諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn

IV. ENTERING THE PATH

IV.1. Introduction

I humbly reflect that the provisional existence arising from causes and conditions is the root of sentient beings’ attachments, while the truth that all dharmas are fundamentally unborn is the wondrous principle realized by the sages. Thus, sentient beings throughout the three realms and six paths continually create karmic obstructions and delude themselves, whereas those who have attained the Eight Liberations^[26] and Ten Knowledges^[27] reach the source and attain empty quiescence.

Therefore, the Buddha taught and transformed beings according to conditions, compassionately regarding the burning house engulfed in flames and pitying the Desire Realm, perpetually shrouded in darkness. Thus, he took birth in the palace of King Śuddhodana and manifested a body the color of pure gold. Amid a world filled with afflictions, he displayed an illusory form; then, while journeying through the four city gates, he grew weary of worldly existence, as impermanent as drifting clouds, and lamented to himself: “Human life undergoes sudden changes such as these!” Thereupon, the devas lifted his white horse and carried it over the city walls, while Channa bore the jeweled crown back to the royal palace.

Thus did he relinquish everything and set forth in search of the truth!

Although in China there were Xiao Shi^[28] during the Qin dynasty and Zi Jin^[29] during the Zhou dynasty; although in the age of Yao and Shun, Xu You washed out his ears at Mount Ji, and Zhuang Zhou lived contentedly in poverty, preserving the Way beside the Pu River—all of them likewise renounced worldly life, yet who ever disparaged them? [28b] On the contrary, people admired their virtue, abandoned evil, and cultivated themselves; revering their noble bearing, they kept themselves pure and practiced goodness.

Therefore, to fulfill his aspiration, he altered his appearance and shaved off his beard and hair; to comprehend the great Way, he departed from worldly life and relinquished the throne. Though his body no longer attended upon his parents, his heart remained ever filial; though he did not fully observe the rites of serving his sovereign, his heart constantly remembered his obligations. His beneficence extended equally to enemies and loved ones so that the great Dharma might be accomplished; his blessings enriched both the realms of the living and the dead—why then dwell upon minor faults?

Those of superior wisdom follow the Buddha’s words and thereby gain benefit; ordinary beings turn against his teaching and thereby suffer harm. When evil is restrained, the heedless reform themselves; when goodness is encouraged, all people are transformed. Thus, the Forest of the Seers^[30] was where the Prince renounced the household life, and the Nairañjanā River was where the bodhisattva practiced austerities.

He bathed his golden body in the pure river and went to sit upon a seat of grass beneath the bodhi tree at the place of enlightenment. Food was respectfully offered by a maiden, and the grass seat was presented by a man. Thereupon, the wisdom of the ten powers became perfect, the six superknowledges were fully attained, complete and perfect enlightenment was realized, and Māra’s armies furled their banners and fled.

IV.2. Delight and Disenchantment

The Sutra of Mañjuśrī’s Questions records: “The Buddha said:

– Mañjuśrī! None of all the merits equals the merit of one who has renounced the household life. Why is this? A householder has countless shortcomings, whereas one who has renounced the household life possesses countless merits; a householder encounters hindrances, whereas one who has renounced the household life is free from hindrances; a householder dwells amid the defilement of worldly toil, whereas one who has renounced the household life does not dwell amid the defilement of worldly toil; a householder sinks into the mire of sensual desire, whereas one who has renounced the household life emerges from the mire of sensual desire; a householder follows the ways of fools, whereas one who has renounced the household life remains far removed from the ways of fools; a householder cannot maintain right livelihood, whereas one who has renounced the household life lives by right livelihood; a householder dwells in anxiety and sorrow, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells in peace and joy; a householder dwells in bondage, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells in liberation; a householder dwells where harm exists, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells where there is no harm; a householder suffers through craving for gain, whereas one who has renounced the household life does not suffer through craving for gain; a householder dwells amid clamor, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells in solitude; a householder dwells in a lowly state, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells in a noble state; a householder is scorched by afflictions, whereas one who has renounced the household life extinguishes the fire of afflictions; a householder must constantly act according to the wishes of others, whereas one who has renounced the household life always lives as master of oneself; a householder takes suffering to be happiness, whereas one who has renounced the household life takes freedom from suffering to be happiness; a householder increases afflictions, whereas one who has renounced the household life continually eliminates afflictions; a householder accomplishes lesser dharmas, whereas one who has renounced the household life accomplishes the great Dharma; a householder does not possess the essentials of the Dharma^[31], whereas one who has renounced the household life possesses the essentials of the Dharma; a householder is reproached by followers of the three vehicles, whereas one who has renounced the household life is praised by followers of the three vehicles; a householder lives without knowing contentment, [28c] whereas one who has renounced the household life always lives contentedly; a householder is kept in Māra’s thoughts, whereas one who has renounced the household life strikes fear into Māra; a householder is often heedless, whereas one who has renounced the household life is not heedless; a householder serves others, whereas one who has renounced the household life directs others; a householder dwells in darkness, whereas one who has renounced the household life dwells in light; a householder increases arrogance, whereas one who has renounced the household life eliminates arrogance; a householder receives few blessings, whereas one who has renounced the household life receives many blessings; a householder’s mind is often devious, whereas the mind of one who has renounced the household life is upright; a householder is constantly anxious and distressed, whereas one who has renounced the household life is joyful at heart; a householder’s heart is prone to deceit, whereas one who has renounced the household life lives a life of truthfulness; a householder is greatly distracted, whereas one who has renounced the household life is not distracted; a householder revolves through birth and death, whereas one who has renounced the household life does not revolve through birth and death; household life is like poison, whereas the practice of renunciation is like ambrosia; a householder does not know how to contemplate, whereas one who has renounced the household life knows how to contemplate; a householder has no refuge, whereas one who has renounced the household life has a refuge; a householder is often angry and resentful, whereas one who has renounced the household life constantly practices loving-kindness and compassion; a householder bears a heavy burden, whereas one who has renounced the household life lays down the heavy burden; a householder has faults, whereas one who has renounced the household life is free from faults; a householder perpetually undergoes birth and death, whereas one who has renounced the household life may put an end to birth and death; a householder regards material possessions as treasures, whereas one who has renounced the household life regards merit as treasure; a householder follows the current of birth and death, whereas one who has renounced the household life goes against the current of birth and death; a householder is like one dwelling in the great ocean of afflictions, whereas one who has renounced the household life is like one riding in a great ship; a householder is bound by afflictions, whereas one who has renounced the household life remains far removed from the bonds of affliction; a householder receives instruction from the king, whereas one who has renounced the household life is taught and transformed by the Buddha; a householder chooses companions indiscriminately, whereas one who has renounced the household life chooses companions with care; a householder often causes harm, whereas one who has renounced the household life often renders assistance; a householder increases afflictions, whereas one who has renounced the household life remains far removed from afflictions; a householder is like one dwelling in a forest of thorns, whereas one who has renounced the household life is like one who has emerged from the forest of thorns.

Mañjuśrī! If I were to censure householders and praise those who have renounced the household life, even if my words filled all of space, I could not exhaust the subject. This is an account of the shortcomings of householders and the merits of those who have renounced the household life.”

Furthermore, the Nirvana Sutra records: “A householder is constrained and oppressed as though confined in prison, and all afflictions arise from this. One who has renounced the household life is free and untrammeled, as though dwelling in open space, and all wholesome dharmas thereby increase. Inwardly, householders worry about their wives and children; outwardly, they must rush about in service to the king. If wealthy, honored, and noble, they recklessly indulge themselves; if poor, distressed, and lowly, they suffer hunger, lack clothing, and become disheartened. All of them are troubled by public and private affairs; thus, day and night, their minds remain preoccupied, and they are pulled this way and that by myriad concerns. How could they have the leisure to practice?”

[29a] Furthermore, the Sutra of the Householder Ugra records: “Householders have very many afflictions: bound by affection for parents, wives, and children, they constantly think about and crave wealth and beauty without ever being satisfied; once they obtain them, they worry about preserving them, thereby increasing their many anxieties. Thus, they perpetually wander through the six evil destinies and remain far removed from the Buddha-Dharma. They should regard these things as enemies and bad companions, grow weary of household life, and resolve to go forth. No householder cultivates the path to unsurpassed bodhi; all attain the unsurpassed fruition only by going forth.”

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Merit of Going Forth records: “If one permits a maidservant, male servant, or commoner to go forth, one gains immeasurable merit. Even if someone were to make offerings for one hundred years to arhats throughout the entire world, it would not equal making an offering to one person established in nirvana. By going forth and receiving the precepts for one day and one night, one gains immeasurable merit. Furthermore, if someone were to use the seven precious substances to build a stupa reaching as high as the Heaven of the Thirty-Three^[32], that merit would not equal the merit of one who goes forth.”

The Sutra of the Great Causes records: “If someone goes forth for one day and one night, then for twenty kalpas that person will not fall into the three evil destinies.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “One who goes forth and practices the pure life for one day and one night will remain free from the suffering of the three evil destinies for six hundred and six thousand and sixty years.”

The Sutra on the Merit of Going Forth also records: “If anyone makes difficulties, creates obstacles, or oppresses a person so as to prevent that person from going forth, that person has severed the seed of Buddhahood. That person’s body will undergo many evils, in the present life will contract leprosy, and after death will enter a dark hell from which there will be no day of release.”

Furthermore, the Kasyapa Sutra records: “At that time, upon hearing the teaching that the merit of going forth is exceedingly profound and vast, both the king and the crown prince resolved to go forth. Thereafter, all the people throughout the four continents also resolved to seek permission to go forth. After going forth, they did not need to farm, for all kinds of grain and rice naturally grew from the earth, clothing naturally grew from the trees, and they received the reverence and offerings of all the devas.”

Furthermore, the Sutra of the Treasury of the Buddha records: “One should single-mindedly cultivate and practice in accordance with the true Dharma, and should not think about food and clothing. As for necessities, one should know that merely what appears from a single portion of the white tuft-mark of the Tathagata could never be exhausted by all disciples who go forth during the age of the decline of the Dharma.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “Suppose there were a skilled physician who simultaneously healed the eyes of one hundred blind people, and another person who saved one hundred people from the punishment of having their eyes gouged out. Although the merit and virtue of these two people would be immeasurable, it would still not equal the merit and virtue of permitting someone to go forth, or even of oneself going forth; that merit is truly immense.”

IV.3. Going Forth

[29b] According to the Vinaya, a person who wishes to go forth must first request two teachers: first, an upadhyaya; second, an acarya (the rite for making the request should accord with the Vinaya).

The Sarvastivada Treatise records: “First, one must request an upadhyaya. If the upadhyaya is absent while the disciple is receiving the ten precepts, the disciple nevertheless acquires the precepts. If the disciple hears and knows that the upadhyaya has died, the disciple does not acquire the precepts; if the disciple has not heard that the upadhyaya has died, the disciple acquires the precepts. The same applies in the case of the acarya.”

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Lay Devotee’s Ordination of Others records: “If a person wishes to have the head shaved, that person must first go to the place of shaving, take scented water, and sprinkle it upon the ground over an area approximately seven feet in circumference. Banners should be hung at the four corners, a raised seat should be arranged for the person having the head shaved, and two even higher and finer seats should be placed for the two teachers. The person wishing to go forth must wear lay clothing, bow in farewell to parents and relatives, and then recite this verse:

Revolving within the three realms,

The bonds of affection cannot be undone.

Abandoning affection and entering the Path—

This is truly repaying kindness.

After reciting the verse, that person then removes the lay clothing.”

The Samantapasadika records: “Before going forth, one should bathe and wash with scented water until clean, in order to remove the odor of a householder.”

The Sutra on Ordaining Others records: “Although the newly ordained person may wear the garments of one who has gone forth, that person may wear only trousers and a short upper garment and may not yet don the kasaya. Upon entering the ordination precinct, the newly ordained person should approach and kneel upright before the upadhyaya. The upadhyaya must regard the disciple as a child and must neither dislike nor despise the disciple. The disciple must regard the upadhyaya as a father and always respectfully make offerings to him. After hearing the upadhyaya expound the precepts and offer admonitions, the disciple must go and sit before the acarya.”

The Samantapasadika records: “The acarya sprinkles scented water upon the disciple’s head and recites this verse:

Excellent! Great person,

Clearly knowing that the world is impermanent,

You leave the secular life and turn toward nirvana—

Rare indeed and inconceivable.

After reciting the verse, the acarya instructs the disciple to bow to the Buddhas of the ten directions and recite this verse of praise:

I take refuge in the World-Honored One,

Who can rescue beings from the suffering of the three realms,

And I vow that all sentient beings

May together enjoy the bliss of nirvana.

Afterward, the acarya shaves that person’s head.”

