諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn

VII. ACCEPTING INVITATIONS

This section consists of eight parts: Introduction, Offerings, Distinguishing Errors, Noble Sangha, Giving Food, Mealtime, Manner of Eating, and After the Meal.

VII.1. Introduction

The Three Jewels are equal and impartial, as vast as empty space, regarding none with enmity or affection, and making no distinction between noble and lowly. The Dharma of making offerings at a vegetarian assembly takes impartiality as its foundation, neither choosing nor rejecting; only thus does it accord with the mind of generosity. Therefore, the essential nature of the mind is free from characteristics and as vast as empty space; adapting to time and conditions, its measure is equal to the Dharma realm.^[1] Since the cause is boundless, the result is likewise immeasurable.

Moreover, poor and destitute householders possess limited means for giving; [39a] when the gifts are limited, the mind also becomes partial and attached. When judging people, they select the virtuous; when considering conduct, they reject the unwholesome; when examining appearances, they choose attractive forms; and when considering countenance, they reject the ugly. It would indeed be difficult to record all the limitations of such a narrow mind!

If one continually discriminates and selects, it is difficult to accomplish boundless merit. Therefore, in ancient times, Mother Visakha^[2] separately invited five hundred arhats^[3] to receive offerings, but was reproved by the Tathagata: this was not equal to inviting a single ordinary monk according to the order of the Sangha, which would bring immeasurable merit. Thus, one should know that when the mind is impartial, merit spreads throughout the ten thousand directions; when one does not calculate whether one’s wealth is great or small, the mind encompasses the entire Dharma realm.

VII.2. Offerings

The Treatise on the Bodhisattva Grounds^[4] states: “A bodhisattva has ten ways of making offerings to the Tathagata:

1. Making offerings to the Buddha’s physical body.

2. Making offerings to a caitya.^[5]

3. Making offerings in the presence of the object of offering.

4. Making offerings when the object of offering is not present.

5. Personally making offerings.

6. Encouraging and assisting others to make offerings.

7. Making offerings of material goods.

8. Making supreme offerings.

9. Making undefiled offerings.

10. Making offerings through the path that reaches the ultimate state.

When a bodhisattva arranges a ceremony of offerings before the Buddha’s physical body, this is called making offerings to the Buddha’s physical body.

When, for the sake of the Tathagata, a bodhisattva makes offerings to a stupa, cave, or monastery,^[6] whether old or newly built, this is called making offerings to a caitya.

When a bodhisattva encounters the Tathagata’s body or a caitya and arranges a ceremony of offerings, this is called making offerings in the presence of the object of offering.

When, with joy and ardent aspiration, a bodhisattva makes offerings before a presently existing Buddha or caitya and does likewise toward all Buddhas of the three times—even making offerings to presently existing Buddha-caityas as well as to old and new caityas throughout the immeasurable worlds of the ten directions and the three times—this is called making offerings both in the presence and beyond the presence of the objects of offering.

If a bodhisattva does not make offerings to a presently existing Tathagata or caitya, but after the Buddha has entered nirvana builds, according to his ability, hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of precious stupas in which to enshrine the relics, this is called universally making offerings when the object of offering is not present. Through this deed, he accomplishes many great fruits, obtains the merit of Brahma,^[7] does not fall into the lower realms for innumerable kalpas, possesses all necessary provisions, and ultimately realizes unsurpassed bodhi.^[8] A bodhisattva who makes offerings in the presence of the object of offering obtains great merit; one who makes offerings when the object is not present obtains exceedingly great merit;

and one who makes offerings both in the presence and beyond the presence of the object obtains immeasurably great merit.

When a bodhisattva personally makes offerings to the Tathagata and caityas, rather than indolently relying on others to do so, this is called personally making offerings.

[39b] When a bodhisattva not only personally makes offerings to the Tathagata and caityas but also encourages relatives and associates, both householders and renunciants, to make offerings together, this is called making offerings together with others. Though possessing few material goods, out of compassion the bodhisattva gives them to poor and suffering people who lack merit, and then instructs them to make offerings to the Tathagata and caityas so that they may attain peace and happiness, while the bodhisattva does not perform the offering himself; this is called encouraging and assisting others to make offerings.

One who personally makes offerings receives great blessed recompense; one who instructs others to make offerings receives exceedingly great blessed recompense; and one who makes offerings together with others receives immeasurably great blessed recompense.

When a bodhisattva offers clothing, food, precious objects, and so forth to the Buddha and caityas, this is called making offerings of material goods.

From the past until the present, with pure faith, a bodhisattva has offered material goods to the Buddha and caityas, whether many or few; has made offerings both in the presence and beyond the presence of their objects; and has either personally made offerings or encouraged others to do so. When he then dedicates these wholesome deeds to unsurpassed bodhi, this is called making supreme offerings.

When a bodhisattva personally makes offerings to the Tathagata and caityas, without disparaging others, without heedlessness or indolence, single-mindedly and reverently, with an undefiled mind; without harboring a deceitful or crooked intention to seek gain from faithful people; and without offering impure objects, this is called making undefiled offerings.

A bodhisattva makes offerings of supreme, undefiled material goods to the Tathagata and caityas, whether these goods were produced by himself, requested from others, or obtained freely according to his wishes. The bodhisattva manifests one body, or two or three bodies, or even hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of bodies, all bowing in homage to the Buddha. Each body further manifests hundreds of thousands of hands, each holding various kinds of flowers and incense as offerings to the Tathagata and caityas. All the manifested bodies praise the Buddha’s true merit and benefit sentient beings. Such an offering is called an offering made through the sovereign power of wish-fulfillment.

A bodhisattva does not wait for a Tathagata to appear in the world. Why is this? Because the bodhisattva has attained the stage of non-retrogression and is unobstructed with respect to all Buddha realms.

The bodhisattva neither personally produces wealth nor requests wealth from others to make offerings, but generates superior, middling, and lesser intentions to make offerings to all sentient beings throughout the immeasurable worlds of the ten directions. The bodhisattva makes offerings with a pure mind and with a subtle and supreme understanding, universally responding with sympathetic joy. With only a few skillful means, the bodhisattva performs a great offering; abiding in the mind of bodhi for even a single instant, he practices the four immeasurable states of mind toward all sentient beings, and so forth.

This is called an offering through the path that reaches the ultimate state. Compared with the preceding offerings of material goods, this is the highest way of making offerings to the Tathagata. The merit of this offering is hundreds of thousands of times greater and cannot be compared with them.

[39c] These are the ten ways in which a bodhisattva makes offerings to the Tathagata. The same applies to making offerings to the Sangha. These ten forms of offering should be practiced toward the Three Jewels.^[10]

A bodhisattva gives rise to six pure states of mind toward the Tathagata:

1. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as the unsurpassed field of merit.

2. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as possessing unsurpassed beneficence.

3. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as foremost among all sentient beings.

4. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as being as difficult to encounter as the udumbara flower.

5. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as unique throughout the trichiliocosm.

6. The mind that reveres the Tathagata as perfectly embodying the meaning of refuge with respect to worldly and supramundane Dharmas.

When these six states of mind are complete, even if one gives rise to only a slight thought of making offerings to the Tathagata, the Dharma, or the Sangha, one obtains immeasurable merit—how much more so when one makes many offerings.

The Yogacara Treatise states: “How does a bodhisattva make offerings to the Tathagata? In brief, there are ten ways:

1. Making offerings to sariras.^[11]

2. Making individual offerings.^[12]

3. Making offerings in the presence of the object of offering.

4. Making offerings when the object of offering is not present.

5. Personally making offerings.

6. Instructing others to make offerings.

7. Reverently making offerings of material goods.

8. Making vast offerings.

9. Making undefiled offerings.

10. Making offerings through right practice.”

The Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts^[13] states: “The Buddha taught:

‘Good man! If a lay bodhisattva wishes to receive and uphold the upasaka precepts, he must first make offerings successively to the six directions:'

1. The east represents one’s parents: If a person can wholeheartedly bow to, praise, honor, and provide his parents with clothing, food, beds and bedding, medicine, houses, and wealth, this is called making offerings to the east. His parents, in return, do five things for him:

– They care for him wholeheartedly.

– They never deceive him.

– They bequeath their property to him.

– They arrange his marriage with a family of good repute.

– They instruct him in worldly affairs.

2. The south represents one’s teachers and masters: If a person provides his teachers and masters with clothing, food, beds and bedding, medicine, and so forth; praises, reveres, and bows his head to them; stays up late and rises early; and follows their proper instructions, this is called making offerings to the south. His teacher, in return, does five things for him:

– He gives instruction at the proper time.

– He transmits all his knowledge.

– He feels no jealousy when his pupil surpasses him.

– He entrusts him to strict teachers and virtuous friends.

– He bequeaths his property to him.

3. The west represents one’s wife and children: If a person provides his wife and children with clothing, food, beds and bedding, medicine, and precious ornaments such as jeweled necklaces, then he has made offerings to the west. His wife and children repay him in fourteen ways:

– They wholeheartedly attend to their duties.

– They are diligent.

[40a] - They always complete every task.

– They work promptly and allow no delay.

– They always treat guests generously.

– They keep the house, beds, and bedding clean and orderly.

– They are loving, respectful, and gentle.

– They use kind words to counsel the household helpers.

– They carefully safeguard the family’s wealth.

– They rise early and retire late.

– They look after the household.

– They heed instructions.

– They conceal faults.

– They provide care during illness.

4. The north represents spiritual friends: If a person provides for spiritual friends, devotes himself wholeheartedly to them, treats them with reverence, speaks humbly, bows to them, and praises them, this is called making offerings to the north. Spiritual friends, in return, do four things for him:

– They guide him in cultivating wholesome dharmas.

– They enable him to abandon unwholesome dharmas.

– They rescue and reassure him when he is afraid.

– They exhort him when he becomes heedless.

5. The direction below represents servants: If a person provides servants with clothing, food, and medicine, never reviles them, and does not beat them, then he has made offerings to the direction below. The servants repay him in ten ways:

– They do not commit faults.

– They undertake their work of their own accord.

– They complete their work.

– They exert themselves in their work and do not waste time.

– Even if their master becomes poor, they do not leave him.

– They rise early.

– They safeguard his possessions.

– Though receiving little kindness, they repay it abundantly.

– They remain wholeheartedly respectful.

– They skillfully conceal their master’s evil deeds.

6. The direction above represents shramanas^[14] and brahmins^[15]: If a person offers shramanas, brahmins, and others such things as clothing, food, monasteries, beds, and bedding; always rescues them when they encounter danger; offers them food when they suffer hunger; conceals the slanders he hears against them; and wholeheartedly praises, bows to, and reveres them, this is called making offerings to the direction above. Renunciants, in return, do five things for him:

– They help faith arise in him.

– They teach him to cultivate wisdom.

– They teach him to practice generosity.

– They teach him to uphold the precepts.

– They impart profound learning to him.

Whoever makes offerings to the six directions will increase in wealth and longevity and will be able to cultivate and uphold the upasaka precepts.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom^[16] states: “The Buddhas revere the Dharma, make offerings to the Dharma, and take the Dharma as their teacher.” Why is this so? Because all Buddhas of the three periods take the true nature of all dharmas as their teacher.

Question:

– The Buddha does not seek merit. Why, then, does he make offerings?

Answer:

– Throughout immeasurable asamkhyeyas^[17] of kalpas,^[18] the Buddha cultivated every merit and virtue and constantly performed wholesome deeds, not merely to seek their rewards but also out of reverence for virtue; therefore, he practiced making offerings.

[40b] For example, while the Buddha was still in the world, the blind bhikshu A-na-luat^[19] was mending his robe when the thread slipped from his needle. The Venerable One said:

– Whoever needs merit, please thread this needle for me!

The Buddha approached the Venerable One and said:

– I am one who delights in merit; I shall thread the needle for you.

