妙法蓮華經文句

SCRIPTURE TEXT

At that time, Bodhisattva Maitreya, wishing to resolve his own doubts, and also perceiving the doubts in the minds of the four assemblies of bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas, as well as devas, dragons, ghosts, spirits, and others, addressed Manjusri, saying: “For what causes and conditions has the Buddha manifested this auspicious sign of spiritual powers, emitting a great ray of light that illuminates 18,000 worlds in the eastern direction, so that [the great assembly] can see in their entirety the adorned Buddha lands there?”

Thereupon, Bodhisattva Maitreya, wishing to restate this meaning, spoke verses and asked:

From the words “At that time, Bodhisattva Maitreya, wishing to resolve his own doubts” through the end of the verses constitutes the Introduction to the inquiry. This portion of the scripture is further divided into two parts: the prose passage and the verses. Its structure is again divided into Maitreya’s own doubts, the doubts of others [in the great assembly], and the inquiry [in which the questions are raised]. The inquiry is further divided into discussion of this land and discussion of other lands, as presented in the scripture text.

For what reason are there verses? Nagarjuna’s Vibhasa Treatise states: First, this accords with the customs of different lands. In India, there is an explanation that [the prose passage is like] scattering flowers, while [the verses are like] stringing the flowers together into a garland, just as in this Introduction a section follows [to gather the teachings together] for recollection.

Second, this accords with differing preferences: some delight in prose [passages], while others delight in metrical language [verses]. Third, this accords with the differing understanding of sentient beings: some gain understanding by reading the scripture text [in prose], while others gain understanding by reading the metrical text [in verse]. Fourth, this accords with the sharp or dull faculties [of the listeners].

Those of sharp faculties understand upon hearing it only once, while those of dull faculties must hear it repeated before they understand.”

It is also said that the repetition demonstrates the Buddha’s earnestness in teaching. Moreover, because some members of the great assembly arrived earlier and others later, there are verses [that repeat the teaching].

SCRIPTURE TEXT

This verse section contains 62 stanzas, [each stanza consisting of four lines]. Its structure is divided into two parts: the first 54 stanzas raise questions, and the final 8 stanzas request answers. The [54 stanzas] containing the inquiry are further divided into two parts: the first 4 stanzas ask about this land, and the following 50 stanzas ask about other lands.

1. Raising the Questions

The prose passage as a whole asks generally about the six auspicious signs in this land. In [the first part of this second main section], the verses additionally mention the fragrant [sandalwood] breeze and the purified and adorned earth, but do not mention the two events of teaching the Dharma and entering samadhi. Reading the words literally, one might consider some things superfluous and others omitted, but an examination of their meaning shows that this is not so.

Teaching the Dharma is the nature of wisdom, while entering samadhi is the original mind. From this original mind and nature of wisdom, the trembling of the earth and the emission of illuminating light can arise. Merely stating the branches makes the root clearly known; therefore, though something appears omitted, it is not truly omitted.

Others ^[1], failing to perceive this meaning, claim that Maitreya did not ask about the two events [of teaching the Dharma and entering samadhi], and on this basis say that these two events are not auspicious signs. We now ask in return: if Maitreya did not ask [about these matters], why did Manjusri answer them? They further pose the question: [if Maitreya did ask], then please indicate where the question occurs.

We now point out that the general inquiry in the prose passage itself includes these meanings.

If one further wishes to identify a specific place where these meanings are contained in the inquiry, we point to the two words “Guiding Teacher,” which include precisely these meanings. Only by teaching the Dharma and entering samadhi is one able to guide and instruct others. Therefore, the honorific “Guiding Teacher” already contains the intention to ask about teaching the Dharma and entering samadhi. Thus, it is said that nothing is omitted from the scripture text.

Others also maintain that the fragrant breeze, produced by blowing through a forest of aloeswood, and the purified and adorned earth are two superfluous additions.

We now clarify that they are not superfluous. Wind is naturally without scent, but now it bears fragrance; this is extraordinary and wondrous, and is therefore an auspicious sign. Since celestial flowers are exceedingly wondrous, how could they possess color but no fragrance?

This symbolizes the successive progression from cause to effect: where there are celestial flowers, there is also a fragrant breeze. When the flowers fall upon the earth, the earth immediately becomes purified and adorned. Likewise, when the cause [of purity and adornment] proceeds toward fruition, that fruit must also be purified and adorned.

The Golden Light Sutra states: “All merits assemble to adorn the Buddha’s body.” Thus, the two events [of teaching the Dharma and entering samadhi] manifest as the four kinds of celestial flowers. This expresses the meaning that “although something appears superfluous, it is not truly superfluous.”

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The ray of light from between his eyebrows

Illuminates throughout the eastern direction,

Reaching all eighteen thousand lands,

All radiant with golden splendor,

From the Avici hell

Upward to the Heaven of the Summit of Existence.

Within those worlds,

Sentient beings of all six destinies,

Where they go in birth and death,

Their wholesome and unwholesome karmic conditions,

And the favorable and unfavorable fruits they undergo—

All these can be clearly seen from here.

From the words “The ray of light from between his eyebrows” onward, there are 50 stanzas asking about the six auspicious signs in other lands. The old commentators say that the verses contain no questions about the Three Vehicles or the four assemblies, nor do they ask about the Buddha’s [entry into] nirvana.

In this teaching, [the Buddha] teaches that the Three Vehicles are to be set aside [so that beings may advance toward the single Buddha Vehicle]; why, then, would there be a question about the Three Vehicles? [In this sutra, the Buddha is about to] teach the lifespan [of the Tathagata]; how, then, could there be a question about his extinction? Because such meanings would be inappropriate, they were not raised as questions. Alas, [to speak in this way] is truly to misunderstand the meaning of the sutra and merely force it to conform to one’s own ideas.

We shall now clarify that the second main portion of this verse section fully presents questions concerning the six auspicious signs in other lands. Its structure is divided into six main passages.

The first main passage consists of 3 stanzas asking about [the phenomena] within the six destinies of sentient beings. The second main passage consists of 4 stanzas asking about seeing the Buddhas of other lands teach the Dharma. The third main passage consists of 3 stanzas asking about [the Buddhas teaching the Dharma] to the four assemblies in other lands. [The fourth main passage], which follows, consists of 1½ stanzas concluding the preceding content and introducing what follows. The fifth main passage consists of 31½ stanzas asking about the practices cultivated by the bodhisattvas in other lands. The sixth main passage consists of 7 stanzas asking about offerings made to relics, which is to ask about the Buddha’s entry into nirvana.

© [The first general section] begins with three stanzas [as just cited above], asking about [the circumstances of sentient beings] in the six destinies. Examining the meaning of this verse section, we know that the preceding scriptural passage, which says that the ray of light “illuminated throughout the eastern direction,” means that it illuminated all those lands. These verses reiterate [the meaning of] the general question above. Sentient beings in the six destinies are the subjects of rebirth; birth and death are the realms into which [those sentient beings] are reborn; wholesome and unwholesome karmic conditions are the causes of rebirth; and [their reception of] good or bad bodies is the fruit of rebirth.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

Again, I see the Buddhas,

Lion-like Holy Lords,

Expounding many scriptures,

All supremely wondrous and subtle.

Their voices are truly pure,

Their speech gentle and pleasing to hear,

Instructing the bodhisattvas,

Countless myriads of thousands of them.

Their profound and wondrous heavenly voices

Delight all who hear them.

Each within his own realm

Expounds the true Dharma,

Employing all manner of causes and conditions

And countless parables

To illuminate the Buddha-Dharma

And awaken sentient beings.

© The second general section, from “Again, I see the Buddhas” onward, consists of four stanzas and asks about seeing the Buddha lands and seeing the Buddhas expound the Dharma. This is an extensive account of the characteristics of Dharma teaching, describing the teaching of the sudden doctrine suited to those of great capacities. “Lion-like Holy Lords” is analogous to the manifestation in this realm of the image of Vairocana Buddha [expounding the Avatamsaka Sutra].

“Expounding many scriptures, all supremely wondrous and subtle” is analogous to the initial exposition in this realm of the Avatamsaka Sutra to teach the bodhisattvas, just as [the newly risen sun] first shines upon the high mountains. Likewise, when the Avatamsaka Sutra was taught in nine assemblies at seven places in this realm, no shravakas were present; [there were only bodhisattvas].

“To illuminate the Buddha-Dharma and awaken sentient beings” is analogous to those in this realm who, upon first seeing the Buddha’s body, entered the wisdom of the Tathagata.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

For those who encounter suffering

And grow weary of aging, sickness, and death,

He teaches nirvana,

Bringing every realm of suffering to an end.

For those possessed of merit,

Who have formerly made offerings to Buddhas

And are resolved to seek the surpassing Dharma,

He then teaches the Dharma of the pratyekabuddhas.

Especially for the Buddha’s children,

Who cultivate every meritorious practice

And seek unsurpassed wisdom,

He then expounds the pure path.

© The third general section, from “For those who encounter suffering” onward, consists of three stanzas and asks about the four assemblies in other realms; that is, after teaching the sudden doctrine, it clearly expounds the Tripitaka teaching. “For those who encounter suffering” opens the Shravaka Vehicle. These verses fully elucidate the Four Noble Truths, which are stated very clearly in the scriptural text. Such is the general meaning.

If those who encounter suffering create unwholesome karma, they cannot end suffering. These are the sentient beings in the lower realms.

If those who encounter suffering create wholesome karma, they still cannot end suffering, because they abhor [the suffering of] the lower realms while clinging to [the pleasures of] the higher realms, as in the case of the Venerable Nanda, who [at first] resolved to observe the precepts because he wished to satisfy his sensual desires.

If those who encounter suffering follow non-Buddhist paths in search of liberation, they only increase their erroneous views and understandings and likewise cannot end suffering.

If those who encounter suffering grow weary of and abandon the cause of suffering, and also grow weary of and abandon any reliance upon its fruit, and apprehend [the meaning of] the Buddha’s teaching on nirvana, they can completely eliminate every domain of suffering. The [Shravaka] Vehicle is opened in the other realms in the same way.

The one stanza beginning with “For those possessed of merit” opens the Middle Vehicle. ^[2] If people have made few offerings to Buddhas, then when they encounter suffering, their distress and afflictions increase. If they have made many offerings to Buddhas, then even when they encounter suffering, they still possess merit. Thus it is said that shravakas cultivate merit over three lifetimes, while pratyekabuddhas cultivate merit over a hundred kalpas. Here, they are described as possessing merit in comparison with the shravakas.

“Resolved to seek the surpassing Dharma” means that shravakas practice because they fear suffering, whereas pratyekabuddhas practice because they seek the path, wholeheartedly searching for the supremely subtle principle of dependent origination. This describes the opening of the Middle Vehicle in those realms.

From “Especially for the Buddha’s children” onward, the six paramitas of the Mahayana are opened. Because genuine compassion can perpetuate the Buddha’s lineage, they are called “the Buddha’s children.” Because they cultivate the six paramitas, they are said to “cultivate every meritorious practice.” Because their resolve is to seek [the surpassing Dharma], the text speaks of “unsurpassed wisdom.” Within the six paramitas there are none of the six obscuring mental states, ^[3] just as medicine for curing illness inherently contains no illness; therefore, it is called the “pure path.” This, however, is not the ultimate state of perfect purity.

Furthermore, shravakas take the truth of suffering as their Dharma gateway of contemplation; pratyekabuddhas take the truth of origination as their Dharma gateway of cultivation; and bodhisattvas, in cultivating the six paramitas, take the truth of the path as their Dharma gateway. Therefore, it is called the “pure path.”

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

O Manjushri!

Here where I abide,

I see and hear all these things,

Together with myriad thousands of others.

The assembled multitude comprises every kind of being;

I shall now speak of them only in brief.

© The fourth general section, from “O Manjushri! Here where I abide” onward, consists of one and a half stanzas, concluding the preceding content and introducing what follows. “I see and hear all these things” concludes the preceding section, while “the assembled multitude comprises every kind of being”1 introduces the content that follows.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

I see within those realms

Countless bodhisattvas,

Employing all manner of causes and conditions

In quest of the Buddha path.

© The fifth general section, from “I see within those realms” onward, consists of thirty-one and a half stanzas and asks about the practices cultivated by the bodhisattvas in those realms. Its structure is divided into three sections. The first section, comprising one stanza, presents a general question. The second, comprising fifteen stanzas, asks successively [about each subject]. The third, comprising fifteen and a half stanzas, asks about many topics in a mixed sequence.

© The general question presented in the first section is very clear and readily understandable.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

Some constantly practice giving,

Offering gold, silver, and coral,

Precious mani pearls,

Mother-of-pearl and agate,

Diamonds and other treasures,

Servants and carriages

Adorned with precious jewels—

All these they joyfully give.

They dedicate the merit toward attaining the Buddha path,

Aspiring to realize the Buddha Vehicle,

Foremost throughout the three realms,

Which all Buddhas praise.

Or there are bodhisattvas

Who give precious carriages,

Drawn by four horses and covered by canopies,

All beautifully adorned.

Again, I see bodhisattvas

Giving even their own flesh and bones,

Their hands and feet, and their wives and children,

In quest of the unsurpassed path.

Again, I see bodhisattvas

Who gladly and joyfully give

Their heads, eyes, and bodies

In quest of the Buddha’s wisdom.

© The second section, from “Some constantly practice giving” onward, consists of fifteen stanzas that successively present questions and is further divided into six subsections.

The first subsection consists of the six stanzas above and asks about the paramita of giving. The second consists of two stanzas and asks about the paramita of moral discipline. The third consists of one stanza and asks about the paramita of patience. The fourth consists of one stanza and asks about the paramita of diligence. The fifth consists of two stanzas and asks about the paramita of meditative concentration. The sixth consists of three stanzas and asks about the paramita of wisdom.

The first subsection, which asks about the paramita of giving, is further divided into three divisions. § The first division consists of the first four stanzas and asks about relinquishing material possessions. § The second division consists of one stanza and asks about relinquishing the body. § The third division consists of one stanza and asks about relinquishing one’s life.

All precious treasures, servants and attendants, may be freely relinquished and given away. Even precious four-horse carriages are generously bestowed. Wife and children are external to the body; bones and flesh are within the body. To give away even one’s head and eyes is to relinquish one’s life. Yet the giving of the Dharma is not mentioned, because it is reserved for the later section concerning prajnaparamita. Furthermore, since the brief statement about relinquishing life and possessions means that in future births and deaths one will attain the indestructible and eternally abiding, this itself is also the giving of the Dharma; therefore, there is no need to explain this meaning separately.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

O Manjushri!