The Sutra on Ordaining Others records: “While the acarya shaves the disciple’s head, the witnessing masters standing nearby recite this verse on going forth:

Altering the form, one preserves one’s noble resolve;

Severing attachment, one leaves one’s family.

Going forth to propagate the noble Path,

One vows to liberate all sentient beings.

While shaving the disciple’s head, the acarya should leave a small amount of hair upon it. The disciple then approaches and kneels upright before the upadhyaya. The upadhyaya asks:

—May I now shave the hair from your head?

The disciple replies:

—Yes, you may.

Finally, the upadhyaya places the kasaya upon the disciple. According to the Samantapasadika, while putting on the kasaya, this verse of praise is again recited:

[29c] Beautiful indeed, this robe of liberation,

The signless robe of the field of merit.

Having donned it, one strictly observes the precepts

And universally liberates all sentient beings.”

The Sutra on Ordaining Others records: “After donning the kasaya, the newly ordained person must pay homage to the Buddha. The laypeople follow behind that person and circumambulate the Buddha three times. Filled with joy, that person recites this verse:

By rare fortune I have encountered the Buddha;

Who would not rejoice?

Through merits and vows, I have met him at the proper time;

Now I have obtained the benefit of the Dharma.

After paying homage to the Buddha, the Sangha, and the two teachers, the newly ordained person goes and sits at the end of the assembly and receives the congratulations of family and relatives. Having been able to go forth, that person has left the secular life behind and is already joyful; then, receiving congratulations from parents and relatives, that person’s aspiration for the Path becomes even more vigorous. It is best to observe a vegetarian fast before having one’s head shaved.”

The Vinaya-Matrka Treatise records: “After having the head shaved and putting on the kasaya, the newly ordained person receives the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts from the upadhyaya.”

(There are also other rules and procedures that cannot all be presented here. It is even better if, at the time, they are adapted appropriately so that everything is done well.)

IV.4. Scriptural Evidence

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Precious Treasury records: “Long ago, there was a very beautiful woman who went forth and practiced the teachings of a non-Buddhist path. One day, someone asked:

—You are so beautiful that you ought to live a secular life. Why did you go forth?

She replied:

– Although I still retain my beauty to this day, in recent times I have grown weary of sexual desire, and therefore I went forth. While I was still a householder, because of my beauty, I had to marry at an early age and gave birth to a son. When my son grew up, he became exceedingly handsome, but gradually he suddenly grew thin and weak, like one afflicted by illness. I asked him the reason, but he refused to tell me. After I questioned him repeatedly, he had no choice but to say: “If I keep silent and say nothing, I fear I shall die. Yet I have no face to speak of it. It is because I desire to have sexual relations with Mother but cannot that I have fallen ill.” I told him: ‘From ancient times until now, how could there ever have been such a thing?’ Yet I also thought that if I did not comply with my son’s wish, he would die; it would be better for me now to violate moral principle so that he might live. I therefore told him to do as he wished. Just as he was about to climb onto the bed, the earth suddenly split open, and he fell straight into hell. Terrified, I quickly reached out to pull him back, but I caught only a handful of his hair, which I still keep to this day. Overcome with grief because of this event, I went forth.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “Those who go forth in the Buddha-Dharma, even if they break the precepts and incur offenses, will nevertheless attain liberation when those offenses have been exhausted. Such was the bhiksuni Utpalavarna mentioned in the Jataka Sutra. [30a] While the Buddha was still in the world, this bhiksuni attained arhatship and possessed the six supernormal powers. Whenever she entered the homes of the nobility, she would often praise the Dharma of going forth and say to the women of those households:

– Sisters, you should go forth.

The noblewomen said:

– We are still young and healthy, and our features are beautiful. It would be difficult for us to uphold the precepts; we would surely break them.

The bhiksuni said:

– If you break them, then you break them; just go forth.

They asked:

– If we break the precepts, we shall fall into hell. How could we break them?

– If you fall into hell, then you fall into hell.

The women laughed and asked:

– If we fall into hell, we must undergo punishment. How could we dare to fall there?

The bhiksuni said:

– I recall that in a former life I was an actress who wore many kinds of costumes and spoke all manner of words. Once, for amusement, I put on the robes of a bhiksuni. Yet through that cause and condition, in the age of Kasyapa Buddha I became a bhiksuni. At that time, relying upon my beauty and my birth into a wealthy and noble family, I became arrogant and violated the precepts. Because of this, I fell into hell and endured much suffering and punishment. After I had finished undergoing that punishment, I encountered Sakyamuni Buddha, who allowed me to go forth, and I attained arhatship. Although I broke the precepts in a former life, in this life I nevertheless attained the fruit of the path.

Furthermore, while the Buddha was residing at Jetavana Monastery, a drunken brahmin came before the Buddha and requested to go forth as a bhiksu. The Buddha instructed Ananda to shave the man’s head and clothe him in Dharma robes. After he sobered up, the man was frightened to discover that he had suddenly become a bhiksu, and he immediately fled. The bhiksus asked the Buddha why he had allowed that brahmin to become a bhiksu. The Buddha said that throughout innumerable kalpas the brahmin had never formed the aspiration to go forth. Now, because he was drunk, he had temporarily formed that aspiration for a single moment; yet through this cause and condition, he would later go forth and attain the path.

There are many such causes and conditions through which going forth brings immeasurable benefit and merit. Therefore, although householders may undertake the five precepts, their merit is still far inferior to that of those who have gone forth.”

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures records: “Long ago, in the city of Lu-luu, there was a king named Udayi who was intelligent and possessed profound wisdom. The king had a consort named Huu Tuong, whose beauty was rarely equaled and who was also virtuous; therefore, the king loved her dearly. According to the laws of that country, a king was not permitted to pluck the strings of a musical instrument with his own hands.

At that time, the consort was amusing herself with the king in the inner palace. Relying upon the king’s favor, she asked him to play the instrument while she danced. The king was highly skilled in physiognomy, and as soon as she raised her hands to dance, he saw the marks of death appear upon her.

Calculating that she had fewer than seven days left to live, the king immediately put down the instrument, grew sorrowful, and sighed.

The consort said:

– Having received Your Majesty’s favor, I now dwell in the inner palace. I ventured to ask Your Majesty to play the instrument while I danced so that Your Majesty might be delighted. But what wrong have I committed that has caused Your Majesty to put down the instrument? I beg Your Majesty to tell me.

The king refused to speak. Only after the consort earnestly questioned him again and again did he tell her the truth. After hearing the king’s words, the consort became greatly afraid and said:

[30b]- I once heard a bhiksuni dwelling in a rocky cave say that if a person with faith goes forth for even a single day, that person will certainly be born in heaven. I now wish to go forth; I beg Your Majesty’s permission.

Because the king was deeply attached to her, he said:

– On the morning of the sixth day, I shall allow you to leave.

When the sixth day arrived and he was still unable to make the consort change her mind, the king said:

– You possess such a wholesome aspiration to go forth. But only if you promise that, should you be born in heaven, you will certainly return to see me, shall I permit you to go forth.

The consort agreed and was immediately allowed to go forth and undertake the eight fasting precepts. That very day, after drinking rock honey^[33], she suddenly developed abdominal pain, and early the following morning she passed away. Through the wholesome condition of having gone forth, the consort was born in heaven. Remembering her former promise, she immediately came to the king, and the radiance from her body brilliantly illuminated the entire royal palace. The king asked:

– Who are you?

The heavenly being replied:

– I am Huu Tuong, Your Majesty’s consort.

The king joyfully said:

– Please come here and sit down!

The heavenly being said:

– I now perceive Your Majesty as foul and impure and cannot draw near. I have come to see Your Majesty only because of my former promise.

Upon hearing this, the king immediately understood and lamented:

– This heavenly being was formerly my wife. After going forth for one day, she was born in heaven and became exalted and noble; therefore, she now regards me as lowly. Why should I not go forth now? I have heard that a single fingernail of a heavenly being is as large as the entire realm of Jambudvipa. What is there in this kingdom of mine worth clinging to?

Having said this, the king abdicated and yielded the throne to his son. He then went forth to cultivate the path and ultimately attained arhatship.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom contains this verse:

Though the peacock’s form is richly adorned,

It cannot equal the wild goose soaring high.

Though household life may truly abound in wealth and honor,

It cannot equal the lofty merit of going forth.

The Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago there were two brothers from a wealthy and noble family. They possessed great influence and immeasurable riches, and both their parents had already passed away. Although they were brothers, their aspirations differed greatly. The elder brother delighted in studying the principles of the path, whereas the younger brother delighted in expanding the family estate. Seeing that his elder brother had no earnest concern for the family business, the younger brother became angry and said:

– Our parents have passed away, and we are brothers. I diligently attend to our household livelihood, whereas you neglect the family estate and merely follow sramanas to listen to them expound the Buddhist sutras. Can those sramanas provide you with clothing, food, or wealth? If you continue following them, our family will become poor, our wealth will diminish day by day, and people will ridicule us for neglecting our household. Only by carrying on and preserving the family estate left by our parents can one be considered filial!

The elder brother replied:

– Receiving the five precepts, practicing the ten wholesome deeds, making offerings to the Three Jewels, and using the noble path to guide one’s relatives—this alone is filial piety. That the paths of the monastic and the layperson differ is only natural.^[34] What monastics delight in is what laypeople dislike. What laypeople value, monastics regard lightly. [30c] The judgments of the wise and the foolish are not alike, just as light and darkness differ. Those with understanding always leave darkness and go toward the light, for only the noble path is ultimately true. What you delight in today is merely suffering in disguise, yet you do not realize that it is suffering!

The younger brother appeared angry, lowered his head, and did not believe his elder brother’s words. Seeing this, the elder brother said:

– You are intent on expanding the family estate, so you regard wealth as precious; I delight in cultivating and studying the Dharma, so I regard wisdom as precious. Upon reflection, human life in this world is illusory, like a mirage. When impermanence suddenly arrives, one is immediately bound and surrounded by sinful karma. Therefore, I now wish to leave the household, distance myself from craving and desire, go to a quiet place, and enter the monastic life to become a field of merit.

Seeing that his elder brother was resolved to pursue the path of righteousness, the younger brother remained silent and grew even more angry. The elder brother then left his household, went forth as a śramaṇa, and practiced diligently. Throughout the night he sat in meditation and contemplation, practicing in accordance with the Dharma, and thus quickly attained the fruit of the path.

The younger brother, meanwhile, was intent on expanding the family estate and never gave any thought to the Buddhadharma. Later, the younger brother died and fell into rebirth as a very large, fat ox. A merchant bought it to pull a cart laden with salt for sale.

After a number of trading journeys, the ox became thin and weak and was no longer as strong as before. Once, while laboriously crossing a mountain slope, its legs buckled and it lay down, unable to rise. The merchant raised his whip and beat it, shaking its head repeatedly before it finally moved.

At that time, the elder brother was traveling through the air and saw it. He said to the ox:

– Where are your houses and fields now, that you have fallen into rebirth as an ox here?

The elder brother then used his spiritual power to enable the ox to know its former life. When it understood, tears streamed from its eyes, and it reproached itself:

– Because I committed unwholesome deeds, was miserly, greedy, and jealous, did not believe in the Buddhadharma, despised the noble ones, refused to believe my elder brother’s words, and remained obstinate, I have fallen into the body of an ox and must endure such hardship and misery. Even if I regret it now, it is already too late!

Knowing that the ox’s heart was stricken with bitter pain, the elder brother related the entire affair to its owner. After hearing it, the man gave the ox to the elder brother. The elder brother led the ox to a monastery, taught it to remain mindful of the Three Jewels, and had it eat and drink at the prescribed times. After it died, the ox was reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.^[35]

At that time, all the merchants thought: For so long we have concerned ourselves with trade and business, knowing neither generosity nor the Dharma. We fear that after death we too shall become like this! They then all abandoned their wives and children, treasures, and pleasures, and went forth as śramaṇas. They practiced diligently, and all attained the fruit of the path.

From this it can be seen that wealth and jewels are of no benefit to people. If one reverently serves the Three Jewels, cultivates oneself, and studies the path, one will enjoy peace and happiness in life after life.”

The Scripture of the Transmission of the Dharma Treasury records: “When the arhat Jayata had just led his disciples to the city of Takṣaśilā, he suddenly appeared sorrowful. After they had gone a short distance farther, he saw a crow and immediately smiled joyfully. A disciple asked him to explain the reason. The venerable one replied:

[31a] - Just as I arrived here, a young hungry ghost beneath the city gate, faint with hunger, said to me: ‘My mother entered the city to find food for me five hundred years ago. I am being tormented by hunger and am about to die. Venerable one, if you see my mother when you enter the city, please tell her that I am now suffering from hunger.