The bhikshu A-na-luat recognized the Buddha’s voice, hurriedly rose, arranged his robe, bowed his head, and said:

– Homage to the Blessed One! Your merit and virtue are already complete; why do you say that you need merit?

The Buddha taught:

– My merit and virtue are already perfected. I clearly know the cause of merit, the result of merit, and the power of merit. By virtue of this merit, the Buddha is foremost among all sentient beings; therefore, I delight in merit.

Wishing to instruct his disciples, the Buddha asked:

– I still perform meritorious deeds; why do you not do so?

It is like a dancer who, though already a hundred years old, still danced and sang. Someone reproached him, saying:

– You are already a hundred years old. Why do you still dance and sing?

The old man replied:

– I no longer need to dance or sing; I do so only because I wish to teach my children and grandchildren!” The Buddha is likewise. Although his merit and virtue were already perfected, he practiced making offerings in order to teach his disciples to perform meritorious deeds. When the bhikshuni Ma-ha-ba-xa-ba-de,^[20] the nurse of Prince Tat-dat-da, entered nirvana, the Four Heavenly Kings^[21] carried her bier, while the Buddha walked in front holding a censer and burning incense as an offering. This was precisely an act of repaying kindness. Therefore, although he did not seek any result, he still practiced making offerings.

Furthermore, only a Buddha can make offerings worthy of a Buddha; others do not understand a Buddha’s virtue. As a verse states:

The wise revere those who are wise;

When wisdom is discussed, the wise rejoice.

The wise can recognize wisdom,

As a snake knows a snake’s feet.

The Sutra on King Tan-ti-sa-la Making Offerings to the Buddha states: “At that time, in the kingdom of Ma-kiet,^[22] King Tan-ti-sa-la^[23] went to the Buddha and said:

– Homage to the Blessed One! I govern this kingdom, and all the wealth available for use—robes, beds and mats, bedding, medicines, and so forth—I wish to offer throughout my life to the Tathagata and the Sangha. I shall also encourage all officials and subjects to make offerings, so that they may be delivered, escape the three evil destinies, and forever dwell in peace and security.”

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Precious Treasury^[24] states: “The Buddha taught the bhikshus that there are eight kinds of persons to whom offerings must certainly be made, without hesitation: one’s father, one’s mother, the Buddha, the Buddha’s disciples, those who have come from afar, those about to journey far away, the sick, and caregivers of the sick.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Because bodhisattvas have accomplished immeasurable merit and virtue, when they offer a single meal to the Buddhas and Sanghas of the ten directions, all are fully satisfied, yet the food is not exhausted. It is like a spring whose waters continually well forth and never run dry. [40c] Thus Manjusri used a single bowl of cakes of delight^[25] to make offerings to eighty-four thousand members of the Sangha, yet some still remained.”

Furthermore, a bodhisattva need offer only one bowl of rice to the Buddhas of the ten directions, and food and drink will appear in abundance before all those Buddhas, just as ghosts and spirits receive one portion of food and then transform it into thousands upon tens of thousands of portions.

The Sutra of Manjusri’s Questions^[26] states: “If a bodhisattva stores wealth for the sake of making offerings to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, or to his parents and siblings, he is permitted to do so. For the purpose of building temples and Sangha dwellings, making images, and practicing generosity, he may accept gold, silver, money, and other wealth without committing an offense.”

VII.3. Distinguishing Erroneous Practices

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish^[27] records: “If a danapati makes a separate offering to one person among the sixteen ranks,^[28] although merit will be gained, it will not be great; it will not equal even one-sixteenth of the merit gained by making offerings to any four persons. Even at the end of the age of the Final Dharma, four or more bhiksus who have wives and children are called a Sangha in name only; nevertheless, they too should be revered as one would revere Sariputra,^[29] Maudgalyayana,^[30] and the others.

At that time, the bodhisattva Maitreya asked the Sangha:

– If a danapati invites a pure, precept-observing sramana to his home and makes offerings to him, how does the benefit compare with that of a person who obtains one hundred thousand gold coins?

The Venerable Kaundinya replied:

– Suppose a person obtained one hundred carts filled with precious jewels; that benefit would not equal the merit of inviting a pure, precept-observing sramana to his home and making offerings to him.

The Venerable Sariputra replied:

– Suppose a person obtained enough precious jewels to fill all of Jambudvipa; that would still not equal the merit of inviting a pure, precept-observing person to his home and making offerings to him, for the latter benefit is far greater.

The Venerable Maudgalyayana replied:

– Suppose a person obtained the gold, silver, and jewels of one world, or even as many as four worlds; that merit would still not equal the merit of inviting a pure, precept-observing sramana to his home and making offerings to him.”

The Sutra on Resolving Doubts Concerning the Semblance Dharma^[31] records: “If a danapati arranges a ceremony and invites members of the Sangha from all quarters to receive offerings, but appoints someone to guard the gate and bar bhiksunis, the sick, the old and infirm, the destitute, and beggars from entering the vegetarian feast, then holding such a feast and making such offerings merely wastes food and produces not the slightest wholesome merit.”

The Sutra of Universal Expansiveness^[32] records: “If the four assemblies^[33] of the Buddha’s disciples undertake and observe the fasting precepts and wholeheartedly invite the Sangha of the ten directions to receive offerings, they should not discriminate between good and bad persons, those who keep the precepts and those who break them, or those of high and low virtue. [41a] When they go to monasteries to invite the Sangha, they should make offerings according to the Sangha order and must not entertain discriminating thoughts.

The resulting merit will then be immeasurable and boundless. If they encounter one who has attained the fruit of arhatship or one who has generated the mind of great bodhi, they will gain limitless merit and, upon hearing the Dharma taught, may attain the unsurpassed fruit of nirvana.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya^[34] records: “Visakha, Mother of Migara, selectively invited five hundred arhats to her home to receive offerings and was reproached by the Buddha: ‘You have truly acted foolishly and improperly. It would have been better to invite a single person according to the Sangha order, for you would thereby have gained extremely great merit.’”

The Sutra on Inviting the Sangha as a Field of Merit and the Sutra for Humane Kings^[35] record: “The Blessed One repeatedly reproached this practice and did not permit selective invitations. Selective invitation is a custom of non-Buddhist paths, not the Dharma of the Seven Buddhas.”^[36]

The Brahma Net Sutra^[37] records: “If a danapati comes to invite the Sangha to receive a meal, visiting members of the Sangha are also entitled to receive the offerings. The monk in charge of quarters^[38] must appoint visiting monks to accept the invitation according to the Sangha order. If he appoints only resident monks and does not appoint visiting monks, he incurs immeasurable offenses, is unworthy to be called a sramana, does not belong to the Sakya lineage, and is no different from an animal. He commits a minor defiling offense.”^[39]

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “There was a wealthy elder who delighted in making offerings to the Sangha. He said to the monk in charge of Sangha affairs:^[40]

– I invite members of the Sangha, in their proper order, to come to my home and partake of a meal.

Day after day, they accepted the invitation in succession. Finally it was the turn of the sramaneras,^[41] but the monk in charge of Sangha affairs did not allow them to accept the invitation. The sramaneras asked:

– Why do you not allow the sramaneras to go?

He replied:

– Because the danapati does not like to invite young people.

He then spoke this verse:

The donor delights in inviting only

Those old men whose teeth have fallen out,

Whose bodies are thin and skin wrinkled,

Whose backs are bent and hair and beards white.

All the sramaneras had attained the fruit of arhatship. On hearing this verse, they reacted as though a lion had been struck upon the head. Suddenly rising from their seats, they spoke this verse:

The donor, deficient in wisdom,

Regards appearances and esteems not virtue;

He rejects these youthful forms

And esteems only the old, thin, and frail.

The sramaneras further said:

– Concerning the noble attributes of an elder, the Buddha taught:

One is called an elder

Not necessarily because of age,

A thin body, or white hair and beard,

While being empty of merit and virtue.

One who skillfully transcends the fruits

Of both wrongdoing and merit,

Diligently cultivates the pure life,

And has relinquished all dharmas,

Is called an elder.

[41b] At that time, the sramaneras further reflected: ‘We should not sit silently by while this danapati judges the Sangha as good or bad.’ They then spoke this verse:

Whether praised or disparaged,

Our minds remain the same;

But this man disparages the Buddha-Dharma,

So he must be admonished.

Let us quickly go to his home

And teach the Dharma to instruct him.

If we cannot lead him to liberation,

He is one who must be left behind.

At once, the sramaneras transformed themselves into elders. Their hair and beards were white as snow, their eyebrows hung down over their eyes, their skin was wrinkled like rippling waves, and their backs were bent like bows. Leaning on staffs, they walked forth and accepted the invitations according to the Sangha order. Their entire bodies trembled; their steps were unsteady, and they resembled white willows swaying in the wind. Seeing them, the danapati was delighted and invited them into his home to be seated. Suddenly, they transformed back into their youthful forms. Terrified, the danapati said:

With such aged appearances,

You have changed again into youthful bodies,

As though you had taken a rejuvenating medicine;

How can this be?

The sramaneras said:

– Do not doubt or fear. We are not demons or nonhuman beings. Your judging of the members of the Sangha is truly lamentable! Therefore, we manifested in this way. You should clearly understand that the holy Sangha cannot be judged.

The sramaneras then spoke this verse:

The proboscis of a mosquito

Might fathom the bottom of the sea,

But all devas and human beings

Cannot fathom the Sangha.

The Sangha is noble through merit and virtue,

Which cannot even be distinguished;

Yet you use age

To weigh and judge the Great Virtuous Ones!

Greatness or smallness depends upon wisdom,

Not upon youth or age.

One who has wisdom and strives diligently,

Though young, is truly old;

One who is indolent and lacks wisdom,

Though old, is truly young.

Your judging of the Sangha is an extremely grave offense. It is no different from trying to fathom the bottom of the sea with one finger and will only provoke the ridicule of the wise. Have you not heard the Buddha teach that four things, though small, must not be taken lightly? The four are:

[41c] - Though a crown prince is young, he will become a king.

– Though a young snake is small, its venom can kill a person.

– Though a spark is small, it can burn down mountains and forests.

– Though a sramanera is young, he may possess the spiritual powers of a noble one.

After hearing this and clearly witnessing the sramaneras’ spiritual powers, the danapati became exceedingly frightened. His whole body trembled, and with palms joined he said:

– Noble Ones! Today I repent. I am an ordinary person whose mind constantly harbors faults. May I ask: between pure faith in the treasure of the Buddha and pure faith in the treasure of the Sangha, which produces greater merit?

They replied:

– We have never perceived any superiority or inferiority between the Sangha and the Buddha. Why is this? Once, while seeking alms in the city of Sravasti, the Buddha regularly went to the home of a brahmin named Bharadvaja to seek alms. The brahmin thought: ‘Why does this sramana keep coming here, as though I owed him a debt?’

At that time, the Buddha spoke this verse:

When rain falls regularly in due season,

The five grains always yield abundant harvests.

When causes of merit are cultivated regularly,

Wholesome fruits are always enjoyed.

Because birth is undergone again and again,

Death must also be undergone again and again.

If one accomplishes the noble Dharma,

Who then must undergo death and birth!

Upon hearing the Buddha’s teaching, the brahmin realized that the Great Sage had known his thoughts. Feeling ashamed, he took the Buddha’s bowl into his home, filled it with fine food, brought it out, and offered it to him. The Buddha did not accept it, but said:

– It was because I spoke a verse that I obtained this food; I will not accept it!

The brahmin asked:

– Then to whom should this food be offered?

The Buddha said:

– I see neither deva nor human capable of digesting this food. Place it on ground where there is little grass, or in water where there are no living creatures.

Following the Buddha’s instruction, the brahmin placed the food in water where there were no living creatures. The water immediately seethed and boiled, and smoke and flames rose up, just as when a red-hot iron bar is cast into water. Seeing this, the brahmin was frightened and said:

– Never before has there been such a thing! Even this food possesses such spiritual power!

