberation.”

Furthermore, the present division of dharmas and mind comprises eight propositions. If they are successively combined and distinguished, there are thirty-six propositions; if they are divided and explained in minute detail, there are immeasurable propositions and phrases. If, through a single proposition, one comprehends all propositions, then these four propositions may be distinguished and discussed like empty space, without boundaries.

QUESTION: If so, why are dharmas and mind not each divided into five propositions?

ANSWER: When the Buddhas appear in the world, they teach and transform sentient beings according to their capacities. In doctrinal teachings, the four propositions are most often employed in exposition. As stated in the Mahayana Treatise, there are four kinds of siddhanta:

1. The Worldly Siddhanta.

2. The Individual Siddhanta.

3. The Counteractive Siddhanta.

4. The Siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth.

Outflowed mind and dharmas belong to the Worldly Siddhanta. Outflow-free mind and dharmas belong to the Counteractive Siddhanta. Mind and dharmas that are both outflowed and outflow-free belong to the Individual Siddhanta.

Mind and dharmas that are neither outflowed nor outflow-free belong to the Siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth.

The meanings contained therein are mutually related; this will become apparent upon careful examination.

Furthermore, in the Mahayana Treatise, the Siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth is divided into four gates. As a verse in the treatise states:

Distinctions of this kind also employ only four propositions; no fifth proposition is taught. Here, only the four propositions are used to explain dharmas and mind. Even if other sutras

and treatises hypothetically employ five propositions in their explanations, each does so for its own particular causes and conditions. Therefore, only the skillful meanings of the four propositions are used here for explanation, and not five propositions.

QUESTION: What is the difference between the four kinds of dharmas and the four kinds of minds? For example, with regard to an outflow-tainted dharma and an outflow-tainted mind, are both the “dharma and mind” each themselves outflow-tainted, or are they each free of outflows, such that they are spoken of as outflows?

If both are outflow-tainted, then when dharma and mind unite, two kinds of outflows must necessarily arise.

But if each is free of outflows, then when they unite, two kinds of freedom from outflows must likewise arise.

ANSWER: One cannot say that both dharma and mind are outflow-tainted, nor can one say that both dharma and mind are free of outflows. Why? If the mind were outflow-tainted, then when an arhat realizes the exhaustion of the outflows, the mind would have to be completely extinguished, and the dharma would also have to be completely extinguished.

Why? If a dharma were definitively an outflow—that is, an affliction—then when a noble being entered the fundamental concentration of the fourth dhyana, an outflow would also have to arise. Before this dharma of fourth-dhyana concentration united with the mind, it too would itself have to be an outflow. Yet when noble beings enter the concentration of the fourth dhyana, no outflow arises. Before the dharma

of fourth-dhyana concentration corresponds with the mind, it does not itself give rise to any outflow-tainted dharma. Why, then, should it be said that the dharma itself is outflow-tainted?

What is now called an outflow resides neither exclusively in the dharma nor exclusively in the mind. Because outflows arise when dharma and mind unite, the terms “outflow-tainted dharma” and “outflow-tainted mind” are established.

It is like an elixir of immortality: after a person drinks the elixir, that person becomes an immortal, yet neither the elixir nor the person is separately an immortal. Only when the elixir and the person unite does the person become an immortal. Therefore, the medicine is called an elixir of immortality, and the person who drinks it and becomes immortal is called an immortal.

If the medicine is not drunk by a person, it is not called an elixir of immortality; if a person does not drink the elixir of immortality, that person is not called an immortal. The terms “outflow-tainted dharma” and “outflow-tainted mind” are likewise. The general meaning is also the same for the other three categories—free of outflows, both outflow-tainted and free of outflows, and neither outflow-tainted nor free of outflows—with respect to dharma and mind.

As in the verse on dependent arising by the Venerable Ashvajit ⁽¹⁵⁾

(Asvajit), which he revealed to Shariputra:

Dharmas arise from conditions;
Dharmas cease through conditions.