I beg you to convey this message to her without delay.’ As soon as I entered the city, I saw the mother ghost and told her what her child had said. The mother ghost replied: ‘I have been in this city for five hundred years, yet have not obtained even a morsel of saliva or nasal discharge. I had only recently given birth, and my strength was still poor.

Whenever I found a little saliva, the other ghosts immediately snatched it away. Today I have just found a little human saliva and intended to go outside the city to share it with my child, but beneath the city gate there are many powerful ghosts and spirits. I am afraid and dare not go out.

I humbly beg the venerable one to help me leave the city.’ I then escorted the mother ghost outside the city so that she could eat together with her child. I asked her when she had been born, and she replied that she had seen this city built and destroyed seven times. Hearing the ghost’s words, I felt compassion for beings who undergo unceasing suffering throughout birth and death.

Therefore, I was sorrowful. As for that crow, ninety-one kalpas ago, in the time of the Buddha Vipaśyin, I was the son of a wealthy elder and wished to go forth. At that time, those who went forth were certain to attain the fruit of arhatship.

My parents, however, would not permit me and instead compelled me to marry. After marrying, I again asked permission to go forth. My father said that if I fathered a son, he would permit me.

I complied and had a son. When my son was six years old, I again wished to go forth. My parents then told the child to embrace my legs and weepingly plead: ‘If Father abandons me, who will raise and teach me?

Father should first kill me, and only then go forth.’ Hearing this, attachment and defilement arose in my mind, and I told him: ‘For your sake, I will no longer go forth.’ Because he obstructed me from going forth, during the ninety-one kalpas since then that child has wandered through the five evil destinies and has not encountered me. Now, with the eye of the path, I see that this crow is precisely that former child.

Feeling compassion for his foolishness and his prolonged abiding in birth and death, I smiled. For this reason, anyone who obstructs another who wishes to go forth incurs the karmic retribution of constantly dwelling in the evil destinies, enduring the most extreme suffering, and being unable to attain liberation. After that person’s offenses in the evil destinies are exhausted, if born as a human, that person will be blind from birth.

Therefore, when wise people see someone wishing to go forth, they should diligently use every skillful means to encourage and assist that person in fulfilling the aspiration, and must not create difficulties for them.”

The Scripture on the Merit of Going Forth records: “Long ago, while the Buddha was still in the world, one day he and Ānanda entered the city of Vaiśālī^[36] to beg for alms. They passed a tall pavilion where Prince Vīrasena was amusing himself with beautiful women. Hearing the sound of music, the Buddha said to Ānanda:

[31b] - I know that this man will die seven days from now. If he does not go forth, he may fall into hell.

Hearing the Buddha say this, Ananda immediately went to teach that prince and exhort him to leave the household life. Having heard Ananda’s exhortation, the prince spent the following six days fully enjoying every kind of pleasure. On the seventh day, Prince Virasena came before the Buddha and asked permission to leave the household life.

After cultivating the pure precepts for one day and one night, the prince died and was reborn in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings^[37] as a son of Vaisravana, the Heavenly King of the North, where he enjoyed the pleasures of the five desires together with celestial maidens. After completing a lifespan of five hundred years in that heaven, the prince was reborn in the Trayastrimsa Heaven as a son of Sakra and lived for one thousand years.

Next, he was reborn as a prince in the Yama Heaven and lived for two thousand years. He was then reborn as a prince in the Tusita Heaven and lived for four thousand years. Afterward, he was reborn as a son of a deity in the Heaven of Delight in Creation and lived for eight thousand years.

When his lifespan in the Heaven of Delight in Creation came to an end, he was reborn in the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations as a son of its Heavenly King. The pleasures of the five desires that he enjoyed there with celestial maidens were far more sublime than those in the lower heavens, and the lifespan in that realm was sixteen thousand years. In this way, the prince passed successively through the six heavens of the Desire Realm, enjoying their pleasures without ever dying prematurely.

By leaving the household life for a single day, one will not fall into the evil destinies for twenty kalpas, but will constantly be reborn in the heavens and naturally enjoy blessings. In one’s final life as a human being, one will be born into a wealthy and honored family, fully endowed with riches, enjoying happiness in youth. In old age, growing weary of worldly life, one will leave the household life and cultivate the path, becoming a pratyekabuddha named Viludili, who will universally deliver countless devas and humans.

For this reason, one should know that the merit of leaving the household life is immeasurably great and beyond all comparison. Suppose someone wholeheartedly made offerings of the four requisites in full to enough arhats to fill the four continents, and when those arhats entered nirvana, erected a stupa for each of them and made offerings of incense, flowers, and jeweled necklaces. Even the merit thereby created would not equal the merit of one who leaves the household life, observes the precepts for one day and one night, and seeks the fruit of nirvana.

Therefore, the Dharma of leaving the household life is truly worthy of reverence. One must not, for the sake of a little wealth or sensual beauty, become attached to the world and thus drift upon the ocean of birth and death, bringing suffering upon oneself.

There is a verse:

Cultivating the path on the Three Mountains^[38] still brings no attainment;

The Five Heats^[39], with pain and grief, merely bind the body.

Dwelling in a monastery or entering a cage alike brings vexation and toil;

How could either compare with silently crossing beyond the perilous citadel?

The mirror of wisdom, bright and perfect, grows ever purer;

High in the heavens shines the clear moon’s radiant light.

Old traces wind along the narrow path;

Those who comprehend Zhuangzi and master Laozi—how could they travel the same way?”

V. CHANTING PRAISES

This section comprises three parts: Introduction, Scriptural Evidence, and Praise of the Merits.

V.1. Introduction

[31c] The intent to praise is commonly conveyed through verse, while verse in turn relies upon musical cadence. Thus, when the verse is fine and beautiful, the intent of praise becomes clear; when the cadence is excellent, the verse flows smoothly. Words and cadence work together to illuminate the meaning and principles. On examination, India has bai, while China has zan. A zan is a composition used to conclude a chapter. A bai is a short verse used for chanting and transmission. When their meaning and intent are compared, bai and zan are indeed synonymous. Therefore, a sutra states: “With wondrous sounds, they chanted praises of the Buddha’s virtues.”

In ancient times, when the Buddha entered samadhi, the sounds of stringed instruments and singing shook the stone cavern; when Bhadrika^[40] raised his voice in recitation, its sound resounded as far as the Pure Abodes^[41]. Sounds of supreme subtlety that awaken the world naturally cannot be fully extolled in words. Even in the age of the Final Dharma, cultivation has produced remarkable responses.

Thus, Prince Chen Si^[42], concentrating his mind in contemplation, heard Sanskrit chants at Mount Yu. Bai Qiao, through the sincerity of his vows, came to understand the wondrous sounds of the Great Being. Yao Lian, through diligent cultivation, heard the sounds of the Dharma in the nether realm; Wen Xuan^[43], through utmost sincerity, evoked wondrous sounds within his quiet chamber.

All of them performed according to sounds heard in the celestial palaces and Buddha lands, following the rise and fall of the melodies and the quickening and slowing of the phrasing. These are also clear proofs of the mind’s spiritual responsiveness and brilliant models for students. The profound and wondrous words of the sutras issue forth naturally.

One may learn the method of recitation, but a beautiful voice cannot be produced through training alone. Since the sounds of the Dharma are proclaimed for worldly people to hear, the voice must be clear but not weak, resonant but not fierce, fluent but not overly hurried, measured but not stagnant. The meaning and principles should bear the character of India, while the tones and rhymes should carry the qualities of China.

Heard from afar, it should be expansive yet elegant; heard nearby, it should be composed, harmonious, and reverent. How magnificent it is! The sutras call the Buddha’s voice a profound thunderous sound—perhaps this is the reason.

When tales of the strange are recounted, everyone gathers to listen until late at night, when the incense has burned away and the candles have gone out. Since sloth and torpor^[44] readily obscure the six sense faculties^[45], and indolence constantly fetters the body, one must therefore choose a person with a fine voice to ascend the Dharma seat and select someone with excellent vocal qualities to expound the sutras. When the chanting of praises rises like music, it resembles the harmonious resonance of jade and gold, spreading far and stirring the seven assemblies.

It is also like the song of the kalavinka bird or the call of the divine luan bird, causing the deluded to awaken and the indolent to become solemn and attentive, until the entire lecture hall is filled with wonder and the whole Dharma assembly rejoices together. Only at that very moment does one realize how precious the sound of the sutras is.

V.2. Scriptural Evidence

The Dirgha Agama states: “That voice possesses five qualities of purity and is therefore called the Brahma voice. They are:

1. Upright

2. Gentle and harmonious

3. Clear and pure

4. Profound, resonant, and full

5. Resounding everywhere.”

[32a] Furthermore, the Brahmayu Sutra states: “The Buddha’s voice when teaching the Dharma possesses eight qualities:

1. Exceedingly beautiful

2. Easy to understand

3. Soft and pleasing

4. Gentle and harmonious

5. Penetrating and lucid

6. Free from error

7. Profound and resonant

8. It contains none of the qualities of a woman’s voice and is neither deficient nor abruptly shortened.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “When the devas heard verses of praise, their hearts were filled with joy; therefore, the Buddha permitted the chanting of praises.”

The Vinaya-matrka Sutra states: “The Buddha told the bhiksus:

‘You are permitted to chant praises. Chanting praises consists of the sounds and expressions of speech. Although they may be heard, it is not yet known which teachings may be spoken.’

The Buddha taught: ‘From the sutras through the upadesas, you may expound them as you wish. Yet regarding the twelve divisions of scripture, some people may give rise to doubts. If one wishes to expound them in sequence, the text will be extremely lengthy, and I fear that people may grow weary. If one merely selects their finest words and clearly reveals their meaning, how should this be done?’

The bhiksus reported this matter to the Buddha. The Buddha permitted them to excerpt fine words and beautiful expressions from the sutras and present their meaning clearly.

At that time, a bhiksu standing not far from the Buddha raised his voice in song to proclaim the words of the sutras. After hearing him, the Buddha did not permit sutras to be recited in that melody, because it had five faults resembling the manner in which non-Buddhist practitioners taught the Dharma:

1. One is unable to restrain oneself.

2. It is unsuitable for the assembly.

3. The devas are displeased.

4. The words are incorrect and difficult to understand.

5. The words are unclear, and therefore their meaning is also difficult to understand.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, King Prasenajit once led his troops into the vicinity of Jetavana. Suddenly, they heard the exceptionally beautiful chanting of praises by a bhiksu. All the soldiers, and even the elephants and horses, stopped and listened attentively, refusing to move on. The king led his troops into the monastery to investigate. When he saw that the chanting bhiksu was short in stature and exceedingly ugly in appearance, so unpleasant that one could scarcely bear to look at him, he went to ask the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One! What karma did this bhiksu create in a former life that caused him to receive such a retribution?’

The Buddha told the king:

‘After a Buddha entered nirvana, King Kiriti gathered the Buddha’s relics and intended to build stupas as offerings. At that time, four dragon kings transformed themselves into human beings and came to ask the king:

“Great King, do you intend to build the stupas from precious substances or from earth?”

The king replied:

“To build great stupas would require an immense quantity of precious substances. Therefore, I shall now build them only from earth, each measuring five yojanas across and twenty-five yojanas in height.”

The dragon kings said:

“We are dragon kings. Today we have come to ask the Great King about this matter. If you build the stupas from precious substances, we shall assist you.”

Upon hearing this, the king was greatly delighted. The dragon kings continued:

“Outside the four gates of the city are four streams. [32b] We shall transform the eastern stream into a moat made entirely of lapis lazuli; the southern stream into pure gold; the western stream entirely into silver; and the northern stream into white jade.”

Hearing this, the king became even more joyful and immediately ordered the stupas to be built, appointing an official to supervise each one. Three of the officials worked diligently, and their construction was nearly complete. Only one official was negligent and dilatory, so his stupa remained unfinished. The king personally came to inspect the work and, upon seeing this, rebuked him. The official became resentful and said to the king:

“This stupa is so immense—when will it ever be finished?”

The king then ordered the laborers to work diligently day and night, and within a short time the construction was completed. The stupa soared high into the sky, majestically adorned with precious substances and extraordinarily magnificent. When the official saw it, he was filled with immeasurable joy. He immediately repented, placed a golden bell atop the stupa, and made this vow:

“Wherever I may be born, may I possess an exceptionally beautiful voice that all sentient beings delight in hearing. In the future, may I encounter Buddha Sakyamuni and be liberated from birth and death.”

Because in the past he had disparaged the stupa for being too immense, wherever he was born he was always ugly. Yet because he placed a golden bell atop the stupa and vowed to encounter a Buddha, throughout five hundred subsequent lifetimes this bhiksu possessed an excellent voice. Now he has also encountered Me, gone forth to cultivate the path, and attained the fruit of arhatship. Therefore, when sentient beings see others performing meritorious deeds, they should never disparage them. Otherwise, they will suffer painful retribution and regret it when it is already too late.’”