He then hurried back, bowed at the Buddha’s feet in repentance, and requested permission to renounce the household life and receive the precepts. Through cultivation, he gradually eradicated all fetters and attained the fruition of arhatship.

On another occasion, Mahaprajapati Gautami offered the Buddha a precious robe the color of pure gold. Knowing that the Sangha could receive it, the Buddha told Gautami to offer the robe to the Sangha.”

Therefore, it should be known that the merit and virtue of the Jewel of the Buddha and the Jewel of the Sangha are equal.

Whoever reveres the Buddha

Must likewise revere the Sangha.

One should not make distinctions,

For both alike are Jewels.

The Scripture of Parables from the Dhammapada^[42] records that the Blessed One spoke this verse:

A person should always be mindful,

Knowing at each meal to reduce the portion.

By consuming less thereafter,

Though lean in body, one will live long.

[42a] The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “At that time, in the city of Rajagriha, there was a very wealthy householder named Sirigupta, who was a disciple of the non-Buddhist ascetics. He was often uncertain whether the ascetic Gautama^[43] was truly Omniscient. One day, he went to the Buddha and said:

– I invite the ascetic to come to my home tomorrow to receive a meal!

Wishing to liberate him, the Buddha silently accepted the invitation. The householder then returned home, dug a large fire pit before his gate, and covered its surface with sand to conceal it and prevent smoke from rising. Inside the house, he arranged seats but did not cover them with cloth or cushions. He also mixed poison into the rice, thinking to himself: ‘If Gautama is Omniscient, he must know of this. Otherwise, he will fall into the fire pit or die from the poison.’

Early the next morning, he sent someone to the monastery to invite the Buddha. The Buddha instructed Ananda to notify all the bhiksus that none should go ahead of Him. The bhiksus then followed the Buddha in order to the householder’s home. When they reached the gate, the Buddha transformed the fire pit into a lotus pond filled with pure water that was sweet, clear, and cool. He and the Sangha stepped lightly upon the lotus leaves and entered the house. Although the seats had no coverings, the Buddha caused cloth coverings to appear upon them. The Buddha said to the householder:

– You should cast aside the doubt in your mind. I am indeed Omniscient!

After witnessing the Buddha’s spiritual power through these two transformations, the householder immediately gave rise to faith and reverence for the Buddha. With palms joined, he addressed Him:

– Revered Blessed One! This rice contains poison; You cannot eat it!

The Buddha said:

– Go ahead and offer this food. The Sangha may partake of it without harm!

The Buddha further instructed Ananda to tell the bhiksus that they were not to eat before He proclaimed the equal offering,^[44] for this was the Buddha’s invocation of blessing. The poisons in this world are precisely sensual desire, anger, and ignorance. The Buddha possesses the true Dharma that eliminates every poison. Through the Buddha’s true words,^[45] all the poison was neutralized, and the food became pure. After the Sangha had finished the meal, the householder sat before the Buddha and listened to Him expound the Dharma. Thereupon, he attained the pure Dharma eye.^[46] The Buddha returned to the monastery, assembled the Sangha, and taught:

– From this day forward, no one may walk ahead of the Buddha, the upadhyaya, the senior elder, or the instructor; nor may anyone eat before the equal offering has been proclaimed.”

The Matrika Treatise records: “When the Sangha is about to receive a meal, the senior elder should instruct everyone to proclaim Sangha-bat^[47] together, and only afterward may they eat.”

VII.4 The Noble Sangha

Since the Greatly Awakened One^[48] entered nirvana, the teaching has been entrusted to the noble assembly. Bodhisattvas and arhats have successively propagated the teaching, manifesting throughout all lands and liberating beings in accordance with conditions. If their understandings differ wrongly, then even while dwelling in the same house they are as far apart as heaven and earth; but if they are of one mind, then even while residing in different realms they are as near as if face-to-face.

[42b] Near the end of the Taishi era of the Song dynasty, the sramana Shi Fayuan of Zhengsheng Monastery, Shi Fajing of Zhengxi Monastery, and others began painting images of the noble Sangha in various seated postures. Up through the early Tang dynasty, members of the noble Sangha frequently manifested miraculous signs: some revealed half a foot upon a seat, while others leaned upon a khakkhara and left deep marks upon the ground. When Emperor Wu of Liang heard of this, he rejoiced and offered praise. With sincere reverence, he regarded it as an auspicious sign received by the realm and therefore arranged a vegetarian feast as an offering.

In the eighth year of the Yongming era, the emperor fell gravely ill. Although physicians as skilled as He and Huan^[49] treated him, his condition showed no improvement whatsoever. With utmost sincerity, the emperor vowed to take refuge in the noble Sangha and ordered that a vegetarian offering altar be established in Yanchang Hall.

For seven days, invitations and supplications were made, and rice was offered to the Buddhas and the noble assembly. The altar was adorned, solemn, and pure, without so much as a speck of dust being disturbed. As the seventh day drew to its close, an auspicious sign was received: a celestial fragrance spread everywhere, entering the nostrils and penetrating the heart, so overpowering that the incense in the censers could not diffuse its own fragrance.

Footprints and shoeprints also appeared throughout the great hall, and the sound of a khakkhara striking the ground resounded beyond the doors. Everyone who saw the footprints, smelled the fragrance, and heard the striking of the khakkhara was filled with both reverence and awe. At that time, more than ten people, including Xu Guangxian, saw and heard these signs and reported them to the emperor.

When the offering ceremony was completed, the emperor recovered fully. Consequently, the entire court resolved to take refuge, having personally witnessed the miraculous response. Afterward, Xu Guangxian and several other monastics and laypeople established altars and respectfully issued invitations, and auspicious signs likewise appeared in every case.

The responses of the noble ones could never be recorded in full.

Long ago, the elder Shudika^[50] made a bowl of sandalwood, placed it in a netted bag, and hung it from an ivory pillar. He said:

– If any sramana or brahmin can retrieve it without using a ladder or pole, I shall give it to that person.

When the non-Buddhist ascetics learned of this, they manifested spiritual powers in an attempt to retrieve it, but all were helpless and could only shake their heads and leave. When Pindola^[51] heard of the matter, he asked the Venerable Maudgalyayana:

– Did this truly happen?

He replied:

– It did!

Pindola said:

– You are foremost in the Lion’s Roar;^[52] go and retrieve it!

Maudgalyayana feared the Buddha’s rebuke and did not dare to take it. Pindola then went to the elder’s house, entered meditative concentration, and, without rising from his seat, extended his arm and took the bowl.

According to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya: “At that time, the Venerable One sat upon a large square boulder, flew through the air, retrieved the bowl, and returned. When the Buddha learned of this, He rebuked him:

– For the sake of a non-Buddhist’s bowl, a bhiksu displayed spiritual powers before those who had not received the precepts. From this day until the end of your life, you may not dwell in Jambudvipa!

Thus, in obedience to the Buddha’s instruction, Pindola went to Apara-godaniya^[53], where he taught and transformed the fourfold assembly and propagated the Buddhadharma. When the disciples of the fourfold assembly in Jambudvipa wished to see the Venerable One, they went and addressed the Buddha. The Buddha permitted him to return and allowed him to manifest spiritual powers, but did not permit him to enter nirvana. He instructed Pindola to serve as a field of merit for the fourfold assembly of future generations. The Venerable Pindola also made a personal vow that, if anyone anywhere under heaven invited him, he would accept and come immediately.”

The Sutra of King Ashoka records: “The bhikshu Hai Yi rose from within the iron cauldron, flew into the air by his spiritual power, and manifested the eighteen miraculous transformations.^[54] The king rejoiced and spoke this verse:

[42c] Your body resembles a human body,

Yet your power surpasses that of humans.

Please tell me,

How do you manifest such spiritual powers?

The king resolved to invite the Sangha from throughout the four directions to bear witness, and spoke this verse:

O arhats!

Please come and accept me into your care.

I invite the arhats!

Please come here.”

The Sutra on Inviting Pindola records: “Whenever the upasakas, kings, and elders of India held a vegetarian feast, they would invite the arhat Pindola Bharadvaja. Pindola was his given name, and Bharadvaja his family name. Because the Venerable One displayed spiritual powers before the elder Sudatta, the Buddha did not permit him to enter nirvana, but instructed him to serve as a field of merit for the fourfold assembly during the age of the decline of the Dharma.

When inviting the Venerable One, one must be in a pure place, burn incense, bow in reverence, face Mount Mali^[55] in India, and recite with utmost sincerity: ‘The greatly virtuous Pindola Bharadvaja, in accordance with the Buddha’s instruction, serves as a field of merit in the age of the decline of the Dharma. Please accept my invitation to come here and partake of this meal.’

When a new house has been built, one should likewise invite him: ‘Please accept my invitation to come and rest upon the bed in this house.’

When inviting the Sangha to bathe, one should also invite him first: ‘Please come here to bathe.’ As dawn approaches, prepare hot water mixed with fragrances, ashes, soap, a tooth-cleaning stick, and fragrant oil. Blend hot and cold water to a suitable temperature, just as one would prepare a bath for a person. Open the door and invite him to enter, then close it. Wait for approximately the time it would take a person to finish bathing, and only afterward invite the Sangha to enter.

When organizing a vegetarian assembly or bathing ceremony and wishing to invite the Sangha, the donor must wholeheartedly seek liberation, without doubt or delusion, possessing utterly pure faith; only then should the invitation be made.

Not long ago, an elder heard that the great arhat Pindola, in obedience to the Buddha’s teaching, served as a field of merit for sentient beings. He established a vegetarian altar in accordance with the Dharma and sincerely invited Pindola. Wishing to determine whether an arhat had attended the feast, the elder scattered beautiful fresh flowers upon the carpet.

Just as the Sangha finished their meal, all the flowers turned yellow and withered. The elder was sorrowful and reproached himself, not knowing what fault had caused this. With the utmost reverence, he questioned the Sangha, then established another vegetarian feast and again scattered flowers as before; the flowers withered once more.

He then used all the wealth in his household to establish a third vegetarian altar, yet everything happened exactly as before. Deeply grieved and blaming himself, he invited more than one hundred Dharma masters to reveal his faults so that he might repent. First, he appeared before the eldest senior monk, related the entire matter, and repented of his transgressions. [43a] The senior monk said: ‘All three times that you held a vegetarian feast and invited me, I accepted your invitation.

Yet you ordered your servants to guard the gate and prevent me from entering. They despised me for being old and dressed in torn, filthy clothing, and drove me away. The shramana Laidi refused to enter, but because I had accepted your invitation, I compelled myself to enter the assembly.

Your servants, however, struck me on the head with a staff. You yourself caused this to happen, so why are you now grieving and reproaching yourself?’ As soon as he finished speaking, he vanished.

Only then did the elder realize that this had been Pindola. From that time onward, whenever people held a vegetarian feast, they did not dare guard the gate. If Pindola attends the feast, the flowers at his seat do not wither.

When assembling a bed or building a new house and wishing to invite Pindola, one must sprinkle fragrant water upon the ground, light lamps fueled with fragrant oil, place a new mattress upon the bed, spread a layer of soft cotton cloth, and cover it with white silk. When night begins to fall, invite the Venerable One according to the prescribed rite. After inviting him, go outside and close the door; do not treat the matter lightly by secretly peering inside.

If one performs every gesture and action with wholehearted reverence and faith, he will come, for single-minded reverence will evoke a response, and it is impossible that he should not come. If he comes, the silk will bear the impression of someone having lain upon it, and the water in the bathing room will also be warm.

When he accepts an invitation to a vegetarian feast, he may manifest, according to the circumstances of each place, in the form of a senior, middle-ranking, or junior monk. One must never expect to witness unusual signs. When the vegetarian ceremony is complete and the Sangha has departed, if the flowers at the seat have not withered, one may know that Pindola came.”