Such is the principle of causes and conditions;
Thus has our Teacher taught.

If one maintains that:

An outflow-tainted dharma gives rise to an outflow-tainted dharma;

Or that an outflow-tainted dharma arises from an outflow-tainted mind;

Or that an outflow-tainted dharma arises from both dharma and mind;

Or that an outflow-tainted dharma arises from neither dharma nor mind—any such attachment falls into wrong views.

Why is this so?

If one maintains that an outflow-tainted dharma gives rise to an outflow-tainted dharma, this means that an outflow-tainted dharma possesses self-nature. If the self-nature of an outflow-tainted dharma were established, there would have to be an endless succession of outflow-tainted dharmas, because within self-nature there would again be self-nature. But in reality this is not so.

If one says that an outflow-tainted dharma has no inherent self-nature but arises from an outflow-tainted mind, this is other-nature—that is, existence dependent upon something external. Why? Because the outflow-tainted dharma must depend upon the outflow-tainted mind as its self-nature, while the outflow-tainted mind must in turn depend upon the existence of the outflow-tainted dharma.

Is this not other-nature? Suppose it is said that an outflow-tainted dharma exists, or arises, through other-nature. If that other-nature is itself an outflow-tainted dharma, would this not mean that the outflow-tainted dharma contains two outflow-tainted dharmas?

If that other-nature is not an outflow-tainted dharma, then without an outflow-tainted dharma, how could it give rise to one? Therefore, one should know that an outflow-tainted dharma does not arise from an outflow-tainted mind.

If one maintains that an outflow-tainted dharma arises through the combination of an outflow-tainted dharma and an outflow-tainted mind, this is called common existence, or simultaneous existence. If there were common existence, an outflow-tainted dharma would exist in both self-nature and other-nature. If so, two outflow-tainted dharmas would have to exist simultaneously at a single moment, but in reality this is not so. Therefore, one should know that an outflow-tainted dharma does not arise through the joint production of self-nature and other-nature.

If one maintains that apart from an outflow-tainted dharma and apart from an outflow-tainted mind there is an outflow-tainted dharma, this means that an outflow-tainted dharma exists without causes and conditions. If an outflow-tainted dharma arising from causes and conditions cannot be apprehended, how much less could an outflow-tainted dharma arise without causes and conditions? This refutation of provisional existence established through causes and conditions is explained in the Maha Calming and Contemplation. The case of the outflow-tainted mind is likewise. The remaining three categories of outflows with respect to mind and dharma are also explained in the same way.

Furthermore, if an outflow-tainted dharma is definitively an outflow-tainted dharma, then an outflow-tainted dharma belongs to the continuous succession of arising and ceasing dharmas.

Does it arise because of arising? Or does it arise because of ceasing? Or does arising occur because of both arising and ceasing? Or does arising occur apart from both arising and ceasing?

If it arises because of arising, this is self-arising. If arising occurs because of ceasing, this is arising from another. If it arises because of both arising and ceasing, this is co-arising. If arising occurs apart from arising and ceasing, this is arising without causes and conditions.

If arising from causes and conditions cannot be apprehended, how much less could an outflow-tainted dharma arise without causes and conditions? Therefore, one should know that the arising of an outflow-tainted dharma is ultimately unapprehendable. If it does not arise, it does not cease; if there is neither arising nor ceasing, there is no continuity; and if there is no continuity of arising and ceasing, there is no outflow-tainted dharma. This method of refuting the provisional existence of continuity is explained very extensively in the Maha Calming and Contemplation. The case of the outflow-tainted mind is likewise. The remaining three categories of outflows with respect to mind and dharma are also the same.

Furthermore, if an outflow-tainted dharma is arising, does the arising of arising give rise to the outflow-tainted dharma? Or does the arising of non-arising give rise to the outflow-tainted dharma? Or does arising that does not arise give rise to the outflow-tainted dharma? Or does what is not arising give rise to the outflow-tainted dharma?