V.3. Praising Virtue and Merit

The Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Past Practices records: “The Buddha told Ananda:

‘I recall that in the distant past, a Buddha named Pusya Tathagata, Arhat, Samyaksambuddha appeared in the world. At that time, I saw that Buddha within the Cave of Variegated Jewels. My heart filled with great joy, I immediately joined my palms, stood on one foot for seven days and seven nights, and spoke this verse in praise of the Buddha:

Throughout the heavens and among humankind, none equals the Buddha;

Throughout the worlds of the ten directions, none can compare.

Of all those whom I have encountered in the world,

Not a single one is the equal of You.

Ananda! After speaking this verse, I immediately made a vow. Later, that Buddha told His attendant: “After ninety-four kalpas, this person will attain Buddhahood and will be named Sakyamuni.” After receiving this prediction, I became even more diligent, increasing my virtue and merit. Throughout immeasurable kalpas, I was frequently born as Sakra, Lord of the Devas, or as a wheel-turning sage king. Through the causes and conditions of that wholesome karma, [32c] I came to possess the four unobstructed eloquences in their fullness, unequaled by anyone, and ultimately attained anuttara-samyak-sambodhi and turned the unsurpassed Dharma wheel.’”

Furthermore, the Nirvana Sutra records: “At that time, Bodhisattva Kasyapa spoke these verses before the Buddha in praise of Him:

The Great King of Physicians has compassion for the world;

His body and wisdom are both quiescent.

Within the Dharma of non-self is the true self;

Therefore, I pay homage to the Unsurpassed Honored One.

His mind at the first aspiration and at the final attainment does not differ;

Of these two states of mind, the former is more difficult.

Before liberating Himself, He first liberated others;

Therefore, I bow at the feet of the Initial Aspiration.”

In the Treatise on Arousing the Mind of Bodhi, the author speaks these verses in praise of the Buddha:

I now pay homage to the boundless Buddhas

Of the past, the future, and the present,

Whose unmoving wisdom resembles empty space,

The Greatly Compassionate Ones who ably rescue the world.

Our Teacher is the Deva among devas;

No sentient being in the three realms can equal Him. (Sutra of Universal Splendor)

How can He abide in the world for such a long life,

Having attained an indestructible vajra body? (Nirvana Sutra)

The Tathagata’s form body is truly wondrous;

No one in the entire world can equal Him. (Srimaladevi Sutra)

Dwelling in the world as though in empty space,

He is like a lotus flower, undefiled. (Sutra of Wisdom’s Radiance Surpassing the Sun and Moon)

With great loving-kindness, He has compassion for all beings;

The skandhas, hindrances, and afflictions cause ignorance.

He opens the eyes of the blind, enabling them to see;

He rescues the deaf, revealing the glorious path.

Dwelling in the world as though in empty space,

He is also like a lotus flower to which no stain adheres.

Transcending that realm, His mind is ever pure;

I bow my head in homage to the One of Great Illumination.

It is said that when the words of the sutras circulated in the land of Han, people were very fond of abridging them. Consequently, the verses chanted in praise within the assembly often consisted of only half a stanza. Thus, the Vinaya-Matrka Treatise states: ‘To chant half a verse constitutes a duskrta offense.’ Yet it is not known from which Indian scripture this melody of Sanskrit chanting originated.

Answer: Only sages are capable of composing verses of praise. There is no fault in chanting praises according to the verses found in the sutras. In the regions within and beyond the passes, and during the Wu and Shu dynasties, many types of chanting arose according to people’s preferences.

However, because Sanskrit and Chinese differ, their tones and rhymes cannot be used interchangeably. During the Song dynasty, there was Dharma Master Kang Senghui, a native of Kangju. Broadly learned and deeply knowledgeable, he translated scriptures, was proficient in Sanskrit, transmitted the Nirvana verses, and composed melodies that were gentle, harmonious, plaintive, and moving.

He became very renowned in the world, and all scholars of music took his compositions as their standard. Furthermore, in ancient times during the Jin dynasty, Dharma Master Dao’an established three categories: chanting before the sutra recitation, chanting before the Dharma lecture, and chanting for the posadha ceremony.^[46] The worthies of old established these regulations as standards for the realm, and they have been transmitted continuously and practiced by all.”

[33a] By the time of the Wei dynasty, there was Chen Si Prince Cao Zhi, courtesy name Zijian, the fourth son of Emperor Wu of Wei. From an early age, he was exceptionally gifted in literature. At the age of seven, Cao Zhi needed only to put brush to paper for a composition to be complete, requiring no revision whatsoever.

He was thoroughly versed in all the arts of the world. When Handan Chun saw him, he was filled with admiration and praised him as a celestial being. Whenever Cao Zhi read the Buddhist sutras, he praised them without cease, regarding them as the very marrow of the ultimate Way.

He therefore devised seven tones, with cadences rising and falling, resonant and graceful, which the world adopted as the standard for chanting and recitation. Once, when Cao Zhi visited Mount Yu, he suddenly heard Brahma sounds issuing from empty space, refined and mournful, deeply moving the hearts of those who heard them. After Cao Zhi had listened for a short while, his attendants also heard them.

Profoundly perceiving their wondrous principle, he gained still clearer realization of the efficacy of the Buddha-Dharma. He then imitated their sounds and rhythms, composed a collection of praises in Sanskrit, selected texts and set them to music, and transmitted this as a model for later generations. The appearance of Sanskrit chanting in the world began from this point.

This method of chanting praises comprised six sections^[47].”

The Sutra of One Hundred Causes and Conditions records: “Long ago, while the Buddha was still in the world, there were people living in the city of Shravasti who adorned themselves and performed music and songs. One day, they went out together for an excursion. Just as they reached the city gate, they encountered the Buddha and the Sangha going forth to seek alms. Their hearts filled with joy, they immediately bowed in homage, played music as an offering, made vows, and then departed.

The Buddha smiled and said to Ananda:

‘Through the merit of playing music as an offering to Me and the Sangha, throughout one hundred kalpas in the future these people will not fall into the evil destinies. Whether born among the gods or among humans, they will always enjoy happiness. After one hundred kalpas, they will become pratyekabuddhas, all bearing the same name, Wondrous Sound. For this reason, if anyone plays music as an offering to the Three Jewels, that person will acquire immeasurable, boundless, inconceivable merit. Therefore, the Lotus Sutra contains this verse:

If there are those who perform music,

Beating drums and blowing horns and conches,

Playing xiao flutes, transverse flutes, zithers, harps,

Pipas, bells, cymbals, and gongs—

All such wondrous sounds

Offered in their entirety,

They have all accomplished the Buddha Way.’”

Furthermore, the Sutra of the Bodhisattva Dwelling in the Womb records: “There was a kinnara king dwelling on Mount Great Black, outside the Lesser Iron Encircling Mountains, north of Mount Sumeru, amid ten jeweled mountains. In that place there was neither Buddha-Dharma, nor sun, moon, or stars. Yet through the power of generosity, he dwelt in a palace made of the seven treasures and enjoyed a long lifespan.

Long ago, when this kinnara still lived among humans, a very wealthy elder resolved to build a stupa for the Buddha. The kinnara offered a pillar to help complete the monastery and also provided delicious food for the craftsmen. After his life ended, he was born as the deity Chest-Breast, dwelling between two mountains. [33b] Moreover, long ago when this kinnara lived in the world, he was an immensely wealthy great elder whose possessions were measureless.

At that time, a shramana came seeking alms. His wife brought rice and offered it, but he angrily said:

‘Why is this alms-seeker looking at my wife? His hands and feet should be severed!’

For this reason, after his life ended, he had to endure an ugly body and, throughout eighty-four kalpas, was constantly without hands or feet. Whenever the gods held a banquet, he and the gandharvas took turns ascending and descending. When the gods were about to play music, perspiration appeared beneath their arms, and they immediately ascended to heaven. There they saw a kinnara named Druma playing music and singing of the true nature of all dharmas in praise of the Blessed One. At that time, Mount Sumeru and all the other mountains and forests trembled. Venerable Kashyapa could not remain steady upon his seat, and five hundred seers became bewildered and lost their supernormal powers.”

Furthermore, the Sutra of Questions Asked by the Kinnara King Druma records: “At that time, the Kinnara King Druma adorned a lapis lazuli lute, produced by pure wholesome karma, with flowers and leaves of Jambunada gold. He then approached the Blessed One, played the lute, and performed eighty-four thousand other kinds of music as an offering to the Buddha. When King Druma played his lute, its sound soared throughout the trichiliocosm.

The wondrous lute music and singing of this kinnara surpassed even the music of the gods in the Realm of Desire. All mountains, forests, trees, and plants trembled, swaying and staggering like drunken people. Mount Sumeru rocked, rising and sinking without rest.

Only the non-retrogressing bodhisattvas remained unmoved. All others who heard the lute and music were unable to remain seated; they immediately rose and began to dance. All the shravakas abandoned their dignified deportment and danced together, frolicking like children, unable to restrain themselves.

At that time, Bodhisattva Heavenly Light said to the shravakas, including Venerable Mahakashyapa:

‘Great Virtuous Ones! You have abandoned the afflictions and attained the eight liberations. Why, then, do you now cast aside your dignified deportment and dance and sing like children?’

The great shravaka elders all replied:

‘Good man! At that time we could not control ourselves. It was like a whirlwind toppling trees, against which they have no power to remain upright. It was not that we wished to behave this way!’

At that time, Bodhisattva Heavenly Light said to Venerable Kashyapa:

‘Today you have personally witnessed the majestic virtue and power of non-retrogressing bodhisattvas. Whoever witnesses such a thing will bring forth the aspiration for unsurpassed, right, and perfect bodhi! This is because, through the majestic power of this lute, every sound it produces is a sound of the Dharma, enabling eight thousand bodhisattvas to attain the patient acceptance of the non-arising of dharmas.’

A verse says:

The clear heavens spread their lucid breath;

Divine sounds penetrate deafened ears.

Ascending the terrace, one chants the voice of spring;

Lofty inspiration leaves all traces far behind.

Relying on space, spiritual awareness is stirred;

Mount Yu awakened Prince Chen Si.

Imitating the sounds of the Brahma heaven,

He wished the Dharma’s voice to spread everywhere.

Melodious, it continued without cease,

Lingering gently through empty space.

Bhikshus chanted in Brahma tones,

Moving the hearts of people and creatures alike.

It was also through proclaiming the wondrous Dharma

That a flock of wild geese in the sky was moved.

At dawn, their minds awakened,

Suddenly attaining spiritual understanding of themselves.”

VI. INCENSE AND LAMPS

This section comprises four conditions: Introduction, Incense and Flowers, Lighting Lamps, and Hanging Banners.

VI.1. Introduction

Having awakened to principle through phenomena, one must necessarily rely upon appearances to reveal the truth; in reverently beholding the dignified form of a sage, one may also need to make offerings of incense and flowers. Thus, precious flowers bloom luxuriantly, radiant like crimson lotuses; rare fragrances spread richly, drifting gently like azure mist. When the sun rises, the curtain of night is rolled away; when the moon appears, darkness disperses.

Just as lamplight dispels the gloom, so does wisdom eradicate ignorance. Therefore, one reverently honors Buddha Lamp King and is sincere toward Amitabha Buddha, striving to perpetuate the light; hence he received the title Dipamkara Tathagata. Through even a slight illuminating condition, one immediately obtains the radiance of the physical body; through the cause of offering torches and lamps, one ultimately obtains the blessed reward of the divine eye.

How much more so when this great wisdom is employed to reveal and bring forth that supreme light! Therefore, when King Ashoka approached the end of his life, he had eighty-four thousand lamps made to illuminate eighty-four thousand stupas throughout the land. He also hung divine banners that fluttered aloft, as though aspiring to soar throughout the great trichiliocosm, while purple-colored pearls interspersed among them radiated light for ten billion miles.

When the wind of wisdom arises, pure karma becomes manifest; when the wondrous breeze blows forth, one obtains the inexhaustible reward of a wheel-turning sage king.

VI. 2. Flowers and Incense

The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Flower-Gathering Dharani records: “The Buddha taught:

– After my nirvana, if a person traveling along an open road sees a shrine or stupa of the Tathagata and makes an offering before an image with a single flower, a single lamp, or even one pellet of clay, or offers so much as a single coin toward repairing a Buddha image, or washes a Buddha stupa with a handful of water and then makes offerings of flowers and incense, or takes one step toward a monastery or stupa, or merely once utters ‘Namo Buddha,’ [34a] then to suppose that such a person could fall into the three evil destinies for hundreds of thousands of myriads of kalpas would be utterly unreasonable.”