I see kings

Visiting the Buddha’s abode,

Inquiring about the unsurpassed Way,

Then forsaking realms of sensual pleasure,

Palaces filled with beautiful women,

Shaving off both beard and hair,

And donning the Dharma robes of renunciants.

The second subsection, beginning with “O Manjushri, I see kings,” consists of two stanzas raising a question concerning the paramita of moral discipline. This is a brief reference to bhikshus in order to discuss the observance of the precepts. For householders, giving is easy, but observing the precepts is difficult. For renunciants, giving is difficult, but observing the precepts is easy. Therefore, bhikshus are briefly mentioned to clarify the observance of the precepts. In this section, the Sutra of the Five Kings is cited.1 Such is the general purport.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Or I see bodhisattvas

Appearing as bhikshus,

Dwelling alone in tranquil seclusion,

Delighting in reciting the scriptures.

The third subsection, beginning with “Or I see bodhisattvas,” consists of one stanza raising a question concerning the paramita of patience. The patience spoken of here is of three kinds. Dwelling in deserted forests and deep ravines, one patiently endures evil people and ferocious beasts without giving rise to anger; this is called patience toward beings.

Living with moderation and restraint while preserving one’s resolve is called patience in ascetic practice. Seeking the Buddha Way is patience in accordance with the highest meaning. Thus, renouncing the household life and becoming a bhikshu is patience in ascetic practice; dwelling alone in a secluded place is patience toward beings; and delighting in reciting and reading the scriptures is patience in accordance with the highest meaning.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Again I see bodhisattvas,

Valiant and vigorous in effort,

Entering deep into the mountains,

Diligently contemplating the Way.

The fourth subsection, beginning with “Again I see bodhisattvas, valiant and vigorous in effort,” consists of one stanza raising a question concerning the paramita of diligence. Deep mountains are generally exceedingly frightening and are not a dwelling place for the indolent or weak. Only those who are valiant and diligent can dwell there peacefully, as though nothing surrounded them, solely striving to contemplate and cultivate the true aspect of reality, never resting for even a moment, and diligently seeking the Buddha Way.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Again I see those free from desire,

Ever dwelling in tranquil seclusion,

Deeply cultivating meditation,

And attaining the five superknowledges.

Again I see bodhisattvas,

With palms joined in meditation,

Using tens of thousands of verses

To praise the Buddhas.

The fifth subsection, beginning with “Again I see those free from desire,” consists of two stanzas raising a question concerning the paramita of meditation. The first stanza raises a question about the cultivation of foundational meditation. The latter stanza raises a question about the cultivation of the most excellent supramundane meditation.

Whatever path of cultivation one follows, it must have foundational meditation. As for those free from desire, by severing sensual desire they attain the five superknowledges; this is precisely the concentration of the Shared Teaching. Furthermore, severing sensual desire is foundational.

Renunciation and the cultivation of the contemplation of impurity and so forth are also all intended to sever sensual desire. The Separate Teaching also abandons the desires of those of the Two Vehicles. The Middle Way further abandons even desires that accord with the Dharma path.

Such is the general purport.

As for deeply cultivating meditation, merely initiating the concentration of the first dhyana is not yet called deep. One must proceed continuously through the nine successive concentrations ^[4] for it to be called deep. Furthermore, one must successively relinquish even the nine successive concentrations, the eight spheres of mastery, ^[5] the ten totalities, and so forth1 for it to be called deep.

This meditation functions with complete freedom and can give rise to superknowledges. Ordinary beings possess only five superknowledges; those of the Two Vehicles possess all six superknowledges; bodhisattvas of the Separate Teaching are inferior to Buddhas and lack the superknowledge of the extinction of the outflows, and thus are also said to possess only five superknowledges. Bodhisattvas of the Perfect Teaching possess all six superknowledges from the very beginning through all later stages.

The words in the second stanza, “With palms joined in meditation, using tens of thousands of verses,” clarify the most excellent supramundane meditation. This is the meditation of the Separate and Perfect Teachings. [Those who cultivate this meditation,] whether their minds are tranquil or active, encounter no mutual obstruction; without leaving the concentration of cessation, they manifest all forms of dignified conduct, like the lute of an asura musician, which produces melodious sounds without being plucked. They do not grasp at conditions or give rise to thought, yet whenever a response is evoked, it immediately manifests. Therefore, they can abide peacefully in meditation while extolling the Buddha.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Again I see bodhisattvas

Of profound wisdom and steadfast resolve,

Constantly questioning the Buddhas,

And, upon hearing their teaching, accepting and retaining it.

Again I see children of the Buddha

Fully endowed with concentration and wisdom,

Using innumerable analogies

To teach the Dharma to the assembly.

Delighting in expounding the true Dharma,

They teach and transform bodhisattvas,

Destroying all the armies of Mara

And sounding the Dharma drum with a mighty roar.

The sixth subsection, beginning with “Again I see bodhisattvas of profound wisdom and steadfast resolve,” consists of three stanzas raising a question concerning prajnaparamita and is divided into two parts. § The first part consists of one stanza and concerns the practices one personally cultivates and observes. “Profound wisdom” means wisdom that investigates to the utmost the source of truth. “Steadfast resolve,” firm and enduring, refers to vast and long-lasting vows. This describes the two kinds of adornment [of a bodhisattva], by which one is able to inquire and able to accept and retain.

§ The second part, beginning with “Again I see children of the Buddha, fully endowed with concentration and wisdom,” consists of two stanzas concerning the teaching and transformation of sentient beings. Beginning practitioners have more wisdom [than concentration]; upon reaching the Formless Realm, they have more concentration [than wisdom]; upon attaining the realm of the fourth dhyana, concentration and wisdom are balanced.

Furthermore, in cultivating the [eight] liberations, ^[6] wisdom is greater [than concentration]; in passing through the nine successive concentrations, concentration is greater [than wisdom]; upon attaining the ten totalities, concentration and wisdom are balanced.

Furthermore, those of the Two Vehicles have more concentration [than wisdom]; bodhisattvas have more wisdom than concentration; and in the Buddhas, concentration and wisdom are balanced. Furthermore, in cultivating the contemplation of emptiness, concentration is greater [than wisdom]; in cultivating the contemplation of provisional existence, wisdom is greater [than concentration]; and in cultivating the contemplation of the Middle Way, concentration and wisdom are balanced.

[The verse’s words] “using innumerable analogies” mean employing every kind of skillful means and drawing upon innumerable kinds of analogies from the scriptures and Dharma teachings to reveal clearly the supremely true meaning.

[The verse’s words] “destroying all the armies of Mara” mean that cultivation of the contemplation of emptiness destroys the four kinds of Mara; contemplation of provisional existence successively destroys the eight kinds of Mara; and contemplation of the Middle Way in the Perfect Teaching destroys all eight kinds of Mara, the ten kinds of Mara, and every kind of Mara whatsoever.

[The verse’s words] “sounding the Dharma drum with a mighty roar” mean that [a bodhisattva], upon entering the Stage of the Abiding of the Initial Resolve, ^[7] immediately attains perfect enlightenment, becomes a Buddha in a hundred Buddha-worlds, turns the pure Dharma wheel, and sounds the Dharma drum with a mighty roar.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Again I see bodhisattvas

Dwelling peacefully in quiescence;

Gods and dragons all revere them,

Yet they take no delight in this.

Again I see bodhisattvas

Emitting light from deep within the forest,

Causing beings suffering in the hells

To enter the Buddha Way.

© The third section, beginning with “Again I see bodhisattvas dwelling peacefully in quiescence,” consists of fifteen and a half stanzas that raise questions without following any fixed sequence, but simply according to what is seen.

● Question: Since the six paramitas already encompass the myriad practices, why is it necessary to raise questions in such an excessively elaborate and complicated manner?

● Answer: The preceding section raises questions successively in sequence, following a gradually advancing course; [the following section] raises questions without following a fixed order, following an indeterminate course. Since it has been said that all forms are fully represented, why should [the questions] be deemed repetitive merely because there are only two courses?

Thus, [the questions] in sequence and [the questions] out of sequence constitute two rounds of [questions concerning] the six paramitas. It may be understood that in those lands, [they saw the Buddhas] first expound the Tripitaka teachings and only afterward teach the Vaipulya sutras among the twelve divisions of scripture, elucidating the characteristics of the six paramitas in full, just as in this land, without any difference.

Taken as a whole, the section raising questions out of sequence is structurally divided into seven subsections.

The first subsection, comprising the two stanzas [above], raises questions concerning the dhyana [paramita] and is divided into two parts.

§ The first part consists of one stanza asking about entering and emerging from dhyana; that is, it speaks of one’s own cultivation and practice.

§ The second part, beginning with the words, “Again, they see bodhisattvas emitting light from deep within the forest,” raises questions about entering compassionate dhyana and first beginning to teach and transform sentient beings. When bodhisattvas enter samadhi and emit rays of light, all the many benefits thereof are explained in full in the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Sutra of the Questions of Brahma, and elsewhere. Such is the general meaning.

SCRIPTURE

Again, they see the Buddha’s children,

Wakeful, never sleeping or resting,

Walking in meditation within deep forests,

Diligently seeking the Buddha Way.

Again, they see those who uphold the precepts,

Whose dignified conduct is never impaired,

Pure and radiant like precious jewels,

Seeking thereby to attain the Buddha Way.

The second subsection, beginning with the words, “Again, they see the Buddha’s children, wakeful, never sleeping or resting,” consists of one stanza and raises questions concerning the vigor [paramita], namely the Pratyutpanna practice, mindfulness of the Buddha, and other Dharma gates.

The third subsection, beginning with the words, “Again, they see those who uphold the precepts, whose dignified conduct is never impaired,” consists of one stanza and raises questions concerning the precepts [paramita]. “Whose dignified conduct is never impaired” means that the first precept is perfect and free from violation; “pure and radiant like precious jewels” means that the tenth precept is ultimately [also pure]. It may therefore be understood that all the precepts in between [are likewise pure]. For a full explanation of the ten precepts, see the [Lotus Sutra’s] Profound Meaning.

SCRIPTURE

Again, they see the Buddha’s children,

Abiding securely in the power of patience;

Even when arrogant people

Revile, abuse, and beat them,

They are able to endure it all,

Seeking thereby to attain the Buddha Way.

The fourth subsection, beginning with the words, “Again, they see the Buddha’s children, abiding securely in the power of patience,” consists of one and a half stanzas and raises questions concerning the patience [paramita], namely the two kinds: patience regarding beings and patience regarding dharmas.

SCRIPTURE

Again, they see bodhisattvas

Keeping far away from frivolous amusement,

Not drawing near to foolish people,

Associating closely with the wise,

Single-mindedly dispelling distracted thoughts,

Gathering the mind amid mountains and forests,

Throughout thousands upon thousands of years,

Seeking thereby to attain the Buddha Way.

The fifth subsection, beginning with the words, “Again, they see bodhisattvas keeping far away from frivolous amusement,” consists of two stanzas and again raises questions concerning the dhyana [paramita]. “Keeping far away from frivolous amusement” means eliminating the hindrance of restlessness and remorse; “not drawing near to foolish people” means eliminating the hindrance of anger; “associating closely with the wise” means eliminating the hindrance of doubt.

“Single-mindedly dispelling distracted thoughts” means eliminating the hindrance of sensual desire; “gathering the mind amid mountains and forests” means eliminating the hindrance of sloth and torpor.

SCRIPTURE

Or they see bodhisattvas

Using fine and precious foods,

Together with a hundred kinds of medicines,

To make offerings to the Buddha and Sangha.

They use garments of the finest quality,

Worth thousands upon thousands of taels of gold,

Or priceless treasures,

To make offerings to the Buddha and Sangha.

They use hundreds of thousands of myriad kinds

Of precious houses made of sandalwood,

Together with fine and beautiful seats,

To make offerings to the Buddha and Sangha.

They offer tranquil gardens and groves,

Abundant with flowers and fruit,

With flowing streams and cool, clear ponds,

To the Buddha and Sangha.

All the things thus offered

Are excellent, beautiful, and wondrous;

Their joyful minds never weary,

For they seek the unsurpassed Way.

The sixth subsection, beginning with the words, “Or they see bodhisattvas using fine and precious foods,” consists of five stanzas and raises questions concerning the generosity [paramita]. It is divided into two parts.

§ The first part consists of four stanzas clearly describing offerings [to the Three Jewels] of the four requisites. § The second part, beginning with the words, “All the things thus offered,” consists of one stanza summarizing the meaning of making offerings in pursuit of attainment.

SCRIPTURE

Or there are bodhisattvas

Who expound the Dharma of quiescent cessation,

Using every manner of instruction

For innumerable sentient beings.

Or they see bodhisattvas

Contemplating the nature of all dharmas:

Fundamentally, they have no dual characteristics,

And all are like empty space.

Again, they see the Buddha’s children,

Whose minds have not the slightest attachment,

Using wondrous wisdom

To seek the unsurpassed Way.

The seventh subsection, beginning with the words, “Or there are bodhisattvas who expound the Dharma of quiescent cessation,” consists of three stanzas and raises questions concerning the prajna [paramita]. § The first stanza sets forth the teaching of prajna, which cannot be expounded, as something expounded. § The second stanza sets forth the teaching of prajna, which cannot be contemplated, as something contemplated. § The third stanza brings all speech and verbal expression to an end and utterly extinguishes the seeking mind; that is, it expounds what cannot be expounded and contemplates what cannot be contemplated in order to discuss prajna.

Alternatively, it may be said that the three occasions on which questions concerning prajna are raised refer to what was seen above: [the Buddhas] in those lands expounding the six paramitas in the Vaipulya sutras.

Or another comparison may be made: in those lands, [the Buddhas], after expounding the Vaipulya sutras, then taught the doctrine of the Great Prajnaparamita, speaking extensively of prajna and quiescent cessation as nondual, pure, and free from attachment. This land and those lands are alike in every respect.

Or it may be said that the Dharma of quiescent cessation expresses the meaning of the Vaipulya sutras, while contemplating the nature of all dharmas as being like empty space expresses the meaning of prajna: upon examining all dharmas, one sees that the characteristics of dharmas are entirely free from discrimination. This meaning truly accords with the Great Prajnaparamita [Sutra]. If it is said that [they saw the Buddhas] expounding the Lotus Sutra in those lands, this would correspond to the line in these verses, “Using wondrous wisdom to seek the unsurpassed Way.” They saw only those who cultivated wondrous wisdom, but did not see the Dharma seat from which the wondrous wisdom of the Lotus Sutra was expounded.

