諸經要集
Chinese title:諸經要集
Editor-in-Chief: Thích Nguyên Chơn
VIII. OBSERVING THE FAST
VIII.1. Introduction
The true Dharma is transmitted far and wide by means of the scriptures. Fields of merit flourish through the observance of the fasting precepts. Therefore, by foregoing one meal in order to make an offering, one gains the merit of wealth and nobility; by helping someone with a single coin, one receives a karmic reward surpassing even the heavenly realms. Thus, one should value fields of merit and regard wealth lightly, and together establish an unrestricted assembly[81], thereby gaining immeasurable merit and virtue.
VIII.2. Scriptural Evidence
The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables[82] records: “Long ago, a wealthy and noble man invited the Buddha to his home to receive a fasting meal. At that time, a man came to the house to sell cow’s milk. The householder invited him to remain for the meal and taught him how to undertake and observe the fasting precepts. After observing the fast and listening to the Dharma, he returned home. His wife said:
– I have been waiting for you since early morning and therefore have not yet eaten.
Having said this, she compelled her husband to eat, thereby breaking his resolve to observe the fasting precepts. Nevertheless, after his death, he was still born seven times in the heavenly realms and seven times in the human world.”
The Buddha taught:
– Observing the fast for one day brings wealth and nobility for six hundred thousand years, and also five blessings:
1. Few illnesses.
2. Physical well-being.
3. Weak and diminished lust.
4. Little drowsiness.
5. Rebirth in a heavenly realm and knowledge of one’s deeds in former lives.
Furthermore, on one occasion King Prasenajit wished to bestow a necklace of the seven treasures upon Queen Mallikā, so he summoned her. As it was a fasting day, the queen entered the palace dressed in simple garments. Yet among the sixty thousand royal consorts, Mallikā shone like the sun and moon, and was far more beautiful than on ordinary days. Upon seeing her, the king was greatly astonished and cherished her all the more. He asked:
– What meritorious deeds have you cultivated that your countenance shines with such extraordinary radiance?
The queen replied:
– I reflect that it was because I possessed little merit that I received a woman’s body, a body impure in form and brief in lifespan. Fearing that I might fall into the three evil paths, I bow to the Buddha and observe the fast each day, abandon sensual affection, and cultivate the true Dharma, so that I may possess blessings life after life. I beg Your Majesty to permit me to present this necklace of the seven treasures as an offering to the Buddha.
[47c] The Madhyama Āgama Sutra[83] records: “At that time, Visākhā, the Mother of Migāra[84], bathed early in the morning, put on clean white garments, and led her children, daughters-in-law, and relatives to the Buddha. She bowed at his feet and said:
– Blessed One! Today I wish to undertake and observe the fasting practice!
The Buddha asked:
– Laywoman! Which fasting practice do you wish to observe today? There are three kinds of fast:
1. Observing the fast like a cowherd[85]
2. Observing the fast like a Nirgrantha[86]
3. Observing the sacred fast of eight factors[87].
What is observing the fast like a cowherd? In the morning, a child drives the cattle out to the marsh, and in the evening leads them back to the village. While leading the cattle back to the village, he thinks: ‘Today I pastured the cattle here; tomorrow I shall pasture them elsewhere.
Today I watered the cattle here; tomorrow I shall water them elsewhere. Today I tethered the cattle to rest here; tomorrow I shall tether them to rest elsewhere.’ Likewise, while observing the fast, some people think: ‘Today I eat this food; tomorrow I shall eat other food. Today I drink this beverage; tomorrow I shall drink another.
Today I eat and drink in this manner; tomorrow I shall eat and drink in that manner.’ Such people remain continually filled with craving day and night. This is observing the fast like a cowherd. Those who observe the fast in this way gain few benefits, receive no good karmic reward, and do not gain great and all-pervasive merit.
What is observing the fast like a Nirgrantha? Those who have gone forth among the non-Buddhist Nirgranthas constantly exhort others, saying: ‘To protect sentient beings beyond one hundred yojanas to the east, you must lay down knives and clubs. The same applies to the south, west, and north.’ Or they remove their clothing, go naked, and say: ‘I have neither parents, wife, nor children.’ They exhort everyone with such false words and regard them as the ultimate truth. Or they practice wrong teachings, such as the austerity of starving themselves. Those who observe the fasting precepts in this way likewise gain few benefits, produce no great result, and do not gain abundant and all-pervasive merit.
What is the sacred fast of eight factors? When a well-learned noble disciple observes the fast, that person should reflect: ‘Throughout their lives, arhats remain far removed from the karma of killing; they lay down knives and clubs, possess a sense of moral shame and dread of wrongdoing, have loving and compassionate minds, and benefit all sentient beings, even insects. Their minds have completely eliminated the karma of killing.
Throughout their lives, they do not eat at improper times; they eat only one meal each day, do not eat at night, and delight in eating at the proper time. I practice this factor in the same manner as the arhats, and therefore it is called a fast.’ Having cultivated the sacred fast of eight factors, that person should constantly reflect: ‘The foregoing is the pure, supramundane Dharma of the unattached Tathagata and others, which enables one to abandon defiled and unwholesome states.’
[48a] If a virtuous woman cultivates the sacred fast of eight factors, at the end of her life she will be reborn in the six heavens of the Desire Realm[88] and will thereafter attain the fruit of arhatship.
The Sutra on the Bodhisattva’s Observance of the Fast[89] records: “I take refuge in the Buddha, I take refuge in the Dharma, and I take refuge in the Sangha. My body has committed many evil deeds, my mouth has spoken evil words, and my mind has entertained evil thoughts. I now renounce them. For these many days and nights, I undertake and observe the bodhisattva fast and take refuge in the bodhisattvas.”
The Buddha told Subhūti:
– On the bodhisattva’s fasting day, there are ten prohibitions:
1. One must not apply powder or ointment, nor perfume the body with fragrant water.
2. One must not sing, dance, beat drums, play instruments, or perform songs.
3. One must not lie upon a high or luxurious bed.
4. One must not eat after noon.
5. One must not retain gold, silver, pearls, or precious objects.
6. One must not ride in ox carts or horse-drawn carriages.
7. One must not strike children, servants, or animals.
8. One should dedicate this fast through generosity in order to gain merit.
On the fasting day, when going to sleep, a bodhisattva must approach the Buddha’s altar, join palms, and declare: “Today, throughout all ten directions, if there are people observing the fast and practicing the six pāramitās[90], may I help them all attain peace and joy, and may blessings be bestowed universally throughout the ten directions. May all humans and non-humans[91], and so forth, who are in danger and suffering, partake of this merit, escape sorrow and suffering, and, when reborn as humans in a future life, attain peace, joy, and boundless wealth.”
9. One must not consume all the food in one’s bowl.
10. One must not associate intimately with women, laugh and jest with them, or sit upon the same mat with them. The same applies to women.
These are the ten precepts. One must neither violate them nor teach others to violate them, nor incite others deliberately to do so.
When performing the rite for concluding the bodhisattva fast, one must say:
– Namo Buddha, namo Dharma, namo Bhikṣu Sangha. Throughout these many days and nights, I have observed the bodhisattva’s fasting precepts. Through the cultivation of generosity, may I perfect the six pāramitās, just as bodhisattvas perfect the six pāramitās and their myriad practices.
The observance of the fast for one day and one night is divided into three periods for sitting meditation, reciting sutras, and resting. This is the bodhisattva’s fasting practice.
[48b] The bodhisattva fasting days are as follows: undertake the fast on the fourteenth day of the first lunar month and conclude it on the seventeenth; undertake the fast on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month and conclude it on the fifteenth; undertake the fast on the first day of the seventh lunar month and conclude it on the sixteenth; undertake the fast on the fourteenth day of the ninth lunar month and conclude it on the sixteenth.
Explanation:
Having observed the fast, if one wishes to end it, one must wait until the sign of dawn[92] appears before eating gruel. Failing to do so constitutes breaking the fast. What is the sign of dawn? As recorded in the Sarvāstivāda Treatise[93]: “The sign of dawn has three colors. When sunlight shines upon the trunk of the jambu tree, it is black; when it shines upon the leaves, it is blue; and when it shines past the treetop, it is white. Of these three colors, white is definitive; therefore, only when the sunlight is white may one relinquish the precept and eat gruel.”
Furthermore, the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya[94] records: “When the Buddha was dwelling in the country of Śrāvastī, there was a settlement to the south called Great Forest. At that time, a merchant was leading eight oxen northward to the country of Câu-đa and released them to graze in a marsh. Then a Licchavi[95] captured a female nāga and intended to kill and eat her. Because this nāga had received the bodhisattva precepts and harbored no thought of killing, she allowed the Licchavi to pierce her nose and lead her away. Seeing this, the merchant gave rise to compassion and asked the Licchavi:
‘What do you intend to do with this nāga?’
The Licchavi replied:
‘I intend to kill and eat her.’
The merchant said:
‘Please do not kill her. I will give you an ox in exchange for this nāga.’
The Licchavi refused. The merchant then offered all eight oxen in exchange for the nāga, whereupon the Licchavi said:
‘Nāga flesh is more delicious, but for your sake I shall release her today.’
As he was about to release the nāga, the merchant thought: ‘These people are exceedingly cruel. If I release the nāga, I fear they will pursue and recapture her.’ Having thought this, the merchant released the nāga into another marsh and followed to observe her. The nāga transformed into a human being and said to the merchant:
‘You have saved me, and now I wish to repay your kindness. Please enter my palace so that I may recompense you.’
The merchant replied:
‘Nāgas are by nature fierce and their anger is unpredictable. You might kill me at any moment.’
The nāga replied:
‘I would never do such a thing. Previously, when that man captured me, I had the power to kill them, but because I had received the bodhisattva precepts, I no longer had the slightest thought of killing. How much less could I kill you, who saved my life? If you wish to come, remain here and wait for me a moment while I go ahead to make arrangements.’
Having spoken, the nāga entered the palace. Shortly afterward, the merchant arrived at the gate and saw two nāgas bound to pillars. He asked:
‘Why are you bound here?’
The two nāgas replied:
‘Every half-month, the nāga maiden observes the fast for three days. We brothers were responsible for protecting her, but because we failed to guard her carefully, she was captured by a Licchavi. For this reason, we have been punished and bound here. Please have compassion and intercede for us so that the nāga maiden will release us!’
Once the nāga maiden had completed her arrangements, she invited the merchant into the palace and seated him upon a jeweled couch. The nāga maiden said:
‘In the nāga palace there are many kinds of food. Some take an entire lifetime to digest after being eaten, some take twenty years to digest, some take seven years to digest, and there is also food for people of Jambudvīpa. Which kind would you prefer?’
The merchant replied:
‘I would like the food of Jambudvīpa.’
The nāga maiden then brought forth abundant food and drink and offered them to the merchant.
[48c] The merchant asked the nāga maiden:
‘Why are these two nāgas bound?’
The nāga maiden replied:
‘They committed an offense, so I intend to kill them.’
The merchant said:
‘Do not kill them; they do not deserve death. I will eat only if you release them.’
The nāga maiden said:
‘I cannot pardon them completely. They must be punished by being banished to the human realm for six months.’
Seeing that the nāga palace was adorned with countless forms of the seven precious substances, the merchant asked:
‘You possess so many exquisite jewels. Why did you receive the bodhisattva precepts?’
The nāga maiden replied:
‘We nāgas undergo five kinds of suffering: at birth, while sleeping, during sexual intercourse, when angry, and at death. Three times each day, our flesh and skin fall to the ground, and hot sand clings all over our bodies.’
The merchant asked:
‘What do you seek?’
The nāga maiden replied:
‘I wish to be born among human beings. The animal realm is filled with suffering, and its beings do not understand the Buddha-Dharma. Therefore, I wish to follow the Buddha and leave the household life.’
Having spoken, the nāga maiden gave him eight cakes of gold and said:
‘This gold will be sufficient for your parents and relatives to use throughout their lives without ever being exhausted.’
The nāga maiden then said:
‘Please close your eyes.’
She immediately used her supernormal powers to transport him back to his native home. The merchant gave the eight cakes of gold to his parents. Because it was nāga gold, whenever a portion was cut off and used, it grew back again, so they could spend it throughout their lives without ever exhausting it.”
The verse says:
Do not crave delicious flavors;
Guard the body and live frugally.
When seated, maintain proper dignity,
And for fifty thousand lives enjoy wealth and honor.
The fragrance of precepts wafts richly;
The gateway of the mind is sealed more firmly.
Do not say these hardships are in vain;
In the end, you will escape all danger.
IX. BREAKING THE FAST
IX.1. Introduction
Carefully examine the roots of impermanence, suffering, and emptiness; thoroughly contemplate the source of birth, aging, sickness, and death. Have compassion for the prolonged anguish of being “hung upside down,” and pity the plight of drifting and sinking with the current. To contemplate these dangers is truly terrifying!
Because one’s field of merit is meager, the offerings of the faithful are difficult to digest; observance of the fasting precepts is as fragile as an unfired clay vessel, easily broken, and as fleeting as dew, readily dispersed. Yet people’s notions of self and others grow ever stronger, while their attachments cling as firmly as lacquer and glue. They do not fear the calamities of many kalpas, caring only for the life of this single existence.
Their craving for food and indulgence in sleep are no different from those of dogs, while their breaking the fast to eat at night resembles the conduct of hungry ghosts. Consequently, donors lose the merit of their offerings, and the Sangha renders the fertile field barren.
IX.2. Scriptural Evidence
[49a] The Sūtra of Śāriputra’s Questions records: “Śāriputra addressed the Buddha, saying:
‘World-Honored One! Some donors build saṅghārāmas and provide all necessary requisites. In a later age, a monastic may come at an improper time to the Sangha member responsible for food and request a meal. What offenses do these two persons commit? Does the donor who made the offering gain merit?’