If it arises through the arising of arising, this is arising from self-nature. If it does not arise through arising, this is arising from other-nature. If it arises through non-arising, this is co-arising. If it arises through what is not arising, this is arising without causes and conditions.

If arising from causes and conditions cannot be apprehended, how much less could arising occur without causes and conditions? Therefore, within the provisional existence of mutually dependent characteristics, any attempt to seek the arising of an outflow-tainted dharma is ultimately unavailing. If it does not arise, there is no outflow; because there is no outflow, the provisional existence of mutually dependent characteristics is refuted. This method of refuting the provisional existence of mutually dependent characteristics is explained extensively in the Maha Calming and Contemplation. The case of the outflow-tainted mind is likewise. The remaining three categories of outflows with respect to mind and dharma are also explained in the same way.

One should know that when an outflow-tainted dharma is sought within causes and conditions, continuity, and mutually dependent characteristics, it can never be apprehended through any of the four alternatives. If it cannot be apprehended, how can an outflow-tainted dharma be distinguished as existing? If there is no outflow-tainted dharma, yet one speaks of an “outflow-tainted dharma,” one should know that this is merely a term appearing in written words. Within it there is no definite basis upon which to rely, and clinging to it gives rise to frivolous conceptual elaborations that destroy the eye of wisdom.

The case of the outflow-tainted mind is likewise, and the remaining three propositions concerning mind and dharma are also explained in the same way.

If this is so for outflow-tainted dharma and mind, it is likewise for the remaining three propositions concerning dharma and mind. This explanation distinguishes them only by means of conventional worldly names. The characteristics of names are neither within, without, nor in between, nor do they possess any eternal self-existence. Because they are names without any intrinsic name, they are called provisional names.

QUESTION: If so, how is the distinction between dharma and mind made?

ANSWER: Dharma and mind are separately distinguished only through conventional worldly names; in reality, there is nothing fixed within them.

QUESTION: Why, then, are dharma and mind distinguished separately in the written text?

ANSWER: If one clearly knows that both dharmas and mind are empty and that there is only an empty designation, then there is no fault in using the method above to distinguish separately the characteristics of dharmas and mind. Therefore, the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra states: “Subhuti, without destroying provisional designations, one expounds the true characteristic of all dharmas.”

Furthermore, mental factors⁽¹⁶⁾ belong to dharmas, while the mind-king is mind. Feeling, perception, formations, and the form skandha are dharmas; the consciousness skandha is mind. Dharmas associated with mind⁽¹⁷⁾, dharmas not associated with mind⁽¹⁸⁾, form dharmas⁽¹⁹⁾, and unconditioned dharmas⁽²⁰⁾ belong to dharmas; mind dharmas⁽²¹⁾ belong to mind. The object of cognition⁽²²⁾ is a dharma; that which cognizes is mind. That which produces is a dharma; that which is produced is mind. The object of contemplation is a dharma; the wisdom that contemplates is mind. Dharmas are formed by mind, and mind arises in dependence upon dharmas.

Among such designations, each kind of dharma and mind is distinguished separately. Yet although they are distinguished in this way, they are all like illusions and transformations, with nothing to which one may cling, and all return alike to the single characteristic. This meaning is explained very extensively in Volume 10, in the section “General Conclusion on the Ultimate Purport.”

Notes to Chapter 5:

⁽¹⁾ Vow-wisdom: wondrous wisdom produced through the conditions initiated by a vow. It is one of the virtues shared by the Buddhas; among arhats, only an Immovable Arhat—the highest of the six classes of arhats—can attain this wisdom.