Had they seen the Dharma seat [from which the sutra was taught], they would have known that this land was like those lands; why then would any doubt have arisen? Because they saw only the practitioners but did not see the Dharma seat from which [their practice] was taught, the assembly gave rise to doubt. Or it may also be [understood that] the three occasions [on which questions concerning] prajna [in those lands were raised] were the same as the prajna in this land, yet they did not know what [the Buddha] would expound next, and therefore doubt arose in their minds.

Both explanations of the arising of doubt are simply matters of individual interpretation.

[Of these seven sections], the prose passage above is concise and therefore presents only six points, whereas the verses elaborate upon them and fully convey the meaning explained above. Such is the general meaning.

SCRIPTURE

O Manjusri!

There are also bodhisattvas who,

After a Buddha has entered extinction,

At once make offerings to his relics.

Again, they see the Buddha’s children

Constructing stupas and shrines,

As numerous as the sands of the Ganges,

Thereby adorning the lands.

© The sixth major section, beginning with the words, “O Manjusri, there are also bodhisattvas,” consists of seven stanzas and explains how, after a Buddha has entered extinction, his relics are collected and stupas are erected to enshrine them.

Within these verses, the preceding section has already stated that in those lands, the Buddhas appear in worlds marked by the five defilements and, from the one formless Dharma, unfold the sudden and gradual teachings. Thus there arise the divisions into the two teachings and the three paths, with all their various practices and dissimilar characteristics, as has been clearly seen above. Now it is further seen that the Buddhas in those lands enter nirvana, and that the Buddha’s disciples, cherishing and admiring their virtues, erect stupas in their honor. This expresses how the immeasurable ultimately returns to the one, and how the immeasurable issues forth from the one.

The preceding forms already expressed the return of the immeasurable to the one, namely, [the Buddhas’] entry into nirvana; why, then, should one still fear that [this] obstructs [the meaning of] the Tathagata’s lifespan? Is not the building of stupas [for the Buddha’s relics] also a Buddha-work? How lamentable! How lamentable!

The structure of this section is divided into six passages.

The first passage consists of one stanza, generally stating the erection of stupas [to make offerings to the relics] after the Buddha’s passing into nirvana.

The second passage, beginning with the line, “Again, I see the Buddha’s children erecting many stupas and shrines,” consists of one stanza and specifies the number of stupas [enshrining the Buddha’s relics].

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The jeweled stupas, wondrously beautiful,

Rise five thousand yojanas high,

Their length and breadth alike,

Each measuring two thousand yojanas.

Each and every stupa and shrine

Has a thousand banners and streamers,

With jeweled canopies spread above,

And small bells chiming in harmony.

Devas, dragons, and spirits,

Humans and nonhuman beings,

With incense, flowers, and music,

Constantly present their offerings.

O Manjusri!

All the Buddha’s children,

In order to honor the relics,

Adorn the stupas and shrines,

So that throughout the lands, naturally,

All becomes wondrously beautiful,

Like the king of trees in the heavens

When its blossoms are in full bloom.

The third passage, beginning with the line, “The jeweled stupas, wondrously beautiful,” consists of one stanza and specifies the great dimensions of the stupas [enshrining the Buddha’s relics].

The fourth passage, beginning with the line, “Each and every stupa and shrine,” consists of one stanza and specifies the appearance of the stupas [enshrining the Buddha’s relics].

The fifth passage, beginning with the line, “Devas, dragons, and spirits,” consists of one stanza and describes the making of offerings to the stupas [enshrining the Buddha’s relics].

The sixth passage, beginning with the line, “O Manjusri,” consists of two stanzas and concludes this section.

The word “stupa,” or stūpa, is translated into Chinese as “square tomb” (方墳), meaning a burial mound; it also conveys the sense of a raised grave. The Great Consecration Scripture translates it as “mound” (塚), meaning a grave heaped high.

The erection of lofty structures is also like the shrines and halls of this land. With high terraces and broad platforms, receiving the dew and piercing the clouds, they commonly symbolize purity, toward which the mind may turn and ascend to the realm of the sages.

The “king of heavenly trees” (天樹王) is the king of trees in the heavenly realm, namely, the pārijāta tree [in the Trayastrimsa Heaven].

[The jeweled stupas are erected] primarily to make offerings to the Buddha’s relics, but they also serve to adorn and purify the Buddha lands. Such is the general meaning.

II. The Request and Response

SCRIPTURE TEXT

When the Buddha emitted a ray of light,

I and the entire assembly

All beheld this land

Replete with every kind of splendor.

The spiritual powers of the Buddhas,

And their wisdom, are truly rare;

They emit a pure ray of light,

Illuminating countless lands.

We have all beheld

What has never been seen before.

We pray, Buddha’s son Manjusri,

Resolve the assembly’s doubts.

© The entire section on the request and response begins with the line, “When the Buddha emitted a ray of light,” and consists of eight stanzas divided into two parts.

The first part consists of three stanzas, stating the doubts and the request. The second part consists of five stanzas, setting forth the matters that are difficult to understand.

The first part consists of three stanzas divided into three main passages:

© The first main passage consists of one stanza, describing what was seen in this land. [The Buddha’s emission of light from] the white curl [between his eyebrows] is the principal event and is therefore mentioned first. Other events are also mentioned; hence it is said to contain every kind of splendor.

© The second main passage, beginning with the line, “The spiritual powers of the Buddhas,” consists of one stanza and describes what was seen in other lands. The Buddhas are the foundation [and thus are mentioned], thereby encompassing all five vehicles [bodhisattvas, pratyekabuddhas, sravakas, devas, and humans].

© The third main passage, beginning with the line, “We have all beheld,” consists of one stanza and requests an answer.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The fourfold assembly all looks up expectantly,

Awaiting you and me,

To explain clearly why the Buddha

Has emitted this ray of light.

Please answer at the proper time,

Ending our doubts and bringing us joy.

And for what benefit

Does the Buddha now emit this light?

Seated at the place of awakening,

He has realized the wondrous Dharma;

Will he now teach that Dharma,

Or bestow a prediction upon someone?

He has revealed the Buddha lands,

Adorned and purified with jewels,

And has also shown us those Buddha lands;

This cannot be for some minor cause.

Manjusri, you should know

That the fourfold assembly, devas, dragons, and others

All gaze expectantly, waiting to see

What you will proclaim.

The second part sets forth the renewed questioning, [consisting of five stanzas], and is further divided into two main passages. The first main passage consists of four stanzas and formally states the points of renewed questioning. The second main passage consists of one stanza, serving as the conclusion and request.

© [Regarding the first main passage,] it is called “renewed questioning” because Manjusri still remained uncertain and had not clearly understood, and thus could not immediately provide an answer. [This renewed questioning] has three meanings. First, this extraordinary and rare auspicious sign could not be treated lightly or judged hastily. Second, since the wisdom of the assembly present was like a vast ocean, it was necessary to display humility and respect for those of superior insight. Third, there was the intention to delay [before answering] so that the assembly would give rise to a thirsting aspiration. For [these reasons], he used [renewed questioning] as a pretext to delay and not answer immediately.

Maitreya’s clear explanation of these points of renewed questioning likewise has three meanings. First, because the auspicious sign was great, the doubts [of the assembly] were also great; unless it were clearly explained, [the assembly] would harbor anxiety and concern, obstructing their [hearing of] the main scripture’s exposition. Second, although the assembly, [whose wisdom was] like a vast ocean, comprised many people, the appropriate occasion for explaining this matter rested solely with Manjusri. Third, the entire assembly gazed reverently toward Manjusri, showing their sincere concentration, earnestness, and respect. Therefore, Maitreya replied to [Manjusri’s] points of renewed questioning and requested that he provide an answer at the proper time.

The first renewed question arose from [Maitreya’s] principal request. His preceding request was: “We pray, Buddha’s son Manjusri, resolve the assembly’s doubts.” Relying upon this request, Manjusri posed the first renewed question, [implying]: “You say that the assembly has given rise to doubts, but I fear that the assembly has never actually done so, for if they had doubts, they should already have asked. Since the assembly has no doubts, what am I to answer?”

Maitreya immediately replied to the first renewed question in verse: “The fourfold assembly all looks up expectantly, awaiting you and me.” [This explanation implies:] “The assembly looks toward me because they wish me to ask, and they look toward you because they wish to hear your answer.”

Mañjuśrī, prompted by that reply, immediately raised a second objection, implying: “If the entire assembly is in doubt, it will not be easy to answer them. Let us therefore wait until the Buddha emerges from samādhi, and then ask him to dispel their doubts.” Maitreya then replied for the second time in verse, implying: “If their doubts are left unresolved, the assembly will have no peace of mind; therefore, they should be answered in a timely manner. Moreover, we do not know when the Tathagata will emerge from samādhi.” Thus, the verse says, “Please answer in a timely manner, dispelling doubt so that joy may be attained.”

Mañjuśrī, prompted by that reply, again raised a third objection, implying: “You and I occupy the same level in our cultivation and study. If we wish to fathom the Buddha’s intent, we should confer privately with one another. It would not be fitting for me alone to give the answer.” Maitreya then replied for the third time in verse, implying: “I too have carefully pondered this matter, but I remain undecided between two possibilities, not knowing whether this is an auspicious sign that the Buddha is about to teach the wondrous Dharma or that he is about to bestow a prediction [upon someone].” Thus, the verse says: “The Buddha, seated at the place of enlightenment, has realized the wondrous Dharma. Will he now teach that Dharma, or bestow a prediction upon someone?”

Mañjuśrī, prompted by that reply, again raised a fourth objection, implying: “What you have just said already explains the assembly’s doubt; why is there any need for me to answer?” Maitreya then replied for the fourth time in verse, implying: “How could my wavering and hesitant thoughts be used to judge this great matter?” Thus, the verse says: “Moreover, the Buddha lands that are seen are no trifling circumstance.”

© [At this point in the second general section,] Mañjuśrī had no further questions to press, and the display of humility had also been sufficient. This is followed by one stanza that summarizes the matter and requests an answer.

[The meaning of] these four rounds of questioning was received by Master Guangzhai from Master Ci; Master Ci received it from Master Zhao north of the Yangtze River. These meanings originally lay outside the text of the sutra and were skillfully discerned and understood by the worthies of old; therefore, they are now applied here once again.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, Mañjuśrī said to the Great Bodhisattva Maitreya, the great beings, and the good men: “As I consider it, the Buddha, the World-Honored One, now wishes to teach a great Dharma, rain down a great Dharma rain, blow the great Dharma conch, beat the great Dharma drum, and expound the meaning of the great Dharma.

From the words “At that time, Mañjuśrī said to the Great Bodhisattva Maitreya...” through the end of the verse section is called the Introduction to the Answer to the Question, comprising both prose and verse.

Explanation of the Prose

© The prose is structurally divided into four parts. The first, beginning with “said to the Bodhisattva Maitreya...,” is called the answer based on consideration. The second, beginning with “Good men, in the past I...,” is called the answer based on a brief account of events formerly witnessed [in the past]. The third, beginning with “Good men, just as in the past...,” is called the answer based on an extensive account of what was formerly witnessed [in the past]. The fourth, beginning with “The auspicious sign now seen is no different from that of former times...,” is called the answer through clear discernment and judgment.

1. The Answer Based on Consideration

n In general, when one of lower standing uses his understanding to fathom one above him, he can only perceive the matter vaguely and then conjecture. He can say merely that what happened in former times resembles what is happening now, but he cannot immediately determine precisely what it is. Therefore, at first the matter is described only vaguely. Next, a brief account of what was witnessed [in the past] is cited. Since such a brief citation is still not comprehensive enough, a more extensive account of what was formerly witnessed is then cited. [In this way,] many [events of the past] are used to substantiate one [event in the present], and only then can a decisive discernment and judgment be made.

The answer based on consideration responds to the question concerning [the auspicious signs] in this land. The answer based on a brief account of what was formerly witnessed responds to the question concerning the other lands. The answer based on an extensive account of what was formerly witnessed responds to the question concerning both this land and the other lands. The answer based on discerning judgment simultaneously judges both this land and the other lands.

The section on the answer based on consideration is further divided into two parts. The first states the main point, and the second sets forth the consideration. To ponder is to think; to consider is to examine and assess. One ponders that the events of the present resemble those of the past, and considers that the events of the past resemble those of the present. Yet Mañjuśrī was originally an ancient Buddha—how could he not know? [Therefore,] this act of consideration was merely a manifested appearance.

According to Master Guangzhai, the first statement of this passage [“wishes to teach a great Dharma”] and its last statement [“expound the meaning of the great Dharma”] present the Dharma directly, symbolizing the extensive and the abbreviated exposition of cause and effect, while the three statements between them present the matter by means of similes.

“Wishes to teach a great Dharma” is an abbreviated exposition of setting aside the three [vehicles] to reveal the single vehicle, and an abbreviated exposition of disclosing the recent to reveal the distant past.

“Expound the meaning of the great Dharma” is, in turn, an extensive exposition of setting aside the three [vehicles] to reveal the single vehicle, and an extensive exposition of disclosing the recent to reveal the distant past.

[The three statements between them present similes.] “Rain down a great Dharma rain” is a simile for receiving the prediction of Buddhahood. From ancient times, beings have clung rigidly to a fixed principle of cause and effect, [believing] that they could not attain Buddhahood; this is the meaning of being parched and withered. Now [they understand that all sentient beings] can attain Buddhahood; this is the meaning of being refreshed and moistened by the rain [of the teaching].

“Blow the great Dharma conch” is a simile for transforming the three vehicles [into the One Vehicle]. “Beat the great Dharma drum” [means] putting the troops in proper order and is a simile for destroying ignorance.

We shall now clarify that the above [interpretation] of “presenting the Dharma directly” cannot be used. Why is this? Because the arising conditions of the Trace Gate and the Origin Gate are inherently different.

In the Trace Gate, the arising condition is that Maitreya gives rise to doubt, and Mañjuśrī consequently explains it. In the Origin Gate, before the conditions have arisen, concerning what does Maitreya have doubts, and what does Mañjuśrī answer? If it is again claimed here that [Mañjuśrī] is explaining the doubt concerning the disclosure of the recent to reveal the distant past, then in the later chapter, when the earth splits open and the assembly of bodhisattvas emerges from below, why does Maitreya still give rise to doubt? ^[8] If he still has doubt, then that earlier doubt was to no avail, and the explanation was likewise to no avail.