The Buddha taught:
‘The person who eats at an improper time violates the precepts and commits the offense of theft. The person who gives food at an improper time also breaks the precepts and commits the offense of theft. To steal the donor’s property is to take what the donor has not given or to take it without the donor’s consent. Thus, the donor gains no merit, because the property has been lost, but still obtains wholesome benefit from having formed the intention to provide food.’
Śāriputra addressed the Buddha:
‘World-Honored One! If one receives food and eats it at the proper time but does not finish it, then continues eating it at an improper time; or if one receives food at the proper time but leaves it until an improper time before eating it, does one gain merit?’
The Buddha taught:
‘One who eats at the proper time is pure, is a field of merit, is a renunciant, is a member of the Sangha, is a good spiritual friend, and is a teacher of devas and human beings. One who eats at an improper time is impure, breaks the precepts, is a thief, is a hungry ghost, and commits the offense of breaking through walls and burrowing into houses.’
When someone comes to ask for food at an improper time, if the person in charge of the food gives it to him, that person causes his resolve for the Way to regress; he is an evil demon, one destined for the three evil paths, a broken vessel, a person afflicted with leprosy. For in doing so, he destroys wholesome fruits and sustains himself through theft. Even brahmins do not eat at improper times, and non-Buddhist brahmacarins likewise do not seek their livelihood through unlawful means.
How much less should disciples of Mine, who understand and practice according to the true Dharma, act in this way? Those who commit such acts are not disciples of Mine. They are people without discipline, people whose conduct is contrary to the Dharma, thieves of food.
Whether one unlawfully gives or unlawfully takes—even a small handful, a pinch of salt, or a mouthful of liquor—one commits the offense of theft. When both die, they fall into the Scorching Intestines Hell, where they swallow red-hot iron pellets. After emerging from hell, they are born among pigs and dogs and consume all manner of impurities.
They are then born as vicious birds whose cries fill people with dread. Afterward, they are born as hungry ghosts, return to the monastery grounds, and dwell in latrines, eating filthy excrement for hundreds of thousands of years. When their punishment has been exhausted, they are born as human beings, but they are poor, destitute, and lowly, despised by others, and trusted or employed by no one.
The offense of stealing the property of one person is still comparatively light; but to seize the property of many people destroys the field of merit and cuts off the path of transcendence.”
The Sutra of King Gandhara[96] records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, there was a king named Gandhara who venerated brahmins. The brahmins planted many fruit trees in the mountains. One day, a woodcutter cut down and damaged some of the fruit trees. When a brahmin saw him, he seized the man and brought him before the king, saying: ‘This man has cut down and damaged my fruit trees without cause. Great King, you should put him to death.’ [49b] Because the king reverently served the brahmins, he did not dare oppose their wishes and immediately had the man killed. Not long afterward, an ox ate some grain. The owner of the field chased it and struck it, breaking off one of its horns. Blood streamed over its face, and it suffered excruciating pain. The ox ran to the king and reported:
– I merely ate a little of that man’s grain unintentionally, yet the owner of the field struck me and broke off my horn.
Just then, the man also arrived in pursuit. Because the king understood the speech of birds and beasts, he said to the ox:
– I shall kill this man for you.
The ox replied:
– Even if Your Majesty kills this man now, it cannot relieve my pain. I beg the king to command everyone never again to strike oxen!
The king then reflected: ‘The brahmins whom I venerate had me kill a man merely because a few trees were cut down. They truly are not the equal of this ox. If serving this religion cannot free me from birth and death, why should I continue to follow it?’
The king immediately went to the Buddha, prostrated himself with all five limbs touching the ground, bowed at the Buddha’s feet, and requested to receive the Five Precepts and the Ten Wholesome Courses of Action.
The Buddha taught:
– Those who practice generosity and uphold the precepts obtain merit and blessings in this very life. Those who cultivate patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom acquire immeasurable merit and, after their lives end, are reborn in the heavens.
Having heard the Buddha’s words, the king rejoiced exceedingly and immediately attained the fruit of stream-entry.”
Ananda addressed the Buddha:
– Blessed One! What past karmic conditions connected this king and this ox?
The Buddha taught:
– Long ago, during the time of Buddha Kanakamuni[97], this king and this ox were two brothers who were upasakas. Together they undertook the fasting precepts for one day and one night. The elder brother upheld the precepts diligently and did not dare become negligent. When his life ended, he was reborn in the heavens; when his heavenly lifespan was exhausted, he was born among human beings as a king. The younger brother violated the fasting precepts by eating at night, and therefore had to undergo punishment after death. When his punishment was exhausted, he was reborn as an ox for five hundred lifetimes. Yet he still remembered the events of his former life and therefore came to awaken the king. Seven days later, the ox died and was immediately reborn in the heavens.
The Buddha further taught:
– Disciples of the four assemblies must undertake and uphold the fasting precepts and must not violate them again!
The Sutra of Parables from the Dhammapada[98] records: “At that time, the Buddha was staying at Jeta Grove in Anathapindika’s Park in the kingdom of Sravasti, teaching the Dharma to devas, nagas, ghosts, and spirits. To the east, in the land of Uttarakuru, five hundred brahmins and others traveled together to three sacred pools beside the Ganges River. There they intended to bathe and purify themselves, going naked in their quest to attain the way of the immortals according to the practice of the Nirgranthas[99].
Because the marsh was so vast, they lost their way and could not cross it, and their provisions ran out during the journey. From afar, they saw a great tree emanating a numinous aura. Mistaking it for an inhabited place, they went toward it, but when they arrived, they saw no one.
The brahmins wept and wailed miserably, tormented by hunger and thirst and on the verge of dying in the marsh.
The tree spirit appeared and asked the brahmacarins:
– From where have you ascetics come, and where do you wish to go?
The brahmacarins replied together:
– We wish to go to the sacred pools to bathe, hoping thereby to become immortals, but now we are suffering from hunger and thirst. Please have compassion and save us!
[49c] The tree spirit then extended his hand, and a hundred varieties of food and drink poured forth from it. Everyone ate and drank their fill, with enough left over as provisions for their journey.
As they were about to depart, they approached the spirit and asked:
– What merit did you create to possess such a wondrous power?
The tree spirit told the brahmacarins:
– Long ago, I lived in the kingdom of Sravasti. At that time, there was a great minister in the kingdom named Sudatta who offered food to the Buddha and the Sangha. Sudatta went to the market to buy milk, but there was no one to carry it back, so he asked me to carry it to be offered to the Buddha and the Sangha. When we arrived at the monastery, he had me mix the milk and draw water for washing hands. Through this, I had the opportunity to hear the Dharma. I rejoiced exceedingly and praised it wholeheartedly, whereupon I resolved to observe the fast and therefore did not eat when I returned home that evening. My wife asked in astonishment:
– What has angered you, my husband, that you will not eat?
I told her how I had met the elder Sudatta, who was offering a meal to the Buddha in the park, and how he had invited me to undertake the Eight Precepts of the one-day fast. When my wife heard this, she became angry and said: ‘Gautama is destroying our customs. How can this be accepted? Abandon that religion at once, or else you will bring calamity upon yourself.’
My wife continued to pressure me, so I had to eat. At midnight, my life ended. Because I had broken the fasting precepts and my karmic obstacles had not yet been exhausted, my consciousness was reborn as the spirit of this tree in the marsh. Yet because of the merit of carrying milk to the monastery, many kinds of food now pour forth from my hand. Had I observed the fasting precepts completely, I would have been reborn in the heavens and enjoyed blessings that arose naturally.
The tree spirit then recited this verse for the brahmacarins:
Sacrificial rites sow roots of calamity;
Day and night, their branches grow.
In vain one suffers and harms oneself;
The Dharma fast delivers devas and humans.”
The Sutra of a Hundred Karmic Conditions[100] records: “At that time, the Buddha was staying at Jeta Grove in Anathapindika’s Park in the kingdom of Sravasti. During the first watch of the night, five hundred devas, their entire bodies radiating brilliant light, brought incense and flowers as offerings to the Buddha. After bowing at the Buddha’s feet, the devas withdrew and sat to one side to hear the Buddha teach the Dharma. They all attained the fruit of stream-entry, circumambulated the Buddha three times, and then returned to their celestial palaces.
The following morning, Ananda addressed the Buddha:
– Blessed One! Through what karmic causes and conditions did those devas come to make such offerings?
The Buddha told Ananda:
– In a past age, when Buddha Kasyapa was still dwelling in the world, two brahmins accompanied the king to bow before and pay their respects to the Buddha. Among the retinue was an upasaka who encouraged the two brahmins to undertake the Dharma of fasting. The first observed the fast in order to seek rebirth in the heavens, while the second sought to be born as a king.
After completing the observance of the fasting precepts, the two men returned to their lodging. The brahmins said:
– Surely you two are hungry and thirsty; please eat and drink with us!
They entreated them earnestly and repeatedly, so the one who sought rebirth in the heavenly realm ate. Because he broke the fast, his aspiration was not fulfilled, and after his life ended, he fell into the realm of dragons. The one who kept the precepts, however, was reborn as a king. Because in their previous lives the two had observed the fast together, the dragon was born in a pond within the king’s garden.
[50a] Every day, the gardener would bring various vegetables and fruits to offer to the king. One day, the gardener found in the pond a kind of fruit of exceedingly beautiful color and delicious fragrance and flavor. He thought: ‘Whenever I enter or leave this place, the gatekeeper always makes arrangements for me.
I should give this fruit to him.’ Having thought this, he gave the fruit to the gatekeeper. Upon receiving the delicious fruit, the gatekeeper in turn thought: ‘Whenever I enter or leave the royal palace, the eunuch always makes arrangements for me. I should give this fruit to him.’ Having thought this, he gave the fruit to the eunuch.
Upon receiving the delicious fruit, the eunuch in turn thought: ‘The queen often praises my service before the king. I shall present this fruit to her.’ Having thought this, he presented the fruit to the queen. Upon receiving the delicious fruit, the queen immediately offered it to the king.
The king ate it and found it exceptionally fragrant and delicious, so he asked the queen:
– My beloved, where did you obtain this fruit?
The queen replied:
– The eunuch gave it to your servant!
The king questioned each person in succession and learned that the fruit had come from the gardener. He then summoned the gardener and asked:
– There is such delicious fruit in the garden; why did you not offer it to me, but instead gave it to someone else?
The gardener explained the entire matter in detail, but the king did not believe him and said: ‘From now on, you must regularly offer this fruit to me. If you disobey my command, I shall put you to death.’
The gardener returned home weeping bitterly and lamented: ‘This fruit was never cultivated—how can I possibly obtain it?’
At that time, the dragon dwelling in the pond heard his weeping, transformed into a human being, and came to ask:
– Why are you crying?
The gardener related the entire matter in full. After hearing him, the dragon descended into the water, brought forth the fruit, placed it upon a golden tray, handed it to the gardener, and said:
– Take this fruit and offer it to the king, and convey my message to him: ‘In a past age, when the Buddha was still in the world, the king and I were close friends. We were both brahmin ascetics and together observed the Eight Precepts for a day and a night. Each of us had an aspiration. Because the king kept the precepts perfectly, he has now become a king; because I violated the precepts, I was born as a dragon king. Now I wish once again to cultivate the practice of the Eight Precepts, hoping thereby to relinquish this body. Please ask the king to find a copy of the text of the Eight Precepts and bring it here. If the king acts against my wishes, I shall turn this country into a vast sea.’
The gardener then took the tray of fruit, offered it to the king, and fully reported the dragon’s instructions. After hearing this, the king became anxious and thought: ‘How can such a text possibly be found? At present, even the name of the Buddha-Dharma no longer exists, much less a text of the Eight Precepts! If that text cannot be found, I fear the country will suffer calamity.’ The king pondered for a long time but still could find no solution.
At that time, there was a great minister in the kingdom who was highly respected by the king and officials. The king summoned him and said:
[50b] - The dragon has asked me for the text of the Eight Precepts. Find it for me!
The great minister replied:
– In this age, the Buddha-Dharma no longer exists. How can that text be found?
The king said again:
– If you cannot find it, I shall put you to death.
After hearing this, the great minister returned home, his face unusually troubled and sorrowful. His father, who was advanced in years, saw his son return with an uncharacteristic expression and asked him the reason. The great minister then related the entire matter clearly to his father.
His father said:
– I have noticed that a pillar in our house often emits light. Split it open and see what is inside.
The great minister split open the pillar, and indeed there were two scriptures within: the Scripture on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination[101] and the text of the Eight Precepts[102]. Overjoyed at finding the scriptures, the minister immediately placed them upon a golden tray and presented them to the king. The king was immeasurably delighted to obtain the scripture and immediately brought it to the dragon king. The dragon king was likewise overjoyed to receive the text of the Eight Precepts and gave precious jewels to the king. The two then bade each other farewell, and each returned to his own dwelling.
The dragon king and his five hundred children diligently cultivated the practice of the Eight Precepts. After their lives ended, they were all reborn in the Trayastrimsa Heaven. They have now flown down to make offerings to me, and that is why such brilliant light appeared.
The Buddha told Ananda:
– You should know that the five hundred young dragons who observed the Eight Precepts at that time are none other than these five hundred heavenly princes today.
When the Buddha explained these causes and conditions, some attained the four fruits of the śramana, while others aroused the aspiration for unsurpassed bodhi. After hearing the Buddha speak, the entire assembly rejoiced and respectfully practiced as taught.”
The verse says:
The lofty mountain nearly formed, the work remains unfinished;
Though the road is a thousand miles, the carriage is abandoned once again.
Through the teaching, evil is corrected and goodness practiced;
Yet a defiled and wicked heart is changed by a woman.