One first makes an earnest vow, seeking to know the realm of the Buddha, taking conventional wisdom as its intrinsic nature and relying upon the fourth dhyana as its basis. From this preparatory practice, wondrous wisdom arises. The Abhidharmakosha, Volume 27 (Taisho 29, 142a), states: “With a vow as the foremost condition, wondrous wisdom arises. Because it is accomplished in accordance with the vow, it is called wondrous wisdom.” According to the Satyasiddhi Shastra, Volume 16: “Vow-wisdom is one of the five wisdoms and refers to wisdom that is no longer obstructed with respect to any dharma.”

⁽²⁾ Summit Dhyana (Transcendent Samadhi): the highest and ultimate dhyana practice.

According to the Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra, Volume 17 (Taisho 25, 187b): “Among the various kinds of dhyana, there is Summit Dhyana.” Why is it called the Summit? There are two kinds of arhats: those subject to regression and those not subject to regression. An arhat not subject to regression has mastery over all profound dhyanas and samadhis and can enter Summit Dhyana.

One who attains this dhyana has the power to transform longevity into merit and merit into longevity. Moreover, one teaching identifies Summit Dhyana with the “Samadhi of the Furthest Limit,” discussed in the Mahavibhasha Shastra, Volume 178; the Abhidharmakosha, Volume 27; and the Prakaranaryavaca Shastra, Volume 2—that is, the supreme grade of samadhi within the fourth dhyana. Another teaching identifies Summit Dhyana with the “transcendent samadhi” discussed in the Mahavibhasha Shastra, Volume 165, and the Abhidharmakosha, Volume 28—that is, a samadhi transcending all conditioned and unconditioned samadhis.

⁽³⁾ The three outflows: three kinds of afflictions that cause sentient beings to remain submerged in the three realms.

1/ The outflow of sensual desire: Of the thirty-six fundamental afflictive “latent tendencies” that bind sentient beings within the Desire Realm, excluding the five divisions of ignorance, the remaining thirty-one, together with the ten envelopment afflictions, constitute the forty-one factors of the outflow of sensual desire.

2/ The outflow of existence: Of the thirty-one fundamental afflictive “latent tendencies” that bind beings within the Form Realm and the Form Realm, excluding the five divisions of

ignorance in each realm, twenty-six factors remain; combined across the two realms, these constitute

fifty-two factors. The Nyayanusara Abhidharma Shastra, first volume, adds torpor and restlessness, making fifty-four factors.

3/ The outflow of ignorance: the delusive affliction concerning the Middle Way of ultimate truth. It is the root of birth and death within the three realms and has the power to cause sentient beings to revolve in samsaric birth and death; it is called delusion. The Agama Sutras hold that ignorance is erroneous understanding of Buddhist truth—the Four Noble Truths—and thus is the absence of knowledge.

⁽⁴⁾ The ten paramitas: ten supreme practices that bodhisattvas must cultivate to attain nirvana. They are the six paramitas together with four additional paramitas: skillful means, vows, wisdom, and power.

⁽⁵⁾ The eighteen kinds of emptiness: eighteen forms of emptiness established to refute erroneous views.

1/ Inner emptiness: the six sense faculties within the body are devoid of self and what belongs to a self.

2/ Outer emptiness: the six external sense objects are devoid of self and what belongs to a self.

3/ Inner-and-outer emptiness: the six sense faculties and six sense objects are devoid of self and what belongs to a self.

4/ Emptiness of emptiness: not clinging to the three kinds mentioned

above.

5/ Great emptiness: throughout the worlds of the ten directions,

there are no fixed characteristics of spatial location such as here and there, past and present.

6/ Emptiness of ultimate truth: apart from dharmas, there is no other ultimate true characteristic possessing an intrinsic nature; one does not cling even to the true characteristic.

7/ Emptiness of the conditioned: dharmas arising through causes and conditions, as well as the characteristics of those causes and conditions, are all empty.

8/ Emptiness of the unconditioned: not clinging to the dharma of nirvana.