Since the later explanation is incorrect, the earlier explanation is also mistaken. This creates a very great obstruction [to understanding the sutra’s meaning] and therefore cannot be adopted.

Now, to clarify the meaning implicit in Maitreya’s question: he asks only about the manifestation of auspicious signs in this realm and in those other realms. Mañjuśrī answers on the basis of inference; this answer concerns manifested traces and has no bearing on the [Tathagata’s] lifespan, which properly belongs to the Original Gate. “Wishing to expound the great Dharma” answers the auspicious sign of teaching the Dharma; “to rain down the great rain of Dharma” answers the auspicious sign of celestial flowers raining down; “to blow the great Dharma conch” answers the auspicious sign of the assembly’s joyful hearts; “to beat the great Dharma drum” answers the auspicious sign of the earth’s trembling;

and “to elucidate the meaning of the great Dharma” answers the auspicious sign of the [Buddha’s] emission of radiant light.

The phrase “wishing to expound the great Dharma” means that [Mañjuśrī] reflects and recalls that, in the past, after the Buddhas expounded the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, they would invariably cast aside the provisional Dharma, reveal the true Dharma, and gather the immeasurable meanings into the one [meaning]. Considering that the Buddha has now expounded the [Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings], he will surely likewise cast aside the provisional Dharma, reveal the true Dharma, and gather the immeasurable meanings into the one [meaning]. That one meaning is precisely the “great Dharma.”

The phrase “to rain down the great rain of Dharma” means that [Mañjuśrī] reflects and recalls that, in the time of the Buddhas of the past, after celestial flowers rained down, [the assembly] was enabled in every case to enter the perfect cause of goodness and advance through the stages of the [Ten] Abodes, [Ten] Practices, [Ten] Dedications of Merit, and [Ten] Grounds. Considering that now, in the presence of this Buddha, after celestial flowers have rained down, [the assembly] will surely likewise enter the wholesome cause of Buddhahood and advance through the stages of the [Ten] Abodes, [Ten] Practices, [Ten] Dedications of Merit, and [Ten] Grounds. Therefore it is said, “to rain down the great rain of Dharma.”

The phrase “to blow the great Dharma conch” means that [Mañjuśrī] reflects and recalls that, in the past, when the fourfold assembly saw the auspicious signs, they all gave rise to joy, attained what they had never before attained, dispelled their obstructions, had their faculties stirred, and thereupon transformed [their understanding of] the teaching to be studied, the practices to be cultivated, and the ultimate truth.

Considering that today the fourfold assembly here has also given rise to joy, they will surely likewise dispel their obstructions, have their faculties stirred, and transform [their understanding of] the teaching to be studied, the practices to be cultivated, and the ultimate truth. That transformation is exceedingly profound; therefore it is said, “to blow the great Dharma conch.”

The phrase “to beat the great Dharma drum” means that [Mañjuśrī] reflects and recalls that, in the past, after the earth trembled, there followed six successive demolitions of the enemy of ignorance. Considering that today, in the presence of the Buddha, the earth has trembled, afterward there will surely likewise be six successive demolitions of the delusion of ignorance. Because the sound of the teaching is supremely wondrous, it is said, “to beat the great Dharma drum.”

The phrase “to elucidate the meaning of the great Dharma” means that [Mañjuśrī] reflects and recalls that, in the past, after the Buddhas emitted light from the tuft of white hair between their eyebrows (ūrṇā), they expounded the Lotus Sutra, and in this realm and the other realms the path was one and the same. From this he infers that, after the Buddha has now emitted light in this manner, he will surely make clear that the five Buddhas all teach the same path, which in every case is the path of the Buddha. Therefore it is said, “to elucidate the meaning of the great Dharma.”

All five statements above involve reflecting upon and recalling past events in order to judge present events, and considering present events in order to compare and classify them according to events of the past. When the scriptural text and its meaning are examined, only the one auspicious sign of entering samadhi appears to be missing. Yet [all the auspicious signs such as] celestial flowers raining down, the earth trembling, and the [Buddha’s] emission of radiant light, and so forth, arise from entering samadhi. Thus the meaning already includes everything in full, and there is no cause for doubt. Precisely because [the answer] omits this one auspicious sign, it is called a brief answer.

Now, to explain it in another way, the first statement presents the matter generally, while the following four statements present its particulars individually. The general presentation speaks of the “great Dharma.” The individual presentation speaks of raining flowers, blowing the Dharma conch, beating the Dharma drum, and elucidating the meaning of the Dharma, which [symbolize] opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].

Just as the sky is neither large nor small, neither red nor white, yet rains down celestial flowers that are red and white, so the truth of the ultimate meaning originally has no opening, revealing, awakening, or entering; yet upon seeing this truth, one realizes opening, revealing, awakening, and entering.

Again, just as seeds naturally sprout when rain falls upon them, so now, when [sentient beings] hear the essential teaching, like a great rain that moistens the seed of the Dharma-nature, they are able to break through the covering of ignorance and have the Buddha’s knowledge and vision opened to them at the stage of the Ten Abodes.

Just as the blowing of the Dharma conch signals that a change [in the content of the teaching] is occurring, so those who previously attained the Ten Abodes now hear the new teaching while at the Ten Abodes and thereby enter the Ten Practices. This is the revealing of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

Just as the beating of the Dharma drum indicates that the troops must be instructed and set in proper order, so those who previously entered the Ten Practices now hear the admonitory teaching while at the Ten Practices and thereby enter the Ten Dedications of Merit. This is awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

Only an exposition that unfolds extensively, profoundly, and comprehensively is called an elucidation of meaning. Those who have reached the stage of the Ten Dedications of Merit now proceed from the Ten Dedications of Merit into the Ten Grounds; this is entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, penetrating to its source and reaching the furthest bounds of its complete profundity and vastness. [Mañjuśrī] reflects upon and recalls the six auspicious signs of the past, after which [the Buddha expounded the Dharma of] opening, revealing, awakening, and entering. From this he infers that the present auspicious signs will surely likewise be followed by the same.

Here ends the explanation of the meaning of Mañjuśrī’s answer based on inference from time and events.

2. A Brief Answer Based on What Was Previously Seen

SUTRA TEXT

“Good men! In the presence of the Buddhas of the past, I have previously seen this auspicious sign. After emitting this radiant light, they invariably expounded the great Dharma. Therefore, we know that the Buddha’s present manifestation of radiant light is likewise intended to cause all sentient beings to hear and know the Dharma that is difficult for all the worlds to believe and accept. Thus he manifests this auspicious sign.”

The second part is the answer based on a brief account of events previously seen [in the past], beginning with the words, “Good men! In the presence of the Buddhas of the past...” First, [Mañjuśrī] used his own wisdom to reflect and infer; now, after briefly recounting the events he had previously seen [in the past], he presents this content to answer the question concerning [the auspicious signs in] those other realms.

There are five auspicious signs in this realm that do not correspond with those in the other realms; only the auspicious sign of the Buddha emitting a ray of light shines universally toward the east. In the answer based on a brief account of what had previously been seen, only the auspicious sign of emitting light is addressed. Thus, we know that this section answers the question concerning the other realms.

What is now seen resembles what occurred in ancient times, and what occurred in ancient times likewise resembles what is seen today. Both are intended to enable all sentient beings to hear and understand, thereby fully possessing both the wisdom of hearing and the wisdom of reflection, ^[9] as well as the two meritorious practices of faith and cultivation. [The Dharma they hear and understand is] the gathering of immeasurable teachings into the One Dharma, the transformation of the teaching of the Three Vehicles [into the One Vehicle], the sixfold destruction of ignorance, and so forth.

Thus, the teachings of all Buddhas are alike: they all “open, reveal, awaken beings to, and lead them to enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” Therefore, [the sutra text] calls it “the Dharma difficult for the entire world to believe and accept.”

3. The Detailed Answer Based on What Had Previously Been Seen

SUTRA TEXT

“Good men! In the past, immeasurable, boundless, inconceivable asamkhya kalpas ago...

The third part is the answer based on an expanded account of what had previously been seen [in the past]. Beginning with the words, “Good men! In the past, immeasurable...,” it speaks more explicitly than the brief answer. This part extensively answers the questions concerning [the auspicious signs] in this realm and the other realms. Because Maitreya saw the ray of light traverse space and illuminate the entire eastern direction, he raised his questions. Manjushri answers by citing what he had seen in ancient times, traversing time down to the present day. Events encompassing both space and time are cited to reveal clearly that the Way of all Buddhas [from ancient times to the present and throughout all places] is the same.

The structure of this part comprises three major sections. First, it cites the deeds of one Buddha as being the same [as those occurring today]. Next, it cites the deeds of twenty thousand Buddhas as being the same [as those occurring today]. Finally, it cites the deeds of the last Buddha as being the same [as those occurring today].

© The major section citing the deeds of one Buddha is itself divided into three passages. The first clarifies the time and causal circumstances; the second states the Buddha’s name; and the third describes [the Buddha’s] preaching of the Dharma.

The first passage, stating the time and causal circumstances, is clear from the sutra text.

SUTRA TEXT

“At that time there was a Buddha named Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Universally Awakened One, Perfect in Wisdom and Conduct, Well-Gone One, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Men, Teacher of Devas and Humans, Buddha, World-Honored One.

The second passage, “there was a Buddha named Sun-Moon-[Lamp Radiance Tathagata],” states that the names were alike. [Yet] generic titles may be the same, but how could their individual names be identical? This passage should be explained according to the principle that “the names differ, but their meanings correspond.” What does this mean? “Sun” signifies wisdom, while “moon” signifies concentration.

Concentration and wisdom constitute the virtue of personal cultivation, whereas “lamp radiance” signifies the virtue of teaching and transforming sentient beings. [The Buddha of the present is named Shakyamuni, translated as] “Able and Benevolent,” signifying that he constantly possesses concentration and wisdom, constantly cultivates them himself, and constantly teaches and transforms sentient beings. Furthermore, “Sun-Moon-Lamp” signifies the three kinds of wisdom, and the present Buddha [Shakyamuni] also fully possesses these three kinds of wisdom.

Buddhas adopt different names according to circumstances, but their meanings do not differ. Therefore, it is said that their names [in the past and present] are alike.

SUTRA TEXT

“[That Buddha] expounded the true Dharma, good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end; profound in meaning, skillful and wondrous in expression, pure and unmingled, fully endowed with the characteristics of clear and pure conduct.

The third passage, beginning with “[That Buddha] expounded the true Dharma,” states that the meaning of their preaching was alike. The Buddha of ancient times first taught the Sudden Teaching and afterward taught the Gradual Teaching. The present Buddha likewise taught the sudden first and the gradual afterward; therefore, they are said to be alike. [The sutra text says,] “He expounded the true Dharma, good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end.” This refers to the Sudden Teaching.

The seven excellences apply to both the Mahayana and the Hinayana, but as presented in this sutra, they are the seven excellences of the Mahayana. ^[10] To say that “the beginning, middle, and end” are all good refers precisely to the Introductory, Main, and Dissemination sections [of this sutra]. This is the “excellence of time and occasion” of the Sudden Teaching, meaning that both the time and causal circumstances are excellent.

“Profound in meaning” refers to the ultimate and perfect principle. Because those of the Two Vehicles cannot fathom its breadth and depth, it is called profound. This is termed the “excellence of meaning” of the Sudden Teaching.

“Skillful and wondrous in expression” refers to what is proclaimed through the eight kinds of voice [of the Buddha] according to the Sudden Teaching. ^[11] Directly presenting the matter in accord with truth and causing all bodhisattvas to rejoice inwardly—this describes the sutra text and is termed the “excellence of speech” of the Sudden Teaching. “Pure and unmingled,” not shared ^[12] with those of the Two Vehicles, means that [bodhisattvas] alone fully possess these excellences.

This is the “unique excellence” of the Sudden Teaching. Clearly presenting both the inner and outer domains of the ultimate Dharma is complete excellence; this is the “excellence of perfection” of the Sudden Teaching. Being clear and pure, without the defilement of discriminating attachment, is the “excellence of pliancy” of the Sudden Teaching.

Master Nanyue said that performing wholesome deeds is the characteristic of pure conduct. “Pure conduct” is the “excellence of unconditional loving-kindness” of the Sudden Teaching. ^[13]

Furthermore, regarding the meaning of “good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end,” there are different explanations; here we shall provisionally explain it in one way. The Hinayana regards moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom as the three excellences, while the Mahayana takes the initial mind, intermediate mind, and final mind [of the Buddhas] as the three excellences. The Golden Light Sutra states: “The initial mind of the Tathagata is inconceivable; the intermediate mind of the Tathagata is endowed with every adornment; the final mind of the Tathagata is [steadfast and] indestructible.” This is also the meaning of the three excellences.

Manjushri cited the seven excellences of the Sudden Teaching taught by the Buddhas of ancient times. They are identical to the seven excellences of the Sudden Teaching proclaimed by the present Buddha and also identical to the seven excellences of the Sudden Teaching proclaimed in those other lands. Therefore, he employed them in his answer. This answers Maitreya, who above had seen the light spread throughout space and therefore raised questions about the Buddhas in other realms expounding scriptures and teachings of supremely wondrous Dharma. Manjushri answered by citing events from ancient times that extended throughout time: the Buddhas’ initial preaching of the Sudden Teaching was likewise the same [as that of the present Buddha].

SUTRA TEXT

“For those seeking the fruit of a shravaka, he appropriately taught the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths, enabling them to transcend birth, aging, sickness, and death and ultimately attain nirvana. For those seeking the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, he appropriately taught the Dharma of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. For the bodhisattvas, he appropriately taught the six paramitas, enabling them to attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi and accomplish the Wisdom of All Modes.”

“For those seeking the fruit of śrāvakahood, he taught the appropriate Dharma of the Four Noble Truths.” This means that, after teaching the sudden teaching, the Buddhas of ancient times then opened forth the gradual teaching, just as [the Buddha does today].

As stated above [in Maitreya’s verse expressing his doubts]: “For those encountering suffering, who are weary of and reject aging, sickness, and death, he taught nirvana.” Now [Mañjuśrī] cites how the Buddhas of the past likewise opened forth the gradual teaching in order to answer that doubt.

“For those seeking the fruit of a pratyekabuddha, he taught the appropriate Dharma of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination.” This answers the doubt raised above concerning “those endowed with merit, [who had previously made offerings to Buddhas,] and were resolutely seeking the supreme Dharma.”