The Sutra of the Contemplation of the True Dharma also records: “If sentient beings anoint a Buddha stupa with the incense of morality, after their lives end they will be born in the Fragrant Bliss Heaven, where they will delight and amuse themselves with celestial maidens. When their lives in that heaven end, they will be born as humans into wealthy families.”

The Sutra of the Prophecy Concerning the Tree of Flower Gathering records: “At that time, King Rajagriha ordered more than ten people to enter the forest regularly, gather beautiful flowers, and present them to him. One day, the palace women went outside the city to gather flowers. On their way back, they encountered the Buddha.

They immediately bowed their heads in reverence and thought, ‘We would rather relinquish our lives and offer these flowers to the Buddha and the noble assembly. Even if we are put to death, we shall not fall into an evil destiny.’ Having thought this, they scattered the flowers as offerings to the Buddha and the noble assembly, then single-mindedly took refuge and bowed in reverence. Knowing their thoughts, the Buddha compassionately taught the Dharma to them.

After hearing it, all the flower gatherers brought forth the aspiration for the Way, and the Buddha bestowed a prophecy upon them:

– In the future, you will attain Buddhahood and be called Wondrous Flower.

The palace women then returned home and bade farewell to their parents:

– Our lives are surely at an end! Today the king will have us killed.

Their astonished parents asked:

– What offense have you committed that the king would have you killed?

The palace women related the entire story to their parents and said:

– If we have no flowers to present to the king, our lives will be in danger. Therefore, we have returned today to bid you farewell!

Their parents became even more sorrowful upon hearing this. They opened the baskets and saw that they were filled with beautiful flowers whose fragrance spread everywhere. They then said:

– Take these flowers and present them to the king!

After waiting a long time without seeing the flowers arrive, the king grew furious and ordered his men to bind the offending flower gatherers, take them to the marketplace, and behead them. Yet their complexions remained unchanged. Finding this strange, the king asked:

– You are to be put to death for your offense. Why are you not afraid?

The flower gatherers replied:

– Whoever lives must die, and whatever comes into being must necessarily perish. We committed this offense for the sake of the Dharma, and therefore do not cherish our lives. This morning, we went to gather flowers. On our way back, we encountered the Buddha, so we presented the flowers to him as an offering. We knew that doing so violated the king’s command and that the punishment would be death, but we would rather die possessing the Way than live without it. Yet when we returned and opened our baskets, the flowers remained just as before. This was entirely due to the Buddha’s gracious protection.

The king found this even more astonishing, but did not believe them in his heart, so he went to ask the Buddha.

The Buddha said:

– It is indeed so! These people, with utmost sincerity, aspire to liberate sentient beings throughout the ten directions. Not cherishing their own lives, they scattered flowers as an offering to the Tathagata, without any thought of seeking reward. I have bestowed upon them a prophecy that in the future they will attain Buddhahood and be called Wondrous Flower.

Upon hearing this, the king was overjoyed. He released them from their bonds, remorsefully reproached himself for being so foolish and inferior to the bodhisattvas, and asked the Buddha’s forgiveness. The Buddha said:

– Excellent! One who knows how to correct a fault is the same as one who has committed no fault!

[34b] The Sutra of a Hundred Conditions records: “At one time, the Buddha was staying at Prince Jeta’s Grove in Anathapindika’s Park in the city of Shravasti. At that time, having donned his robe and taken up his bowl, he entered the city with the bhiksus to seek alms. Just as they reached a street, they saw a woman sitting on the ground with a child in her arms.

From afar, the child saw the Buddha and was filled with joy. He immediately asked his mother to buy flowers for him to offer to the Buddha. After receiving the flowers, the child went before the Buddha and scattered them into the air. They transformed into a flower canopy that followed above and shaded the Buddha. Seeing this, the child rejoiced greatly and made a great vow:

– Through the roots of goodness and merit of this offering, may I in a future life attain perfect enlightenment and liberate sentient beings just as the Buddha does!

When the Buddha heard the child make this vow, he smiled. From his mouth he emitted a ray of five-colored light, which circled him three times and then reentered through the crown of his head.

At that time, Venerable Ananda said to the Buddha:

– The World-Honored One is supremely noble and never smiles without cause. What is the reason that he now smiles? May the World-Honored One kindly instruct us!

The Buddha said to Ananda:

– Did you see that child scatter flowers as an offering to me?

Venerable Ananda replied:

– Yes, I saw it.

The Buddha taught:

– In future lives, this child will not fall into the evil destinies. Whether born in the heavens or among humans, he will always experience happiness. After three asamkhyeya kalpas, he will attain Buddhahood and be called Flower Abundance, liberating incalculable sentient beings. For this reason, I smiled.

After hearing the Buddha’s teaching, the bhiksus rejoiced and respectfully practiced accordingly.”

The Sutra of a Hundred Conditions also records: “At one time, the Buddha was staying at Prince Jeta’s Grove in Anathapindika’s Park in the city of Shravasti. At that time, the wealthy, honored, and powerful householders of the city gathered beside a stream and held a bala-flower festival, singing and enjoying themselves. They sent a man into the forest to gather bala flowers and weave them into garlands.

The man entered the forest and gathered the flowers as instructed. On his way back, he saw the Buddha, endowed with the thirty-two noble marks and eighty excellent characteristics, shining brilliantly like hundreds of thousands of suns. Filled with joy, he bowed at the Buddha’s feet and scattered the flowers as an offering.

After making the offering, he returned to the forest and climbed a tree to gather more flowers. Suddenly, a branch broke; he fell to the ground and died. He was immediately born in the Trayastrimsha Heaven, with a beautiful body, dwelling in a palace made of bala flowers.

Shakra asked him:

– Where did you come from, and what merit did you cultivate that caused you to be born here?

The flower gatherer replied:

– I lived in Jambudvipa. One day, I entered the forest to gather flowers for a festive gathering. On my way back, I encountered the Buddha and immediately scattered the flowers as an offering to him. Through the merit of that cause and condition, I was born here!

Seeing that this deva possessed an exceedingly beautiful form, Shakra then spoke a verse in praise:

His body was like pure gold,

Radiating brilliant light;

His countenance was exceedingly beautiful,

Surpassing even that of the devas.

That deva then replied in verse:

Through the grace of the Buddha,

I offered bà-la flowers;

Through this wholesome cause and condition,

I obtained this excellent karmic reward.

[34c] After reciting this verse, he accompanied Śakra to the Buddha, bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, and sat to one side. Hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, his mind opened; he shattered twelve hundred million karmic obstructions^[48] and wrong views^[49] and attained the fruit of stream-entry. Overjoyed, he spoke this verse in praise of the Buddha:

Lofty is the Great Sage, the Honored One,

Supreme and without equal;

Even the kindness of parents and teachers

Cannot compare with his.

He dries up the four great seas,

Crosses beyond the mountain of white bones,

Closes off the three evil paths,

And opens wide the three gates of goodness.”

The Miscellaneous Treasure Store Sutra also records: “At that time, the heavenly maiden spoke this verse:

In the past, I used a floral wreath

To make an offering at the stupa of Kāśyapa Buddha;

Now I have been born in the heavenly realm

And obtained supreme merit.

Having been born in the heavenly realm,

I have also obtained a golden-colored body.”

The Sarvāstivāda Treatise records: “A stupa must not be built on land belonging to the Sangha of the four directions; that land should instead be cultivated for the sake of the Buddha-Dharma. This may be done if the Sangha is in harmony, but it may not be done if the Sangha is not in harmony. If flowers are grown on the Sangha’s land, they should be tended by a monastery attendant^[50], who should harvest them and give them to the Sangha to offer as it wishes.

No one may privately take them on his own initiative to make offerings to the Three Jewels. If there are so many flowers that the Sangha cannot use them all, they may be taken as one wishes with the permission of the Sangha in harmony. Within the Sangha’s monastery grounds, stupas must not be built and images must not be cast, because proximity to people makes them defiled and impure.

If a multistory building has a Buddha image enshrined on a lower floor, no one may stand on the floor above it. Flowers grown on a stupa may not be taken as offerings to the Sangha; they must be offered to the Buddha. These flowers may also be sold, and the proceeds offered to the stupa.

If water belongs to the stupa’s allotted share, it must be offered to the stupa. If any remains, and that water was obtained through the labor of the person who tends the stupa, the remaining water should be sold and the proceeds offered to the stupa. It may not be used for another purpose; if it is so used, the offense is assessed according to its monetary value.

If there is no attendant at the stupa and this water was obtained entirely through the labor of the Sangha, then after setting aside the amount required for the stupa, the Sangha should carefully calculate and use the remainder.”

The Mañjuśrī Questions Sutra records: “At that time, Mañjuśrī addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One, what should be done if flowers left over after being offered are used to treat illness?’

The Buddha told Mañjuśrī:

‘Each kind of flower must be separately blessed by reciting its mantra a full one hundred and eight times.’

Mantra for flowers offered to the Buddha:

‘Nam-mô Phật-thát-tả-dã sa-ha.’

[35a] Mantra for flowers offered to prajnaparamita:

‘Na-mạt kha-lô-lí bát-nhã-ba-la-mật-đa-duệ sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered at the Buddha’s footprints:

‘Na-mạc ba-đà-chế-điểm-đam-diêm sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered to the bodhi tree:

‘Nam-mô bồ-đề hóa lực khám lam sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered at the place where the Dharma wheel was turned:

‘Nam-mô đạt-ma chước-kha-la-dạ sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered to a stupa:

‘Na-mạc thâu-bạt-tà sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered to bodhisattvas:

‘Nam-mô bồ-đề tát-đỏa-dã sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered to the Sangha:

‘Na-mạc tăng-già-dã sa-ha.’

Mantra for flowers offered to a Buddha image:

‘Na-mạc ba-la-để-da sa-ha.’

The Buddha further told Mañjuśrī:

‘Concerning the use of these flowers, if members of the fourfold assembly arouse a reverent mind and engage in practice, they should rise early in the morning, bathe, rinse their mouths clean, recollect the Buddha’s merit, and respectfully attend to these flowers. They must not tread upon them or step over them but should, in accordance with the Dharma, place them in a vase of clean water. If someone suffers from alternating chills and fever or a headache, crush the flowers, place them in cold water, and apply the water to the person’s body.

If someone suffers from bloody dysentery or abdominal pain, likewise crush the flowers, mix them with cold water, and give it to the person to drink; the illness will immediately cease. If someone has sores in the mouth, have the person hold in the mouth water mixed with crushed flowers, and the sores will also heal. If rain does not cease, go to a secluded place and burn the flowers; the rain will immediately stop.

If there is a drought, likewise go to a secluded place, place the flowers in water, recite the mantra over cold water, and sprinkle it upon the flowers; rain will immediately pour down from the sky. If oxen, horses, or other animals are unruly, give them the flowers to eat, and they will immediately become docile. If trees, flowers, or fruits do not flourish, mix crushed flowers with cow dung, blend this with cold water, and pour it around the roots of the plants.

No one must tread or urinate there, and then the flowers and fruits will thrive abundantly. If too much water in a field is damaging the rice seedlings, grind the flowers into powder and scatter it over the field; the rice seedlings will immediately become verdant and vigorous. If disease afflicts a country, crush the flowers, mix them with cold water, and apply it to a conch or drum.

Then blow the conch or beat the drum, and those who hear the sound will immediately be cured. If hostile countries seek to invade, crush the flowers, mix them with water, and sprinkle it upon the invaders; they will all immediately retreat and disperse. If there is a great boulder on a high mountain, the bhikshus should grind the flowers upon the rock and bow to it together.

Before long, precious treasures will naturally arise from the rock.’

The Buddha told Mañjuśrī:

‘For each kind of flower, the mantra must be recited a full one hundred and eight times. You should also travel everywhere and proclaim these mantras so that all people may know them. The same applies to flowers offered to the Buddha, flowers offered to the Dharma, and all other flowers.’

[35b] The Flower Ornament Sutra records: “Long ago, among humans, there was a kind of incense called Great Elephant Treasury, which came into being when dragons fought. If a single pellet was burned, it emitted a great beam of light that formed a net of clouds covering the sky above, and its flavor was sweet like amrita. Fragrant rain fell for seven days and seven nights.

If it touched a person’s body, the body became golden in color; if it touched clothing, palaces, towers, or pavilions, they all became golden in color. If any beings smelled this fragrance, they remained joyful for seven days and seven nights, all the suffering of illness was eliminated, they met with no unexpected calamities, and their minds always remained free from fear and danger. They aroused great loving-kindness and were mindful of all beings everywhere.