9/ Ultimate emptiness: using the two teachings—the emptiness of the conditioned and the emptiness of the unconditioned—to eliminate all dharmas, until ultimately nothing remains.

10/ Beginningless emptiness: although dharmas have arisen since beginningless time, one nevertheless remains far removed from the characteristic of grasping at them.

11/ Emptiness of dispersion: because dharmas exist provisionally only through conjunction, they are ultimately characterized by separation and dissolution and have no real existence.

12/ Emptiness of nature: original nature is empty, Buddha-nature is empty; that is, the intrinsic nature of all dharmas is empty.

13/ Emptiness of individual characteristics: the universal and particular, identical and different characteristics of all dharmas are empty.

14/ Emptiness of all dharmas: the individual characteristics of dharmas such as the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus are all indeterminate and free from the characteristics of attachment.

15/ Unattainability: within dharmas arising through causes and conditions, neither self nor dharmas truly exist.

16/ Emptiness of nonexistence: dharmas that have disintegrated and ceased have no intrinsic nature; future dharmas are likewise.

17/ Emptiness of existence: dharmas exist only through causes and conditions; therefore, what presently exists does not truly exist.

18/ Emptiness of nonexistence, conditioned existence, and the unconditioned: all arising and ceasing dharmas, as well as unconditioned dharmas throughout the three periods of time, have no true existence.

⁽⁶⁾ The four unobstructed wisdoms (the four eloquences): four powers of understanding and of free, unhindered expression through language.

Because all four take wisdom as their essence, they are called the four unobstructed wisdoms. In terms of the power of understanding, they are called the four unobstructed understandings; in terms of the power of expression through language, they are called the four unobstructed eloquences. Because they are means for transforming sentient beings, they are also called the four dharmas of transformation. There are various explanations of these four unobstructed wisdoms.

According to the Abhidharmakosha, Volume 27, the four unobstructed wisdoms are:

1/ Unobstructed understanding of dharmas: freely explaining and comprehending the names, phrases, and literary expressions of the Dharma, while making unobstructed determinations concerning them.

2/ Unobstructed understanding of meanings: complete mastery of the principles and meanings expressed by the Dharma, while making unobstructed determinations concerning them.

3/ Unobstructed understanding of language: free and unobstructed mastery of the languages of various regions.

4/ Unobstructed eloquence: proclaiming the teaching without obstruction and in accordance with right principle; this is also called delight in exposition. That is, one skillfully

accords with the aspirations of others and delights in expounding the Dharma.

Furthermore, the Cheng Weishi Lun, Volume 9, holds that among the four unobstructed wisdoms, bodhisattvas from the first bhumi onward attain only a portion of them. At the ninth bhumi they attain all four, and only upon reaching Buddhahood are they fully and perfectly completed.

⁽⁷⁾ The ten wholesome actions: ten wholesome actions performed through body, speech, and mind. ⁽⁸⁾ The five precepts: the five prohibitions observed by lay Buddhists—not killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, speaking falsely, or drinking intoxicants.

⁽⁹⁾ The eight precepts observed for one day and night: “eight” refers to the number eight; “barrier” means to close; and “precepts” function to prevent wrongdoing and guard against evil. The Buddha established them for lay disciples. Those who receive them must temporarily leave their homes and dwell with the Sangha for one day and one night to learn the way of life of those who have gone forth. Observing the eight precepts can prevent evil actions and bring the three karmic activities of body, speech, and mind to rest; it can also close off the gates to the evil destinies.

The Eight Precepts of the one-day retreat comprise: not killing living beings, not stealing, not engaging in sexual activity, not speaking falsely, not drinking intoxicants, not adorning the body with perfumes or flowers, not watching or listening to singing and dancing, not sitting or lying on high, broad, luxurious beds, and not eating at improper times. Although Buddhism has both monastic and lay disciples, the Buddha-Dharma takes supramundane liberation as its aim and furthermore regards monastic life as supreme. Observing the Eight Precepts enables lay Buddhists to train in the Buddha’s teaching and to nurture and develop supramundane wholesome roots.