“For the bodhisattvas, he taught the appropriate six paramitas.” This answers the doubt raised above concerning “the children of the Buddha alone, who fully cultivated all practices, [seeking unsurpassed wisdom].”

All the answers above cite how the Buddhas of ancient times likewise set forth the gradual teaching, just as [the Buddha does today].

[Mañjuśrī] extensively cites his past encounters with Buddhas to answer the doubts concerning those other lands. [The scripture says,] “causing them to attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi and accomplish the wisdom of all modes.” This clarifies that, after setting forth the sudden teaching and the gradual teaching, the Buddhas of ancient times likewise revealed the truth, teaching the Dharma in a manner ultimately excellent at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end, [just as the Buddha does today]. This answers Maitreya’s doubt concerning his vision of the Buddhas in those other lands entering nirvana and, after their nirvana, the erection of stupas to enshrine their relics.

Thus, from the passage citing the Dharma taught by the Buddhas of the past through the passage concerning the six paramitas, it is made clear that the Buddha of today has never differed from the Buddhas of ancient times. From the words “causing them to attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi” onward, it is made clear that the Buddha of today will likewise not differ from the Buddhas of ancient times. Such is the general purport.

SCRIPTURE

“Next there was another Buddha, also named Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance. Thereafter there was yet another Buddha, also named Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance. In this manner there were twenty thousand Buddhas, all bearing the same name, Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance, and all belonging to the same Bharadvāja clan. Maitreya, you should know that, from the first Buddha to the last, all bore the same name, Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance; all were fully endowed with the ten epithets; and the Dharma they taught was excellent at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end.

© The second major section that follows cites twenty thousand Buddhas whose names and teachings of the Dharma were all alike. First, it cites one Buddha and fully explains that his sudden and gradual teachings were both the same [as those of the present Buddha]. In the middle, it mentions twenty thousand Buddhas and states only that their sudden teaching was the same [as that of the present Buddha].

Since it has already said that their teachings “were excellent at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end,” it subsequently cites one Buddha but states only that his opening forth of the gradual teaching was the same [as that of the Buddha today]. This is because the matters presented mutually complement one another. The meaning could already be clearly understood from the preceding section alone, but the twenty thousand Buddhas were not cited first because their names and their teaching of the Dharma were all alike; they are presented in this order merely for convenience in elucidating the meaning.

As for the Bharadvāja clan, its name is translated into Chinese as “swift and agile”; it is also translated as “of keen faculties,” and further as “complete speech.”

SCRIPTURE

“The last Buddha, before leaving the household life, had eight sons. The first was named Possessing Intention; the second, Wholesome Intention; the third, Immeasurable Intention; the fourth, Jewel Intention; the fifth, Increasing Intention; the sixth, Intention That Dispels Doubt; the seventh, Resounding Intention; and the eighth, Dharma Intention. These eight princes all possessed sovereign majestic virtue, and each ruled over four continents.

When the princes heard that their royal father had left the household life and attained unsurpassed, complete, perfect awakening, they immediately relinquished their royal thrones and followed their father into the homeless life. They brought forth the aspiration for the Mahayana, constantly cultivated pure practices, and all became Dharma masters, planting roots of goodness in the presence of countless thousands of Buddhas.

© The third major section, beginning with the words “the last Buddha,” cites one Buddha who was likewise the same [as the Buddha today]. This major section is divided into three parts. The first clarifies that what had been seen in the past was fundamentally the same as what is seen now. The second clarifies that what had been seen in the past was the same as what is now taking place. The third clarifies that what had been seen in the past would be the same as what would occur thereafter.

The character “tằng” (曾) refers to something formerly experienced, while the character “dĩ” (已) refers to something that has receded into the past. Both “tằng” and “dĩ” refer to events that occurred in the past, but here “tằng” is used for events that occurred in the distant past, whereas “dĩ” is used for events that occurred more recently. Moreover, the six auspicious signs [presently manifesting] are all referred to by “kim” (今), meaning “now,” while what is awaited after the Buddha emerges from samadhi is referred to by “đương” (當), meaning “will later occur.”

The first part, beginning with the words “the last Buddha, before leaving the household life, had eight sons,” states that events occurring in the distant past were the same as those that had just recently occurred. The Buddha of the past had eight sons, while the Buddha of today had one son. Although the number of sons differed, both Buddhas appeared in the realm where ordinary beings and sages dwell together.

Because the lands contained the delusions of views and the delusions of thought, both Buddhas manifested as having sons. In having sons, they were alike. Whether there was one son or eight depended upon differing conditions and their corresponding manifestations.

The birth of one son generally represents the one pure path. The birth of eight sons represents the Noble Eightfold Path. Although the numbers differed, the meanings represented were the same.

Here, only the fact that both “had sons” is taken as the point of similarity.

Furthermore, in the past, the Buddha’s sons left the household life and brought forth the aspiration for the Mahayana, whereas today the Buddha’s son abides in the fruit of the Lesser Vehicle. ^[14] How, then, can these be said to be the same? Because the Buddha of the past had completed his work of teaching and transforming beings, he clearly revealed the original event, and therefore it is said that his sons brought forth the aspiration for the Mahayana. The Buddha of today, however, [at the time this sutra was taught] had not yet disclosed the manifestation of provisional traces, and therefore only the fruit of arhatship is mentioned. When the later portion of the scripture reveals the original teaching, his son is shown to be a bodhisattva; thus, the meaning is necessarily the same.

SCRIPTURE

“At that time, the Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance expounded a Great Vehicle sutra called Immeasurable Meanings, the Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas, Cherished and Guarded by the Buddhas. Having finished expounding the sutra, he sat cross-legged amid the great assembly and entered the samadhi called the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings; his body and mind remained unmoving. At that time, the heavens rained down mandarava flowers, great mandarava flowers, manjushaka flowers, and great manjushaka flowers, scattering them upon the Buddha and the great assembly.

Throughout the Buddha-land, the earth quaked in six ways. At that time, within the assembly were bhikshus, bhikshunis, upasakas, upasikas, devas, nagas, yakshas, gandharvas, asuras, garudas, kimnaras, mahoragas, humans and nonhuman beings, as well as minor kings, wheel-turning sage kings, and others. This great assembly, experiencing something unprecedented, all rejoiced, placed their palms together, and single-mindedly gazed upon the Buddha.

At that time, the Tathagata emitted a ray of light from the tuft of white hair between his eyebrows, illuminating eighteen thousand Buddha-lands in the eastern direction, pervading them all without exception, just as the Buddha-lands now seen have been revealed. Maitreya, you should know that at that time, within the assembly were two million bodhisattvas who delighted in and wished to hear the Dharma. Seeing the ray of light illuminate all the Buddha-lands, these bodhisattvas experienced something unprecedented and all wished to understand the causes and conditions of this light.

The second passage, beginning with the words, “At that time, the Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance expounded a Great Vehicle sutra...” clarifies that what occurred in the distant past was the same as what is occurring today. The six auspicious signs manifested in the land of the Buddha of the past were necessarily the same as [the six auspicious signs of the Buddha] today, and they also occurred in sequence, as set forth in the sutra text.

It further states that, in the time of the Buddha of the past, the six auspicious signs occurring in other lands were, in general, also the same as those seen today. From this, it is known that the six auspicious signs in other lands during the time of the Buddha of the past were also the same as those of today. The account of [the teaching of the Dharma] in the past clarifies the Particular Introduction.

Its two parts, “manifesting signs” and “harboring doubts,” are both the same [as today], but it does not include the three parts of “assembling the congregation,” “raising questions,” and “answering questions.” [Nevertheless,] inferred according to their meaning, they must all have been present. Since the exposition of the Dharma is mentioned, it is known that the congregation must have assembled. Since there were doubts, questions must necessarily have been raised; and since there were questions, answers must necessarily have been given.

Therefore, although only two corresponding parts are presented, they necessarily encompass the remaining three parts, which were likewise the same.

Furthermore, if the answer given in the past had been recounted, there would have been no need to wait for Manjushri to expend words [in explanation]. Since the answer was not recounted, the raising of the question was likewise not mentioned. This meaning may readily be understood.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, there was a bodhisattva named Wondrous Light, who had eight hundred disciples.

The third passage, beginning with the words, “At that time, there was a bodhisattva named Wondrous Light,” clarifies that the events seen in the past were the same as those about to occur today.

This passage is further divided into six minor sections [concerning corresponding events]. First, the words beginning with “At that time, there was a bodhisattva” explain that the person serving as the cause [for the exposition of the Dharma] was the same. Second, the passage beginning with “At that time, the Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance emerged from samadhi” shows that the name of the Dharma teaching was the same.

Third, the passage beginning with “for sixty minor kalpas” shows that the duration and causal circumstances were the same. Fourth, the passage beginning with “Having expounded this sutra, he immediately proclaimed to the assembly of brahmans, maras, shramanas...” shows that [the Buddha’s] advance announcement of his entry into extinction was also the same. Fifth, the passage beginning with “At that time, there was a bodhisattva named Virtue Treasury” shows that the conferral of the prediction was the same.

Sixth, the passage beginning with “upon reaching midnight, he immediately...” clarifies that the propagation of this sutra after the Buddha’s entry into extinction was the same.

Regarding the first minor section, why is it said that the person serving as the initiating cause was the same [in the past and today]? After emerging from meditation, the Buddha of the past expounded the sutra on account of Wondrous Light, who belonged to the bodhisattva assembly. After emerging from meditation today, the Buddha again expounds the sutra on account of Shariputra, who belongs to the assembly of shravakas.

In what way, then, are these the same? Master Fayao ^[15] said that the “initiating cause” here means the person entrusted with and charged to transmit the scripture of the One Vehicle; it does not refer to the person whom the Buddha directly addressed face-to-face. Thus, the one whom the Buddha of the past directly addressed was not necessarily Wondrous Light.

The Buddha today directly addresses Shariputra, yet Shariputra may not necessarily be capable of expounding and propagating this sutra. In the time of the Buddha of the past, none was more suited to being entrusted with its proclamation and propagation than Bodhisattva Wondrous Light. If the Buddha today wishes to entrust [the propagation of this sutra], none is more suited than Manjushri.

The Buddha today does not praise [Manjushri], so why must the Buddha of the past have praised [Bodhisattva Wondrous Light]? Manjushri’s citation of the Buddha of the past praising Wondrous Light serves precisely to clarify that [Wondrous Light] was the person who could be entrusted with it.

Furthermore, the old commentators held that Bodhisattva Medicine King was the [entrusted] cause. This interpretation may also be admissible, except that there is a slight discrepancy when the events of the past are cited as evidence for those of today. Some say that because Manjushri had resolved [the assembly’s] doubts, it would have been inappropriate for [the Buddha] to address [Manjushri] when emerging from meditation to expound this sutra.

We now clarify that this is not so. The sutra text itself states that the sutra was formally expounded on account of Wondrous Light; accordingly, this is explained as meaning that he was the causal condition for being entrusted with the propagation of this sutra. To cite Bodhisattva Medicine King as an example instead contradicts the Buddha’s words; what does that have to do with interpreting the sutra?

[The present explanation is that] the sutra was expounded in the past on account of Wondrous Light and today on account of Shariputra. This is precisely how the “person serving as the initiating cause” was the same. In the past, the Buddha’s eight sons revered Wondrous Light as their teacher.

When the Tathagata emerged from meditation, he directly addressed Wondrous Light and also entrusted [the reception, preservation, and propagation of this sutra] to him. Today, the Buddha’s son Rahula likewise reveres Shariputra as his teacher. When the Buddha emerges from meditation, he also directly addresses Shariputra, and ultimately entrusts the [teaching of the] Trace Gate to Shariputra as well.

If the events of today are used to compare exhaustively the similarities and differences with the events of the past, ultimately no explanation could be more fitting. Why, then, abandon Shariputra, who is near at hand, and take Medicine King, who is remote, as the “person serving as the initiating cause”? Those who harbor doubts further claim that Wondrous Light belonged to the bodhisattva assembly, whereas Shariputra belonged to the shravaka assembly; how, then, could they be the same?

This is because [the Buddha’s work of transforming beings] in the past had already been completed, and so Wondrous Light was manifestly shown to be a bodhisattva; whereas today [the Great Vehicle teaching] had not yet been initiated, and so Shariputra was called a shravaka. If the comparison is made after his manifested trace had been disclosed, Shariputra was a great bodhisattva; how could it be said that they were not the same?

Before Wondrous Light’s manifested trace was disclosed in the past, who can say that he was not also a shravaka? Moreover, Manjushri was skillful in his exposition and therefore adapted his account without explicitly stating everything.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright emerged from samadhi and, for the sake of Bodhisattva Wondrous Light, expounded a Mahayana sutra called the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma, the Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas, Guarded and Kept in Mind by the Buddhas. For sixty minor kalpas, he did not rise from his seat. The assembly likewise remained seated in one place; for sixty minor kalpas, their bodies and minds did not stir as they attentively listened to the Buddha expound the sutra, yet they all felt that only the time of a single meal had passed. During that time, not one person in the assembly experienced weariness of body or mind.

The second subsection, beginning with the words “At that time, the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright emerged from samadhi,” explains that the names of the Dharma teachings expounded by the Buddha of ancient times and the present Buddha are the same. This is evident from the title of the sutra in the scriptural passage. Above, it was said that Maitreya saw in those lands that the Buddhas first expounded the sudden teaching and afterward expounded the gradual teaching. Following the gradual teaching, he further saw the various practices of the bodhisattvas. After seeing those practices, he saw no other state, but only next saw the Buddhas enter nirvana.

In his reply, Manjusri recounted that he had formerly encountered a Buddha who first expounded the sudden teaching, afterward the gradual teaching, then the various practices, and thereafter the Lotus Sutra. Thus, after the six auspicious signs have appeared in this land and in those other lands, the Lotus Sutra will be expounded. After the Lotus Sutra has been expounded, the Buddha will enter nirvana. This is clearly set forth to answer Maitreya’s doubts concerning what he saw in those other lands.

The third subsection, beginning with the words “sixty minor kalpas,” explains that the duration and causes and conditions of the Dharma teaching expounded by the Buddha of ancient times and the present Buddha are the same. As stated later in the sutra, fifty minor kalpas were regarded as half a day; ^[16] thus the duration was likewise the same.

SCRIPTURAL PASSAGE

After the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright had expounded this sutra for sixty minor kalpas, he immediately proclaimed to the assembly of brahmacarins, maras, sramanas, brahmans, devas, humans, and asuras: “Today, at midnight, the Tathagata will enter nirvana without remainder.”