Single-mindedly cultivating the five blessings, one fails to perfect them;
How could the fasting precepts have been kept as the Eight Precepts?
How shall one ever escape the long, unending night?
How can one cross the boundless river of craving?
X. WEALTH AND NOBILITY
X.1. Introduction
Doing good brings the joyful fruit that follows as a shadow follows the form; doing evil incurs the painful fruit that answers as an echo answers a sound. Thus, some are as wealthy as Tao Zhu and Yi Dun[103], and as noble as Xiao He[104] and Cao Can[105]. They wear brocade robes and silken trousers and dwell in mansions with golden halls and silver doors.
Before them, clouds seem to rise as silver pipes sound; above them, the wind sings as flutes soar. In accordance with proper ceremony, they ascend spacious halls and stroll at ease along the corridors. They wear jeweled shoes upon vermilion steps and golden crowns within emerald gates.
When they dine, high trays are laden with abundant dishes, including every delicacy from mountain and sea, their fragrance spreading everywhere. When seated, they reside in lofty, splendid mansions with jeweled steps and pearl curtains, while strings and bamboo pipes [50c] produce melodious notes that rise and fall. When they sleep, ornate lamps shine brilliantly, bed curtains hang low, and brocade quilts and fur mattresses are laid out.
When they travel, four-horse chariots race as swiftly as lightning, followed thunderously by tens of thousands of carriages. This is only a brief account of the blessed rewards of those who cultivate goodness. Because they practiced giving in former times, they now enjoy such happiness.
X.2. Scriptural Evidence
The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish[106] records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, there was an exceedingly wealthy and noble elder in the kingdom of Sravasti. A son was born to him, remarkably handsome and without equal. The husband and wife were greatly delighted and therefore named their son Dan-mi-li. When Dan-mi-li reached adulthood, his father passed away. King Prasenajit conferred upon Dan-mi-li his father’s rank. As soon as he received the title, his house was transformed into the seven precious substances, and all its storehouses and granaries became filled with a great abundance of treasures.
At that time, Crown Prince Virudhaka[107] suffered from a fever. All the physicians reported to the king:
– If powdered ox-head sandalwood[108] is applied to the crown prince’s body, he will recover from his illness.
The king immediately sent people to search for it, offering a reward of one thousand taels of gold to anyone who could find one tael of ox-head sandalwood. Yet no one could find any. Later, someone reported to the king:
– In the house of the elder Dan-mi-li, there is a great quantity of ox-head sandalwood.”
Having heard this, the king went in person to ask for it. Arriving before the silver gate of the house of the elder Dan-di-li, the king told the gatekeeper to go in and announce him. The gatekeeper entered and said to the elder:
“Elder, King Prasenajit is standing outside the gate.”
Upon hearing this, the elder immediately went out to welcome the king and invited him into the house. As soon as he entered, the king saw within a woman of exceedingly beautiful appearance, seated on a silver couch and weaving silver thread, with ten young maidens standing in attendance on either side.
The king asked:
“Is this woman your wife?”
The elder replied:
“She is the maidservant who guards the gate, and those ten young maidens are messengers.”
When he entered the middle gate, the king saw that everything there was made of deep-blue vaidurya. Inside the gate was another woman seated on a vaidurya couch, whose appearance was far more beautiful than that of the previous woman; she had twenty attendants.
Proceeding farther through another inner gate, the king saw that everything was made of pure gold. Inside the gate was yet another woman, many times more beautiful than the previous one, seated on a couch of pure gold and weaving golden thread; she had forty attendants.
The king again asked:
“Is this woman your wife?”
The elder replied:
“She is a maidservant who guards the gate.”
When the king entered the house, he saw that the entire floor was made of vaidurya and that the chambers were carved with many images of birds and beasts. Whenever the wind blew, the reflections of all these figures upon the floor appeared to move. Seeing this, the king mistook it for water and was afraid to step forward. He said to the elder:
“Why is there no ground before your house, but only a vast ocean?”
The elder Dan-di-li replied:
“Your Majesty, this is a floor of vaidurya, not water.”
[51a] The elder immediately removed the bracelet of seven treasures from his wrist and cast it onto the floor. The bracelet rolled along until it struck the wall and stopped. Realizing that it was solid ground, the king entered farther inside with the elder. Ascending the hall of seven treasures, the king saw the elder’s wife seated on a vaidurya couch. The elder invited the king to sit on a couch of seven treasures beside her. As soon as the elder’s wife saw the king, her eyes filled with tears.
The king asked:
“Why are you weeping? Are you unhappy?”
The elder’s wife replied:
“Your Majesty, I am very happy. My tears flow only because I smell the odor of smoke rising from Your Majesty’s body.”
The king asked:
“Is fire never kindled in your house?”
The elder’s wife replied:
“No, it is not.”
The king asked:
“Without fire, how do you prepare food?”
The elder’s wife replied:
“Whenever we wish to eat, a hundred dishes arrive of themselves.”
The king asked again:
“Then do you not need light?”
The elder’s wife replied:
“We use mani jewels, whose radiance brilliantly illuminates the entire house.”
At that time, the elder Dan-di-li knelt and said:
“Your Majesty, what matter has caused you to trouble yourself by condescending to come here?”
King Prasenajit explained the matter fully. After hearing him, the elder led the king through all the treasuries, which were filled with the seven treasures and with an incalculable quantity of ox-head sandalwood.
The elder said:
“Your Majesty may take as much as you require.”
The king took two taels of ox-head sandalwood and ordered someone to carry it back ahead of him. Then, showing his respect, the king said to the elder:
“A Buddha has now appeared in the world. Are you aware of this?”
The elder Dan-di-li asked:
“What is meant by ‘Buddha’?”
After hearing the king’s explanation, the elder rejoiced exceedingly and immediately went to the Buddha. Upon hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, he attained the fruit of stream-entry. He afterward requested ordination and attained arhatship, complete with the three knowledges[109], the six superknowledges[110], and the eight liberations[111].”
Seeing this, Ananda addressed the Buddha:
“Blessed One, what wholesome karma did the elder Dan-di-li create in a former life that he has now been born as a human being who enjoys the blessings of the heavenly realm, has encountered the Blessed One, gone forth into homelessness, and attained the path in this way?”
The Buddha told Ananda:
“Ninety-one kalpas ago, in the distant past, the Buddha Vipasyin appeared in the world. After that Buddha entered nirvana, during the age of the semblance Dharma[112], five bhiksus made an agreement to dwell together in a forest and cultivate diligently.
“One day, four of the bhiksus said to the fifth:
“‘This place is very far from the city, and obtaining alms is difficult. Therefore, throughout this summer retreat, please perform this meritorious service: enter the city to seek alms and provide offerings for us.’
“That bhiksu then entered the city and encouraged the donors to bring food each day as offerings. Through this, the other four were able to dwell at ease, cultivate diligently, and attain arhatship. They said to that bhiksu:
“‘Because you provided the supporting conditions, we were able to cultivate peacefully and have now attained accomplishment. Is there any vow you wish to make?’
“Hearing this, the bhiksu rejoiced and made this vow: ‘I vow that in future lives, whether born in the heavenly or human realm, I shall naturally possess wealth and honor, encounter a Buddha, go forth into homelessness, and attain the path.’ Through this merit, throughout the ninety-one kalpas from that time until now, that bhiksu never fell into an evil destiny. Whether born in the heavenly or human realm, he always possessed wealth and honor, and everything he required naturally appeared in abundance. Now, because he has encountered me, he has gone forth into homelessness and attained the path.”
The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, there lived in the kingdom of Sravasti an exceedingly wealthy elder whose gold, silver, jewels, and treasures were countless and beyond reckoning. [51b] The elder and his wife had a son whose entire body was the color of pure gold and whose handsome, noble appearance was rarely equaled. The elder and his wife rejoiced beyond measure and consequently named their son Golden Deva.
On the day Golden Deva was born, a square well spontaneously appeared in the house, eight cubits deep and eight cubits wide. Whatever anyone wished to draw from that well would accord with their desires. If clothing was needed, clothing appeared from the well; if food was desired, food appeared from the well.
Gold, silver, jewels, treasures, and every other necessary article appeared as soon as they were wished for.
“When Golden Deva grew up, he became proficient in many arts and skills. His father thought, ‘My son is handsome and noble in appearance, and his abilities surpass those of others. I must find a beautiful maiden whose body is the color of pure gold, like my son’s, and seek her hand in marriage for him.’
“At that time, in the kingdom of Jaba, a great elder and his wife had a daughter named Golden Radiance, who was incomparably beautiful and whose entire body shone with the color of pure gold. When Golden Radiance was born, a well spontaneously appeared in the house, eight cubits deep and eight cubits wide. From that well likewise appeared jewels, clothing, food, drink, and all other necessities, each according to people’s wishes. The elder and his wife thought, ‘Our daughter’s beauty and intelligence surpass those of others. We will give her in marriage only when we find a worthy man whose body shines with the color of pure gold, just like hers.’ Golden Radiance’s renown spread everywhere, and so Golden Deva came to seek her as his wife.
“One day, Golden Deva invited the Buddha and the Sangha to his home to receive offerings. After the meal had been received, the Buddha taught the Dharma to Golden Deva and his wife and to their parents; they all attained the fruit of stream-entry. Golden Deva and his wife asked their parents for permission to go forth into homelessness, and their parents consented. After going forth, husband and wife both attained arhatship and became complete in all virtues.
“Ananda addressed the Buddha:
“‘Blessed One, what meritorious causes and conditions did Golden Deva and his wife create in former lives that they have now been born into wealthy families, with bodies entirely the color of pure gold, and that, when each was born, a well eight cubits deep and eight cubits wide spontaneously appeared in the house and produced such precious objects?’
“The Buddha told Ananda:
– Ninety-one kalpas ago, after Buddha Vipasyin entered nirvana, a group of bhiksus traveled about teaching and came to a certain village. When the villagers saw the Sangha, they vied with one another in making offerings. At that time, there was a married couple who were extremely poor and had no rice to eat. Seeing everyone making offerings to the Sangha, the husband returned home sorrowful and weeping, his tears falling upon his wife’s hands.
His wife asked him:
– Why are you weeping?
The husband said:
– When my father was alive, he was very wealthy, and his storehouses were filled with possessions. Yet in my generation, I am poor and afflicted. In former days, although my father possessed wealth, he refused to practice generosity. Today, when we encounter the Sangha, I am destitute and have nothing to offer. Because I failed to practice generosity in a previous life, I now suffer such poverty. If I do not practice generosity in this life, I shall be even poorer in the next. Thinking thus, I became sorrowful and wept.
[51c] His wife said to him:
– Although we have the intention, what can we do when we have no wealth? Perhaps we should return and search our old house; we may possibly find something there!
The husband and wife immediately returned to their old house. The husband found a gold coin and brought it to his wife. At that time, the wife also found a mirror and a jar. They filled the jar with pure water, placed the gold coin inside it, and covered it with the mirror. Together they brought these things as an offering to the Sangha, made a vow, and returned home. Through this merit, from that time until now, throughout ninety-one kalpas, the husband and wife have never fallen into an evil realm. Whether born in the heavens or among human beings, they have always become husband and wife, possessed bodies the color of pure gold, and enjoyed blessed happiness. Now they have encountered Me, gone forth into monastic life, and attained the Way.”
The Sutra of the Emergence of the Marvelous[113] records: “While the Buddha was still dwelling in the world, the younger brother of Maudgalyayana lived in the kingdom of Kapilavastu. He was exceedingly wealthy, his storehouses were filled with treasures, and his servants were beyond counting. Maudgalyayana often visited his home and admonished his younger brother:
– I have heard that you are miserly and do not delight in giving. The Buddha often teaches, ‘Whoever practices generosity will obtain immeasurable blessings.’ If you now practice generosity, you too will obtain such blessed rewards.
The younger brother heeded his elder brother’s teaching and immediately opened his storehouses to give alms. At the same time, he built another storehouse in which to receive the resulting blessed rewards. Before ten days had passed, his money and treasures were completely exhausted. The old storehouses were empty, while the new storehouse contained nothing at all. Grieved, the younger brother went to his elder brother and said:
– Previously, you told me that practicing generosity would bring abundant blessings, so I acted exactly as you instructed. People came seeking alms, and I gave away everything in my storehouses until they were depleted. Now the old storehouses are empty, while the new one has received nothing at all! Have I not been deceived by you?
Maudgalyayana said:
– Enough, enough! Do not speak in this way. Do not let adherents of other paths, who hold wrong views, hear such shallow words. If blessed rewards possessed visible form, not even all of space could contain them. Now I shall provisionally show you these wondrous blessed rewards.
Having spoken, Maudgalyayana immediately used his spiritual power, took his younger brother by the hand, and brought him to the sixth heaven. The younger brother saw palaces made of the seven precious substances, fragrant breezes, bathing pools, and storehouses overflowing with innumerable treasures. There were tens of millions of celestial maidens, yet not a single man was to be seen.
The younger brother asked his elder brother:
– What are these palaces, so majestic and magnificent?
Maudgalyayana told him:
– Go and ask them yourself.
The younger brother approached and asked the celestial maidens:
– What are these palaces, fashioned entirely from the seven precious substances, so majestic and magnificent, and suspended in midair? Who possesses the merit to enjoy them?
The celestial maidens replied:
– In Kapilavastu, in Jambudvipa, there dwells Maudgalyayana, the foremost among the disciples of Sakyamuni Buddha in spiritual powers. He has a younger brother, an exceedingly wealthy householder. Because that householder delights in generosity, in his next life he will be born here and become our husband.
Hearing this, the younger brother gave rise to a wholesome resolve. He returned to his elder brother and related the entire matter clearly.
Maudgalyayana said:
– Then does a person who practices generosity receive blessed rewards or not?