Commentary:

Nowadays, when vegetarian assemblies are established, most are not conducted according to the prescribed rites. Arrangements are made only according to human inclinations for ordinary members of the Sangha, while no attention whatsoever is given to the seats of the Buddha and the holy Sangha. As recorded earlier in the sutra, the donor must first sweep and clean the Buddha hall and arrange seats for the holy Sangha.

Then, having bathed and cleansed oneself, one should burn fragrant incense, hang banners and canopies, scatter various flowers, hold an incense burner, and with wholehearted sincerity respectfully invite the Three Jewels and the holy Sangha. All holy and ordinary beings throughout the Dharma realms of the ten directions should likewise be invited without exception. One should beseech them to accept the invitation and condescend to visit the disciple’s home.

For seven days beforehand, everyone in the household should act with sincerity and arouse a mind of reverence. If the household is poor and lacks fine incense and fresh flowers, or has no suitable place for the arrangements, it must nevertheless strive to prepare them when the occasion arrives. When establishing the seats, choose the highest and finest place for the Buddha, clean it thoroughly, arrange it in accordance with the Dharma, and then proceed in order to the seat of the holy Sangha.

This seat should be spread with a clean white cushion and then covered with cloth. If the donor is wholeheartedly reverent, there will be a response. When the ceremony is complete, if one looks at the seat and sees an impression as though someone had sat there, one may know that a reward body came.

If no sign appears, then only a transformation body came. If one is disrespectful, neither the reward body nor the transformation body will come. The seat must not be adorned with such objects as multicolored silks, brilliantly patterned brocades, ornaments of gold and silver, or scattered flowers. [43b] Although he is an arhat, he nevertheless observes the two hundred and fifty precepts just as ordinary members of the Sangha do, and therefore does not accept brocades, silks, gold, silver, and similar objects.

Buddhas and Mahayana bodhisattvas, however, are not restricted by the marks of renunciation, and therefore such objects may be offered to them.

The seat for the holy Sangha and the table upon which food is offered must not be more than six inches high. They may be as high as a Sangha seat that accords with the Dharma. Nor should an image of the holy Sangha be placed upon the seat, for if the reward body comes, how could it push the image aside and sit down? Neither should the bowl of the resident Sangha be given for the holy Sangha’s use, because if the reward body comes, it cannot use the Sangha’s bowl. If the bowls, cups, dishes, and plates of laypeople are used and thus offered to both the transformation body and the reward body, this fully accords with the Dharma.

Money offered to the holy Sangha should be used to purchase the finest bowls, cups, chopsticks, spoons, bronze dishes, hand towels, trays, basins, tubs, and other utensils for the holy Sangha’s use. Marks should be placed on the undersides of these objects so that others do not confuse them. Each day, following the household’s mealtimes, food should be placed in bowls every morning and at noon and offered to the Buddha and the Sangha—would this not be excellent?

If there is money, one may purchase a folding stool^[56] and a rice basket. After every meal, wash the basket clean with soap, place it upon the folding stool, and cover it with an oilcloth. Doing this every day without interruption to express one’s sincere reverence in making offerings to the Three Jewels brings extremely great merit.

If there are abundant funds, one should follow the practice of monasteries in the Western Regions and wealthy lay households: choose a secluded place, build quarters for the holy Sangha, and offer gifts throughout the year. During the summer, mats should be spread in the room each day, and basins, bowls, soap, clean towels, and other necessities should be provided. Before noon, rice and other foods should be offered; in the evening, lamps should be lit and incense burned.

Make offerings in accordance with the Dharma and according to one’s ability. During the winter, provide woolen blankets, charcoal fires, hot water, bright lamps, and other necessities, making offerings appropriate to the season. Even if property belonging to the holy Sangha remains in excess, it must not be used for the ordinary Sangha.

Even property of the resident Sangha must not be used for the Buddha or the Dharma, nor may it be used to paint images of members of the holy Sangha. One often sees people take funds belonging to the holy Sangha to purchase fine silk to hang upon the four walls or to paint images of the Buddha and fashion or paint images of such holy Sangha members as Kasyapa,^[57] Ananda, and others. Since the arhat Pindola still abides in the present world and has not entered nirvana, and since permission to use those funds has not been granted by the holy Sangha, how could they be diverted indiscriminately to other purposes?

If they have mistakenly been used, twice the amount should promptly be repaid; otherwise, one incurs an extremely grave offense. Therefore, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “What is permitted to be used for this purpose must not be used for another; anyone who violates this incurs an offense.” (It is just as with one’s own possessions: if another person uses them for something else without asking, would that be permissible?)

Everything set forth above has been recorded according to the Buddha’s intent as found in the sutras and Vinaya, and it must be put into practice. The property of the Three Jewels carries grave consequences and must not be used indiscriminately, lest an error of a single fraction lead one a thousand miles astray. These words are truthful and not false; they should be carefully considered and put into practice. [43c] Therefore, during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang, eminent monks and renowned Confucian scholars of the Han realm invited a Tripitaka master from the Western Regions to compile “The Regulations for the Use of the Holy Sangha’s Property.” It was subsequently translated into five fascicles. Its general meaning is also the same as what has been presented above.

VII.5. Giving Food

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra^[58] states: “At that time, the Buddha taught the bhiksus:

– There are four kinds of nutriment that sustain sentient beings: morsel nutriment, contact nutriment, volitional nutriment, and consciousness nutriment.

What is morsel nutriment? It is the food of worldly people, namely, food that can be placed in the mouth and eaten.

What is contact^[59] nutriment? It consists of those things whose contact with the body produces joy and pleasure, such as clothing, parasols, fragrant flowers, braziers, perfumed oils, gathering together with women, and so forth.

What is volitional nutriment? It consists of what is recollected, conceived, and contemplated in the mind, whether expressed through speech, experienced through bodily contact, or apprehended as dharmas.

What is consciousness nutriment? It consists of the cognitions of consciousness. From the Brahma Heaven up to the Heavens of Perception and Non-Perception, all take ‘consciousness’ as nutriment.

Because of these four kinds of nutriment, sentient beings continue endlessly to revolve in birth and death.”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra states: “The Blessed One taught Venerable Aniruddha:

– All dharmas subsist because of nutriment. The eye takes sleep and rest as its nutriment; the ear takes sound as its nutriment; the nose takes fragrances as its nutriment; the tongue takes flavors as its nutriment; the body takes contact as its nutriment; and the mind takes dharmas as its nutriment. Even nirvana takes heedfulness as its nutriment.”

The Buddha taught the bhiksus the following subtle Dharma: “The contemplation of nutriment comprises nine kinds: four worldly nutriments and five supramundane nutriments.”

The four worldly nutriments are morsel nutriment, contact nutriment, volitional nutriment, and consciousness nutriment.

The five supramundane nutriments are meditation nutriment, vow nutriment, mindfulness nutriment, the nutriment of the eight liberations, and joy nutriment.

Bhiksus must always remain mindful, relinquish the four worldly nutriments, and perfect the five supramundane nutriments.”

The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma^[60] states: “If sentient beings possess faith and compassionately give many kinds of food to others, then after death they will be born in the Citra Heaven and enjoy many pleasures. When their lives in that heaven end, they will be reborn as wealthy human beings who constantly practice the True Dharma.”

The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “If sentient beings give medicines that cure others of illness, then after death they will be born in a heaven of the Desire Realm, where they will enjoy the five sensual pleasures. When their lives in heaven end, they will be reborn as wealthy human beings. [44a] If sentient beings give rock-sugar water or cool water to those who are dying of thirst, then after death they will be born in the Cool Heaven and enjoy many pleasures. When their lives in heaven end, they will be reborn as human beings who do not suffer the calamities of hunger and thirst.”

The Nirvana Sutra^[61] states: “The wilderness demon-spirit^[62] received from the Buddha the precept against taking life and therefore no longer ate flesh; as a result, its body grew weak and it was close to death. The Buddha therefore said to the spirit:

– From now on, I shall instruct my sravaka disciples that wherever the Buddhadharma exists, they must give food to you. Anyone dwelling in a place who fails to do so is a retainer of Mara, not my disciple and not a sravaka.”

However, distinctions must be observed when food is given to sentient beings. If the food comes from offerings made by faithful donors, one must follow the Mahisasaka Vinaya: “When giving food to beggars, birds, dogs, and others, one must reduce one’s own portion and give from it; one must not take anything beyond one’s own portion.”

(From ancient times to the present, one has seen monastics and laypeople make offerings of food. These portions come from donors who, through thrift, dare not give them even to their own wives and children but instead offer them to the Sangha in order to gain merit. The Sangha must not squander them. Yet some people fail beforehand to calculate how much food is needed; after eating their fill, they give the leftovers to beggars, birds, dogs, and others, thereby wasting the donors’ wealth and merely bringing offenses upon themselves. If they reduce their own portions and give from them, however, they may give any amount, without restriction.)

The Sutra on the Twelve Dhutanga Practices^[63] states: “When it is time to eat, one should contemplate: ‘If I see sentient beings suffering from hunger or thirst, I should take a portion of my own food and give it to them. I am the giver, and they are the recipients.’ After giving, one should make this vow: ‘In order to increase the merit of all sentient beings and relieve their suffering, may I never give rise to greed or stinginess.’ When taking food to a secluded place, set aside a portion upon a clean stone and give it to birds and beasts, making the same vow as above.

At the very moment of eating, contemplate: ‘Within this body are eighty thousand nests of worms. May all the worms that receive this food dwell in peace and security. Today I give you food; when I attain the Way, I shall give you the Dharma.’ This is precisely the mind that does not abandon sentient beings.”

The Sutra on Contemplating the Buddha’s Images^[64] states: “The Buddha taught the assembly:

– Those who wish to accomplish what they seek should, whenever they practice giving, ensure that everyone is fully satisfied, regardless of whether the amount given is great or small. When the event is over, any unused food should be offered to the sramanas in the monastery who uphold the Dharma. The members of the Sangha should divide it among themselves for their use. When offering wealth and goods in charity, one should aspire to generate merit and should not contend for a share to take home to one’s wife and children. Doing so would be no different from planting a tree upon a rock: its roots would wither, and it could not survive. If donors now offer the remaining merit to the Sangha, then for a single act of giving they will receive ten thousand times the meritorious reward.”

[44b] The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “Offering porridge to the Sangha brings five benefits:

– It dispels hunger.

– It dispels thirst.

– It aids digestion.

– It allows urination and defecation to proceed freely.

– It makes the eyes clear and bright.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states: “Offering porridge to the Sangha brings ten benefits.” The verse says:

Those who uphold pure precepts and make offerings,

Reverently presenting porridge at the proper time,

Bring ten benefits to practitioners:

Complexion, strength, longevity, happiness, kindness, clarity, eloquence;

It dispels wind ailments, aids digestion, and ends hunger and thirst.

The Buddha declared this to be an excellent medicine.

Those who wish to be born among humans and devas and enjoy blessed happiness

Should regularly offer porridge to the Sangha.

The Sutra on the Five Blessed Rewards Gained by Giving Food^[65] records: “The Buddha taught the bhiksus:

– You should know that eating and drinking in moderation does not diminish one’s merit.

The Buddha taught:

– Those who give food to others obtain five kinds of merit conducive to attaining the Way; they are praised by the wise and possess magnanimous minds. These five kinds of merit are: giving life, giving complexion, giving strength, giving peace, and giving eloquence.

What is giving life?

When people have no food, their complexions become haggard and lose their radiance, and before seven days have passed, they die. Therefore, the wise give them food to preserve their lives; this is called giving life. Those who give life attain longevity in lifetime after lifetime. Born in the realms of devas and humans, they enjoy long lives and do not die prematurely, receiving the blessed reward of wealth and nobility and possessing immeasurable riches.

What is giving complexion?