The fourth subsection, beginning with the words “After the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright had expounded this sutra for sixty minor kalpas,” explains that the Buddha of ancient times and the present Buddha are alike in foretelling their passing into extinction. After the Buddha of ancient times had expounded the Lotus Sutra, he immediately foretold his passing into extinction, just as Buddha Kasyapa and the other previous Buddhas had done. In the present sutra’s chapter “The Appearance of the Jeweled Stupa,” the present Buddha likewise clearly says, “Before long, the Tathagata will enter nirvana.” ^[17] Once the work of teaching and transmitting the Way had been completed, he proclaimed in advance his passing into extinction. In this respect, ancient and present are alike.

SCRIPTURAL PASSAGE

At that time, there was a bodhisattva named Virtue Treasury. The Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright immediately bestowed a prediction upon him, saying to the bhiksus: “This Bodhisattva Virtue Treasury will next attain Buddhahood, with the name Pure Body Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings, Perfectly and Completely Awakened...”

The fifth subsection, beginning with the words “At that time, there was a bodhisattva...,” explains that the Buddha of ancient times and the present Buddha are alike in bestowing predictions. Yet the Buddha of ancient times bestowed a prediction upon Virtue Treasury, who belonged to the bodhisattva order, whereas in the present sutra predictions are bestowed upon sravakas. How, then, can they be said to be alike?

It is because the work of teaching in ancient times had already been completed, and therefore the text mentions only the bestowal of a prediction upon a bodhisattva. In truth, however, because the Dharma taught in this sutra leads the three vehicles to return together to the single Buddha Vehicle, sravakas also receive predictions. But if the account of the past had mentioned predictions bestowed upon sravakas, then after the Buddha emerged from samadhi, what would remain to be discussed?

Manjusri was skillful in his exposition and therefore did not mention the initiating circumstances of the Trace Gate. If predictions were bestowed upon bodhisattvas, all sutras spoke in this way, and those attached to the teachings of the Two Vehicles would not yet have been alarmed. Such is the general meaning.

SCRIPTURAL PASSAGE

After the Buddha had bestowed the prediction, at midnight he immediately entered nirvana without remainder. Following the Buddha’s passing into extinction, Bodhisattva Wondrous Light retained the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma and expounded it to others for a full eighty minor kalpas. The eight sons of the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright all honored Wondrous Light as their teacher.

He taught and guided them, enabling them to become firm in their resolve for unsurpassed, perfect, and complete awakening. After making offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of Buddhas, these princes all attained Buddhahood. The last to become a Buddha was named Lamp Lighter.

Among the eight hundred disciples was one named Seeker of Fame, who greedily clung to gain and support. Although he also recited and read the scriptures, he failed to comprehend them and forgot most of what he learned; therefore, he was called Seeker of Fame. Because this person had also planted many roots of goodness, he was able to encounter countless hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of Buddhas, making offerings to them and revering, honoring, and praising them all.

Maitreya, you should know that Bodhisattva Wondrous Light of that time was none other than I myself. Bodhisattva Seeker of Fame was none other than you.

The sixth subsection, beginning with the words “After the Buddha had bestowed the prediction, at midnight he immediately entered nirvana...,” explains that the propagation of this sutra was alike in ancient times and the present. This subsection is further divided into five parts. The first sets forth the time and causes and conditions, namely, after the Buddha’s passing into extinction.

The second identifies the person who retained and propagated the sutra, namely, Bodhisattva Wondrous Light. The third specifies the length of time, namely, eighty minor kalpas. The fourth identifies those who received the teaching, namely, the eight sons and the eight hundred disciples of Wondrous Light.

The fifth concludes by identifying the persons of the past with those of the present: Seeker of Fame is now Maitreya, while Wondrous Light is now Manjusri, also called Wondrous Virtue, and so forth.

[The fourth part,] which identifies those who received the teaching, is further divided into two meanings. w The first meaning explains that the eight sons of the Buddha perfected their practice and had all attained Buddhahood long ago. w The second meaning explains that among the eight hundred disciples was one who is just about to attain Buddhahood and now abides in the position of the one bound to one more birth. The reason the eight sons of the Buddha and the eight hundred disciples are cited is that this was necessary in order to resolve a doubt and tacitly disclose the Tathagata’s lifespan.

Regarding the resolution of the doubt, some say that Maitreya, being in the position of the one bound to one more birth, is senior, while Manjusri, not being in that position, is junior. The junior should not have answered, and the senior should not have asked. Therefore, the eight hundred disciples are mentioned in order to answer those who harbor the foregoing doubt with a counterquestion. Bodhisattva Wondrous Light, who is Manjusri, personally encountered the Buddha in the distant past and was also the teacher of the Buddha’s eight sons; therefore, he could resolve the doubt without error.

Regarding the tacit disclosure of the Tathagata’s lifespan, among the eight sons of the Buddha Sun Moon Lamp Bright, the last ^[18] to attain Buddhahood was named Lamp Lighter. Buddha Lamp Lighter is also Buddha Fixed Light, who formerly bestowed a prediction upon Buddha Sakyamuni. Thus, Wondrous Light was the ancestral master nine generations before Sakyamuni Buddha. A descendant now becomes a Buddha, while the ancestral master in turn becomes a disciple. One should therefore understand that the relationship between teacher and disciple is not fixed. This tacitly reveals the meaning of “being born yet not being born, passing into extinction yet not passing into extinction.”

● Question: Bodhisattva Maitreya had encountered Buddhas in the past and had heard the Lotus Sutra. Why, then, does he now harbor doubt?

● Answer: Because the present assembly had doubts, he raised the question on their behalf.

4. A Clear and Discriminating Reply

SUTRA TEXT

Now, seeing that this auspicious sign is no different from that of the past, I therefore reflect: “Today the Tathagata will expound a Great Vehicle sutra named the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma, a Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas, of Which the Buddhas Are Protective and Mindful.”

At that time, Manjusri, amid the great assembly, wishing to restate the meaning above, spoke these verses:

The fourth part, beginning with “Now, seeing that this auspicious sign is no different from that of the past,” is called the answer based on clear and discriminating judgment. Comparing the present with the past, he had seen that the six auspicious signs were alike. Through reflection and deliberation, he determined this without error; moreover, based on both the brief and the extensive accounts of what he had witnessed in the past, he likewise reached this definite conclusion.

Because [the Buddha] would certainly expound a Great Vehicle sutra, there first appeared the auspicious sign of teaching the Dharma. Because this sutra would certainly be named the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma, there first appeared the auspicious sign of heavenly flowers raining down. Because this sutra would certainly be a Dharma for instructing bodhisattvas, there first appeared the auspicious sign of joy arising in the hearts of the assembly.

Because this sutra would certainly be protected and kept in mind by the Buddhas, there first appeared the auspicious sign of the earth shaking. The auspicious sign of [the Buddha’s] entering samadhi is itself included in all the foregoing.

Some say that, when the events of the past are compared with those of the present, the events that have just occurred and those about to occur are indeed alike, but the event now taking place is not. Yet, upon examining the sutra text, we find that [Manjusri] says: “Now, seeing that these auspicious signs are no different from those of the past.” This statement refers precisely to what is presently taking place; why, then, is it said instead that the six auspicious signs have already passed? Since this sutra passage speaks of the present event, it should be explained in terms of all three kinds of similarity: what was alike, what is alike, and what will be alike.

Explanation of the Verses

SUTRA TEXT

I recall that in ages past,

Immeasurable, countless kalpas ago,

There was a Buddha, the Most Honored One,

Named Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance.

The World-Honored One expounded the Dharma,

Delivering immeasurable sentient beings,

And countless kotis of bodhisattvas,

Causing them to enter the wisdom of the Buddha.

The verses [in which Manjusri restates the meaning] comprise forty-five stanzas. They do not reiterate the answer based on reflection and deliberation or the brief account of what had previously been witnessed. Within the extensive account of what had been witnessed, they reiterate only the earlier and later portions, not the middle portion.

The first part, consisting of the first two stanzas, extensively describes events witnessed in the past, indicating that the time and causal circumstances, the sutra’s name, and the teaching of the Dharma were all the same as they are today.

SUTRA TEXT

Before that Buddha renounced the household life,

Eight royal sons were born to him.

Seeing the Great Sage leave the household life,

They also followed him and cultivated purity.

When the Buddha taught the Great Vehicle,

The sutra was named Immeasurable Meanings;

There, amid the great assembly,

He extensively distinguished its meaning for them.

After the Buddha had taught that sutra,

He immediately sat upon the Dharma seat,

Crossed his legs, and entered the samadhi

Called the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings.

The heavens rained down mandarava flowers,

And celestial drums sounded of themselves;

Devas, dragons, ghosts, and spirits

Made offerings to the Honored One.

All the many Buddha lands

Immediately shook at once;

The Buddha emitted light from between his brows,

Revealing rare and wondrous events.

The second part, beginning with “Before that Buddha renounced the household life,” consists of thirty-nine stanzas and shows that the last of those Buddhas possessed the same three correspondences with the present day. The third part consists of the final four stanzas and presents the answer affirming the conclusion with certainty.

The second part, which sets forth the three correspondences with the present, is further divided into three major sections. © The first major section consists of one stanza and shows that what had been witnessed in the past was the same as what had just occurred in the present. The second major section consists of fifteen and a half stanzas, or sixty-two lines, and shows that what had been witnessed in the past was the same as what was presently taking place. The third major section consists of twenty-two and a half stanzas, or ninety lines, and shows that what had been witnessed in the past was the same as what was about to occur in the present.

© The second major section, beginning with “When the Buddha taught the Great Vehicle,” shows that what was presently taking place was the same as what had occurred in the past, and is further divided into two passages.

The first passage consists of fourteen stanzas and describes the six auspicious signs in this world and in the other worlds. The second passage, beginning with “At that time, the entire fourfold assembly,” consists of one and a half stanzas and describes the doubts of the fourfold assembly. The first passage is further divided into two subsections.

The first subsection consists of four stanzas and shows that the six auspicious signs in this world were the same in the past and the present. This section additionally includes the idea that “celestial drums sounded of themselves,” signifying “speaking spontaneously without being asked”: without anyone making an inquiry, [the Buddha] spoke of his own accord. The verse “revealing rare and wondrous events” is a general statement concerning the auspicious signs.

SUTRA TEXT

The ray of light illuminated the east,

Eighteen thousand Buddha lands;

All sentient beings could behold

The realms in which birth and death accord with karmic retribution.

They also saw the Buddha lands,

Adorned with precious jewels,

Colored like lapis lazuli and crystal,

All revealed by the Buddha’s light.

They further saw devas and humans,

Dragons, spirits, and yakshas,

Gandharvas and kimnaras,

All making offerings to those Buddhas.

They further saw the Buddhas,

Naturally accomplishing the Buddha Way,

Their bodies radiant like mountains of gold,

Majestic, exceedingly subtle and wondrous.

Pure as lapis lazuli,

They appeared as images of pure gold;

The World-Honored Ones, amid the assemblies,

Extensively taught the profound Dharma.

Within each and every Buddha land

Were countless sravakas;

Through the illumination of the Buddha’s light,

Those assemblies could all be clearly seen.

There were also bhikshus

Who constantly dwelt amid mountains and forests,

Diligently observing the precepts,

Guarding them as they would a luminous pearl.

Through the Buddha’s light, they further saw

Bodhisattvas practicing giving, patience, and the rest,

As numerous

As the sands of the Ganges.

They further saw bodhisattvas

Entering deeply into the various meditative absorptions,

Their bodies and minds tranquil and unmoving,

In order to seek the unsurpassed Way.

They further saw bodhisattvas

Knowing the quiescent and extinct character of all dharmas,

And within their own lands,

Teaching the Dharma in quest of the Buddha Way.

The second subsection, beginning with “The ray of light illuminated the east,” consists of ten stanzas and shows that the six auspicious signs in the other worlds were the same in the past and the present. The prose passage merely says, “just like the Buddha lands seen today,” which is a brief statement. These verses explain the matter more extensively.

This subsection is divided into five divisions. The first division consists of three stanzas and shows that the vision of sentient beings in the six realms was also the same as in the past. The second division, beginning with “They further saw the Buddhas,” consists of one and a half stanzas and shows that the vision of the Buddhas was also the same as in the past.

The third division, beginning with “The World-Honored Ones, amid the assemblies,” consists of two lines, or half a stanza, and shows that the Buddhas’ teaching of the sudden teaching and the seven excellences [of the Great Vehicle] was also the same as in the past. The fourth division, beginning with “Within each and every Buddha land,” consists of three stanzas and describes seeing the assemblies of sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and others, comprising all three vehicles; that is, just as the Buddhas of the past unfolded and disclosed the gradual teachings, so it was today.

The fifth division, beginning with “They further saw bodhisattvas,” consists of two stanzas and describes seeing all the various causes and conditions of the bodhisattvas; that is, the unfolding of the Vaipulya and Prajnaparamita teachings was also the same as it is today.

§ The first division, consisting of three stanzas, can be clearly understood directly according to the sutra text.

§ The second division consists of one and a half stanzas. We shall now explain the line “naturally accomplishing the Buddha Way.” When cultivating the path of skillful means, one must deliberately apply the mind and exert effort in practice; but upon entering the path of true realization, one naturally accords and becomes united with reality. This can be understood in brief according to the teaching of the Four Teachings ^[19]. Such is the general meaning.

● Question: If it is said that cultivating and bringing forth the true path requires only following the natural course, then why is it necessary for the Buddhas to teach the Dharma?

● Answer: It is like a boat drifting downstream: if it encounters a favorable wind and, in addition, someone vigorously rows it, it will certainly reach its destination more quickly. The favorable wind is an analogy for encountering a Buddha and hearing the Dharma. The added effort of the person rowing is an analogy for diligent cultivation.

For example, after attaining the first fruition, if one follows the natural course, one must undergo seven more rebirths; but if one encounters a Buddha and diligently cultivates, one can attain the fruition beyond learning after only one or two rebirths. Such is the general meaning. “Naturally attaining the Buddha path” refers to the reward body; “lapis lazuli” refers to the Dharma body, which is inherently pure; and “a golden image” means manifesting a form in response to beings.

§ The third subsection consists of the two lines, “The World-Honored One, amid the great assembly, extensively expounded the profound and wondrous Dharma.” Here, one may determine the people [who hear the Dharma] on the basis of the teaching. Since the Dharma was profound and wondrous, it is naturally known that [the Buddha] was setting great faculties into motion and opening the sudden teaching. These two lines of verse express the meaning of “pure and unmixed” stated above in the prose passage, within the section concerning the seven excellences [of the Mahayana].