[52a] Ashamed, the younger brother apologized to his elder brother. After returning home, he again diligently cultivated merit. When his life ended, he was born in the heavenly realm and enjoyed his blessed rewards.”
Furthermore, the Sutra of Suddhika[114] records: “While the Buddha was still in the world, there was a householder named Suddhika. He was exceedingly wealthy, possessed incalculable quantities of gold and silver, had storehouses filled to overflowing, and kept a vast number of servants; there was nothing more he could desire. One day, a white silk bathing cloth beside the bathing pool in the householder’s residence was blown by the wind and landed before the royal palace. The king immediately summoned his ministers to deliberate together and cast divinations concerning it. They all marveled at the cloth’s origin. The great ministers all said, ‘Our kingdom is about to flourish, and therefore heaven has bestowed this white silk cloth upon us.’ Only Suddhika remained seated in silence.
The king asked Suddhika:
– All the great ministers are rejoicing. Why do you say nothing?
Suddhika addressed the king:
– Your Majesty! I dare not deceive Your Majesty. This is a bathing cloth from my household. It was hanging beside the pool and was blown here by the wind. For this reason, I dared not speak.
Several days later, a nine-colored flower as large as a wheel fell before the royal palace. The king again had the great ministers assemble to deliberate, and their questions and answers were the same as before.
Suddhika addressed the king:
– Your Majesty! I dare not deceive you. This is a withered flower that fell in the garden behind my house and was blown by the wind before Your Majesty’s palace. For this reason, I remained silent and said nothing.
The king asked Suddhika:
– Do such things truly exist in your household? If so, return and make preparations in advance. I shall lead two hundred thousand people to visit your home.
Suddhika replied:
– May Your Majesty simply accompany me; there is no need to prepare anything beforehand. In my house, beds and mats arrange themselves naturally, with no need for anyone to lay them out. Food appears naturally, with no need for anyone to cook it. Dishes are brought forth naturally, with no need to summon anyone, and after the meal they are naturally carried away, with no need for anyone to clear them.
The king then led two hundred thousand people through the southern gate into Suddhika’s residence. As soon as he entered, he saw a handsome and exceedingly charming youth. The king asked Suddhika:
– Is this your son?
Suddhika replied:
– He is a servant who guards my gate.
The king and the others proceeded farther and passed through an inner gate, where they saw a young woman with a beautiful countenance and smooth, radiant skin, exceedingly lovely to behold.
The king asked Suddhika:
– Is this woman your daughter or your wife?
Suddhika replied:
– She is a maidservant who guards the gate of my house.
After traveling a little farther, they reached the main building. The king saw walls constructed of pure silver and a floor made of crystal. Mistaking the floor for water, he dared not step inside. Suddhika led the king into the building and invited him to sit upon a golden couch and a jeweled seat.
The householder’s wife was behind one hundred and twenty layers of curtains made of pure silver. She drew aside the curtains, came forth, and paid homage. Seeing tears welling in her eyes, the king asked Suddhika:
– Why did your wife weep when she paid homage to me?
Suddhika replied:
– I dare not deceive Your Majesty. My wife smelled the odor of smoke upon Your Majesty’s body, and therefore her eyes filled with tears.
The king said:
– Common people burn lamps fueled by fat; feudal lords burn lamps fueled by wax; and the Son of Heaven burns lamps fueled by lacquer. Lacquer naturally produces no smoke, so how could it cause her tears to flow?
Suddhika replied:
[52b] - In my house, a divine moon-bright pearl hangs in the hall and shines both night and day, so there is no need to kindle a flame.
In front of Shudi’s house stood a twelve-story tower. Shudi led the king to its summit to look all around, and in what seemed but a moment, a month had passed.
A minister addressed the king:
– Your Majesty! Affairs of state are important. Please return to the palace!
The king said:
– Let us remain a little longer before returning.
The king then strolled again through the gardens and bathing ponds, and suddenly another month had passed. The ministers spoke to him, but the king answered as before.
At that time, Shudi opened his treasury and distributed the seven precious substances, silks, and brocades to those two hundred thousand people, so much that neither the people nor the horses could carry it all.
Upon returning to his kingdom, the king said to his ministers:
– Shudi is my subject, yet his house, wife, and children all surpass mine. May I send troops to attack him and seize them?
The ministers all replied:
– Your Majesty! Seize them!
The king led four hundred thousand troops, sounding bells and beating drums, and surrounded Shudi’s house with several hundred encircling ranks. At that time, at the southern gate of Shudi’s house stood a mighty warrior holding a golden staff. He brandished it once, and immediately all four hundred thousand soldiers and their horses fell sprawling. Their hands and feet flailed, their bodies reeled like those of drunken men, and their heads spun so that they could not rise.
Shudi then rode forth in a mica carriage[115] and asked them:
– How were you injured that you lie upon the ground and refuse to rise?
They replied:
– The great king ordered us to come and attack and seize the elder’s house, but the mighty warrior holding the golden staff struck us. All four hundred thousand men and horses fell and cannot rise.
Shudi asked:
– Do you wish to rise?
They all replied:
– We wish to rise.
Shudi then used his spiritual power to cause all four hundred thousand men and horses to stand up, whereupon they returned together to the kingdom.
The king then invited Shudijia to sit with him in his carriage and went to the Buddha. The king asked:
– Blessed One! What merit did Shudijia create in a former life that he now enjoys such blessed recompense?
The Buddha replied:
– Great King, listen attentively! In a former life, five hundred merchants were traveling through a perilous mountain region when they encountered a sick monk. One member of the company offered the monk a shelter and couch, provisions, lamps, and torches. That man made many aspirations, including the wish that devas descend from the sky to make offerings. The monk then manifested eighteen kinds of spiritual transformation and emitted brilliant light that illuminated the whole world. He also vowed that when he attained Buddhahood, he would shatter the Iron Encircling Mountains, cause flowers to bloom in cauldrons of boiling oil, fill the hells with the fragrance of sandalwood, transform hungry ghosts into śramanas, and cause rakshasas to sit and recite sutras. When the five hundred merchants witnessed this, they brought their precious possessions and made offerings. Because they provided for the sick monk, all those merchants now enjoy blessed recompense. The donor at that time was Shudi; the sick monk was I; and the five hundred merchants have all attained the fruit of arhatship.”
The Sutra of a Hundred Conditions records: “When the Buddha was in the world, there lived in the city of Shravasti an exceedingly wealthy elder whose possessions were so vast that they could not be reckoned. The elder’s wife gave birth to a son of handsome and majestic appearance, with few to equal him. [52c] On the day the child was born, rain poured down like a cataract. The elder and his wife rejoiced greatly, and the entire kingdom learned of the event.
A physiognomist foretold that this was an auspicious sign. The child was therefore named Yashamitra. From birth, Yasha did not drink his mother’s milk; water possessing the eight qualities constantly issued from between his teeth and naturally sustained him.
When he reached adulthood, Yasha encountered the Buddha, renounced household life, and attained the fruit of arhatship, becoming revered by devas and humans.
Seeing this, the bhikshus went together to ask the Buddha to explain the conditions behind Yashamitra’s blessed recompense from a former life.
The Blessed One told the bhikshus:
– During the time of Kashyapa Buddha, in the Auspicious Eon, there was an elderly householder who renounced household life to cultivate the Way. He was not diligent, however, and became seriously ill. A physician diagnosed him and said that he would recover only if he drank suzi[116]. Following the physician’s advice, he drank it. At midnight, when the medicine took effect, he developed a fever and his mouth became parched with thirst. He hurried to seek water, but every vessel was empty. He then ran to rivers and streams, but all of them had dried up. Wherever he searched, there was no water, and in his heart he reproached himself with remorse. He removed his robe, tied it to the branch of a tree beside the riverbank, and returned. The following morning, he went to his teacher and related everything that had happened. After listening, the teacher said:
– Your affliction resembles that of a hungry ghost. Now take the water from my vessel and bring it to the Sangha.
He followed his teacher’s instruction and went to draw water from the vessel, but the water within it had dried up. Becoming frightened, he thought, ‘If my life ends, I will surely fall into existence as a hungry ghost.’ Having had this thought, he went to the Buddha, clearly related the entire matter, and said:
– Blessed One! Please instruct me.
The Buddha said:
– From now on, you must constantly offer pure water to the Sangha. Only then will you be able to escape the body of a hungry ghost.
Upon hearing Kashyapa Buddha’s teaching, his heart was filled with joy. Every day he brought pure water and offered it to the Sangha. Only after twenty thousand years did his life come to an end. Wherever he was subsequently born, water possessing the eight qualities[117] constantly issued from between his teeth, naturally sustaining him without any need for food, drink, or nursing. Now he has encountered me, renounced household life, and attained the Way. Hearing the Buddha’s words, the bhikshus rejoiced and respectfully accepted them.”
The Sutra of King Ashoka[118] records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, he entered the city of Rajagriha in sequence to beg for alms together with the bhikshus and Ananda. Upon reaching a narrow lane, the Buddha encountered two boys named Desheng and Wusheng. They were playing at building city walls, houses, and granaries out of earth, and had also fashioned earthen rice to store in the granaries.
The two boys saw the Buddha’s excellent marks and his body, the color of pure gold, radiantly illuminating the entire city. Filled with joy, Desheng scooped up a handful of earthen rice from the granary and offered it to the Buddha, making this vow: ‘I vow that in the future I shall rule the world and make abundant offerings of every kind.’ Through the wholesome conditions and merit of that aspiration, one hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvana, Desheng became a Wheel-Turning Sage King and ruled Jambudvipa. [53a] The king resided in the city of Pataliputra and governed the world according to the true Dharma, taking the title King Ashoka.
He personally apportioned the Buddha’s relics and built eighty-four thousand precious stupas in which to enshrine and venerate them. The king had profound faith in the Three Jewels and frequently invited the Sangha into the palace to receive offerings.
At that time, there was in the palace a slave woman who lived in great poverty and distress. Seeing the king perform meritorious deeds, she reproached herself, thinking, ‘In the past, the king merely offered the Buddha a handful of earth, yet he has attained such wealth and nobility. Now the king is again making abundant offerings, so in future lives he will surely possess even greater wealth and nobility. Because I committed offenses in a former life, I have now become lowly and poor and am unable to create merit. In the future I shall surely become still poorer. When will I ever escape this impoverished existence?’ Having thought this, the slave woman shed tears.
After the Sangha had finished their meal, the slave woman swept and cleaned. She found a single coin in the rubbish and immediately brought it as an offering to the Sangha, her heart filled with joy. Before long, the slave woman fell ill and died. At that time, one of the king’s consorts in the palace had been pregnant for ten months and gave birth to a princess of extraordinary beauty, with few to equal her. The princess’s right hand, however, was always tightly clenched. When the princess was five years old, the consort said to the king:
– We do not know why our daughter’s right hand is always tightly clenched.”
The king ordered that the princess be brought to him. He placed her upon his knee and touched her hand, whereupon she opened it. There was a coin in her palm; whenever it was taken away, another appeared, without end. In only a short while, an entire treasury was filled with coins. Greatly astonished, the king went to ask the arhat Yasha:
– What merit did the princess create in her previous life that, now she has been born, there is always a coin in her palm, and no matter how many times it is taken, it is never exhausted?
The arhat replied:
– In her previous life, the princess was a maidservant in the palace. While sweeping, she found a coin and immediately offered it to the Sangha. Through this wholesome condition, she was born as the daughter of the great king, and there is always a gold coin in her hand that is never exhausted, however often it is taken.”
The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures records: “Long ago, many monks dwelt on Mount Gridhrakuta. When people everywhere heard of this, they brought food to make offerings. There was a poor girl who lived by begging.
Seeing householders transporting food up the mountain as offerings, she thought, ‘There must be an assembly for giving alms here. I should go there and beg for food.’ She then entered the mountain and saw the householders bringing all kinds of food to offer to the Sangha. She further thought, ‘Because these people cultivated merit in past lives, they have obtained wealth and honor.
Now they are creating still more merit, so they will become even wealthier. Because I did not cultivate merit in my previous life, I am poor and miserable. If I do not create merit now, I shall be even poorer in the future.’ Having thought thus, she began to weep.
Earlier, she had found two coins in a rubbish heap and carefully kept them so that, if she failed to receive alms, she could use them to buy food. But now, upon seeing this, she thought, ‘I should endure hunger for one or two days and use this money to make an offering to the Sangha.’ After waiting until the Sangha had finished their meal, she came forward to present her offering. [53b] The monk who served as karmadana wished to pronounce the benediction for her, but the senior monk did not permit him and personally pronounced it instead.
He also shared some food with the poor girl. Seeing this, everyone else likewise brought food to her. The poor girl was overjoyed and said, ‘I have obtained merit.’ Having said this, she took the food beneath a tree.
After eating, she lay down there to rest. Through the merit evoked by her generosity, a golden cloud appeared and sheltered her from above.
At that time, the queen had been dead for seven days, and the king sent men to search for someone whose merit was sufficient to make her worthy of succeeding as queen. As an envoy and a physiognomist passed by that tree in the course of their search, they saw the girl. The physiognomist immediately declared, ‘This girl is endowed with sufficient merit and is worthy of becoming queen.’ The envoy then bathed her with scented water and had her dressed in a noblewoman’s garments, all of which fitted her perfectly. Thereupon, the officials escorted her back to the palace in a procession of countless carriages. When the king saw her, he was delighted and cherished her dearly.
After some time, the queen reflected, ‘I have received this karmic reward because I previously offered two coins to the Sangha. I therefore owe the Sangha an immense debt of gratitude.’
Having thought thus, the queen addressed the king:
– Formerly, your handmaiden was exceedingly poor and lowly. Through Your Majesty’s compassion, I was allowed to succeed as queen. I beg Your Majesty to permit me to go to the monastery and make offerings in order to repay the kindness of the Sangha.