When people have no food, their complexions become haggard and lose their freshness. Therefore, giving them food is called giving complexion. Those who give complexion are born in the realms of devas and humans in lifetime after lifetime, possessing well-formed bodies and beautiful complexions; all who see them esteem and cherish them.

What is giving strength?

When people have no food, their bodies become thin and weak, their spirits decline, and they are unable to act. Therefore, giving them food is called giving strength. Those who give strength are born in the realms of devas and humans in lifetime after lifetime, possessing strength beyond compare; even after working throughout the day, their strength does not diminish.

What is giving peace?

When people have no food, their bodies and minds suffer sorrow and distress; they are uneasy whether standing or sitting. Therefore, giving them food is called giving peace. Those who give peace are born in the realms of devas and humans in lifetime after lifetime, always dwelling securely and free from calamities. Wherever they go, they encounter virtuous people, possess immeasurable wealth, and do not die prematurely.

What is giving eloquence?

When people have no food, their bodies become thin and weak, their minds grow clouded, and their mouths are unable to speak. Therefore, giving them food is called giving eloquence. [44c] Those who give eloquence are born in the realms of devas and humans in lifetime after lifetime. Their speech is fluent, and they possess wisdom and unimpeded eloquence. All who hear them rejoice, bow in homage, and follow their teachings.”

Such is the merit gained by giving food.

The Ekottarika Agama records: “There are five occasions on which giving is timely:

– Giving to those who have come from afar.

– Giving to those who are traveling far away.

– Giving to the sick.

– Giving during times of famine.

– When fruits or grain have just been harvested, first offering them to diligent upholders of the precepts, and only afterward eating them oneself.

Furthermore, there are three ways of giving:

– Bringing food to a monastery as an offering is the highest.

– Inviting recipients to one’s home and making offerings to them is the intermediate way.

– Resolving to make offerings to those who come to one’s home seeking alms is the lowest.

The Sutra of the Treasury of the Transmission of the Dharma^[66] records: “In the past, ninety-one kalpas after Buddha Vipasyin entered nirvana, there was a bhiksu suffering from a severe headache. At that time, Bakula^[67] was a poor man. Seeing the sick bhiksu, he offered him one haritaki fruit.

After taking it, the bhiksu immediately recovered. Through the cause of this gift, for ninety-one kalpas Bakula was born in the realms of devas and humans, where he enjoyed blessed happiness and never suffered illness. Finally, he was born into a brahmin family.

His mother died while he was young, and his father remarried. At that time, Bakula was still a child. Whenever he saw his stepmother making cakes, he would follow her and ask for some.

Hating him, she seized Bakula and put him into the oven. Although the fire blazed fiercely, it could not burn him. His father returned from outside, saw what had happened, and immediately lifted him out.

On another occasion, while she was cooking meat, Bakula followed her and asked for some. In anger, she seized him and put him into the boiling cauldron, yet he did not die. Unable to find his son, the father called out for him.

Hearing his son answer, he came and carried him out, and Bakula remained unharmed. Later, the woman went to the river, and Bakula followed her. Upon reaching the riverbank, she furiously said: ‘What sort of demon or evil spirit are you?

Why did you not die after being burned and boiled twice?’ She then seized him and threw him into the river. At that very moment, Bakula was swallowed by a great fish, but because of his blessed karmic conditions, he remained safe. Not long afterward, a fisherman caught this fish and took it to the market to sell.

Many people bargained for it, but no one bought it. Late in the afternoon, when the fish was about to spoil, Bakula’s father saw it and bought it to take home. As he took up a knife to cut open the fish’s belly, the child cried out loudly: ‘Father, please use a gentle hand and do not injure me!’ Hearing his son’s voice, the father cut open the fish’s belly and carried him out.

When Bakula grew up, he renounced the household life and attained arhatship. From his birth until the age of one hundred and sixty, Bakula never once fell ill, nor did he suffer even minor ailments such as headaches or fever. It was precisely because he had given medicine in the past that he attained such longevity. [45a] Five times he entered places of death, yet remained alive and well: fire could not burn him, a boiling cauldron could not cook him, water could not drown him, a fish could not digest him, and a knife could not cut him. Therefore, the wise should practice giving.”

The Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, in the kingdom of Sravasti, there was a poor household with a grapevine in its courtyard bearing several clusters of nearly ripe fruit. The upasika intended to offer them to a practitioner of the Way. Before she could do so, however, the king invited the practitioner to receive meals for one month. The poor upasika lacked the king’s influence, so she waited longingly throughout the month before she could see the practitioner again. She then picked the fruit, offered it to him, and said:

– My aspiration to give arose more than a month ago, and only today has my wish been fulfilled.

The practitioner said:

– In that case, you have already been giving for an entire month!

The upasika asked:

– I have given only a single cluster of grapes. How can you say that I have been giving for an entire month?

The practitioner replied:

– To sustain the intention of relinquishing and giving for a month is itself to have given for a month!”

VII.6. Eating at the Proper Time

Question: What period constitutes eating at the proper time, and what constitutes eating after the proper time?

Answer: The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya records: “From sunrise until noon. On this basis, noon is the proper time for eating.” (The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “After noon means when the shadow has passed by the width of a single hair, the duration of a blink, the width of a blade of grass, and so forth; this is an improper time.”) Throughout the four continents^[68], this is taken as the standard.”

The Sutra of the Vira Samadhi records: “The Buddha said to Bodhisattva Mahamati:

– There are four times for eating: morning is the time when devas eat; noon is the time for eating in accordance with the Dharma; afternoon is the time when animals eat; and evening is the time when ghosts and spirits eat.”

The Buddha wished to sever the causes of transmigration through the six realms and enable beings to accord with the Buddhas of the three times; therefore, he established noon as the time for eating. To eat after noon is to conform with the lower realms and is not the eating time of noble sages; hence it is called an improper time.

The Sarvastivada Vinaya records: “Only devas may eat after noon without committing an offense.”

Furthermore, the Sarvastivada Vinaya records: “When a bhiksu from Jambudvipa travels to Apara-godaniya, he receives food according to the time in Jambudvipa. The same applies when a bhiksu from Apara-godaniya travels to any of the other three continents. If he stays overnight in a place, he follows the time of that place.”

The Matrka Treatise records:

“Question: Is it possible to eat at an improper time without committing an offense?”

Answer: Yes. If one goes to Northern Uttarakuru and takes food according to the time there, one does not commit an offense; it is likewise in the other directions. When it is precisely noon in Jambudvipa, it is midnight in the Northern Continent, sunset in the Eastern Continent, and sunrise in the Western Continent. The times in the other directions may be calculated accordingly.”

The Sarvastivada Treatise records: “There are four explanations of the proper time:

[45b] 1. From the moment the sun rises until midday, when the sunlight is intense, is called the proper time. From midday until the end of the night, when the sunlight gradually weakens and disappears entirely, is called the improper time.

2. From early morning until midday is the proper time for eating. Going on almsround then does not give rise to troubles, so it is called the proper time. From midday until the end of the night is when laypeople hold banquets and engage in amusements. Going on almsround at this time would cause many difficulties, so it is called the improper time.

3. From morning until midday, laypeople do not engage in licentious activities. Going on almsround then does not give rise to troubles, so it is called the proper time. After midday, they cease all their work and indulge in amusements. If one enters villages to seek alms at that time, one can easily be slandered; therefore, it is called the improper time.

4. From morning until midday is the time for seeking alms. One obtains food to sustain the body, enabling one to practice the path with a peaceful mind; all matters proceed favorably and accord with the true Dharma, so it is called the proper time. After midday, one should devote oneself to cultivation; it is not the time for seeking alms, so it is called the improper time.

VII.7. The Manner of Eating

The Great Sutra of the Final Teaching records: “Before eating, a bhiksu should burn incense and three times praise the merit of the donor’s generosity, and only then eat. Furthermore, according to the instruction of the senior monk: ‘Monastics! Each of you should go outside, wash your hands, rinse your mouth, then return and sit in your own place. Each person should recite a verse in sequence, and none may be omitted.’”

The Ekottarika Agama records: “When an offering is made, one should hold up the incense burner and announce: ‘It is time!’ The Buddha taught that incense is the Buddha’s messenger; therefore, incense must be burned to invite beings throughout the ten directions. (It should be understood that incense is originally burned to invite the Buddhas, whom the eyes of ordinary beings cannot see. The Buddha taught that burning incense respectfully invites all ordinary and noble beings throughout the ten directions, symbolizing blessings perfuming all of space and spreading everywhere. When the incense is passed,^[69] each person should chant the verse from the Avatamsaka Sutra:^[70]

The incense of precepts, the incense of samadhi, the incense of liberation,

Gather into a radiant cloud-platform filling the Dharma Realm,

Offered to the immeasurable Buddhas of the ten directions;

Those who see, hear, or are perfumed by it realize nirvana.)

The Sutra of the Three Thousand Rules of Deportment records: “One may receive incense while seated, lest, when a woman passes the incense, the hands touch and give rise to attachment.” (Or, if there is concern about ridicule, she may release it from above. When a man passes incense and a woman receives it, the procedure is reversed.)

Commentary:

When one receives clothing or food, one should not discriminate between what is good and what is poor. One should seek only to sustain one’s life for cultivation; this accords with the Buddha’s intent. Oil and grease are used to lubricate a cart—why must they be fragrant or fine? It is enough that they enable the cart to move. Therefore, in the Sutra of the Storehouse of Miscellaneous Treasures, the Buddha spoke this verse:

This body is like a cart;

It does not choose between good and bad.

Whether fragrant oil or foul-smelling grease,

Either one can lubricate it.

The Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise records: “One eats in order to practice the path of liberation, not to nourish and strengthen the body, just as one feeds a horse or raises a pig.”

At mealtime, one must first make offerings to the Three Jewels and then distribute food to beings of the four modes of birth.^[71] Therefore, the Avatamsaka Sutra contains this verse:

[45c] When receiving food,

One should vow that all sentient beings

Will set their minds upon the Buddha-path

And make offerings for the sake of the Dharma.

The Sutra of the Upasaka Precepts records: “If one makes one’s own clothes or alms bowl, one should first offer them to the Buddha and also give them to one’s parents, teachers, and upadhyaya to use or wear once before using them oneself. If they have already been offered to the Buddha, one must make offerings of flowers and incense before taking them back. Food and drink must first be offered to sramanas and brahmins before one eats.

When about to eat, one should make these vows: with the first spoonful, may I abandon all evil deeds; with the second spoonful, may I perform all good deeds; with the third spoonful, may I dedicate the merit to all sentient beings so that together they may attain the Buddha-path. If one cannot maintain contemplation with every morsel, one may instead make a single general vow before eating.”

The Matrka Treatise records: “When one receives food, one must contemplate morsel by morsel. When one receives clothing, one must contemplate each time one puts it on. When entering a room, one must contemplate step by step. Those of lesser faculties may contemplate the matter once in general.”

Fascicle Six of the Avatamsaka Sutra records: “The bodhisattva has one hundred and forty vows and therefore recites verses in every activity. One who partakes of food in this way neither possesses afflictions nor departs from afflictions; principle and phenomena are perfectly integrated, bringing benefit and happiness to all beings.”

The Ekottarika Agama records: “Among all forms of giving, the gift of Dharma is foremost. Among all undertakings, the undertaking of Dharma is foremost. Among all forms of kindness, the kindness of the teaching is foremost.”

If one eats too much, the body becomes heavy, the breath grows rapid, the vessels become obstructed, the mind becomes dull, and one can neither sit nor lie down at ease. If one eats too little, the body becomes thin and emaciated, the mind becomes distracted, the vital energy weakens, and one’s strength is exhausted. Therefore, the Ekottarika Agama contains this verse:

Eating too much brings suffering and illness;

Eating too little weakens one’s strength.

Therefore, take food and drink in proper measure,

Moderately—neither too much nor too little.