⁽¹⁰⁾ The ten precepts of a novice: not killing living beings, not stealing, not engaging in sexual activity, not speaking falsely, not drinking intoxicants, not adorning the body with perfumes, not singing, dancing, watching, or listening to entertainments, not sitting or lying on high and broad beds, not eating at improper times, and not possessing money, gold, silver, or valuables.

⁽¹¹⁾ The ten major bodhisattva precepts: in the Brahma Net Sutra, the prohibitions are killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, selling intoxicants, speaking of the faults of the four assemblies, praising oneself and disparaging others, stinginess and abuse, harboring anger and refusing to accept another’s repentance, and slandering the Three Jewels. Whether one commits these acts oneself or instructs others to commit them, all are prohibited.

The forty-eight minor precepts: (the Mahayana bodhisattva precepts taught in the Brahma Net Sutra) the forty-eight minor precepts and the ten major bodhisattva precepts are the Dharma-gate of the Mind-Ground proclaimed by Vairocana Buddha in the Lotus Treasury World. Beginning with the Seven Buddhas of the past and extending to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the three times, all recite and uphold these precepts. Therefore, all members of the great assembly—including kings, ministers and officials, bhiksus, bhiksunis, virtuous men, and faithful women—receive and uphold them.

⁽¹²⁾ Wisdom of true emptiness: the wisdom that perceives absolute, ultimate truth. True emptiness is the essential principle of suchness, transcending all dualities of emptiness and existence and remaining free from every characteristic fabricated by attachment to views.

⁽¹³⁾ An arhat subject to regression: the dullest-facultied among those who have attained arhatship. Because of encountering adverse conditions, such as illness, this kind of arhat may regress from the fruition already attained. This is one of the nine kinds of those beyond training.

⁽¹⁴⁾ Patience regarding non-arising (patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas): patience regarding non-arising is one of the three kinds of patience and the fourth of the five kinds of patience taught in the Humane Kings Sutra. It means contemplating the principle that all dharmas neither arise nor cease, thoroughly realizing that principle, and abiding with an unmoving mind.

According to the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise, fascicle 50 (Taisho 25, 417c): “Patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas means faithfully accepting and thoroughly comprehending the true characteristic of all dharmas as neither arising nor ceasing, without obstruction or regression.” The Compendium of the Meaning of the Mahayana, fascicle 12 (Taisho 44, 701b), states: “The name is established in accordance with its object.

The quiescent principle that does not arise is called non-arising; the wisdom that abides in this principle is called patience regarding non-arising.” According to fascicle 86 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise, from the stage of the eighth person to the stage of one who has completed the task, those at the stages of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas contemplate the Four Noble Truths and eliminate the obstructions to omniscience, but attain only one part of a bodhisattva’s patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas.

The Four Noble Truths—suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path—are in fact distinguished from the single truth of the true characteristic of all dharmas. Because sravakas have dull faculties, they contemplate the Four Noble Truths and attain the path; because bodhisattvas have keen faculties, they directly contemplate the true characteristic of all dharmas and enter the path. From this it may be understood that patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas is, for a sravaka, the perception of the principle of the Four Noble Truths upon entering the Path of Seeing; for a bodhisattva, it is the thorough realization of the principle that all dharmas neither arise nor cease upon entering the First Ground and abiding at the stage of non-retrogression.

According to fascicle

74 of the Yogacarabhumi Treatise, bodhisattvas at the stage of non-retrogression, relying upon the three natures—the imagined nature, the dependent nature, and the perfectly accomplished nature—attain three kinds of patience regarding non-arising:

1/ Patience regarding the non-arising of intrinsic nature: contemplating that the essential nature of everything belonging to the imagined nature is empty and clearly knowing that its intrinsic nature is non-arising.