I clearly knew their minds and therefore taught them the Dharma, enabling immeasurable beings to attain the stage of non-retrogression. Furthermore, ox-head sandalwood incense arises from freedom from defilement. If it is applied to the body, fire cannot burn that body.”

The Sutra of One Hundred Causes and Conditions records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, there lived in the city of Kapilavastu an exceedingly wealthy householder whose possessions were immeasurable and beyond calculation. A son was born to him whose countenance was exceptionally beautiful and rare in the world. Every pore of his body emitted the fragrance of sandalwood, and the fragrance of utpala flowers always issued from his mouth. His parents were overjoyed and consequently named him Sandalwood Fragrance. In time, Sandalwood Fragrance grew up, asked the Buddha for permission to enter the monastic life, and attained arhatship. Seeing this, the bhikshus addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One, what merit did Sandalwood Fragrance cultivate in a previous life that he was born into a wealthy and noble family, that his body and mouth constantly emitted fragrance, and that he encountered the World-Honored One, entered the monastic life, and attained the fruit of the path?’

The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– In the past, ninety-one kalpas ago, after the Buddha Vipasyin entered nirvana, King Bandhumati gathered his relics and built a stupa of the four precious substances, one yojana high, in which to enshrine and make offerings to them. At that time, an elder entered the Buddha’s stupa and saw that the base of the stupa had a hole in it. He immediately mixed clay and mud and filled the hole, scattered sandalwood powder over it, made a vow, and departed. Through that merit, throughout the following ninety-one kalpas, that elder did not fall into the evil destinies but was born among devas and humans. His body and mouth constantly emitted a fragrance, and he enjoyed happiness and bliss. Now he has encountered Me, renounced the household life, and attained realization.”

Furthermore, the Treatise on the Great Adornment records: “The Buddha taught:

– Long ago, during the time of the Buddha Kasyapa, there was a Dharma master who taught the Dharma to the great assembly and often praised the Buddha Kasyapa. Through those causes and conditions, when his life ended, that Dharma master was born in the heavenly realm. Thereafter, whether born in the heavenly or human realm, he always enjoyed happiness and bliss. One hundred years after the Buddha Sakyamuni entered nirvana, during the reign of King Asoka, this person again became a Dharma master, attained the fruit of arhatship, and constantly emitted a wondrous fragrance from his mouth. At that time, the Dharma master was not far from the king, teaching the Dharma to the great assembly, and the fragrance from his mouth drifted to where the king was. When the king smelled the fragrance, doubt arose in his mind, and he thought: ‘Could this bhiksu be holding perfume in his mouth? Why else would it be so fragrant?’ [35c] Having thought this, the king told the Dharma master to rinse his mouth, to see whether the fragrance would remain. The bhiksu asked:

– Why does Your Majesty tell me to rinse my mouth?

The king replied:

– I smelled a fragrance and doubt arose in my mind; that is why I asked you to do so.

The Dharma master then rinsed his mouth, but the fragrance issuing from it became even more pervasive, and there was no other perfume present. The king then said:

– Dharma master, please teach the Dharma to me!

The Dharma master smiled and spoke this verse:

At ease throughout heaven and earth,

I teach the Dharma for the great king;

This is not the fragrance of aloeswood,

Nor is it the scent of leaves or flowers,

Nor was it obtained by blending

Various kinds of sandalwood fragrance.

I brought forth a rare and wondrous aspiration,

And spoke in such a manner;

Because I praised the Buddha Kasyapa,

I obtained this fragrance.

Though that Buddha entered nirvana,

The fragrance has never changed;

Day and night it constantly issues forth,

Never once coming to an end.”

The Sutra of the Sun Cloud records: “If incense has not finished burning and one casts it upon the ground, one commits a duskrta offense and falls into the Excrement Hell for a full five hundred years. Why? Because one’s mind is habitually heedless.” Furthermore, the Sutra of Yasa’s Questions records: “If someone uses the mouth to blow dust and ashes from ornaments and articles of offering, that person will fall into the Utpala Hell and, as retribution, become a king among the wind spirits.” The Sutra of the Most Essential Practices also records: “If someone smells incense with the nose and thereby diminishes its fragrance, that person gains no merit and, as retribution, falls into the Padma Hell;

in future lives, the faculty of smell will be unable to appreciate fragrances.” The Sutra of Daily Offerings also records: “If one does not keep one’s mouth closed while offering incense, one will fall into the Black Excrement Hell, undergo punishment for half a kalpa, and, as retribution, lack wisdom.

Why? Because exhaling causes the incense powder to rise.”

The Three Thousand Rules of Deportment records: “When lighting incense before the Buddha, there are three matters: first, replace the old incense in the burner; second, take out the incense oneself; third, it should be shared with others. Regarding the incense burner, there are also three matters: first, remove the old ashes and gather the incense remaining in the burner to one side; second, wipe the incense burner clean before lighting incense, then place the old incense back into it; third, while the incense is burning, one must not blow it out.”

VI. 3. Lighting Lamps

[36a] As recorded in the Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Original Practices: “The Buddha taught:

– In the past, innumerable kalpas ago, I was the king of a great kingdom in Jambudvipa and frequently relinquished my body and life in acts of giving. On one occasion, I took a knife and handed it to my ministers, telling them to cut one thousand deep holes in My body, each as large as a coin. They then poured oil into them, making one thousand lamps. After the wicks had been inserted, I said to the brahmin:

– Please teach the Dharma first, and then light the lamps!

The brahmin then spoke this verse:

What is lasting must eventually cease;

What is lofty must eventually fall;

Where there is union, there must be separation;

Where there is birth, there must be death.

After hearing the verse, I rejoiced greatly and immediately made this vow: ‘Today, in seeking the Dharma, I have pierced My body to make lamps. I do not seek worldly glory, nor do I seek attainment of the fruits of the Two Vehicles. I dedicate this merit solely to the attainment of unsurpassed, true, and perfect enlightenment.’ As soon as I made this vow, the trichiliocosm shook in six ways, and the one thousand lamps upon My body were lit. All the devas, Sakra, Brahma kings, wheel-turning sage kings, and others came to comfort Me and inquire:

– With one thousand lamps burning upon Your body, do You feel pain? Do You regret it?

I replied:

– I feel no pain, nor do I have any regret!

Sakra asked again:

– What proof is there that the great king has no regret?

I then made this vow:

– I have used My body to make one thousand lamps in quest of unsurpassed enlightenment and the attainment of Buddhahood. If this is indeed true, may all these wounds be healed.’

As soon as I made this vow, My body was restored to its former condition. At that time, Sakra, the heavenly kings, the king’s ministers and their retinues, together with innumerable people, praised Me wholeheartedly and all practiced the ten wholesome deeds.”

The Sutra of the Prophecy Bestowed upon King Ajatasatru records: “The Buddha accepted King Ajatasatru’s invitation and, after finishing the meal offering, returned to the Jetavana Monastery. At that time, King Ajatasatru consulted Jivaka:

– The Buddha has finished receiving the meal offering. What should I do next?

Jivaka replied:

– You should light many lamps as an offering!

King Ajatasatru then issued an order to bring one hundred hu of sesame oil and illuminate the way from the palace gate to the Jetavana Monastery. At that time, an impoverished old woman saw the king performing this meritorious deed and was deeply moved. She begged from place to place and obtained two coins, then went to a shop to buy oil. The shopkeeper asked:

– You are exceedingly poor and have obtained only two coins by begging. Why do you not buy food to sustain yourself? Why buy oil instead?

The old woman replied:

– It is exceedingly difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world; such an occasion arises but once in a hundred kalpas. I have been fortunate enough to encounter the Buddha, yet I have made no offering. Today, seeing the king perform such a great meritorious deed, though I am poor, I too wish to light one lamp as an offering to the Buddha, thereby establishing causes and conditions for a future life.

Hearing this, the shopkeeper rejoiced. Two coins should have purchased only two ge^[51] of oil, but he specially added another three ge, making five ge in all. The old woman then brought the oil before the Buddha and lit a lamp. However, reckoning that this amount of oil would not suffice to burn until midnight, she made this vow: ‘If in a future life I attain the Way as the Buddha has, may this oil burn brightly throughout the entire night without being exhausted.’ Having made this vow, she bowed with her head at the Buddha’s feet and returned home.

Of the king’s lamps, some went out and some exhausted their oil, [36b] but the old woman’s lamp continued to burn more brightly than all the others throughout the night without being extinguished. When morning came, its oil was still not exhausted. The Buddha told the Venerable Maudgalyayana:

– Dawn has come; you should extinguish the lamps!”

The Venerable Maudgalyayana obeyed the Buddha’s instruction and extinguished the lamps one after another, leaving only the old woman’s lamp. He blew upon it three times, yet it did not go out. The venerable then lifted the hem of his kasaya and fanned it, but the lamp burned even more brightly. Venerable Maudgalyayana then used his spiritual power to summon the Sairambha wind ^[52] to blow upon it, but the lamp burned still more fiercely. Its light shone directly up to the Brahma heaven and throughout the three-thousandfold world, where all could see the radiance of that lamp. The Buddha told Venerable Maudgalyayana:

“Enough, enough! This is the radiance of the merit of a future Buddha; your spiritual power cannot extinguish it. In a former life, this old woman made offerings to eight billion Buddhas and received a prediction of Buddhahood. However, she was always occupied with cultivating and studying the sutras and Dharma and had no leisure to practice generosity. Therefore, she is now destitute and possesses no wealth. After thirty kalpas have passed, this old woman will attain Buddhahood with the name Tathagata Sumeru Lamp Radiance, the Most True, the Perfectly and Completely Enlightened One. At that time, the world will have neither sun nor moon. The bodies of its people will naturally emit light, illuminating one another like the Trayastrimsa heaven.”

When the old woman heard this, her heart was filled with great joy. She bowed her head at the Buddha’s feet and then departed.

The king asked Jivaka:

“I have created such vast merit, yet the Buddha has not given me a prediction. Why has this old woman received a prediction merely for offering a single lamp?”

Jivaka replied:

“Great King, although the merit you have created is abundant, your mind was not single-pointed. Thus, it cannot equal the old woman’s wholehearted concentration upon the Buddha.”

Thereafter, King Ajatasatru, with a mind of utmost sincerity, offered oil and flowers to the Buddha. The Buddha then gave him a prediction:

“In a future life, after eighty thousand kalpas have passed, during a kalpa named Joyful Delight, Great King, you will attain Buddhahood with the name Pure Banner.”

At that time, King Ajatasatru’s son, Crown Prince Candahari, was only eight years old. When he heard that his royal father had received a prediction, his heart was filled with great joy. He immediately removed the jewels from his body, scattered them before the Buddha, and made this vow:

“May I, in the age of the Buddha Pure Banner, become a gold-wheel-turning king and make offerings to that Buddha. After that Buddha enters parinirvana, may I be the next to attain Buddhahood.”

The Buddha said:

“You will certainly fulfill your vow and attain Buddhahood with the name Candana.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “Ananda addressed the Buddha:

“I do not know what roots of virtue the World-Honored One cultivated in the past that, in this life, you have received the meritorious recompense of the Offering of Limitless Lamps ^[53].”

The Buddha told Ananda:

“In the past, two asamkhyeyas and ninety-one kalpas ago, in this Jambudvipa there was the ruler of a great kingdom named Paseki. His chief consort gave birth to a crown prince whose body was golden-purple in hue and who possessed all the noble marks. In time, the crown prince gradually grew up, renounced the household life, and attained Buddhahood.

He taught, transformed, and delivered countless sentient beings. The royal father then invited the Buddha and the Sangha to receive offerings for three months. At that time, there was a bhiksu named Arimaitra who vowed to serve as the donor providing lamps throughout that period.

Each day he entered the city to beg for various kinds of ghee, oil, and lampwicks. [36c] At that time, a princess named Muni was standing atop a high tower. Seeing this bhiksu enter the city each day to beg for the necessary articles, she gave rise to reverence and sent someone to ask what he required. The bhiksu replied:

“Today I am serving as the donor of lamps to the Buddha and the Sangha for three months. I have therefore entered the city to beg for ghee, oil, and lampwicks.”

The messenger returned and reported this to the princess. The princess was greatly delighted and said:

“From this day onward, venerable sir, do not go begging any longer. I shall provide you fully with lampwicks and all else you need!”

The bhiksu agreed. From then onward, the princess regularly supplied the bhiksu with ample ghee, oil, lampwicks, and all the other necessities. Bhiksu Arimaitra sincerely lit lamps as offerings to the Buddha.

The Buddha then gave him this prediction: ‘In a future life, after asamkhyeyas of kalpas have passed, you will attain Buddhahood with the name Dipamkara.’ When Princess Muni heard that Bhiksu Arimaitra had received a prediction, she thought: ‘All the materials used to make the lamps offered to the Buddha belonged to me. Yet the bhiksu has received a prediction, while I have not.’ Having reflected thus, she went before the Buddha and explained her thoughts.