§ The fourth subsection, beginning with “In each and every Buddha-land, there were countless shravakas,” consists of three stanzas. Here, one may determine the teaching on the basis of the people [who hear the Dharma]. Since the people [hearing the Dharma] were [shravakas] belonging to the Two Vehicles, it is naturally known that [the Buddha] opened and taught the Dharma of the Tripitaka Teaching.

This verse section expresses the meaning of what [the prose passage] above stated, such as, “For those seeking the fruition of a shravaka, he taught the Dharma of the Four Truths appropriate to them,” and so forth. Although the verses do not mention pratyekabuddhas, the meaning naturally includes them. The verse says, “practicing giving, patience...” thereby implicitly including the [remaining] four paramitas. Thus, this section ^[20] speaks of the six paramitas of the Mahayana.

§ The fifth subsection, beginning with the line “Again, he saw bodhisattvas entering deeply into the dhyanas,” consists of two stanzas and reiterates the meaning of the passage above that states, “Again, he saw bodhisattva-mahasattvas, with various causes and conditions, various forms of faith and understanding, and various appearances.”

Here, the explanation concerning the construction of stupas [to enshrine the Buddha’s relics in the following passage] is omitted. This is because the preceding scripture passage did not speak of seeing Buddhas in other lands expounding the Lotus Sutra before subsequently speaking of constructing stupas [to enshrine the Buddha’s relics].

Now, because this explanation mentions Buddhas expounding the Lotus Sutra [in other lands], the account of their entering extinction and the subsequent construction of stupas to enshrine their relics is placed later.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the four assemblies,

Seeing the Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp

Manifest great spiritual powers,

All rejoiced within their hearts.

They asked one another:

“What is the cause of this?”

The second section, beginning with the line “At that time, the four assemblies,” consists of one and a half stanzas and reiterates the doubts of the four assemblies in the time of that ancient Buddha. The meaning can be clearly understood from the scripture text.

SUTRA TEXT

The Honored One of gods and humans,

Having just emerged from samadhi,

Praised Bodhisattva Wondrous Light:

“You are the eyes and ears of the world,

One whom all people trust and follow.

You are able to preserve the Dharma treasury;

Of all that I have taught,

You alone clearly understand.”

After the World-Honored One had praised him,

Causing Wondrous Light to rejoice,

He immediately taught the Lotus Sutra

For a full sixty minor kalpas,

Without rising from his seat.

The wondrous Dharma taught by the Buddha,

Dharma Master Wondrous Light

Was able to receive and uphold in its entirety.

© The third major section, beginning with the line “The Honored One of gods and humans,” consists of twenty-two and a half stanzas and shows that events of the past were the same as those about to occur in the present. This section is divided into six parts.

The first part consists of two and a half stanzas and shows that the person who served as the occasion [for the teaching of the Dharma] was the same.

The second part is the line “He immediately taught the Lotus Sutra,” reiterating that the teaching of the Dharma [in the past and present] was the same.

The third part, beginning with the line “For a full sixty minor kalpas,” consists of five lines of verse and reiterates that the duration of the causes and conditions [in the past and present] was the same. This briefly describes the inconceivable wisdom of the Buddhas that extends a moment into a kalpa ^[21]. Wondrous Light received and upheld all the Dharma taught by the Buddha in the past, just as Shariputra received the Buddha’s entrustment [in the present].

SUTRA TEXT

After the Buddha taught the Lotus Sutra,

Causing the great assembly to rejoice,

On that very day

He proclaimed to the entire assembly of gods and humans:

“The meaning of the true aspect of all dharmas

Has now been taught to the assembly.

At midnight tonight,

I shall enter nirvana.

Be single-minded and diligent;

Abandon all heedlessness.

The opportunity to encounter a Buddha is rare,

Occurring only once in hundreds of thousands of kalpas.”

The disciples of the World-Honored One,

Hearing that the Buddha would enter nirvana,

Were all overcome with sorrow:

“Why will the Buddha enter extinction so soon?”

The Sage-Lord, the Dharma King,

Consoled the countless beings:

“After I have entered extinction,

You must not be afraid.

The fourth part, beginning with the line “After the Buddha taught the Lotus Sutra,” consists of five stanzas and reiterates that [the Buddha’s] prediction of his entry into extinction [in the past and present] was the same. This answers the question concerning the entry into extinction [of the Buddhas] in those lands.

In general, this section contains both the prediction of entry into extinction and the entrustment. The entrustment is also like that found in the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching. It contains sorrow and grief [at the Buddha’s entry into extinction], as in the Nirvana Sutra, and also consolation and admonition, as in the Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching.

[When Buddhas enter nirvana], those capable of being transformed have all been transformed, while those not yet transformed have all established the causes and conditions [through which they will be transformed in the future], just as the present Buddha will entrust them to Maitreya. Such is the general meaning.

SUTRA TEXT

This Bodhisattva Treasury of Virtue

Has already fully comprehended in his mind

The true aspect of the unconditioned Dharma.

He shall next attain Buddhahood,

With the title Tathagata Pure Body,

And shall also deliver countless beings.”

That night, the Buddha entered extinction,

Like a fire going out when the firewood is exhausted.

They divided the Buddha’s relics

And then erected countless stupas.

Bhikshus and bhikshunis,

As numerous as the sands of the Ganges,

Became ever more diligent

In seeking the unsurpassed path.

Dharma Master Wondrous Light

Reverently upheld the Buddha’s Dharma treasury

And, throughout eighty minor kalpas,

Extensively taught the Lotus Sutra.

The fifth part, beginning with the line “This Bodhisattva Treasury of Virtue,” consists of one and a half stanzas and reiterates the Buddha’s bestowal of a prediction.

The sixth part, beginning with the line “That night, the Buddha entered extinction,” consists of twelve stanzas and reiterates the propagation of this sutra as described above. This account of propagation is further divided into five subsections.

The first subsection consists of two stanzas and reiterates that, at the time and under the circumstances of the Buddha’s entry into extinction, all four assemblies received benefit. [The verse says,] “Like a fire going out when the firewood is exhausted.” In relation to the Buddhas of the Hinayana ^[22], the reward body is the firewood and wisdom is the fire. Because that wisdom depends upon the reward body, when the body perishes, wisdom also disappears.

In relation to the Buddhas of the Mahayana, the opportunities [for transforming sentient beings] are the firewood, and responsive manifestation is the fire. When the opportunities for teaching and transforming sentient beings are exhausted, the responsively manifested form also disappears. [The verse also says,] “became ever more diligent”; therefore, [the Buddhas] use their entry into extinction to transform beings, [causing sentient beings to become more diligent].

The second subsection consists of the line “Dharma Master Wondrous Light” and the following line, reiterating the person capable of propagating this sutra.

The third subsection, comprising the passage beginning with “for eighty minor kalpas” and the sentence that follows, reiterates the duration and the causes and conditions involved in practicing this sutra.

SUTRA TEXT

The eight princes, sons of the Buddha,

Were instructed by Wondrous Light;

Firmly established in the Buddha’s path,

They thereafter encountered countless Buddhas,

Reverently making offerings to them all,

And obediently cultivating the path.

In succession, they all became Buddhas,

Each in turn receiving a prediction,

Until the very last Buddha,

Whose name was Buddha Dipamkara,

Teacher of gods and seers,

Who liberated countless beings.

The Dharma Master Wondrous Light

Also had one disciple

Who constantly harbored indolence,

Was infatuated with fame and gain,

And sought them greedily without satisfaction,

Associating with wealthy households.

After reciting the sutras, he cast them aside,

Forgetting them and failing to understand their meaning.

Because of causes and conditions such as these,

He was named Seeker of Fame.

Yet he performed many wholesome deeds

And was able to encounter countless Buddhas.

Having made offerings to all the Buddhas,

He obediently cultivated the path,

Perfected the six paramitas,

And has now encountered Shakyamuni.

In the future he shall become a Buddha,

Whose name will be Buddha Maitreya;

He shall extensively liberate all sentient beings,

Whose number will be immeasurable.

The fourth subsection, beginning with “The eight princes, sons of the Buddha,” consists of eight stanzas and reiterates the benefits obtained by the disciples. This subsection is further divided into two divisions. The first division comprises the initial three stanzas and states that all those disciples subsequently became Buddhas. The second division, beginning with “The Dharma Master Wondrous Light also had one disciple,” consists of five stanzas and states that this disciple too shall become a Buddha.

SUTRA TEXT

After that ancient Buddha entered nirvana,

Seeker of Fame was none other than you.

As for the Dharma Master Wondrous Light,

He was none other than I myself.

I saw Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance

Long ago emit light in this same way;

Therefore, know that the Buddha today

Is about to teach the Lotus Sutra.

The present sign and the auspicious omen of old

Are the skillful means of all Buddhas.

The Buddha now emits a ray of light

To reveal and aid understanding of the meaning of the true characteristic.

All of you should now understand,

Join your palms and wait single-mindedly.

The Buddha will send down the rain of Dharma

To fully satisfy those who seek the path.

Those who seek the fruits of the Three Vehicles,

If they still harbor doubts,

The Buddha will help them cast these away,

Exhausting them completely so that no doubts remain.

The fifth subsection, beginning with “After that ancient Buddha entered nirvana,” consists of one stanza and reiterates the correspondence between the persons of ancient times and those of the present.

[The third part] comprises the final four stanzas. Earlier commentators considered this a concluding passage intended to cause all beings to look up in reverence and admiration. It will now be clearly explained that this is not so.

The preceding prose passage contains answers given through clear analysis and discernment; these are precisely [reiterated] in this verse section. This section is further divided into three major divisions.

© The first major division, beginning with “I saw Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance,” consists of one stanza and reiterates that [the Buddha] will teach the Great Vehicle sutra [the Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma].

© The second major division, beginning with “The present sign [resembles] the auspicious omen of old,” consists of two stanzas and reiterates the teaching of the Dharma to bodhisattvas.

© The third major division, beginning with “Those who seek the fruits of the Three Vehicles,” consists of one stanza and reiterates that the Buddhas protect and keep in mind [those who practice]; this can be clearly understood from the sutra text.

Furthermore, in the preceding section, Maitreya clearly articulated four successive inquiries, compelling Manjushri to provide an answer. In this section, Manjushri in turn clarifies and dispels four latent doubts, so that Maitreya need not raise them as questions.

The first doubt arose when Manjushri extensively cited how the Buddhas of the past had taught the Lotus Sutra. Maitreya then harbored a latent doubt and wished to ask: “The Buddhas teach the Dharma according to causes and conditions, and those who hear the Dharma differ in every age. Thus, although the sutra taught by the Buddhas of old was called the Lotus Sutra, why must the present Buddha necessarily do the same?”

Manjushri then spoke the first stanza to dispel [Maitreya’s] doubt:

I saw Buddha Sun-Moon-Lamp Radiance

Long ago emit light in this same way;

Therefore, know that the Buddha today

Is about to teach the Lotus Sutra.

This dispels the doubt concerning the title of this sutra.

Because of this answer, Maitreya then gave rise to the [second] doubt: “The title and meaning of a sutra may be the same, but the title and meaning of a sutra may also differ. How, then, can one know what kind of portent is revealed by this title, [the Lotus Sutra]?”

Manjushri then spoke the second stanza to dispel this doubt:

The present sign and the auspicious omen of old

Are the skillful means of all Buddhas.

The Buddha now emits a ray of light

To reveal and aid understanding of the meaning of the true characteristic.

This dispels the doubt concerning the essential nature of this sutra.

Because of this answer, Maitreya again gave rise to a doubt: “The true characteristic is originally without characteristics; who can comprehend it?” Manjushri then spoke the third stanza to dispel this doubt:

All of you should now understand,

Join your palms and wait single-mindedly.

The Buddha will send down the rain of Dharma

To fully satisfy those who seek the path.

This dispels the doubt concerning the fundamental purport of this sutra.

Because of this answer, Maitreya again gave rise to a doubt: “The Buddha’s rain of Dharma is suitable for bodhisattvas, but could it also benefit those of the Two Vehicles?” Manjushri then spoke the fourth stanza to dispel this doubt:

Those who seek the fruits of the Three Vehicles,

If they still harbor doubts,

The Buddha will help them cast these away,

Exhausting them completely so that no doubts remain.

This dispels the doubt concerning the function of this sutra.

Maitreya repeatedly gave rise to doubts, and Manjushri repeatedly dispelled them, until the matter was exhausted and the principle fully revealed, whereupon understanding arose within his mind. This may indeed be called skillful questioning and skillful answering, complete with both forms of adornment.

Master Guangzhai merely followed and recorded the view of the earlier Master Zhao, explaining [Maitreya’s] four successive inquiries that compelled Manjushri to provide an answer. He revealed Maitreya’s excellence but failed to observe how Manjushri explained the four latent doubts so that Maitreya had no need to ask about them. In this way, he obscured the ability of Manjushri (Wondrous Virtue). This meaning originated in the Tiantai tradition and was not transmitted through other commentaries. This also serves as an admonition to later generations not to obscure the excellence of their predecessors.

In the several hundred years since Master Zhao, there have been many who lectured on and explained the Lotus Sutra, but has anyone perceived this meaning? If [the foregoing understanding] is not excellent, what could be?

2. EXPLANATION OF THE CHAPTER ON SKILLFUL MEANS

This explanation has both an abbreviated and an extensive treatment. The abbreviated treatment is also divided into two parts: first, an abbreviated explanation of the meaning, and then an evaluative analysis and differentiation.

SUTRA TEXT

Chapter Two: Skillful Means

ABBREVIATED TREATMENT

1. Abbreviated Explanation of the Meaning

First is the abbreviated explanation of the meaning. “Method” refers to the teaching, while “expedient” refers to [the teaching’s] function. The teaching may be square or round, while its function may be differentiated or perfectly fitting. For example, the provisional and expedient Three Vehicles constitute the square framework and therefore are square; the true One Vehicle constitutes the round framework and therefore is round. If wisdom accords with the square framework [of the Three Vehicles], it skillfully applies differentiated and provisional teachings suited to sentient beings. If wisdom accords with the round framework [of the One Vehicle], it skillfully applies the true and perfectly complete teaching suited to sentient beings.

It is also like someone pointing in the wrong direction with his hand, whereupon the eyes look in that wrong direction. The hand pointing in the wrong direction is an analogy for the Dharma, and the eyes looking accordingly are an analogy for wisdom. Therefore, when Dharma is used to explain the meaning of “method” (方), functional application is used to explain the meaning of “expedient” (便). If the hand points comprehensively and the eyes, looking accordingly, see everywhere, then concealment should be used to explain the meaning of “method,” and subtle wondrousness to explain the meaning of “expedient.”