The Satyaka Nirgrantha Sutra contains this verse:

Those who consume too much food and drink

Have heavy bodies and indolent minds.

In the present and future lives,

Their bodies lose great benefit.

Sleeping excessively brings suffering upon oneself

And also troubles others.

Dazed and confused, one finds it difficult to awaken;

Eat at the proper time and according to one’s capacity.

A cook who wishes to taste food to determine whether it is salty or bland, raw or cooked, is permitted to place some food in the palm and taste it with the tongue. (According to the Sutra on the Dharma of Fasting, tasting food is not permitted, lest craving arise and one commit an offense.)

Commentary:

[46a] The reason renunciants must wash their hands clean before a meal and only then receive food from another is that renunciants are pure and noble, unlike ordinary people; therefore, they must receive the food before eating it.

The Sarvastivada Treatise records: “A bhiksu’s receiving food^[72] has five meanings:

– It eliminates the seed of theft (taking food and eating it oneself is like stealing); demonstrates one’s integrity (should anything be lost, the bhiksu will not be implicated); puts an end to slander (if renunciants take food for themselves, they are not regarded as noble); embodies a life of few desires and contentment (if one does not receive food from another, one is not living frugally and simply); and causes others to give rise to reverence and faith (eating only after receiving food inspires faith in followers of other paths).”

Once, a bhiksu was traveling with a follower of another path, and they stopped to rest beneath a tree. There was fruit on the tree. As mealtime approached, the follower of another path said to the bhiksu:

– Venerable, climb the tree and pick some fruit!

The bhiksu replied:

– Under my disciplinary rules, I may not climb a tree taller than a person.

The follower of another path then suggested:

– Why not shake the tree so that the fruit falls?

The bhiksu said:

– Under my disciplinary rules, I may not shake a tree to make its fruit fall.

Upon hearing this, the follower of another path climbed the tree himself, picked the fruit, threw it down to the ground for the bhiksu, and called out:

– Pick up the fruit and eat it!

The bhiksu replied:

– Under my disciplinary rules, if food has not been received directly from the hand of one who offers it, I may not eat it.

The non-Buddhist climbed down, picked the fruit, and offered it to the bhiksu. Witnessing this, he thought, “If such care is taken over even a single fruit, how much more so must it be with the rules governing renunciants!” Thereupon, he gave rise to faith and reverence. Realizing that the Buddha-Dharma was pure and unlike the teachings of non-Buddhists, he followed the bhiksu into the monastic life and cultivated the path, thereby completely eliminating the outflows.

The Sutra of Sariputra’s Questions^[73] records: “The Buddha taught:

– Even non-Buddhists and brahmins know that things must be formally received; how, then, could disciples of the Buddha eat without formally receiving them? All articles must be received from another person’s hand, with the sole exceptions of money and women, which must not be accepted. Even an article for which a formal act has been performed must still be received from another’s hand, as with a robe worn upon the body. If one accepts gold or silver in order to hoard it, one violates the rules.”

Commentary:

All food belonging to the Sangha must be distributed equally, without distinguishing between ordinary beings and sages, or between seniors and juniors.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “When a donor offers food, if a larger portion is offered to the senior monk, the senior monk should ask, ‘Will the entire Sangha receive the same?’ If the donor replies, ‘Only the senior monk will receive this much,’ he should tell the donor to make equal offerings to everyone. If the donor says, ‘Everyone will receive the same,’ he may accept it. According to the rules for the senior monk in the Sangha, he must not eat immediately after receiving his portion.

He must wait until all the food has been served, and then announce, ‘The offering has been distributed equally.’ Only then may he eat. The senior monk must eat slowly. He must not finish eating and rise before the others, but should wait for the person serving drinking water and rise only after completing the appropriate dedicatory blessing.”

The Sutra of Various Matters^[74] records: “The Buddha taught:

– Not eating after midday brings five blessings: little sexual desire, little sleep, single-minded concentration, no downward wind, bodily ease, and freedom from illness. Therefore, sramanas should understand these benefits and not eat after midday.”

Commentary:

[46b] If one craves food, afflictions will increase. One must contemplate it with revulsion and give rise to the perception of impurity.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “To contemplate food with revulsion is to contemplate that food arises from impure causes and conditions, just as flesh is produced from semen, blood, and the urinary tract. It is a dwelling place for blood, pus, and various microorganisms. Cream, milk, and curds are transformations of blood and are no different from blood and pus.

They are then mixed with the filthy sweat of cooks and other impurities. When food is placed in the mouth, two streams of foul-smelling fluid descend from the brain and mingle with saliva to produce flavor. Its appearance is like vomit swallowed back into the stomach.

Earth sustains it, water breaks it down, wind moves it, and fire cooks it. It is like a pan in which everything is boiled to a pulp: the sediment settles below while the clear liquid rises above. It is also like brewing liquor: the dregs become feces and the clear liquid becomes urine.

The throat has three passages. Wind propels the dissolved fat into the hundred vessels, where it combines with the blood already present, congeals, and becomes flesh. From flesh arise fat, bones, and marrow.

From these, the bodily faculties arise; then, from the conjunction of new and old flesh, the five faculties arise. From the five faculties arise the five consciousnesses, and from the five consciousnesses, in due sequence, arises mental consciousness. From this come discrimination and attachment to characteristics, judgments of good and bad, and then self, possessions of the self, the various afflictions, and sinful karma.

“Furthermore, one should reflect on how much labor this food embodies. If it were calculated, the toil and sweat expended by farmers to produce a single bowl of rice would amount to more than that bowl itself. Though obtaining this bowl of rice requires such hardship, once it enters the mouth it immediately becomes impure and utterly worthless; after a single night, it has already turned into feces and saliva. Originally delicious, once eaten it becomes something so impure and repulsive that no one wishes to look at it. The practitioner should reflect: ‘Food is so wretched; if I crave and cling to it, I shall fall into hell.’ By contemplating food in this way, one gives rise to the perception of revulsion. Because one is repelled by food, one does not crave the five sensual desires.

“For example, there was once a brahmin who practiced a discipline of purity and had business in an impure country. He thought to himself, ‘How can I avoid these impure foods? Only by eating dry food can I remain pure.’ When he saw an old woman selling white-marrow cakes,^[75] he said:

– I have business here for one hundred days. Please make these cakes and sell them to me.

“Every day, the old woman brought him cakes, which the brahmin greatly enjoyed. At first the cakes were white and clean, but as time passed, their color and flavor were no longer as before. The brahmin asked:

– Why is this so?

“The old woman replied:

– The abscess has healed.

“The brahmin asked in astonishment:

– What do you mean?

“The old woman replied:

– My husband had an abscess on his private parts. I mixed rice flour with milk and applied it to the sore. When the abscess ripened and burst, its pus mingled with the flour. Every day I used that flour to make the cakes I brought you, and that is why they tasted so delicious. Now that my husband’s abscess has healed, where could I possibly obtain any more?

“[46c] When the brahmin heard this, he clenched both hands, struck his head and beat his chest, retched, and said:

– What can I do now? I have ruined my discipline of purity! My cultivation has been destroyed!

“The brahmin immediately abandoned his business and returned to his own country.

“Practitioners are likewise. They crave food and drink, delighting in and enjoying them without contemplating their impurity. When they later undergo painful retribution, how could regret then be of any avail?”

VII.8. After Eating

The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “Bhiksus accepted invitations to meals, silently arrived and ate, and then quietly departed. The householders criticized them, saying:

– We do not even know whether the food was good!

“The bhiksus reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha taught:

– From now on, after taking a meal, you should pronounce a dedicatory blessing and praise the merit of the donors!

“The bhiksus did not know who should speak. The Buddha taught:

– The senior monk should speak. If the senior monk is unable to do so, he should ask a capable monk next in seniority to speak in his stead.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “The senior monk must understand the purpose for which the donor has made the offering and pronounce an appropriate dedicatory blessing.”

The Pali Treatise records: “After members of the Sangha, nuns, laypeople, and others have taken the meal, if they do not use bean flour, juma,^[76] and so forth to cleanse their mouths, the proper observance of the meal is incomplete. In the past, the bhiksu Liandi observed the meal discipline for sixty years without the slightest lapse. Every day after eating, he used juma, bean flour, and so forth, and thus conformed to the rules of the meal observance. If one does not do so, the meal observance is not accomplished.

“This scripture does not explain the matter. According to the Essentials of the Vinaya Discipline, juma means cow dung. If this scripture is followed, could it truly mean using cow dung to cleanse the mouth? The biographical record of Dharma Master Yasas states: ‘Laypeople and non-Buddhists in India… venerate Brahma and cows, believing them to be the two causes that produce the myriad things and nurture the people. Thus, cow dung is used to purify ritual grounds. The Buddha, accommodating worldly custom, also used cow dung for cleansing; why, then, should it not be used to cleanse the mouth?’”

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and other Vinaya collections record: “By maintaining the four deportments of walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, and eating the five principal foods, one accomplishes the meal observance. They do not state that it is accomplished only by cleansing the mouth with bean flour. If one eats after the prescribed time, violates proper deportment, or commits a transgression, then even if one uses bean flour and juma, the meal observance is not accomplished.”

The Samantapasadika records: “If one vomits after taking the meal and swallows it again before it has passed out of the throat, there is no offense. If it has already come out and one then swallows it again, one commits an offense.”

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya records: “If one is thirsty after eating, the Buddha instructed that all kinds of grain, beans, and barley may be cooked without being boiled until soft; at an improper time, the liquid may be strained off and drunk. Ghee,^[77] honey, rock sugar, and various fruit juices must be purified with water.^[78] If a little remains at the bottom of a jar and rainwater splashes into it, it is also regarded as pure.”

The Samantapāsādikā Vinaya records: “Clarified śālūka^[79] water may be drunk at an improper time.”

The Mātṛkā Treatise records: “Granulated-sugar water may also be drunk at an improper time.”

[47a] The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya records: “The human body is subject to four hundred and four illnesses:

– The wind element causes one hundred and one illnesses, which are treated with oil.

– The fire element causes one hundred and one feverish illnesses, which are treated with cream.

– The water element causes one hundred and one illnesses of chills, which are treated with honey.

– Mixed illnesses number one hundred and one and are treated with the three medicines above.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “Rock sugar must not be eaten at an improper time. There are five circumstances in which rock sugar may be eaten at an improper time: first, when traveling far; second, when ill; third, when one has eaten little; fourth, when one has been unable to obtain food by alms; and fifth, at a place where water is offered, when rock sugar is dissolved in the water, it may be drunk.”

The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya records: “It is permitted to drink it when hungry or thirsty.” (It should be understood that one who is not ill may not consume leftover rock sugar, ghee, and so forth at an improper time.)

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya records: “Leaves of black pepper, long pepper leaves, ginger, harītakī,^[80] and so forth may be used as lifelong medicines. When mixed with water, they are permitted to be drunk at an improper time.”

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya records: “All bitter, pungent, salty, sweet, and other substances that cannot be used as food are permitted to be taken as lifelong medicines at an improper time.”

The Samantapāsādikā Vinaya records: “All trees, fruits, roots, trunks, branches, leaves, and so forth that cannot be used as food may all be taken as lifelong medicines.”

Commentary:

Recently, many people have been seen eating and drinking at an improper time just as they do at the proper time. Is this correct?

Monastics and laypeople in border regions hear that the Vinaya permits the drinking of fruit juice, and so they drink preparations made from dried jujubes, pears, grapes, or pomegranates without crushing them, consuming everything. Even when the fruit is crushed and its juice pressed out, they do not clarify it but drink both the liquid and the pulp. Or, hearing that śālūka water is permitted for treating feverish illnesses, they immediately eat raw lotus root or drink rice water.

Or, when neither hungry nor thirsty, they consume ghee, rock sugar, and so forth at an improper time. Or they boil plum kernels into a thick preparation. Such abuses are too numerous to record fully.