The king said:
– Do as you wish.
The queen then had carriages loaded with food, drink, and various jewels and precious objects, and went to the monastery to make offerings. The senior monk instructed the karmadana[119] to pronounce the benediction. The queen thought, ‘Previously, when I offered only two coins, the venerable one personally pronounced the benediction for me. Now I have brought entire carriages of precious treasures, yet he does not pronounce the benediction for me.’ The younger bhikshus were likewise displeased by this. The senior monk then said to the queen:
– Your Majesty resents me because, when you offered two coins, I personally came forward to pronounce the benediction, whereas now, though you have brought entire carriages of precious treasures, I do not pronounce it. In the Buddha-Dharma, it is the wholesome mind that is valued, not precious treasures. Formerly, when Your Majesty offered two coins, your wholesome mind was very great. Now, although you offer innumerable precious treasures, thoughts of arrogance and conceit have arisen in you. Therefore, I do not pronounce the benediction. You younger bhikshus should not reproach me either.
On hearing this, the bhikshus were deeply ashamed. They immediately awakened and all attained the fruit of stream-entry. After hearing the Dharma, the queen was also deeply ashamed; she too awakened and attained the fruit of stream-entry.”
The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures records: “Long ago, King Evil-Born of the country of Kauravya was strolling through the royal pleasure garden when he suddenly saw a golden cat enter from the northeast and then run out toward the southwest. Seeing this, the king ordered men to excavate along its path. They discovered a bronze vessel containing about three hu of gold coins. Digging deeper, they found two more vessels like the first; all three were equally filled with gold coins. They continued digging to the side for about five li, and at every step they found many coins. Although the king obtained so much money, he was afraid and dared not use it. Wondering about the origin of this treasure, he went to ask the Venerable Katyayana. After hearing him, the venerable one replied:
[53c] - This is the karmic reward of a cause created by Your Majesty in a previous life. Use it freely; there is nothing to fear!
The king then asked the venerable one to explain the causes and conditions of his past life.
The venerable one replied:
– In the past, ninety-one kalpas ago, after the Buddha Vipashyin had entered nirvana, during the age of the True Dharma, some bhikshus went to a crossroads, spread out seats, set down an alms bowl, and taught the people, exhorting them: ‘Those who possess wealth should deposit it in this secure treasury, where it cannot be seized through the calamities of kings, thieves, floods, or fires.’
At that time, there was a poor man who had earned three coins by selling firewood. When he heard the monk’s exhortation, he joyfully made an offering, placed the money in the bowl, made a vow, and returned home. Throughout the five-li journey home, he rejoiced at every single step.
Just before entering his house, he turned toward the monks, bowed wholeheartedly, made a vow, and only then went inside. That poor man was none other than Your Majesty. Because in the past Your Majesty joyfully offered three coins to the Sangha, in life after life you have occupied an honored position, and now you have also obtained three bronze vessels filled with coins.
Because in the past you rejoiced at every step along the five-li road, today the king finds coins at every step throughout five li. Therefore, when making offerings, one should be utterly sincere and wholehearted and must not give rise to regret.”
Verse:
Stone and ore are not the genuine,
A painted vase is truly false;
Brocade robes are hung on high,
While the kashaya is placed beneath.
Fine words merely startle the mind,
Elegant prose wholly delights in truth;
Yet how could the true mark have been revealed,
When fleeting glory still cannot be relinquished?
In traces, one differs from lords and nobles;
In conduct, one follows carefree wanderers.
Enough! Put an end to the music of Zheng[120],
It is not the disordering of the Zhou Ya[121].
Contending for fame, wealth and honor are empty;
Abuse and insults, disgrace and glory are void.
A lamp before the wind is fragile;
How could shadows and bubbles be worth grasping?
XI. POVERTY AND LOWLINESS
Comprising five conditions: Introduction, Verification, Sudatta, The Poor Child, and The Poor Woman.
XI.1. Introduction
In general, poverty and wealth, nobility and lowliness, all arise from karmic causes in former lives; gain and loss, having and lacking, all arise from deeds performed in past existences. Therefore, the scriptures state: “If you wish to know the causes from former lives, observe the results in the present. If you wish to know the results in future lives, observe the causes in the present.” Thus, the house of Yuan Xian[122] and the hut of Qian Lou[123] had open doors and passageways that could not keep out wind and dust, while their thatched roofs and leafy walls could not shelter them from frost and dew. [54a] They used straw and grass as mats and lotus leaves as clothing; if they stitched the shoulders, both arms remained exposed;
if they patched the sleeves, both skirts were left incomplete.
For food and drink they depended on their neighbors, and for sleep they took shelter among abandoned graves. A single cap was worn for ten years, and their bodies were clothed in garments patched with a hundred pieces. In their native villages they had neither fields nor gardens, and upon reaching Luoyang they again had nowhere to rely upon; they wandered without a fixed abode, drifting helplessly through their days.
Though as ashamed as Ling Zhe[124], he still suffered famine at E Sang[125]; though as scrupulous as Bo Yi[126], he still had to endure hardship at Shouyang[127]. With clothing so scarce, how could they enjoy the spring sunshine? Without rice or food, how could they survive the winter cold?
All this was solely because in former lives they did not give in charity to help others, but instead were greedy and miserly, so that their wholesome karmic rewards were soon exhausted. Therefore, practitioners should practice generosity.
XI.2. Scriptural Evidence
The Lamp Scripture[128] records: “Those who are utterly impoverished are as though dwelling in hell: they have nowhere and no one upon whom they can rely; sorrow and anxiety torment their hearts more fiercely than fire; their countenances wither and lose their dignified bearing; their bodies grow weak, and hunger and thirst oppress them; their eyes sink deeply, their skin clings to their bones, their sinews and veins protrude, their hair is disheveled, their hands and feet waste away, their complexions turn pallid, and their whole bodies become cracked and fissured.
Furthermore, having no clothing, they must gather filthy scraps of cloth from dung heaps and rubbish and join them together to wear; yet these are only enough to cover the torso, leaving their arms and legs exposed. They lie upon foul refuse and have neither mats nor blankets. Even their relatives fail to recognize them when they see them.
They wander through every alley begging for food like hungry crows. When they wish to go to the homes of friends and acquaintances to beg for food, the gatekeepers refuse them entry; if they slip inside, they are humiliated, and when the master of the house comes out and sees them, he may even wish to beat them. They bow their heads and prostrate themselves, pleading to be spared, yet the householder regards them with contempt and pays them no heed.
Even if they are allowed inside, the householder despises them, has no wish to speak with them, and does not invite them to sit. If given a little rice, it is tossed into their bowls, not enough to satisfy their hunger. Even if they come upon a great assembly and approach to beg for leftover food, people scorn them and do not invite them to sit, but instead drive them away.
Those who are utterly impoverished are like trees without flowers, to which bees and butterflies never come; like grass and leaves struck by frost, withered and decayed; like a lake whose waters have dried up, to which wild geese do not fly; like a forest consumed by fire, from which every kind of deer has fled; like a rice field already harvested, where no gleaners come. Though impoverished today, if they speak of their former wealth and nobility, no one believes them, but regards their words as boasting.
Those who are utterly impoverished know not where to turn. They are like a field burned to ashes, which no one delights in visiting; [54b] like a withered tree without shade, beneath which no one wishes to stop; like young rice struck by frost and dew, from which no harvest can be gathered; like a venomous snake, which everyone habitually avoids; like poisoned food, which no one dares taste; like an abandoned grave that no one visits; like a privy filled entirely with urine and excrement; like a murderer whom everyone detests and rejects.
Even when poor people speak correctly, others regard them as wrong; even when they do something good, everyone regards it as bad. If they act quickly, people reproach them for being crude and rash; if they proceed slowly, they are reproached for putting on airs. If they offer praise, people regard it as flattery; if they do not offer praise, people regard it as disparagement.
They say that these poor people never speak a good word. If they teach anyone anything, people regard it all as falsehood; if they explain something fully, people say they are verbose. If they remain silent, they are accused of concealing their thoughts; if they speak frankly, they are regarded as coarse.
If they ask another’s opinion, they are deemed sycophantic; if they are frequently familiar with others, they are accused of beguiling them; if they behave otherwise, they are considered arrogant. If they comply with another’s words, they are said to be currying favor; if they do not comply, they are accused of acting willfully. If they yield and submit, they are reviled as weak and base; if they do otherwise, people say that, though poor, they still rely presumptuously upon themselves.
If they behave with a little freedom and ease, they are deemed foolish and incapable of restraint; if they discipline themselves, they are accused of lacking integrity and falsely pretending to be upright. If they are excessively joyful, they are called deceitful and wild. If they are sorrowful, they are thought to harbor malicious intentions and to be disagreeable.
If, upon hearing someone speak unclearly, they wish to explain the matter in detail, they are accused of wishing to substitute ignorance for wisdom—truly a source of great shame. If they remain silent, they are regarded as foolish and unable to understand reason. If they make even a small joke, they are said not to believe in offenses and blessings.
If they ask for anything, they are called unworthy and shameless. If they do not ask, people say that although they ask for nothing now, they will later hope to receive much more. If they quote words from scriptures or books, people say they are pretending to be intelligent; if they speak in plain and simple words, they are derided as stupid.
If they speak the truth before a gathering, they are accused of speaking recklessly. If they speak honest words in private, they are regarded as slanderers. If they wear new clothes, everyone says they borrowed them to make themselves look fine; if they wear coarse and shabby garments, they are derided as destitute and miserable.
If they eat much, they are regarded as ravenous gluttons. If they eat little, they are thought to be hungry inside while pretending to be pure. If they discuss scriptures and treatises, they are accused of displaying their own understanding in order to expose the ignorance of others; if they do not discuss scriptures and treatises, they are regarded as stupid and utterly ignorant, fit only to herd cattle.
If they recount their former accomplishments, they are accused of boastful falsehood; if they remain silent, people say their families are of low standing.
Whatever utterly impoverished people do—their every action, word, and gesture—is regarded as a fault. As for the wealthy and noble, however, even when they speak contrary to the Dharma, they are not deemed at fault; all their actions and undertakings are regarded as correct. [54c] Those who are utterly impoverished are like corpse-raising demons[129], of whom everyone is terrified; encountering them is like encountering an illness difficult to cure.
The poor are like those in a barren wilderness, perilous and devoid of grass and water; like those fallen into the great ocean and submerged by powerful currents; like those choking and unable to breathe; like those whose blurred eyes cannot see the road ahead; like thick grime that is difficult to cleanse away; like hostile enemies who, though dwelling together, cannot relinquish their resentment and hatred; like a dry and sweltering well, where anyone who falls in cannot breathe; like those sunk in deep mud and unable to step out; like a flood rushing down a steep mountain, sweeping away and toppling trees.
The poor are likewise beset by countless hardships.
The wealthy and noble possess great authority and virtue; their bearing is composed and unhurried, their minds are broad and magnanimous, and they are fully endowed with propriety. Wisdom and courage readily arise in them, their family estates flourish, their relatives live in harmony, and their good reputations spread far and wide.
Nevertheless, no one in the world should crave or cling to wealth, nobility, glory, and splendor; nor, when honored by devas and humans, should one delight in it excessively. One should understand that poverty and lowliness are exceedingly painful. Those who wish to bring poverty and suffering to an end should not be miserly or greedy.”
Therefore, the scripture states: “Utter poverty is the greatest suffering.”
XI.3. Sudatta
The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures[130] records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, there was a householder named Sudatta whose family was impoverished and possessed no wealth. He worked as a hired laborer and earned four sheng of rice, which he brought home to be cooked. At that time, Venerable Aniruddha came on his alms round, and the householder’s wife offered him a full bowl. Thereafter, Venerables Subhuti, Kasyapa, Maudgalyayana, Sariputra, and others also came seeking alms, and each received a full bowl as an offering. Finally, the Buddha arrived, and she likewise offered him a bowl filled with rice. When Sudatta returned home, he asked his wife to serve the meal. His wife then said:
– If Venerable Aniruddha had come, would you have offered him food?
Sudatta replied:
– I would rather go without food myself in order to make an offering to the venerable one.
His wife asked again:
– If Venerables Kasyapa, Maudgalyayana, Subhuti, Sariputra, and the others, as well as the Buddha, had all come, what would you have done?
Sudatta likewise replied:
– I would have gone without food and offered it all to them.
Only then did his wife tell him:
– This morning they came seeking alms, and I offered them all the food we had.
When Sudatta heard this, he rejoiced greatly and said to his wife:
– Our transgressions have now been exhausted, and merit will arise.
Having said this, he opened the storeroom and found it naturally filled with grain, rice, cloth, and all kinds of food and drink. Whenever any of these provisions were used up, they appeared again. The blessings he received were beyond measure.”
[55a] According to the Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables[131]: “Long ago, the householder Sudatta endured poverty for seven lifetimes. In his final lifetime, he was so poor that he did not possess a single coin. One day, he found a sandalwood measuring vessel in a filthy place. He took it to the market and sold it, using the proceeds to purchase four sheng of rice. He brought the rice home and said to his wife:
– Cook one sheng. I will go and look for vegetables and fruit, and then we shall eat together.
At that time, the Buddha thought: ‘I must liberate Sudatta so that he may once again obtain merit.’ Just as Sudatta’s wife finished cooking the rice, the Buddha arrived together with his disciples Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, and Kasyapa. All four sheng of rice were cooked and brought out in turn as offerings. Later, Sudatta became exceedingly wealthy and frequently invited the Buddha and the Sangha to receive offerings. The Buddha taught the Dharma to the husband and wife, and both attained realization.”
The Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Former Conduct[132] records: “Formerly, the household of the householder Sudatta was extremely poor. Through hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, his body and mind became pure, and he attained the fruit of an anagamin. At that time, his family possessed only five coins, yet he took three coins and offered them to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; he used one coin to buy food and kept one coin as capital.
Because of this, each day he had one coin available for use, and it was never exhausted. Later, he undertook the five precepts and severed his mind of sensual desire. All his wives gladly followed his wishes.
One day, one of his wives was roasting rice to make flour, but through carelessness the fire burned people and animals to death. Because of this incident, King Prasenajit issued a decree: ‘From this day onward, no one may light lamps or kindle fires at night. Anyone who violates this order shall be fined one thousand taels of gold.’
By then, Sudatta had already attained the Way and practiced meditation at home morning and evening. At midnight, he lit a lamp and sat in meditation. The patrolling officers caught him and reported the matter to the king. The king ordered him to pay the fine. Sudatta said to the king:
– Your servant is poor and does not possess even one hundred coins. With what could I pay the fine?
The king became angry and ordered his soldiers to seize him and imprison him. When the Four Heavenly Kings saw this, they flew down during the first watch of the night and said to Sudatta:
– We shall give you the money to pay the fine so that you may be released.
Sudatta then expounded the scriptures to the Four Heavenly Kings. After listening, the Heavenly Kings departed. During the middle watch of the night, Sakra came to hear the Dharma, and during the final watch, Brahma came. The householder taught the Dharma to each of these devas. After listening, they returned to their celestial palaces.
That night, while the king was in a high tower, he suddenly saw light emanating from the prison. The following day, the king sent a messenger to say to Sudatta:
– You were imprisoned for lighting a lamp. Do you feel no shame that you continue to kindle fires?
Sudatta replied:
– I did not kindle any fire. If I had done so, there would have been smoke and ashes.
The messenger then said:
– Why, during the first watch of the night, did the king see four points of fire; during the middle watch, another point of fire, larger and brighter than the previous four; and during the final watch, yet another point of fire, twice as bright? If you say they were not fires, then what were they?
Sudatta replied:
– They were not fires! During the first watch of the night, the Four Heavenly Kings came to see me; during the middle watch, the deva Sakra came; and during the final watch, Brahma came to see me. Those were the lights of the devas, not fires.
[55b] The messenger immediately returned and reported this to the king. Upon hearing it, the king trembled throughout his entire body. He said:
– This man possesses such extraordinary merit and virtue. How could I have humiliated him?
The king immediately ordered the messenger:
– Release him at once, without delay!
The prison official immediately set Sudatta free. Upon his release, Sudatta went directly to the monastery, bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, and remained there to hear the Dharma.
At that time, King Prasenajit also ordered his ministers to prepare the royal carriage and proceeded to the Buddha’s dwelling place. When the people saw the king, they all rose and moved aside. Sudatta alone was listening to the Dharma with a collected mind; therefore, although he saw the king, he remained calmly seated. The king became slightly irritated and thought: ‘This man is my subject, yet he holds me in contempt and does not rise when he sees me.’ With this thought, the king grew still angrier. The Buddha knew the king’s thoughts and therefore ceased teaching the Dharma.
The king said to the Buddha:
– May the Blessed One please continue teaching!
The Buddha said:
– This is not an appropriate time. Why is this so? When someone gives rise to anger, binds himself tightly with resentment and refuses to release it, is attached to women’s beauty, is arrogant and disrespectful, and has a heart filled with defilements, then even if he hears the wondrous Dharma, he cannot understand it. Therefore, this is not the time to teach the Dharma to the king.
Upon hearing this, the king thought: ‘Because of this man, my authority has been diminished twice today. Moreover, I have given rise to anger and am unable to hear the Dharma.’ Having thought this, the king bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet and departed. Once outside, the king said to a close attendant:
– When you see this man come out, behead him.
As soon as the king finished speaking, tigers, wolves, lions, and all kinds of ferocious beasts immediately came from the four directions and surrounded him. Terrified, the king returned at once to the Buddha. The Buddha asked:
– Why has the great king returned?
The king replied:
– I was afraid of the ferocious beasts, and so I returned.
Pointing to Sudatta, the Buddha asked:
– Does the great king know this man?
The king replied:
– I do not.
The Buddha said:
– This man has attained the fruit of an anagamin. These events occurred because the king gave rise to an evil thought toward him. Had the great king not returned, your life would surely have been imperiled.
When the king heard the Buddha’s words, he became deeply frightened. He immediately prostrated himself before Sudatta, bowed in repentance, and said:
– You are my subject, yet for me to humble myself before you is truly difficult.
Sudatta replied to the king:
– For me, though poor, to practice generosity is what is truly difficult. At that time, Sivasacis said: ‘I quelled disorder for the kingdom but was captured by the enemy. Although I stood on the brink of death, I still did not tell a lie. That too was difficult.’ There was also a deva named Sikali who said: ‘As I rested in a high tower, celestial maidens came to seduce me. To uphold the precepts and reject them was truly difficult.’
Then each of them recited a verse before the Buddha:
In utter poverty, giving is difficult;
Amid wealth and honor, patience is difficult;
In danger and peril, keeping the precepts is difficult;
In youth, abandoning desire is difficult.
After hearing the verses, the king and the people all rejoiced, bowed their heads in reverence, and withdrew.”
XI.4. The Poor Child
[55c] The Sutra of the Householder’s Son Bian Yi[133] records: “At that time, the householder Bian Yi bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, joined his palms, and said:
– We humbly beseech the Blessed One and the noble assembly to graciously come to our poor village tomorrow to receive a meal.
The Buddha silently accepted the invitation. The elder bowed at the Buddha’s feet, returned home, and prepared all the food in abundance. The following day, the Buddha and the great assembly arrived and sat in dignified order.
Bianyi asked his parents and relatives to bow at the Buddha’s feet, then stood in attendance. Bianyi rose, poured water for the assembly to wash their hands, and respectfully offered the food. Before the meal was finished, a beggar came and went from one member of the Sangha to another asking for food.
Because the Buddha had not yet pronounced the blessing, no one dared give him any. The man went throughout the gathering but received nothing. He departed in anger and conceived this evil thought: “These śramanas are heedless and foolish; what cultivation could they possibly have?
They see a poor man come begging, yet have no thought of generosity. The elder, too, has been deluded into making offerings to these merciless men. If I become king in the future, I shall use iron wheels to crush and sever their heads.” Having said this, he departed.
After the Buddha had pronounced the blessing, another man came begging for food. Everyone in the assembly gave to him. Receiving a great deal of food, he rejoiced and thought: “These śramanas all possess loving-kindness. Taking pity on my poverty and suffering, they have given me an abundance of food. I will have enough to eat for several days. How joyful! How excellent! By making offerings to these great beings, the elder will gain immeasurable merit. If I were to become king, even if I made offerings to the Buddha and the Sangha for seven days, I still could not repay the kindness of saving me from hunger today.”
When the Buddha had finished his meal, he taught the Dharma to everyone and then returned to the monastery.
The Buddha told Ānanda:
– From this day onward, the meal shall be eaten only after the blessing has been pronounced.
Afterward, the two beggars traveled from place to place seeking alms until they reached a certain kingdom. The man who had given rise to the wholesome thought lay down to rest in the grass beside the road. At that time, the king of that country had just died, leaving no successor. In the kingdom was a man highly skilled in physiognomy. He saw that a book of prophecies[134] recorded: “A poor man worthy of succeeding to the throne will appear.” Hearing the physiognomist’s prediction, the ministers and assembled officials dispatched tens of thousands of carriages throughout the kingdom to search for the person worthy of ascending the throne. As they passed a dense thicket beside that road, they saw a cloud hovering above it. The physiognomist said:
– A divine man is within.
When they entered to look, they found a beggar whose features showed that he was worthy of becoming king. The ministers paid homage to him, each declaring himself a subject. Alarmed, the man said:
– I am a lowly man, not one of royal lineage.
But they all said:
– Your features show that you are worthy of becoming king; we are not compelling you.
The officials gave him fragrant water with which to bathe and then clothed him in royal garments. His majestic features immediately shone forth resplendently. Everyone praised him without end, adorned the royal carriage, and escorted him back to the palace. As for the man who had earlier conceived the evil thought, he was sleeping soundly in the dense grass and was run over by a passing carriage, which severed his head. [56a] When the king returned to the realm, yin and yang were harmonious, the weather of the four seasons was favorable, the people lived in peace and happiness, and the entire kingdom praised the king’s gracious virtue.
The king then thought: “Formerly I was poor and miserable. How have I now become king?” He immediately remembered that when he had previously been a beggar, through the Buddha’s gracious virtue he had received a great deal of food. He had given rise to a wholesome thought and vowed that if he became king, he would make offerings to the Buddha for seven days. Now the karmic reward had come to pass exactly as he had vowed. The king immediately summoned his ministers, faced the kingdom of Śrāvastī, burned incense, and bowed in homage. He then sent an emissary to invite the Buddha:
– O Blessed One! Through your gracious virtue, my lord has become king. The king of our country now wishes to invite the Blessed One to come and teach there, so that the ignorant may hear the Tathagata’s teaching.
The Buddha told the bhikshus:
– We should accept the invitation!
The Buddha and a great many disciples then traveled to that country. The king personally went out to welcome them, bowed to the Buddha, and invited everyone into the palace to partake of the meal. Afterward, the king asked the Buddha to explain the causes and conditions of his previous life. The Buddha recounted all the foregoing events and told him:
– Because the great king conceived a wholesome thought, he has now become king. The man who conceived the evil thought was not only crushed to death by a carriage, but also fell into hell, where blazing wheels grind him to pieces. Only after hundreds of millions of kalpas will he emerge. Now, in accordance with his former vow, the great king has invited the Buddha and the Sangha to receive offerings in order to repay the Buddha’s kindness. Therefore, he will receive karmic blessings from life to life without end.
The Buddha then spoke these verses:
The human mind is the root of poison;
The mouth is the gateway of calamity.
What the mind thinks and the mouth declares,
The body bears the resulting transgression.
Failing to discern good and evil,
The body acts and itself endures suffering.
One whose thoughts seek to harm another
Was instantly crushed to death by a carriage.
Through practicing the Dharma of ambrosia,
One causes beings to be born in heaven.
When the mind thinks and the mouth speaks good,
The body receives the resulting blessings.
Those who contemplate good and evil
Establish for themselves the root of security.
One whose thoughts incline toward goodness
May, like the king, attain a heavenly throne.
When the king had heard the Buddha speak these verses, his heart was filled with great joy. The officials and all the people of the kingdom attained the fruit of stream-entry.”
The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was dwelling in the kingdom of Śrāvastī with one thousand two hundred and fifty bhikshus, there were five hundred beggars who regularly followed the Buddha and the Sangha, asking for food to sustain themselves. Later, they gave rise to disenchantment and all went together to ask the Buddha for permission to enter the monastic life. They said:
– O Blessed One! It is exceedingly difficult to encounter the Tathagata’s appearance in the world. We are lowly men whose lives have been saved through your kindness. Now we wish to enter the monastic life. We do not know whether you will permit us to do so.
The Buddha replied:
– My Dharma is impartial and makes no distinction between rich and poor. It is like pure water that washes away defilement. Whether rich or poor, anyone who washes with water is made clean. This Dharma is like a great mass of fire: wherever it spreads, everything there is consumed. This Dharma is like empty space, through which rich and poor, noble and lowly alike may freely travel as they wish.
Hearing the Buddha speak in this way, the beggars rejoiced greatly. Their faith deepened, and with sincere hearts they entered the monastic life. The Buddha said:
– Come, bhikshus!
At once, their hair and beards fell away of themselves, kāṣāya robes clothed their bodies, and they fully assumed the appearance of śramanas. After hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, all five hundred attained arhatship.
At that time, when the wealthy elders heard that the Buddha had permitted beggars to enter the monastic life, they became arrogant and said: “Why has the Tathagata allowed such lowly men to join the Sangha? When we cultivate merit by inviting the Buddha and the Sangha to partake of a meal, those lowly men will also come, sit upon our mats, and take up our bowls to eat.”
At that time, Prince Jeta sent someone to invite the Buddha and the Sangha. The emissary said:
– O Blessed One! Tomorrow the prince invites you and the Sangha to partake of a meal, but he does not invite those beggars who have just entered the monastic life. Please do not bring them with you.
The next morning, when it was time for the meal, the Buddha told those bhikshus:
– I have accepted the prince’s invitation, but he has not invited you. You should therefore go to Uttarakuru, obtain naturally produced rice, and then return to the prince’s residence to sit and partake of the meal in proper order.
The bhikshus obeyed. Using their supernormal powers, they flew to that continent. Each filled his bowl with rice, gathered his body, and glided through the air like a wild goose flying to Prince Jeta’s residence, where they sat in proper order to partake of the meal. When Prince Jeta saw that the bhikshus possessed dignified bearing, merit, virtue, and supernormal powers, he felt unprecedented reverence and joy. He then said to the Buddha:
– Blessed One, where did these noble sages come from?
The Buddha replied:
– They are precisely those whom you did not wish to invite yesterday.
The Buddha then explained to the prince the causes and conditions concerning them. Having heard this, the prince was deeply ashamed and reproached himself: “I was foolish and could not distinguish light from darkness.” The prince then asked:
– Blessed One, what meritorious conditions did these people create in former lives that they have now encountered the Blessed One, gone forth from the household life, and attained the path? And what evil karma did they create that they had to become beggars such as these?
The Buddha replied:
– A very long time ago, in the kingdom of Varanasi, there was a great mountain named Lishi, which had been a dwelling place of Buddhas of the past. During times when no Buddha appeared in the world, two thousand pratyekabuddhas regularly dwelt there. At that time, in that kingdom lived a very wealthy elder named Sandaning. When drought and famine occurred, he asked his storekeeper:
– How much grain and rice remain in my storehouses? I wish to invite the great beings and make offerings to them, but I do not know whether there is enough.