The Buddha then gave her this prediction: ‘In a future life, after two asamkhyeyas and ninety-one kalpas have passed, you will attain Buddhahood with the name Shakyamuni, endowed with the ten epithets.’ After hearing the Buddha’s prediction, the princess’s heart was filled with great joy. She immediately transformed into a man, bowed at the Buddha’s feet, and asked to become a sramana. The Buddha consented.

From then onward, this sramana cultivated diligently and unceasingly. Because of the offering of luminous lamps made in the distant past, throughout countless kalpas from that time until now, he was continually reborn among devas and humans, naturally enjoyed blessings, and possessed a handsome form surpassing everyone. Now that he has attained Buddhahood, he receives the meritorious recompense of offerings of luminous lamps.”

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Merit of Offering Lamps records: “The Buddha told Shariputra:

“If a person goes before an image of the Buddha or a Buddhist monastery or stupa and offers a luminous lamp—even using only a small amount of wick or lighting an oil lamp as an offering—and its light illuminates merely a single path or a single step, Shariputra, the merit of that person cannot be known by any shravaka or pratyekabuddha; only a Buddha, a Tathagata, can know it. Even one who seeks worldly recompense acquires such merit; how much more so one whose mind is pure and who, with joyful faith, continuously recollects the Buddha without interruption.

If light illuminating only a single step brings such merit, how much more light illuminating an entire path; or two, three, or four paths; or one or two levels of a stupa, up to many levels; or one, two, or four sides of a stupa; or even the entirety of a Buddha image. Shariputra, that person’s lamp may suddenly go out by itself, be extinguished by the wind, go out when the oil is exhausted, go out when the wick is consumed, or go out when all of these are exhausted.

If, for even so brief a time, a person offers a small lamp to a Buddhist monastery or stupa, then, because of faith in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, that small lamp offered in this field of merit will bring a recompense and accomplish merit that only a Buddha can know. [37a] If a person who offers merely a small lamp acquires such abundant, immeasurable merit, how much more so, after my passing into nirvana, if a person personally lights or teaches others to light one lamp, two lamps, or many lamps, and offers them to a Buddha’s stupa together with incense, flowers, jeweled necklaces, jeweled banners, jeweled parasols, and other supremely exquisite articles!

Furthermore, if a person offers a single lamp to a Buddha’s stupa, after that person’s life ends, three kinds of light will be obtained: First, when that person approaches death, all the merit formerly created will appear before them. They will constantly recollect wholesome dharmas without forgetting them, and through recollecting those wholesome dharmas, a joyful mind will arise. Second, through this, they will be able to give rise to a mind that recollects the Buddha and practices generosity; their heart will be joyful, and they will no longer suffer from the distress of death.

Third, they will attain a mind that recollects the Dharma.

“Shariputra! When that person’s life ends, they will also behold four kinds of light: First, they will see a bright, perfectly round orb of the sun appear. Second, they will see a bright, perfectly round orb of the moon appear. Third, they will see devas seated together in one place. Fourth, they will see the Tathagata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly and Completely Enlightened One, seated beneath the bodhi tree, about to realize the fruit of enlightenment; they will also see themselves respectfully joining their palms in reverence before the Tathagata.”

Furthermore, Śāriputra, if anyone offers a single lamp to a Buddha stupa, at the approach of death that person will behold four kinds of light such as these, and after death will be reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Having been born in that heaven, that person will immediately attain five kinds of purity:

1- Purity of strength

2- Surpassing majesty and virtue among the devas

3- Purity of wisdom and mindfulness

4- Hearing sounds that gather the mind

5- Having agreeable companions and therefore always being joyful at heart.

When that person’s heavenly lifespan has ended, that person will not fall into an evil realm but will be born in the human world as a child of a wealthy, eminent, and powerful family, with reverence and faith in the Buddhadharma. At such a time, even if the Buddhadharma does not exist in the world, that person will still not be born into a lowly family holding wrong views.

Through offering a lamp, one attains four desirable qualities: first, physical beauty and strength; second, wealth; third, joy; and fourth, wisdom. If anyone established in the Mahayana offers a bright lamp to a Buddha stupa, that person will attain eight surpassing qualities:

1- Surpassing physical sight

2- Surpassing and inconceivable mindfulness

3- Surpassing divine sight

4- Through complete cultivation, one’s precepts will be flawless

5- One will perfect wisdom and realize nirvana

6- Because of wholesome deeds performed in the past, one will not be born in the eight difficult circumstances^[54]

7- Through the wholesome karma one has created, one will encounter the Buddhas, who serve as bright eyes for all sentient beings

8- Through this wholesome root, one will obtain the wheel-treasure of a wheel-turning sage king, [37b] be unobstructed by others, and possess a beautiful form; or one will become Śakra, possessing great majesty and virtue and endowed with a thousand eyes; or one will become a Brahmā king, skilled in cultivation and realizing great meditative concentration.

Śāriputra, by dedicating this wholesome root to bodhi, one will attain these eight kinds of surpassing peace and happiness. Śāriputra, if anyone sees another person offering a lamp to the Tathagata with pure faith, then joins the palms and gives rise to a mind of sympathetic joy, through this wholesome root that person will attain eight supreme qualities:

1- A supreme physical form

2- Supreme companions and kin

3- Supreme moral discipline

4- A supreme life among devas and humans

5- Supreme faith

6- Supreme eloquence

7- The supreme noble path

8- Attainment of anuttara-samyak-saṃbodhi.

Śāriputra, there are also five things difficult to obtain:

1- Attaining a human body

2- Having faith in and delighting in the Buddha’s true Dharma

3- Delighting in renunciation within the Buddha’s true Dharma

4- Being fully endowed with pure moral discipline

5- Attaining the exhaustion of the outflows.

These five things are difficult for all sentient beings to obtain, yet you have obtained them.”

The Sutra of Parables records: “When the Buddha was still in the world, his disciples differed in their virtues. The Venerable Śāriputra was foremost in wisdom, Mahāmaudgalyāyana was foremost in spiritual powers, and Aniruddha was foremost in divine sight. He could see the three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system, and could even see all subtle objects hidden in darkness. Seeing this, the Venerable Ānanda addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One, what wholesome karma did the Venerable Aniruddha cultivate in a former life to attain such divine sight?’

The Buddha said:

‘Ninety-one kalpas ago, after the Buddha Vipaśyin had entered nirvana, a thief slipped into a stupa to steal its valuables. Inside the stupa was a lamp placed before an image of the Buddha, but it was about to go out. The thief used the tip of an arrow to stir the wick and make the lamp burn brightly.

Suddenly beholding the majestic radiance of the Buddha, he was shaken to the depths of his heart and thought, “Other people even relinquish their wealth to seek merit; why, then, have I come here to steal?” With this thought, the thief departed. Through the meritorious cause and condition of having restored the lamp, throughout the following ninety-one kalpas that thief was constantly born in favorable realms. He gradually abandoned evil deeds, and his merit and virtue continued to increase.

Now he has encountered me, renounced the household life to cultivate the path, and attained arhatship. Within the assembly, his divine sight penetrates all things and is foremost. How much more inconceivable, then, will be the merit of one who gives rise to a mind of relinquishment and lights lamps as offerings to the Buddha!’ [37c] The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: ‘If anyone steals a jewel from a Buddha stupa, or even steals a lamp from a Buddha stupa, after death that person will fall into hell.

If that person later attains human birth, that person will be blind in life after life.’

The Consecration Sutra^[55] also records: “The Bodhisattva Deliverance addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One, if any man or woman is sick and remains bedridden, with no one to offer aid, I will exhort and invite the Sangha, for seven days and seven nights, to single-mindedly observe the fast, uphold the eight precepts, practice the path during the six periods of the day and night, and recite the scriptures forty-nine times. They should light lamps arranged in seven tiers and hang five-colored spirit-banners for prolonging life.’

Ānanda asked:

‘How should the lamps and life-prolonging banners be made?’

The Bodhisattva Deliverance said:

‘The spirit-banner should be made of cloth in five colors and be forty-nine feet long. The lamps should likewise be arranged in seven tiers, with seven lamps on each tier, each lamp as large as a cartwheel. If one encounters dangerous calamities, or is imprisoned, fettered with cangues, shackles, and chains, one should likewise set up spirit-banners and life-prolonging lamps and release living creatures. Within forty-nine days, one will pass beyond all such tribulations and will not be afflicted or harmed by evil spirits.’”

Furthermore, the Sutra of the Samadhi of the Radiance Surpassing the Sun records: “The Deva King of the Sun and innumerable celestial beings approached the Buddha, bowed their heads at his feet, and addressed him:

‘World-Honored One, what Dharma must one cultivate to become a Sun Deva, whose light shines throughout the four continents? Moreover, through what causes and conditions does one become a Moon Deva, illuminating the darkness of night?’

The Buddha taught:

‘By practicing four things, one will become a Sun King:

1- Always joyfully practicing generosity

2- Cultivating oneself and being careful in one’s conduct

3- Upholding the precepts without transgression

4- Lighting lamps in a Buddhist monastery, or in the presence of one’s parents, śramaṇas, and cultivators of the path; and practicing the ten wholesome deeds with body, speech, and mind.’

The Buddha continued:

‘By practicing four things, one will become a Moon King:

1- Giving to the poor and needy.

2- Upholding the five precepts.

3- Reverently serving the Three Jewels.

4- Lighting bright lamps in dark places, or in temples and shrines, and in the presence of kings, parents, teachers, and patriarchs.’

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya records: “The Buddha taught:

‘From this time onward, when lighting lamps, permission is given to place a taper to one side and then light the lamps in succession. Lamps should first be placed where relics and images of the Buddha are enshrined. After making obeisance, light them in sequence.

When extinguishing the lamps, first extinguish those in other places, and only afterward extinguish the lamps before the Buddha and the relics. At the same time, it should be said: “Venerable ones, you must not blow out lamps with your mouths. Because there are living creatures in the flame and because blowing may harm a person’s breath, blowing is not permitted.

You are permitted only to use your hand or a robe to fan them out. You must lower your head when lighting from the taper. When entering, do not do so hastily, but announce: ‘Only venerable ones who wish to light lamps may enter.’ If this is not done, one commits an offense against proper deportment.”’

Furthermore, the Three Thousand Rules of Deportment records: “There are five matters concerning the lighting of lamps:

1- One should use a cloth to wipe clean both the inside and outside of the lamp

2- One must clean the lampwick

3- One must prepare the oil oneself

4- When pouring in the oil, one must neither fill the lamp too full nor put in too little

5- One must place it securely and must not hang it where it would obstruct those practicing the path.”

[38a] The Five Hundred Questions records: “The lamp before the Buddha must be kept burning throughout the day and must not be extinguished. For a Buddha there is neither light nor darkness, since these are fundamentally empty; but the words and thoughts of sentient beings are all limited, and therefore extinguishing the light is an offense.” The Tripitaka Master Ba-phả-sư of the Great Tang further records: “A lamp burning before the Buddha must not be taken away. An object beside the lamp may be taken, provided that doing so does not obstruct its light.”

VI.4. Hanging banners and streamers

The Sutra of Kasyapa’s Admonition to Ananda records: “Long ago, King Asoka erected one thousand two hundred stupas throughout his kingdom. Later, the king became gravely ill. A sramana came to visit him, and the king said to the sramana:

– Previously, I erected one thousand two hundred stupas. I wished personally to hang banners and streamers woven with golden threads and scatter flowers, thereby completing the undertaking. Now that I am so gravely ill, I fear that my wish will not be fulfilled.

The sramana said to the king:

– Great King, join your palms and single-mindedly give rise to reverence.

Having spoken, the sramana immediately manifested his supernormal powers. At once, the one thousand two hundred stupas appeared before the king. King Ajatasatru saw them and was filled with joy. He immediately ordered that the banners, streamers, and golden flowers be brought and hung upon the stupas. At once, all the stupas, whether high or low, appeared within the king’s reach. The king fulfilled his wish and recovered from his illness. Thereafter, he gave rise to the great resolve, and his life was prolonged by another twenty-five years. For this reason, this banner is called the divine life-prolonging banner.”

The Universal and Extensive Sutra further records: “If, among the fourfold assembly of bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas, someone is approaching death or has already passed away, and on the very day of that person’s death the relatives make a yellow banner and hang it upon a stupa, that person will acquire merit, be freed from the sufferings of the eight difficulties, and be born in the lands of the Buddhas of the ten directions.

By offering banners and canopies, one’s wishes will be fulfilled according to one’s heart, until one attains bodhi. The banners and streamers flutter in the wind until they become completely tattered and are reduced even to minute particles of dust. With each turning of a banner, one will attain the station of a wheel-turning sage-king; even when a single particle of dust is carried away, one will immediately attain the station of a lesser king.