According to the Ten Recitations Vinaya, one who does not fall within the five circumstances stated above may not consume these things at will; doing so breaks the fasting precept. Nowadays, one sees the number of transgressors increasing ever further!

Verse:

This month the fasting assembly is prepared;

At a fitting hour, the monastics are invited.

The fourfold assembly arrives at the proper time;

The sevenfold community gathers and proceeds to the refectory.

The words of the sutras and verses ring melodiously,

Earnest and moving, like musical tones suddenly deepening.

Fragrant incense rises straight into the heavens;

Carried by the wind, it spreads throughout the ten directions.

The lofty and abundant virtue of the precepts is extolled;

Words of praise proclaim the immeasurably profound Way.

Wondrous phrases dispel the afflictions;

At the proper time, passages and sentences are explained in full detail.

Thus monastics and laypeople alike are given refuge;

Material gifts and the gift of Dharma flourish and shine resplendently.

[47b] The field of merit has now fulfilled our aspirations;

Its beneficent grace guides both the living and the departed.

Notes:

^[1] Dharma-dhātu 法界 (S: dharma-dhātu): all objects apprehended by consciousness; one of the eighteen dhātus. In a broader sense, the Dharma realm is a general designation for all conditioned and unconditioned dharmas.

^[2] Mother Viśākhā 毘舍佉母 (S: Mṛgāra-mātṛ; Ch.: Mother of Mṛgāra): a female lay disciple who attained the first fruition and lived during the Buddha’s lifetime. She was the daughter of a wealthy elder of the kingdom of Aṅga. She once made eight great vows before the Buddha and also donated wealth to build the Eastern Park Hall of Mṛgāra’s Mother for the Buddha and his disciples.

^[3] Arhat 阿羅漢 (S: arhat): a noble one who has completely eliminated the delusions of views and thought within the three realms, attained the knowledge of exhaustion, and is worthy of receiving all offerings from the world; one of the four fruits of the śrāvaka path and one of the ten epithets of the Tathagata.

^[4] Treatise on the Bodhisattva Grounds (Treatise on the Grounds 地持論): a treatise in ten fascicles translated by Dharmakṣema during the Northern Liang dynasty and included in volume 30 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. It explains the bodhisattva’s skillful means of cultivation and is divided into three sections: the Place of Initial Skillful Means, the Place of Skillful Means in the Subsequent Dharmas, and the Place of Ultimate Skillful Means, comprising twenty-seven chapters.

^[5] Caitya 支提 (S: caitya): a shrine or stupa. According to the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, only a structure enshrining relics is called a stupa, while one that does not enshrine relics is called a caitya. In later periods, the two terms were often used interchangeably. The Treatise on the Bodhisattva Grounds maintains that a stupa is called a caitya whether or not it enshrines relics.

^[6] Vihāra 精舍: a dwelling for those who diligently cultivate wisdom and virtue; another name for a monastery.

^[7] Brahmā merit 梵福 (S: Brāhma-puṇyatva): the merit that leads to rebirth in the Great Brahmā Heaven.

^[8] Unsurpassed bodhi 無上菩提: Buddhahood. Because the Buddha’s attainment of bodhi is ultimate and unsurpassed, it is called unsurpassed bodhi.

^[9] Merit and virtue 功德 (S: guṇa): the meritorious efficacy acquired through performing wholesome practices.

^[10] Three Jewels 三寶 (S: tri-ratna, ratna-traya): the three precious refuges—the Jewel of the Buddha, the Jewel of the Dharma, and the Jewel of the Sangha—which Buddhist followers revere and support with offerings. The Buddha (S: Buddha) is the Awakened One who possesses the ability to teach and transform sentient beings; the Dharma (S: Dharma) is the Buddha’s teaching; and the Sangha (S: Saṃgha) is the community of the Buddha’s disciples who study and practice according to that teaching. These three possess supreme spiritual power and virtue and can bring sentient beings lasting benefit, peace, and happiness, like precious treasures in the world; hence they are called the Three Jewels.

^[11] Śarīra 設利羅: ordinarily refers to the Buddha’s bodily remains, called the Buddha’s bones or the Buddha’s relics; later, the term also came to denote the bones remaining after the cremation of an eminent monk’s physical body. The “Sacrifice of the Body” chapter in fascicle 4 of the Sutra of Golden Light (Taishō vol. 16, p. 354a) records: “Relics are permeated through cultivation by morality, concentration, and wisdom, are exceedingly difficult to obtain, and constitute the supreme field of merit.”

^[12] Separate offering 別供養: an offering made separately. Here, it means an offering made exclusively to the Buddha.

^[13] Sutra on the Upāsaka Precepts (Upāsaka Precepts Sutra 優婆塞戒經; S: Upāsaka-śīla-sūtra): a sutra translated by Dharmakṣema in 426 during China’s Northern Liang dynasty and included in volume 24 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sutra relates how the elder Sudatta expounded the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts to lay followers of the Mahayana.

^[14] Śramaṇa 沙門 (S: śramaṇa): a renunciant who shaves off beard and hair, abandons evil deeds, skillfully harmonizes body and mind, and diligently performs wholesome deeds in hopes of attaining nirvana. Originally, this term referred generally to practitioners of both Buddhist and non-Buddhist paths and is a transliteration of a term from the Western Regions.

^[15] Brāhmaṇa 婆羅門 (S: brāhmaṇa): the priestly class, the highest of the four classes in ancient Indian society. This brāhmaṇa class monopolized the entire system of knowledge in India at that time. They regarded themselves as belonging to the noblest lineage.

^[16] Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom (Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra 大智度論; S: Mahāprajñāpāramitāśastra): a treatise in one hundred fascicles, composed by Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna and translated by Kumārajīva during the Later Qin dynasty in China; it is included in volume 25 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This treatise explains the Larger Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, clearly elucidating doctrines, ideas, practices and examples, legends, history, geography, practical regulations, and the Sangha.

^[17] Asaṃkhya 阿僧祇 (S: asaṃkhya): an Indian numerical unit denoting an exceedingly large, incalculable number. According to one method of reckoning, one asaṃkhya comprises a thousand times ten thousand times ten thousand times ten thousand… million.

^[18] Kalpa 劫 (S: kalpa): originally a unit of extremely long time in ancient Indian Brahmanism; it was later also adopted by Buddhism and regarded as an incalculable span of time.

^[19] Aniruddha 阿那律 (S: Aniruddha): one of the ten great arhat disciples and a paternal cousin of the Buddha, belonging to the Śākya clan of Kapilavastu in ancient India.

^[20] Mahāprajāpatī 摩呵波闍波提 (S: Mahāprajāpatī): the maternal aunt and foster mother of Prince Siddhārtha and the younger sister of Queen Mahāmāyā, a daughter of King Suprabuddha of Devadaha in ancient India. Five years after Śākyamuni attained enlightenment, King Śuddhodana also passed away. She led Yaśodharā and five hundred women of the Śākya clan to the Buddha to request ordination. At Ānanda’s entreaty, the Buddha granted permission, and they became the first bhikṣuṇīs in the Buddha’s Sangha.

^[21] Four Heavenly Kings 四天王: four benevolent deities who protect the Buddha-Dharma and dwell halfway up Mount Sumeru: Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the Heavenly King of the east; Virūḍhaka, the Heavenly King of the south; Virūpākṣa, the Heavenly King of the west; and Vaiśravaṇa, the Heavenly King of the north.

^[22] The kingdom of Magadha (Magadha Kingdom 摩竭陀國; S: Magadha): an ancient kingdom of India, corresponding to present-day Bihar, with Pāṭaliputra (the City of Flowers, present-day Patna) and Bodhgayā as its centers. It was one of the sixteen great kingdoms during the Buddha’s lifetime. This kingdom was deeply connected with the historical development of Buddhism.

^[23] King Bimbisāra (King Bimbisāra 頻鞞娑邏王; also rendered in Chinese as King Bimbasāra; S: Bimbisāra): king of Magadha and a contemporary of the Blessed One. He was the fifth ruler of the Śaiśunāga dynasty; his queen was named Vaidehī, and his crown prince was Ajātaśatru. He resolved to support and protect the Buddha-Dharma and was its first lay patron.

^[24] Sūtra of the Storehouse of Miscellaneous Treasures (雜寶藏經; S: Saṃyukta-ratna-piṭaka-sūtra): a scripture in ten fascicles, jointly translated by Kekaya and Tanyao during the Northern Wei dynasty in China; it is included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its contents recount events concerning the Buddha and his disciples, together with circumstances and events occurring after the Buddha entered nirvana.

^[25] Joyful cake (original: joyful ball 歡喜丸; S: Mahotikā): a kind of cake made from butter, wheat flour, honey, ginger, and other ingredients; it was one of the foods of India. Joyful cakes are mentioned frequently in Buddhist sūtras and treatises.

^[26] Sūtra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions (文殊師利問經): a scripture in two fascicles, translated by Saṅghabhara during the Liang dynasty in China; it is included in volume 14 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. The entire sūtra consists of seventeen chapters: fourteen chapters in the first fascicle and three in the second.

^[27] Sūtra of the Wise and the Foolish (賢愚經; S: Damamuka-nidana-sutra): a scripture in thirteen fascicles, translated by Huijue during the Northern Wei dynasty; it is included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra collects parables and accounts of causes and conditions concerning the wise and the foolish.

^[28] Sixteen classes (original: sixteen kinds 十六種): bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs each have the four paths and four fruits.

^[29] Śāriputra 舍利弗 (S: Śāriputra): the foremost in wisdom among the Buddha’s ten great arhat disciples.

^[30] Maudgalyāyana 目犍連 (S: Maudgalyāyana): the arhat disciple foremost in supernatural powers among the Buddha’s disciples. He came from Kolita village outside Rājagṛha in the kingdom of Magadha in ancient India and belonged to the brahmin caste.

^[31] Sūtra Resolving Doubts Concerning the Semblance Dharma (像法决疑經): a scripture in one fascicle, included in volume 85 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its contents concern the decline of the Buddha-Dharma one thousand years after the Buddha entered nirvana, while also encouraging the cultivation of generosity and great compassion.

^[32] Sūtra of Universal Expansiveness (普廣經): translated by Śrīmitra during the Eastern Jin dynasty; it is the eleventh fascicle of the Consecration Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha.

^[33] Four assemblies (四輩; S: Catasraḥ parṣadaḥ): bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, upāsakas, and upāsikās; alternatively, the four monastic assemblies: bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, śrāmaṇeras, and śrāmaṇerikās.

^[34] Ten-Recitation Vinaya (十誦律): the extensive Vinaya of the Sarvāstivāda school, in sixty-one fascicles, jointly translated by Puṇyatāra and Kumārajīva during the Yao Qin dynasty in China; it is included in volume 23 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Because this Vinaya divides the precepts into ten sections for explanation, it is called the Ten-Recitation Vinaya.

^[35] Humane Kings Sūtra (仁王經): a scripture in two fascicles, translated by Kumārajīva during the Yao Qin dynasty in China; it is included in volume 8 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. In this sūtra, the Buddha teaches sixteen great kings about the practices for safeguarding Buddhahood, the ten bhūmis, and the causes and conditions for protecting the realm.

^[36] Seven Buddhas 七佛: the seven Buddhas of the past, in order: Buddha Vipaśyin, Buddha Śikhin, Buddha Viśvabhū, Buddha Krakucchanda, Buddha Kanakamuni, Buddha Kāśyapa, and Buddha Śākyamuni.

^[37] Brahmā’s Net Sūtra (梵網經; T: Chos-kyi rgya-mo saṅs-rgyas rnam-par snaṅ-mdsad-kyis byaṅ-chub sems-dpaḥi sems-kyi gnas bśad-pa leḥu bcu-pa): a scripture in two fascicles, traditionally said to have been translated by Kumārajīva during the Later Qin dynasty in China; it is included in volume 24 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its contents explain the stages of the bodhisattva, the ten major precepts, and the forty-eight minor precepts.