2/ Patience regarding the non-arising of anything naturally: contemplating that dharmas of the dependent nature arise through causes and conditions, and clearly knowing that they do not arise naturally of themselves.

3/ Patience regarding the non-arising of the defilements, suffering, and impurity: clearly knowing that the Dharma-nature of true suchness, the true nature of all dharmas, abides as unconditioned, does not correspond with any defilement, and has been quiescent from the beginning. Because these are the principles realized through clear knowledge of the three natures, they are called patience regarding non-arising.

The Chapter on the Ten Grounds in fascicle 25 of the Avatamsaka Sutra (Category

60 Q) states: “A bodhisattva on the Seventh Ground purifies the three kinds of karma, cultivates the signless practice, attains patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, and thoroughly comprehends all dharmas.” The Chapter on Bodhisattva Conduct in the first fascicle of the Humane Kings Prajnaparamita Sutra, meanwhile, sets forth five kinds of patience: restraint, faith, compliance, non-arising, and quiescent extinction.

Each of the first four kinds of patience is divided into three grades—higher, middle, and lower—whereas the patience of quiescent extinction alone is divided into only two grades, higher and lower. The three grades of the patience of faith correspond to the First, Second, and Third Grounds; the three grades of the patience of compliance correspond to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Grounds; and the three grades of the patience regarding non-arising correspond to the Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Grounds.

⁽¹⁵⁾ Assaji: a disciple of the Buddha and one of the first five bhiksus whom the Buddha converted. His bearing was dignified and his appearance upright and pleasing, so that people delighted in beholding him. He was the one who taught the renowned verse on the Dharma of dependent origination that awakened Sariputra.

⁽¹⁶⁾ Mental factors: mental factors depend upon the mind-king and are functions corresponding to it. The mind-king apprehends only the object as a whole, whereas mental factors apprehend both the whole and the parts of the object. Regarding the relationship between the mind-king and mental factors, and whether their distinctive natures are identical or different, Mahayana and Hinayana traditions propound different theories.

The Mahayana Consciousness-Only school presents the doctrine of equality in four respects—basis, object, time, and activity—establishes the eight consciousnesses—the six consciousnesses together with manas-consciousness and alaya-consciousness—as mind-kings, and enumerates six groups comprising fifty-one mental factors. It holds that the mind-king and mental factors are neither identical nor separate.

⁽¹⁷⁾ Mind-king: that which has the capacity to accumulate and give rise to mental activities (karma), just as a king possesses authority and power and rules the realm.

⁽¹⁸⁾ Mental concomitants: namely, the mental factors (fifty-one in number). “Corresponding” means that they accord with the mind-king.

⁽¹⁹⁾ Factors dissociated from mind: (twenty-four in number) these twenty-four factors are provisionally established as not corresponding to the mind-king, mental factors, or material dharmas.

⁽²⁰⁾ Material dharmas: dharmas belonging to form, of which there are eleven: the five sense faculties and the six sense objects. Material dharmas are the image aspect of the mind-king and mental factors.

⁽²¹⁾ Unconditioned dharmas: dharmas that neither arise nor cease and do not change. They are unlike conditioned dharmas, which comprise the mind-king, mental factors, material dharmas, and factors dissociated from mind. Only when the conditioned dharmas (ninety-four in number) have ceased do the unconditioned dharmas become manifest.

⁽²²⁾ Mental dharmas: dharmas belonging to mind, namely, the consciousnesses that constitute the subjective mind. In contrast to mental factors, this term refers to the essential nature of the six or eight consciousnesses. It is also the subject of mental activity.

⁽²³⁾ Apprehending subject: “subject” denotes that which possesses the function of cognition. Conversely, the apprehended object is the object that is cognized. “Condition” means reliance and cognitive engagement, indicating that consciousness cannot arise by itself but must rely upon external objects before its activity can arise. Producing cause and produced effect are likewise understood.