The storekeeper replied:
– A great deal remains, enough to make offerings to them.
The elder then invited two thousand pratyekabuddhas to receive offerings and ordered five hundred servants to prepare the food. The servants expressed their weariness and said:
– We suffer such hardship because of those beggars.
[56c] At that time, the elder appointed a man to go each day and inform the pratyekabuddhas when it was time to receive their meal. The man kept a dog that followed its master every day. One day, the man forgot to go and announce the time. The dog went there alone, faced the great beings, and barked loudly. Hearing the dog bark, the great beings knew that the appointed time had come and went to the elder’s house to receive their meal in accordance with the Dharma. Afterward, the great beings told the elder:
– It will rain today. You should plow the fields and sow your seeds!
Heeding their words, the elder ordered his workers to plow the fields and sow the seeds. All the seeds that were sown transformed into gourd vines. Although astonished, the elder continued to tend, water, and fertilize them. The vines blossomed and bore fruit, and every gourd grew enormous. When the elder cut open the gourds, he found within them every kind of seed that had previously been sown, now yielding excellent results. The gourds were filled with abundant grain and rice, and he rejoiced greatly. His household became wealthy, and he distributed the produce among his relatives and dependents. As a result, the entire kingdom enjoyed abundance.
The five hundred people who had prepared the food then thought: “The elder obtained such excellent results through the beneficent virtue of the great beings. Why did we speak unkindly of them?” Having reflected thus, they went to the great beings, repented, and made this vow: “May we encounter noble sages in future lives and attain liberation.” Because they had harbored evil thoughts, throughout five hundred lifetimes they often became beggars.
Because they repented and made this vow, they have now encountered Me, gone forth from the household life, and attained fruition. Prince, you should know that Sandaning of that time was none other than I Myself; the storekeeper is now Sudatta; the man who announced the mealtime is now King Udayana; and the five hundred people who prepared the food are now these five hundred arhats. At that time, those in Prince Jeta’s assembly who witnessed such a miracle all attained the fruit of arhatship.”
XI.5. The Poor Woman
The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, Venerable Katyayana journeyed in the course of teaching to the kingdom of Avanti. There lived a very wealthy elder who possessed immeasurable riches. In his household was a maidservant who, after committing a minor fault, was beaten by the elder and ordered to work day and night without rest. She had insufficient clothing to cover her body and never enough food to satisfy her hunger. Even in old age, she continued to suffer and could not attain death though she wished for it. One day, as she carried a jar to the river to draw water, she was suddenly overcome with grief and began to weep loudly. Venerable Katyayana heard her crying and came to ask what was wrong. After learning the cause, he said:
– Why do you not sell your poverty?
The old woman replied:
– Who would buy poverty?
The Venerable replied:
– Poverty can also be sold.
The old woman asked:
– Can poverty truly be sold? How may it be sold?
The Venerable replied:
– If you wish to sell it, follow my instructions.
Having said this, the Venerable told her to bathe and then taught her how to practice generosity. The old woman said:
– I am now so poor that even the clothing I wear is not whole. I have only this jar, but it belongs to my master. What can I offer you?
[57a] The Venerable then handed her his alms bowl and instructed her to fetch water and offer it to him. After accepting it, the Venerable bestowed a blessing, transmitted the precepts to her, and taught her to recollect the Buddha. He then asked:
– Where do you usually sleep?
The old woman replied:
– I have no fixed place to sleep. Wherever I happen to be grinding or pounding grain or cooking rice, I sleep there; at other times, I sleep upon a rubbish heap.
The Venerable said:
– Continue to work diligently with all your heart. When everyone is sound asleep, secretly open the door and enter the house, spread out some grass, sit down, and contemplate the Buddha.
The old woman obeyed his instructions. That evening, she secretly entered the house, sat contemplating the Buddha, and then passed away and was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. The next morning, when her master saw her, he became angry and said:
– This servant was forbidden to enter the house. Why has she now died here?
He ordered someone to tie a rope around her feet and cast her body into a deep forest. Having been reborn in heaven, the old woman became a companion of five hundred devas. With her divine eye, she contemplated the causes and conditions through which she had attained rebirth in heaven. She then led the five hundred devas, bearing incense and flowers, to the forest to make offerings to her former body. They emitted celestial radiance that illuminated the entire forest. Seeing this marvel, her former master called others to accompany him there. When he saw the body, he asked:
– This is the body of a slave woman. Why are you making offerings to it?
The deva replied:
– This was my body in my previous life!
She then recounted the causes and conditions through which she had been reborn in heaven. Afterward, the devas went to Venerable Katyayana, bowed before him, and made offerings. They then heard the Dharma from him. All five hundred devas attained the fruit of stream-entry and afterward flew back to heaven. Therefore, the wise should cultivate and train according to my teachings.”
The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on Mahakasyapa’s Deliverance of the Poor Mother[135] records: “When the Buddha was in the kingdom of Sravasti, Mahakasyapa journeyed alone to teach in the city of Rajagrha. Kasyapa regularly went on alms round with a compassionate resolve to create blessings for sentient beings. He did not visit wealthy households, but went only to the homes of the poor.
Before setting out to beg for alms, Kasyapa would enter samadhi, discern where poor people lived, and go there to create blessings for them. One day, upon entering the city of Rajagrha, Kasyapa encountered an elderly widow. She lived in extreme poverty and had been forced to hollow out a large rubbish heap in the village to make herself a shelter.
Her body was frail and sickly, and she regularly lay within that hole, alone and without anyone to assist her. She had neither food to eat nor clothes to wear and had to place a small screen in the hole to conceal her body. Entering meditative concentration, Kasyapa perceived that this old woman had planted no roots of merit and goodness in previous lives and therefore suffered poverty in the present life.
He knew that she would soon die and, if she were not delivered, would never come to enjoy blessings.
Because she constantly suffered from hunger, whenever she saw servants from the elder’s household pouring away rancid rice-water, she would beg for it, collect it in broken jars, and fill her shelter with them. Kasyapa came to request an offering and bestowed this blessing: “If you make an offering, whether much or little, you will obtain merit.”
The old woman then spoke this verse:
[57b] This body is afflicted by illness,
And I am alone and destitute;
I am the poorest person in the kingdom,
My clothes do not even cover my body,
The people of the world have no compassion,
When meeting others, one should show compassion,
Since you speak of compassion,
How can you not know that this body
Suffers the greatest hunger in the world?
No one suffers more than I!
Please have compassion and forgive me;
Truly, I begrudge nothing.
Venerable Kasyapa then spoke this verse:
The Buddha is the teacher of the three realms;
I abide within his Dharma.
Wishing to end your poverty and hunger,
I have come here to seek alms.
If you reduce your portion of food
And offer even a little,
You will forever escape suffering
And enjoy wealth in a future life.
After hearing the verse, the old woman was filled with joy. She then remembered: “The other day I saved some rancid rice water. If I offer it to him, I fear he will be unable to drink it.” Therefore, from inside the cave she said:
“I have a little rancid rice water. Would you compassionately accept it?”
Kasyapa replied:
“Very well.”
Bent and feeble, the old woman fetched the rice water from inside the cave. Since she had no cloth with which to cover her body, she could not bring it outside. Keeping herself concealed, she stooped and stretched out her hand through the screen to pass it to him.
Kasyapa accepted it and pronounced a blessing, wishing her fortunate and peaceful karmic recompense. Kasyapa thought: “If I take this water elsewhere to drink, she will not believe me and will think I poured it away.” Having thought this, he drank all the water in front of the old woman, washed his bowl, and placed it in his bag. At that very moment, she brought forth true faith.
Kasyapa thought to himself: “I should manifest supernatural powers so that she may attain peace and security.” Having thought this, Kasyapa flew into the sky and displayed various miraculous transformations. Seeing this, the old woman was overjoyed. With utmost sincerity, she knelt and gazed reverently upon him.
Venerable Kasyapa said:
“Do you now have any wish?”
She replied:
“I vow that, through this small merit, I may be reborn in a heavenly realm.”
Once she had made her vow, Kasyapa was no longer to be seen. Several days later, she died and was reborn in the Trayastrimsa Heaven. Her majestic virtue towered aloft and shook heaven and earth. Her extraordinary light was as though seven suns had risen at once, illuminating the entire heavenly palace. Sakra was alarmed and thought: “Who possesses such merit and virtue that heaven and earth are shaken and whose splendor surpasses mine?” Sakra then contemplated with his divine eye and understood that this was caused by the merit and virtue of this heavenly maiden. He also knew the realm from which she had been reborn there.
At that time, the heavenly maiden thought: “I have obtained this fortunate recompense because in my previous life I made an offering to Venerable Kasyapa. Even if I offered Venerable Kasyapa hundreds of thousands of kinds of heavenly treasures, I still could not repay even a small part of his kindness.” [57c] Having thought this, the heavenly maiden led her attendants and scattered heavenly incense and flowers from the sky as offerings to Venerable Kasyapa. She then descended, reverently bowed her head at his feet, stood to one side, joined her palms, and praised him:
Throughout hundreds of thousands of lands,
The Buddha is the Supremely Honored One;
Next comes Venerable Kasyapa,
Who skillfully closes the gate to transgression.
Formerly, in Jambudvipa,
Before a filthy refuse cave,
For the sake of a poor old woman,
You spoke words of truth.
The old woman was filled with joy
And offered rancid rice water.
Her offering was as small as a mustard seed,
Yet the merit she gained was like a mountain.
Reborn as a heavenly maiden,
She naturally enjoys fortunate recompense.
Therefore, I have flown down
To bow to this field of merit.
After speaking this verse, the heavenly maiden immediately returned to her heavenly palace. Sakra thought: “That woman obtained such merit merely by offering rice water. Venerable Kasyapa possesses a vast compassionate heart, but he bestows merit only upon the poor and lowly and does not visit wealthy households.
I must devise a wondrous expedient by which to seek merit.” Having thought this, Sakra and his heavenly queen placed food of a hundred flavors in a small vessel and went to Rajagriha. The two of them erected a small, dilapidated hut beside the road and transformed themselves into an elderly couple. Their bodies were thin and sickly, and they walked stooped over.
They made their living weaving mats, appeared destitute, and had no provisions in their home. When Kasyapa saw these poor people, he went to seek alms from them.
The old man said:
“I am extremely poor and have nothing to offer. What can I do?”
Venerable Kasyapa continued to stand there pronouncing blessings and did not leave. The old man said:
“My wife and I are very old and make our living weaving mats. We have no spare time to go and beg for food. We have only a little rice that we intended to eat. But we have heard that, in your benevolence and virtue, you visit only poor households to seek alms so that you may bestow merit upon them. Therefore, although we are poor and destitute, we now wish to reduce our own portion of food and offer it to you. If the reports are true, we shall gain merit.”
Sakra thought: “The fragrance of heavenly food is something people in the human world rarely smell. If I open the vessel beforehand, Venerable Kasyapa will recognize it and certainly refuse to accept it.” Having thought this, Sakra said:
“I do not have much food. Please bring your bowl forward.”
Kasyapa accepted the food and pronounced a blessing for the donors. The fragrance of the rice spread throughout the city of Rajagriha and across the entire country. When Kasyapa smelled its fragrance, suspicion arose in him.
The old couple then revealed their forms as Sakra and his heavenly queen, swiftly flew into the sky, and joyfully snapped their fingers. Kasyapa reflected and realized that Sakra had transformed himself into a poor man in order to create wholesome merit. Kasyapa thought: “Now that I have accepted the food, I should not return it.” Kasyapa praised Sakra for tirelessly cultivating merit and for being willing to assume an old and ugly appearance in order to plant merit, saying that he would surely obtain fortunate recompense.
Sakra and his heavenly queen were filled with joy. At that moment, heavenly music sounded to welcome them. Upon returning to his palace, Sakra rejoiced even more and spoke this verse:
[58a] Clouds drift southward, knowing not where they will return;
East and west they roam on through the long years.
Plain greens and fish were ever Yuan Xian’s[136] secret wish;
Fine grain and delicacies the Tian family dared not seek.
The grassy courtyard grew rank, with neither carriage nor horse;
At the lonely thatched gate, reed mats were woven in the cold.
Formerly, I secretly coveted a little radiance;
Today, though poor and distressed, grieve no more.”
Notes:
[81] The Unrestricted Assembly (Vô-già hội 無遮會; S: pañca-vārṣika maha): a Dharma assembly at which material giving and the giving of Dharma are practiced impartially, without distinguishing between sages and ordinary people, monastics and laity, or the noble and the lowly.
[82] The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables (Cựu tạp thí dụ kinh 舊雜譬喻經): a sutra in two fascicles, translated by Kang Senghui during the Wu dynasty. It is called “old” in relation to the translation made during the Later Han dynasty. Its contents are a collection of parables.
[83] The Madhyama Agama Sutra (Trung a-hàm kinh 中阿含經; S: Madhyamāgama): a sutra in sixty fascicles, translated by Gautama Sanghadeva during the Eastern Jin dynasty in China and included in volume 1 of the Taisho Tripitaka. It is one of the four Agama collections of the Northern transmission. Its contents consist of teachings on doctrine spoken by the Buddha and his disciples.
[84] Visakha, Migara’s Mother 鹿子母毘舍佉 (S: Mṛgāra-mātṛ Viśākhā): a female lay disciple who attained the first fruit while the Buddha was still in the world. She was the daughter of an elder of the kingdom of Anga.
[85] The fast like that of a cowherd (phóng ngưu nhi trai 放牛兒齋; S: gopālakūposatha): observing the fast like a child who tends livestock.