Such karmic rewards are beyond reckoning. By lighting lamps as offerings and illuminating dark places, suffering sentient beings are enabled through this light to see one another; by virtue of that merit, all those sentient beings also attain peace and security.

Question: Why does the sutra teach that a yellow banner should be made and hung upon the funerary stupa of the deceased?

Answer: Although no explanation has yet been found in the sutras, its meaning may be inferred. Among the five primary colors, yellow occupies the center and symbolizes loyalty and wholehearted dedication to cultivating merit, enabling the intermediate-state body neither to fall into the evil destinies nor to be born in a border region. Furthermore, yellow resembles ornamental gold. Ghosts and spirits in the netherworld all make use of gold. Therefore, when people in the human world perform offerings, they often cut paper into gold and silver money and offer it; the ghosts receive and use that paper money. When yellow paper money is cut out and offered to ghosts, the ghosts immediately receive yellow paper money for their use.

Question: How can this be known?

Answer: It is fully recorded in the Records of Retributions in the Netherworld and the Records of Auspicious Signs in the Netherworld; hence it may be known.”

[38b] The Sutra of Parables further records: “There was once a man who dug a granary pit capable of holding several hundred dan of grain. One day, a grain-stealing creature came and stole all the grain. When the owner opened the granary, he discovered that not a single grain remained; he saw only an enormous creature. He immediately seized and questioned it:

– Why did you steal all my grain? What spirit are you?

The creature replied:

– Take me to the crossroads; someone there will know my name!

The owner agreed and brought the creature to the crossroads. On the way, they encountered an official riding a golden horse and wearing yellow robes; all his carriages and garments were likewise of the same yellow color. The official then asked:

– Grain thief! Why are you here?

Only then did the owner realize that this creature was the grain thief, and he asked:

– Who is the person wearing yellow garments and riding a golden horse?

The grain thief replied:

– That is the numinous essence of pure gold. I ask to take this gold to repay you for the value of the grain that was lost.

The owner thereby obtained so much gold that he could not exhaust it. Because humans and ghosts follow different paths and perceive things differently, the sages instituted yellow banners to be hung upon funerary stupas for the deceased; when ghosts and spirits find these treasures, they immediately render assistance.”

The Sutra of a Hundred Conditions records: “When the Buddha was in the world, there lived in the city of Kapilavastu an immensely wealthy elder whose possessions were immeasurable and beyond reckoning. His wife gave birth to a handsome and comely boy without equal. When the boy was born, a great banner appeared in the sky and spread over the entire city. His parents saw this and were filled with joy; accordingly, they named their son Ba-đa-ca.

In time, Ba-đa-ca grew up. He then asked the Buddha for permission to enter the monastic life and attained arhatship, complete with the three knowledges, the six supernormal powers, and the eight liberations.

Seeing this, the bhiksus addressed the Buddha:

– World-Honored One! What merit did the bhiksu Ba-đa-ca cultivate in the past, such that at birth he was more handsome than others and a great banner spread over the entire city, and that now he has encountered the World-Honored One, entered the monastic life, and attained the fruit of the path?

The Buddha told the bhiksus:

– Ninety-one kalpas ago, in the land of Varanasi, the Buddha Vipasyin appeared in the world. After he entered nirvana, King Bandhumati gathered his relics and erected in their honor a stupa made of the four precious substances, one yojana in height. At that time, a man held a great assembly beside the stupa to make offerings. When the offerings were completed, he made a banner and hung it upon the stupa, made a vow, and departed. By virtue of this merit, throughout the ensuing ninety-one kalpas he did not fall into the three evil destinies. Whether born in the heavens or among humans, he was always sheltered by a banner that accompanied him, and he enjoyed happiness. Now he has encountered Me, entered the monastic life, and attained the fruit of the path.”

The Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Original Practices records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, he led the bhiksus from the land of Uất-ti-la-diên and journeyed about teaching in various places.[38c] At that time, the weather was scorching hot. A goatherd saw the Buddha walking in this manner and gave rise to a pure mind. He plaited grass into a canopy and followed the Buddha, holding it over him. When he had gone very far from his herd, he finally set the canopy down upon the ground and returned to the goats. The Buddha smiled and said to Ananda:

– With a reverent mind, this goatherd made a grass canopy and held it over Me. By virtue of this merit, for thirty kalpas he will not fall into the evil destinies and will be born in the heavens. After being born again among humans, he will become the son of a noble family and enjoy happiness; a canopy made of the seven precious substances will always appear naturally and accompany him, sheltering him. At the end of thirty kalpas, he will enter the monastic life, cultivate the path, and become a pratyekabuddha named Anuttara-bodhi.”

The verse says:

Weary of the root of ignorance,

One will delight in the fair Nại Grove^[56].

Newly entering the path to Fragrant Mountain,

One ultimately attains an indestructible body.

The flower of concentration bears the fruit of wisdom;

The divine lamp illuminates the Brahma heavens.

Banners and streamers resemble brocade hues,

Their fragrance rich like clouds of incense.

They coil and soar to the bounds of space,

Then spread downward like crimson lotuses.

Day and night, the wind blows constantly,

Amassing causes for becoming a wheel-turning king.

One gazes upon them without weariness,

Gathering with companions to behold them.

How could one know that within those forms

Are gained blessings and enduring longevity?

Notes:

^[26] Eight liberations (Ch: 八解脫; S: aṣṭau vimokṣāḥ): eight powers of meditative concentration that help one abandon sensual desire in the Form and Formless Realms. First, while inwardly possessing the perception of form, one contemplates external forms and attains liberation; second, while inwardly possessing no perception of form, one contemplates external forms and attains liberation; third, one attains and abides in the liberation of purity through the body; fourth, having completely transcended perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of resistance, and without attending to perceptions of diversity, one enters the Sphere of Infinite Space and fully abides in liberation;

fifth, having completely transcended the Sphere of Infinite Space, one enters the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness and fully abides in liberation; sixth, having completely transcended the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, one enters the Sphere of Nothingness and fully abides in liberation; seventh, having completely transcended the Sphere of Nothingness, one enters the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception and fully abides in liberation; eighth, having completely transcended the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, one enters the cessation of perception and feeling, realizes it fully through the body, and fully abides in liberation.

^[27] Ten knowledges 十智 (S: daśa jñānāni): the ten kinds of knowledge attained by a bodhisattva dwelling at the Stage of Consecration. They are: the knowledge that causes immeasurable worlds to quake; the knowledge that illuminates immeasurable worlds; the knowledge that sustains immeasurable worlds; the knowledge that comprehensively knows immeasurable worlds; the knowledge that adorns and purifies immeasurable worlds; the knowledge that knows the mental conduct of immeasurable sentient beings; the knowledge that knows the courses of conduct followed according to the minds of immeasurable sentient beings; the knowledge that knows the faculties of immeasurable sentient beings; the knowledge of skillful means for liberating immeasurable sentient beings;

and the knowledge that tames immeasurable sentient beings.

^[28] Xiao Shi 簫史: a man renowned for playing the xiao flute who lived during the reign of Duke Mu of Qin in China.

^[29] Zizhen 子晉: the courtesy name of Prince Qiao, crown prince during the reign of King Ling of Zhou. Tradition relates that Zizhen was skilled at playing the sheng, producing sounds like a phoenix. He was later taken by Fuqiu Gong to Mount Song, where he cultivated the Way and became an immortal.

^[30] Deer Park (Deer Park 鹿野苑; S: Mṛgadāva): the place where the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel. It is present-day Sārnāth, six kilometers from the city of Varanasi in northern India.

^[31] Essentials of the Dharma 法要: the essential meanings of the teachings.

^[32] Heaven of the Thirty-Three (Heaven of the Thirty-Three 三十三天; S: Trāyastriṃśat-deva): the second of the six heavens of the Desire Realm. This heaven is situated on the summit of Mount Sumeru, which has four peaks. On each side are eight celestial cities, with the city of Sudarśana in the center reserved for Śakra. There are thirty-three places altogether; hence it is also called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

^[33] Rock honey 石蜜 (S: phāṇita): another name for rock sugar.

^[34] Natural principle (the original text reads “the natural vow,” 自然之願); Volume 12 of the Fayuan Zhulin records it as “the natural number,” 自然之數.

^[35] Trāyastriṃśa 忉利 (S: Trāyastriṃśa): the second of the six heavens of the Desire Realm. This heaven is situated on the summit of Mount Sumeru. On each of the four sides of the summit are eight cities, with the city of Sudarśana in the center reserved for Śakra. It comprises thirty-three places and is therefore called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

^[36] Vaiśālī 毘舍離 (S: Vaiśāli): a kingdom in ancient central India and the home of the bodhisattva Vimalakīrti.

^[37] Heaven of the Four Great Kings (Heaven of the Four Great Kings 四天王天): the first heaven of the Desire Realm, situated halfway up Mount Sumeru.

^[38] Three Mountains 三山: three sacred mountains in Chinese mythology.

^[39] Fivefold heat 五熱: a non-Buddhist sect in India whose members practiced asceticism by exposing themselves to the sun and allowing five parts of the body to be scorched by its heat.

^[40] Bhadrika (婆提; S: Bhadrika): one of the first five bhikṣus in the Buddha’s Sangha. After the Buddha renounced the household life, Bhadrika, together with Ājñāta Kauṇḍinya and the others, obeyed King Śuddhodana’s command to attend upon the Buddha and practiced asceticism with him.

^[41] Pure Abode Heavens (Pure Abode Heavens 淨居天): namely, the five Pure Abode heavens belonging to the third dhyāna.

^[42] Chen Si 陳思 (also called Prince Chen Si): the second son of Cao Cao. Though only ten years old, he excelled in literature and poetry,

and merely had to set brush to paper for a poem to be completed, without needing to deliberate.

^[43] Wenxuan 文宣: refers to Confucius. In the twenty-seventh year of the Kaiyuan era, Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang dynasty conferred upon Confucius the title King Wenxuan.

^[44] Drowsiness 垂蓋: sleepiness; according to the Consciousness-Only school, it is one of the four indeterminate mental factors.

^[45] Six faculties 六情: here this refers to the six sense faculties: the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

^[46] Poṣadha 布薩 (S: poṣadha, upavasatha, upoṣadha, upavāsa): bhikṣus dwelling together assemble in one place every half-month and invite a bhikṣu well versed in the precepts to recite the Prātimokṣa so that they may review their conduct over the preceding half-month.

^[47] Six harmonies 六契: six tonal rhymes.

^[48] Karmic obstruction 業障 (S: karmāvaraṇa): the evil karma created by sentient beings through body, speech, and mind that obscures the true path; one of the three obstructions and one of the four obstructions.

^[49] Wrong view 邪見 (S: mithyā-dṛṣṭi): erroneous attachment to views. It refers to doctrines that reject and deny the principles of cause and effect and the Four Noble Truths.

^[50] Pure person 淨人: a person residing in a monastery who has not yet shaved their head and attends only to pure duties.

^[51] Ge 合: the name of an ancient unit of volume; one ge equals one-tenth of a sheng.

^[52] Vairambha wind (Vairambha wind 毘嵐風): a fierce wind that blows swiftly and powerfully when the cosmos begins to form, at the Initial Eon, and when it comes to an end, at the Final Eon.

^[53] Inexhaustible lamp 無極燈: a lamp that burns perpetually without being extinguished.

^[54] Eight difficult circumstances (eight difficulties 八難; S: aṣṭāv akṣaṇāḥ): eight painful circumstances that obstruct sentient beings from encountering the Dharma. These eight difficulties are: being in hell; being a hungry ghost; being an animal; being born in the Heaven of Long Life; being born in Uttarakuru; being deaf, blind, mute, or speech-impaired; possessing worldly intelligence and eloquence; and being born before or after the time of a Buddha.

^[55] Consecration Sutra (Consecration Sutra 灌頂經; S: Mahābhiṣeka-mantra): a scripture in twelve fascicles translated by Śrīmitra during the Eastern Jin dynasty in China and included in Volume 21 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This scripture was formed from twelve shorter sutras, ranging from the Sutra of the Consecration, the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, and the Protective Spirit Mantra Worn on the Person to the Sutra of the Consecration for Eradicating Past Transgressions and Attaining Liberation from Birth and Death. Each of these twelve sutras, based on its particular merit, contains the four characters meaning “Spoken by the Buddha: Consecration”; hence they are collectively called the Consecration Sutra.

^[56] Mango Garden (Mango Garden 柰園): according to the Yilin Fashan, the Mango Garden refers to a Buddhist monastery. According to the old translation, the āmraka grove was also called the Mango Garden.