^[38] Dormitory assistant 寮主: an office assisting the dormitory superintendent in a Chan monastery, responsible for safeguarding the robes and bowls of the Sangha members residing in the dormitory.

^[39] Minor defilement offense 輕垢罪: a minor offense that nevertheless stains pure conduct.

^[40] Administrator 執事 (S: Vaiyāvṛtyakara): a person who oversees affairs within a monastery.

^[41] Śrāmaṇera 沙彌 (S: Śrāmaṇeraka, Śrāmaṇera): a male renunciant in the Buddhist Sangha, between seven and nineteen years of age, who has received the ten precepts but has not yet received full ordination.

^[42] Sūtra of Parables on the Dharma Verses (法句譬喻經; S: Dharmapadāvadāna-sūtra): a scripture in four fascicles, jointly translated by Faju and Fali during the Western Jin dynasty in China; it is included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra gathers approximately two-thirds of the verses from the Dhammapada and adds illustrative stories; hence it is called the Sūtra of Parables on the Dharma Verses.

^[43] Gautama 瞿曇 (S: Gautama, Gotama): a clan name among the kṣatriya peoples of India, descended from the sage Gautama, and also the Buddha’s ancestral clan name.

^[44] Equal offering (等供): the Sangha’s procedure for receiving a meal. After food has been offered equally, from the senior-most elder to the junior-most monastic, the karmadāna announces, “Equal offering,” and only then may the assembly partake of the meal. This signifies the donor’s impartial generosity. In addition, “equal offering” is also an esoteric formula for neutralizing poison.

^[45] Truthful speech 實語 (S: Satya-vāda): true speech free from falsehood; it refers to words spoken by the Buddha or by a practitioner.

^[46] Purified Dharma-eye 法眼淨 (S: Dharmacakṣu-viśuddha): the Dharma-eye capable of contemplating the truth of all dharmas without obstruction or doubt.

^[47] Saṃbhakta 僧拔 (Ch.: equal offering): the Sangha’s procedure for receiving a meal. After food has been offered equally, from the senior-most elder to the junior-most monastic, the karmadāna announces, “Equal offering,” and only then may the assembly partake of the meal. This signifies the donor’s impartiality.

^[48] Greatly Awakened One 大覺: an honorific epithet of Śākyamuni Buddha.

^[49] He and Que 和鵲: He and Bian Que. Bian Que, whose personal name was Qin Yueren, was a native of Mo during the Warring States period. He studied medicine under Chang Sangjun and became renowned as a divine physician. He was a celebrated physician of the state of Qin during the Spring and Autumn period. Here, “He and Que” refers to eminent physicians.

^[50] Jyotiṣka 樹提伽 (S: Jyotiṣka): a disciple of the Buddha from Rājagṛha in Magadha, India; according to another account, he was a native of Campā and one of the Buddha’s disciples.

^[51] Piṇḍola 賓頭盧 (S: Piṇḍola): an arhat and disciple of the Buddha, born into a brahmin family in the kingdom of Udayana. Because he continually abides in the world, he is also called the World-Abiding Arhat.

^[52] Lion’s roar 師子吼 (S: Siṃhanāda): the roar of a lion. The Buddha teaches the Dharma with a fearless voice, like a lion roaring without being frightened by any other beast. The lion is king of the hundred beasts, and the Buddha is supreme among humankind; he is therefore called the Lion Among Men. When the Buddha teaches the Dharma, the bodhisattvas all arouse a courageous and vigorous resolve to seek bodhi, while adherents of non-Buddhist paths and evil māras become afraid.

^[53] Western Godānīya 西瞿耶尼: one of the four great continents, situated west of Mount Sumeru. The continent is shaped like a full moon.

^[54] The eighteen miraculous transformations (十八神變): eighteen kinds of miraculous transformation manifested by Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and arhats through the sovereign power of meditative concentration: shaking; blazing; pervading; manifestation; transformation; coming and going; contraction; expansion; causing manifold forms to enter the body; proceeding among beings of the same kind; revealing; concealing; mastery over actions; restraining the supernormal powers of others; the ability to bestow eloquence; the ability to bestow recollection; the ability to bestow peace and happiness; and emitting great radiance.

^[55] Mount Malaya (摩梨山; S: Malaya): a mountain in southern India. White sandalwood grows on this mountain, and whoever enters it feels a pure fragrance emanating from within the body. For this reason, it is also called the Mountain That Removes Defilement.

^[56] Hu seat 胡床: a type of seat resembling a modern chair or folding stool. The people of the Western Rong fashioned two types of seats, the “backed frame” and the “single frame”; the “single frame” was called the hu seat. It refers to a meditation seat.

^[57] Kāśyapa 迦葉 (S: Mahā-kāśyapa): an outstanding disciple of the Buddha. The Venerable One was renowned as foremost among the Buddha’s disciples in the ascetic practices. At the Assembly of the Flower Sermon and the Subtle Smile, Kāśyapa received from Śākyamuni Buddha the seal of mind, the treasury of the true Dharma-eye. He thereby became the first patriarch of Indian Chan Buddhism.

^[58] Ekottarikāgama Sūtra (增一阿含經; S: Ekottarikāgama): a scripture in fifty-one fascicles, translated by Gautama Saṅghadeva during the Eastern Jin dynasty of China and included in volume 2 of the Taishō Canon. It is one of the four Āgama collections of the Northern transmission.

^[59] Renewed pleasure 更樂: another term for contact.

^[60] Sūtra on the Foundations of Mindfulness of the True Dharma (正法念經; S: Saddharma-smṛty-upasthāna-sūtra): a scripture in seventy fascicles, translated by Prajñāruci during the Northern Wei dynasty of China and included in volume 17 of the Taishō Canon. Its principal content concerns the practice of bhikṣus. Although its concepts fall within the scope of the Lesser Vehicle, its ideas are highly distinctive, its literary style is exceptionally unrestrained, and it constantly expresses Mahāyāna thought.

^[61] Nirvana Sūtra (涅槃經; S: Mahā-parinirvāṇa-sūtra): a scripture in forty fascicles, translated by Dharmakṣema in 421 during the Northern Liang dynasty of China and included in volume 12 of the Taishō Canon. Its contents expound such doctrines as the Tathagata’s eternal abiding, the possession of Buddha-nature by all sentient beings, and the attainment of Buddhahood by icchantikas.

^[62] Wilderness spirit (曠野鬼神; S: Āṭavika, Āṭavaka): a spirit dwelling in the wilderness and one of the sixty yakṣa spirits. From ancient times to the present, Buddhism has maintained a rite of offering food, in which food is given to this spirit.

^[63] Sūtra of the Twelve Ascetic Practices (十二頭陀經): a scripture in one fascicle, translated by Guṇabhadra during the Liu Song dynasty. Its content concerns the Buddha’s teaching of the twelve ascetic practices to the Venerable Mahākāśyapa.

^[64] Sūtra on Contemplating the Image of the Buddha (灌佛形像經): a scripture in one fascicle, translated by Faju during the Western Jin dynasty of China.

^[65] Sūtra on the Five Blessings Gained by Giving Food (食施獲五福報經): a scripture in one fascicle, translated by An Shigao during the Later Han dynasty of China.

^[66] Sūtra of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury (付法藏經): a scripture in six fascicles, jointly translated by Kiṃkārya and Tanyao during the Yuan Wei dynasty of China and included in volume 50 of the Taishō Canon. Its contents recount the transmission of the Dharma and the lineage of the twenty-three Indian patriarchs after the Blessed One entered nirvana, beginning with Kāśyapa and Ānanda and continuing to the final patriarch, the Venerable Siṃha. The Venerable Siṃha was slain by King Mihirakula of Kashmir, whereupon the transmission of the Dharma was severed.

^[67] Bakkula 薄拘羅 (S: Vakkula, Bakkula, Bakula, Vakula): a disciple of the Buddha. In childhood, Bakkula’s stepmother attempted to kill him five times, yet he did not die. From the time he entered monastic life until his passing into nirvana, he always enjoyed good health and was never ill. He lived to the age of one hundred and sixty and was honored by the people of the world as foremost in longevity.

^[68] The four continents 四天下: the four continents surrounding Mount Sumeru, namely Pūrvavideha in the east, Jambudvīpa in the south, Aparagodānīya in the west, and Uttarakuru in the north.

^[69] Incense procession 行香: the rite of lighting incense and circumambulating a stupa. When a donor prepares a vegetarian feast as an offering to the Sangha, incense is first lit and distributed equally among the assembly, after which they circumambulate and make obeisance around the stupa and the Buddha hall.

^[70] Avataṃsaka Sūtra (華嚴經; S: Buddhàvatamsaka-mahãvaipulya): an important scripture of Mahāyāna Buddhism and also the Dharma-gate of the Tathagata’s own inner realization, which he proclaimed to exalted bodhisattvas such as Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī and Bodhisattva Samantabhadra after attaining enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree.

^[71] Four modes of birth 四生 (S: Catasro-yonayaḥ): the four modes by which sentient beings are born. Oviparous birth: beings born from eggs. Viviparous birth: beings born from a mother’s womb. Moisture-born birth: beings born from damp vapors in moist places. Transformational birth: beings that arise suddenly without any supporting place, such as devas, hell beings, and beings in the intermediate state, all of whom are born through transformation by the power of karma from past lives.

^[72] Receiving food (受食): this means that, with the bhikṣu’s consent, the donor personally places the food into his hands.

^[73] The Śāriputra Questions Sutra (Śāriputra Questions Sutra 舍利弗問經; S: Śāriputra-paripṛcchā): a sutra in one fascicle, belonging to the Vinaya division of the Lesser Vehicle, translated during the Eastern Jin dynasty and included in volume 24 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sutra recounts the Buddha’s answers to Venerable Śāriputra’s questions beneath the Tree of Musical Sounds in the city of Rājagṛha. Its subjects include the successive transmission and preservation of the precepts and Vinaya; the division into schools based upon the Vinayas of the various schools; allowances and prohibitions concerning robes and bowls, drinking alcohol, killing living beings, and covering both shoulders; the causes and conditions through which the eight classes of ghosts and spirits hear the Dharma;

the disappearance of Buddhism after the Semblance Dharma period; Phuṇyatrāta’s conferral of the precepts and offering of material goods; pure and impure foods; the causes and conditions for members of the Tathagata’s clan to enter the monastic life; and the kindness of parents and teachers…

^[74] The Sutra of Various Matters (Xứ xứ kinh 處處經): a sutra in one fascicle, translated by Venerable An Shigao between approximately 148 and 170 during the Eastern Han dynasty, and included in volume 17 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sutra primarily compiles various aspects of Buddhist knowledge. Its contents are divided into more than fifty categories and occasionally introduce the characteristics of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, arhats, and pratyekabuddhas.

^[75] White Marrow Cake (bạch tuỷ bính 白髓餅): a type of food made from flour.

^[76] Juma 巨磨: cow dung.

^[77] Clarified butter 酥油: a food prepared from the cream of cow’s milk and one of the medicines used to treat illnesses caused by heat. There are two distinct kinds: fresh clarified butter and refined clarified butter.

^[78] Purifying with water (original text: dĩ thuỷ tịnh đắc ẩm 以水淨得飲): diluting with water in order to cleanse it.

^[79] Śāluka 舍樓伽 (S: Śāluka): a type of drink. The Samantapāsādikā, fascicle 17, states: “Pound lotus roots and strain them to obtain the clear liquid; this is called the Śāluka drink.”

^[80] Harītakī 呵棃勒: the harītakī fruit is somewhat round, like a lemon-yellow egg, and is used to treat eye diseases and facilitate urination and defecation. It is one of the five medicines mentioned in the ancient Vinaya texts.