[86] The fast like that of the Niganthas (ni-kiền trai 尼犍齋; S: Nigaṇṭhūposatha): observing the fast in the manner of the Nigantha sect.
[87] The noble fast of eight factors (thánh bát chi trai 聖八支齋; S: atthaṅga samannāgato upasatho or ariyūposatha): observing the fast in the manner of a learned noble disciple of the Buddha.
[88] The six heavens of the Desire Realm (Lục Dục thiên 六天): the Desire Realm contains six heavens: the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, Trayastrimsa, Yama, Tusita, Delight in Transformations, and Mastery over Others’ Transformations.
[89] The Sūtra on the Bodhisattva’s Observance of the Fast (Bodhisattva’s Observance of the Fast Sūtra 菩薩受齋經): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated by Nie Daozhen during the Western Jin dynasty and included in volume 24 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra explains the practice of observing the fasting precepts on the prescribed fast days, cultivating the six pāramitās, practicing the ten recollections and the ten precepts, and so forth, as supporting conditions for progress on the path.
[90] Six pāramitās 六度 (S: ṣaḍ-pāramitā, ṣaṭ-pāramitā; also called: the six perfections): the six consummate practices that Mahāyāna bodhisattvas must fulfill to attain Buddhahood. They are the perfection of generosity, the perfection of moral discipline, the perfection of patience, the perfection of diligence, the perfection of meditative concentration, and the perfection of wisdom.
[91] Nonhuman beings 非人 (S: amanuṣya): a general term for beings such as devas, nāgas, yakṣas, evil spirits, asuras, denizens of hell, and so forth, who are not human and cannot be seen by the human eye.
[92] Sign of dawn 明相: the moment when the sky first begins to brighten and visible things start to appear.
[93] Sarvāstivāda Treatise (Sarvāstivāda Treatise 薩婆多論): a treatise in nine fascicles; the translator’s name has been lost.
[94] Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya 僧祈律; S: Mahāsaṅghavinaya): also called the Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya, consisting of forty fascicles, jointly translated by Buddhabhadra and Faxian during the Eastern Jin dynasty in China and included in volume 22 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This is the Vinaya of the Mahāsāṃghika school, one of the schools of Sectarian Buddhism. Its contents concern the 250 precepts for bhikṣus and the 348 precepts for bhikṣuṇīs.
[95] Licchavi 離車 (S: Licchavi, Lecchavi; also called: Li-xa-vi): a kṣatriya clan in the city of Vaiśālī in central India, constituting part of the Vṛji people.
[96] Sūtra of the King of Gandhāra (Sūtra of the King of Gandhāra 犍陀國王經): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated by An Shigao during the Later Han dynasty and included in volume 14 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra recounts how the king of Gandhāra heard the voice of an ox speaking and awakened, relinquished his cruel disposition, abandoned Brahmanism, and took refuge in the Buddha.
[97] Kanakamuni Buddha (Kanakamuni Buddha 拘那含牟尼佛; S: Kanakamuni): the seventh of the seven Buddhas of the past, or the second of the thousand Buddhas of the Auspicious Kalpa.
[98] Dharmapada Avadāna Sūtra (Dharmapada Avadāna Sūtra 法句喻經; S: Dharmapadāvadāna-sūtra): a sūtra in four fascicles, jointly translated by Faju and Fali during the Western Jin dynasty and included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its contents present a number of illustrative tales, together with verses from the Dharmapada, to explain the causes and conditions involved.
[99] Nirgrantha adherents 尼犍子 (S: Nirgrantha-putra): followers of a heterodox school in ancient India. This school sought liberation from afflictions and the bonds of the three realms through naked ascetic practices and by distancing itself from the worldly constraints of food and clothing. It was also counted as one of the six heterodox teachers, one of the four heterodox attachments, one of the sixteen heterodox schools, and one of the twenty forms of heterodox teaching in ancient India.
[100] Sūtra of One Hundred Causes and Conditions (Sūtra of One Hundred Causes and Conditions 百緣經): a sūtra in ten fascicles, translated during the Wu dynasty by the layman Zhi Qian, a native of the Yuezhi kingdom.
[101] Sūtra of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination (Sūtra of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination 十二因緣經): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated by Zhi Qian during the Wu period in China and included in volume 16 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra gives an extensive exposition of the twelve links of dependent origination.
[102] Eightfold fasting precepts 八關齋 (S: aṣṭāṅga-samanvāgatopavāsa): established by the Buddha for laypeople, who for one day and one night leave their families and go to the dwelling place of the Sangha to train in the life of renunciants. These precepts guard the three karmic activities of body, speech, and mind from committing evil and can also close the gates to the evil destinies. Of the eight precepts, the first seven factors are precepts, while the factor of refraining from eating at improper times is the fast; collectively, they are called the eightfold fasting precepts.
[103] Tao Zhu and Yi Dun 陶朱, 猗頓: two wealthy men of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.
[104] Xiao He 蕭何: a powerful and forthright man who served as a strategist to Emperor Gaozu of Han.
[105] Cao Shen 曹參: a powerful and forthright man who likewise served as a strategist.
[106] Sūtra of the Wise and the Foolish (Sūtra of the Wise and the Foolish 賢愚經; S: Damamūka-nidāna-sūtra): a sūtra in thirteen fascicles, translated by Huijue during the Northern Wei period and included in volume 4 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra gathers various parables and accounts of causes and conditions concerning the wise and the foolish.
[107] Virūḍhaka 毘琉璃 (S: Virūḍhaka): the crown prince and son of King Prasenajit of the kingdom of Kosala.
[108] Ox-head sandalwood 牛頭栴檀: the most fragrant variety of sandalwood, native to India. The trunk is usually green and grows to a height of about nine meters. Its wood is highly fragrant and grayish-yellow or copper-red in color and can be used for carving. Its roots are ground into powder to make incense or processed into fragrant oil.
[109] Three knowledges (threefold knowledge 三明; S: tri-vidya): luminous wisdom that comprehends without obstruction the three matters of knowledge of past lives, the divine eye, and the exhaustion of the outflows.
[110] Six supernormal powers 六通: the six supernormal powers attained by noble ones of the three vehicles. They are the divine eye, divine ear, knowledge of others’ minds, recollection of past lives, supernormal mobility, and knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows.
[111] Eight liberations 八解脫 (S: aṣṭau vimokṣāḥ): eight powers of meditative concentration that enable practitioners to abandon desire in the form realm and formless realm. First, while inwardly possessing perceptions of form, one contemplates external forms and attains liberation. Second, while inwardly possessing no perceptions of form, one contemplates external forms and attains liberation.
Third, one personally realizes the liberation of purity and dwells in its complete attainment. Fourth, by entirely transcending perceptions of form, extinguishing perceptions of resistance, and not attending to perceptions of diversity, one enters the sphere of infinite space and dwells in the complete attainment of liberation. Fifth, by entirely transcending the sphere of infinite space, one enters the sphere of infinite consciousness and dwells in the complete attainment of liberation.
Sixth, by entirely transcending the sphere of infinite consciousness, one enters the sphere of nothingness and dwells in the complete attainment of liberation. Seventh, by entirely transcending the sphere of nothingness, one enters the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception and dwells in the complete attainment of liberation. Eighth, by entirely transcending the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, one enters the cessation of perception and feeling, personally realizes it in full, and dwells in the complete fullness of liberation.
[112] Semblance Dharma 像法 (S: saddharma-pratirūpaka): the period in which the teaching resembles the True Dharma. After the Buddha entered nirvana, the course of the Dharma was divided into three periods: the True Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Final Dharma. In this second period, the teachings and those who practice them remain, but few attain realization.
[113] Chuyao Scripture (Chuyao Scripture 出妙經; also called: Chuyao Treatise 出妙論): a scripture or treatise in thirty fascicles, or twenty fascicles, compiled by the Venerable Dharmatrāta and translated into written form by Zhu Fonian during the Later Qin dynasty, approximately between 350 and 417 during the Eastern Jin period; it is included in the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This treatise consists of thirty-two chapters, composed of verses in the form of Buddhist instruction together with collected accounts arranged as commentarial explanations.
[114] Jyotiṣka Sūtra (Jyotiṣka Sūtra 樹提伽經; S: Jyotiṣka): a sūtra in one fascicle, translated by Guṇabhadra during the Liu Song dynasty in China and included in volume 14 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sūtra concerns the causes and conditions and the merit of generosity of the elder Jyotiṣka in ancient times when the Buddha was still in the world.
[115] Mica 雲母: a beautiful-shelled mollusk or tridacna shell used for inlaying wooden objects; also the name of a beautiful, transparent mineral.
[116] Perilla 蘇子: a small plant with fragrant leaves, used medicinally or eaten raw as an aromatic herb.
[117] Water of eight qualities (water of eight merits; 八功德水): water fully endowed with eight supreme qualities: clarity, coolness, sweetness, softness and lightness, moistening, peacefulness and harmony, the alleviation of hunger and thirst, and the nourishment and development of the faculties.
[118] Sutra of King Ashoka (Aśokarāja-sūtra; 阿育王經): a sutra in ten fascicles, translated during the Liang dynasty by the Tripitaka Master Saṅghabhara of Funan, and included in volume 50 of the Taisho Tripitaka. Its contents concern King Ashoka’s veneration and protection of Buddhist sacred sites and accounts.
[119] Karmadāna (維那): the monastic office responsible for managing, directing, and attending to the affairs of the assembly in a monastery.
[120] Music of Zheng (鄭聲): the music of the state of Zheng during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.
[121] Zhou Ya (周雅): the Major Odes and Minor Odes in the Zhou dynasty’s Book of Poetry.
[122] Yuan Xian (原憲): a native of the state of Lu and a disciple of Confucius. He was an impoverished Confucian scholar whose house was made of earth and roofed with thatch, yet still afforded no complete shelter.
[123] Qian Lou (黔婁): a native of the state of Lu during the Spring and Autumn period. He lived as a recluse and refused to enter official service. His household was extremely poor, and when he died, there was not even a piece of cloth with which to cover his body.
[124] Ling Zhe (靈輒): a native of the state of Jin during the Spring and Autumn period. He suffered famine at Yi Sang; when Zhao Dun saw him, he brought him food.
[125] Yi Sang (翳桑): the name of an ancient land where Ling Zhe suffered famine.
[126] Bo Yi (伯夷): a man of the Shang dynasty and a son of the ruler of the vassal state of Guzhu. Before the ruler died, he issued a final decree transmitting the throne to Bo Yi’s younger brother, Shu Qi. Shu Qi, however, refused to ascend the throne and yielded it to his elder brother; but Bo Yi abandoned the state and departed, refusing to become ruler. Later, when King Wu of Zhou led his army to overthrow the Shang dynasty, the brothers Bo Yi and Shu Qi went together to Mount Shouyang, where they starved to death, refusing to eat the grain of Zhou.
[127] Shouyang (首陽): the name of a mountain, also called Mount Leishou. According to tradition, Bo Yi and Shu Qi once lived there in seclusion.
[128] Sutra of Lamp-Finger (also called the Lamp-Finger Sutra or the Sutra of the Causes and Conditions of Lamp-Finger; 燈指因緣經): a sutra in one fascicle, translated by Kumārajīva during the Later Han dynasty, and included in volume 16 of the Taisho Tripitaka. Its contents relate the causes and conditions through which Lamp-Finger entered monastic life and attained the fruit of arhatship.
[129] Corpse-Raising Ghost (起尸鬼): a kind of ghost commonly employed in the Vaitāla rite. According to the Commentary on the Bodhisattva Precepts, Vaitāla is a spellcraft of India. Reciting this spell causes a corpse to rise and be dispatched to kill people.
[130] Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures (雜寶藏經; S: Saṃyukta-ratna-piṭaka-sūtra): a sutra in ten fascicles—although some accounts state that it consists of eight or thirteen fascicles—jointly translated by Kiṅkara and Tan Yao during the Northern Wei dynasty in China, and included in volume 4 of the Taisho Tripitaka. This sutra contains accounts concerning the Buddha and his disciples, together with events and circumstances occurring after the Buddha entered nirvana.
[131] Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables (雜譬喻經): a sutra in one fascicle, compiled by Dao Lüe and translated by Kumārajīva during the Yao Qin dynasty in China, and included in volume 4 of the Taisho Tripitaka. The entire sutra comprises thirty-nine parables. Its principal content presents illustrative causes and conditions to explain and reason about the karmic retribution of good and evil.
[132] Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Fundamental Practices (菩薩本行經): a sutra in three fascicles whose translator’s name has been lost, classified among the scriptures of the Eastern Jin dynasty. This sutra recounts how the elder Sudatta, through hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, obtained benefit and escaped poverty and hardship.
[133] Sutra of the Householder’s Son Pratibhānamati (辯意長者子經; S: Pratibhāna-mati-paripṛcchā): a sutra in one fascicle, translated by Dharma-Banner during the Northern Wei dynasty in China, and included in volume 14 of the Taisho Tripitaka. It recounts how the Buddha, in answering the questions of the householder Pratibhānamati, expounded the essential meaning of ten matters concerning the realms of devas, humans, hell beings, hungry ghosts, and so forth. Each matter in turn has five causes and conditions. After hearing the Dharma teachings concerning these fifty matters, the householder rejoiced with delight and attained the pure Dharma eye.
[134] Prophetic books (讖書): books that foretell events to occur in the distant future.
[135] Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on Mahākāśyapa’s Deliverance of a Poor Woman (佛說摩訶迦葉度貧母經): a sutra in one fascicle, translated during the Song dynasty by the Tripitaka Master Guṇabhadra of Khotan, and included as text no. 497 in volume 14 of the Taisho Tripitaka.
[136] Yuan Xian (原憲): a disciple of Confucius and an impoverished yet noble-minded man of letters in ancient times.
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