To present partial teachings in explaining expedient means is entirely to accord with the wishes of sentient beings; it is not the original intent of the Buddhas. According to the scriptures, one must abandon every attachment and clinging and escape all suffering in the three realms. Therefore, the Tathagata earnestly praised and extolled expedient teachings. This meaning may be used as a general explanation for other sutras; it is not the particular intent of this Skillful Means chapter.

Furthermore, expedient means is a gateway of entry. For it to be called a gateway of entry, there must be passage: that which enables passage is unobstructed, and that into which one passes is also unobstructed. All provisional and abbreviated expedient means are provisionally established as guidance, opening a gateway of expedient means for the sake of ultimate truth.

Thus, ultimate truth is revealed by means of expedients. Since it is named according to this function of revelation, the meaning of a gateway of entry is used to explain expedient means. According to the scripture, expedient teachings are cast aside and the mark of reality alone is revealed.

This meaning may also be used as a general explanation for other sutras; it is likewise not the particular intent of this Skillful Means chapter.

Furthermore, “method” means concealed, while “expedient” means wondrous. Wondrousness attained through the method is concealed truth. It is like the priceless jewel hidden in the fold of a garment and the jewel atop the king’s head: in reality, they are but that one jewel, not two, without any difference.

It is also like the man who came from afar to labor and the elder’s son: they too are [but one person], not two, without any difference. Words such as these are concealed, subtle, and wondrous. As [the Buddha says] in this sutra: “Duy ngã tri thị tướng, thập phương Phật diệc nhiên. - 唯我知是相, 十方佛亦然。” (I alone know this mark; the Buddhas of the ten directions also know it thus.) Or: “Chỉ chỉ bất tu thuyết, ngã pháp diệu nan tư. - 止止不須說。我法妙難思。” (Enough, enough, there is no need to speak; my Dharma is wondrous and difficult to conceive.) Therefore, concealment is used to explain the meaning of the character “method,” and subtle wondrousness to explain the character “expedient.” This is precisely the meaning of this chapter of the sutra; therefore, it is called the Skillful Means chapter.

2. Evaluation and Distinction

Concerning evaluation and distinction, the first explanation treats expedient means as having an external nature and essence: one provisionally transforms the myriad beings and teaches in accordance with the wishes of sentient beings. The second explanation likewise treats expedient means as having an external nature and essence: one employs provisional means in one’s own practice and in teaching sentient beings, and teaches in accordance with both one’s own intent and that of sentient beings. Finally, the third explanation treats expedient means as sharing the same nature and essence: it is the provisional means employed in one’s own practice, and one teaches in accordance with one’s own intent.

Expedient means as explained in the first manner is neither that which enables entry nor that into which one enters. Expedient means as explained in the second manner is that which enables entry, but not that into which one enters. Expedient means as explained in the third manner is that into which one enters, but not that which enables entry. Thus, one should know that although the designation is the same, the meanings are greatly different. Most people in the world fail to perceive this meaning and explain the Skillful Means chapter arbitrarily. This is the general outline.

● Question: What is the relationship between expedient means and the provisional vehicle?

● Answer: There are four distinct cases. First, expedient means itself refutes the provisional vehicle. Second, the provisional vehicle refutes expedient means. Third, expedient means perfects the provisional vehicle, and the provisional vehicle perfects expedient means. Fourth, expedient means is itself the provisional vehicle, and the provisional vehicle is itself expedient means.

That expedient means refutes the provisional vehicle means that all four kinds of expedient means ^[23] are concealed, subtle, and wondrous expedients. Such expedient means refute provisional adaptations made according to the wishes of sentient beings.

That the provisional vehicle refutes expedient means means that provisional means sharing the same nature and essence refute expedient means whose nature and essence are external.

The case in which expedient means and the provisional vehicle perfect one another may also be understood. The case in which expedient means is itself the provisional vehicle and the provisional vehicle is itself expedient means may likewise be understood. Such is the general outline.

The first three cases may be used as general explanations for other sutras; only the fourth case is the particular meaning of this Skillful Means chapter. Therefore, the Lotus Sutra of the True Dharma calls it the chapter on Skillful Provisional Means. The provisional is itself the expedient; they are not two meanings and have no difference. [Every act, such as] bowing one’s head, joining one’s palms, and so forth, is the Buddha-path. Expedient means and skillful provisional adaptations are all true reality.

EXTENDED EXPLANATION

First, we present the view of the earlier commentators, who divided the teachings into five periods, ^[24] encompassing provisional teachings and true teachings. During the first twelve years [when the Agama sutras were taught], [the Buddha taught that] contemplating the impermanence of phenomena was a provisional teaching, while illuminating the principle of impermanence was the truth, referring to the Abhidharma. According to the Treatise of the Great Sage, however, refuting impermanence is a teaching of counteraction.

It therefore belongs entirely to the third siddhanta, [the siddhanta of counteraction]; how could there be any truth in it? Thus, this meaning is not adopted here. After the twelve-year period [of teaching the Agama sutras, the Buddha] taught the prajnaparamita teachings.

Contemplating all existent dharmas as provisional was a provisional teaching, while contemplating those provisionally compounded existents as all empty was the truth. The Treatise of the Great Sage also rejects this meaning. When contemplation eliminates conceptual thought, all language likewise ceases entirely.

Thus, when provisionally existent things are contemplated as empty, this is produced through contemplative conception. This meaning is also not adopted here.

Next came [the period when the Buddha taught] such sutras as the Vimalakirti and the Brahmavisesacinti. ^[25] Inwardly contemplating and clearly illuminating the two objects of “existence and nonexistence” was regarded as true wisdom, while outwardly knowing how to respond appropriately to changing circumstances was regarded as provisional wisdom. We now maintain that if illumination occurs inwardly and application outwardly, this divides them into two and does not enter [Vimalakirti’s] Dharma-gate of nonduality. Therefore, this meaning is also not adopted here.

Next, the Lotus Sutra’s contemplation of the “three sets of three” was considered provisional, while contemplation of the “four unities” was considered true. ^[26] We now maintain that those three provisional teachings could never accord with truth, while the single true teaching would have no relation to the three provisional teachings. Therefore, this meaning is also not adopted here.

Thereafter, the Nirvana Sutra states that teaching impermanence before the Diamond was provisional, while teaching permanence after the Diamond was true. We now maintain that the earlier teaching of suchness was also permanent, while the later teaching of wisdom that knows things in their multiplicity was also provisional. Thus, this division of the provisional and the true according to the five periods is not adopted here. Even the meanings of the complete character and the half character ^[27], which the four schools use to elucidate the two wisdoms of the provisional and the true, are not adopted here.

Others explain that expedient means adapting provisionally in accordance with principle, while real means discerning what is true. Others say that expedient means skillful and flexible adaptation, while real means accord with wisdom. Others say that expedient means provisional establishment, [as in this sutra] where the three carts are provisionally set up outside the gate.

Furthermore, expedient means provisional adaptation to what is appropriate; because it is appropriate, [the Buddha] teaches the Three Vehicles. Furthermore, provisional adaptation means an appellation corresponding to the circumstances. It is like [the same] weight on a steelyard: when moved outward along the beam, it sinks; when drawn inward, it rises; and when brought to the middle, it balances. ^[28] [Such an analogy] accords with the Buddha’s wisdom, which is able to contemplate, illuminate, examine, and measure.

Explanations such as these each follow a single path. Adaptation according to principle and provisional establishment are limited to the sphere of application; adaptation to what is appropriate is limited to Dharma gates; skillful flexibility and appellations corresponding to circumstances are limited to intellectual capacity. None encompasses the meaning in its entirety or penetrates and integrates its subtlety.

Therefore, they cannot now be used to explain this chapter of the sutra.

Others divide the two wisdoms [provisional and real] into four types. The first [distinguishes] provisional wisdom and real wisdom. The second distinguishes the wisdom of emptiness and the wisdom of existence. [The wisdom of emptiness] contemplates emptiness, has no attainment, and remains apart from the Two Vehicles; [the wisdom of existence] enters the realm of existence without being defiled and emerges beyond the realm of ordinary beings. The third holds that the inward stillness of emptiness and existence is real wisdom, while their outward functioning is provisional wisdom. The fourth holds that the doctrine of permanence before the Vajra stage is provisional wisdom, while the doctrine of impermanence after the Vajra stage is real wisdom.

The two wisdoms of the first type give rise to faith. The two wisdoms of the second type give rise to understanding. The two wisdoms of the third type enable one to teach and transform sentient beings. The two wisdoms of the fourth type bring the fruit to fulfillment.

The two wisdoms thus distinguished each undergo three successive transformations. In the first, existence is regarded as conventional truth, and emptiness as ultimate truth. Next, existence and emptiness are both regarded as conventional truth, while neither existence nor emptiness is ultimate truth. Finally, emptiness and existence are regarded as duality, while neither emptiness nor existence is nonduality; duality and nonduality (division into two and absence of such division) both belong to conventional truth, while neither duality nor nonduality (neither division into two nor absence of division) is ultimate truth.

The wisdom corresponding to the doctrinal schools is likewise. Why? Because it accords with the individual-adaptation siddhanta. Since some people hear an earlier teaching without awakening but attain awakening upon hearing a later teaching, the determination of the two truths ^[29] is not uniform.

Furthermore, the Tathagata always teaches the Dharma in reliance upon the two truths, and so the two truths have three gates. Although the Buddha’s teachings are numerous, none falls outside these three gates, ^[30] for their purpose is gradually to guide sentient beings. Ordinary beings cling to the belief that body and mind truly exist, so [the Buddha] teaches that neither is real and that only the emptiness-nature of all dharmas is true.

Following this teaching, ordinary beings then abandon attachment to existence but become attached to emptiness. Therefore, [the Buddha teaches that] both existence and emptiness are conventional truth, while neither existence nor emptiness is true. [Upon hearing this teaching, ordinary beings] relinquish both extremes of existence and emptiness, but then become attached to the Middle Way. Therefore, on the third occasion, [the Buddha teaches that] one must depart from both extremes without becoming attached to the Middle Way; only this is true.

This is [the successive guidance of] people of the Five Vehicles. ^[31] First, ordinary beings are guided so that faith arises in them and they escape [their attachment to body and mind as] truly existent. Next, followers of the Two Vehicles are guided so that they enter the principle of the Middle Way. Finally, bodhisattvas are guided so that they abandon both the bias [toward the two extremes of existence and nonexistence] and the Middle Way.

Furthermore, for those studying the principle of the Middle Way, it is taught that the three provisional constructs ^[32] are conventional truth and that the emptiness of all three provisional constructs is ultimate truth. In this way, the initial meaning is attained. Next, [it is taught that] the emptiness of the three provisional constructs, together with emptiness and existence, are all conventional truth, while neither emptiness nor existence is ultimate truth. Such is the meaning in brief.

It is now made clear that explanations such as these all rely upon [the division into] the Five Periods [of teaching] ^[33] and express the interpreters’ own views. The interpretation that one is led upward successively, stage by stage, is likewise incorrect. Such explanations may interpret other sutras, but they are not the meaning of this chapter.

The sutra says that “all sentient beings are enabled to see.” How, then, could there be any difference between awakening earlier and awakening later? It also says, “Directly cast aside expedients.” Why, then, should a gradual and sequential teaching be used to understand the perfect and subtle Dharma? Again, the initially cited [stages] of giving rise to faith, giving rise to understanding, teaching and transforming sentient beings, and bringing the fruit to fulfillment—what do they have to do with the meaning of awakening and entering expressed in this sutra?

Vasubandhu enumerates seventeen titles [of the Lotus Sutra], of which the thirteenth is “The Great Skillful Expedient.” ^[34] Furthermore, the Mahayana Sutra on Expedient Means elucidates ten kinds of expedient means, of which the ninth is called “The Paramita of Skillful Expedient Means That Leads Those of the Two Vehicles to Enter the Great Vehicle.” Thus, it should be known that this chapter concerns the Tathagata’s expedient means, which integrate and embrace all dharmas, just as empty space encompasses all forms and the great ocean receives all streams.

How could the understanding of teachers belonging to a single branch or school be used to explain, even in outline, the entire Dharma realm?

In now elucidating the provisional and the real, four propositions are first set forth. ^[35] First, all dharmas are provisional; second, all dharmas are real; third, all dharmas are both provisional and real; fourth, all dharmas are neither provisional nor real.

1. All dharmas are provisional. [This is based on the reasoning that,] as the sutra states, all dharmas are [truly] such—from their nature, appearance, essence, power, origin, culmination, and so forth. [They cannot be expressed in teaching;] whenever speech, language, or written words are employed, they are all provisional adaptations. [Therefore, all dharmas are provisional.]

2. All dharmas are real. [This is based on the reasoning that,] as the sutra states, the Tathagata skillfully teaches the dharmas, bringing joy to the assembly. The assembly rejoices when their minds enter the principle of reality. Furthermore, [the sutra says,] “From the beginning, all dharmas have ever borne the mark of constant quiescence.” It also says, “Everything taught by the Tathagata leads to the stage of omniscience.” It further says, “All is true and not false.” Moreover, none of the four propositions set forth in the Great Sutra can be clearly expressed in words. ^[36] [Therefore, all dharmas are real.]

3. All dharmas are both provisional and real. As the sutra states, the true character of all dharmas simultaneously reveals that all dharmas are both provisional and real. To take but one example, the contemplation of impurity is both true and false. Such is the meaning in brief. [Therefore, all dharmas are both provisional and real.] ^[37]

4. All dharmas are neither provisional nor real, [based on the reasoning] expressed in the scriptural passage, “neither the same nor different.” Nor are they the dharmas above, in the middle, or below; nor are they conditioned or unconditioned dharmas, real or unreal. Neither false nor real—this is the suchness of the true aspect [of all dharmas].

If it is said that all dharmas are provisional, then from whatever standpoint this is examined, it is unreasonable. ^[38] [For if this were so,] suppose there were hundreds of thousands of teachers, each propounding hundreds of thousands of theories; there would then be no theory that was not provisional. If even the Tathagata’s teaching were provisional, how much more so those of teachers in the human realm—how could they not be provisional? As stated above, all would therefore be provisional. [This is unreasonable.]

If it is said that all dharmas are real, then from whatever standpoint this is examined, it is unreasonable. [For] there is only this one truth; if a second is added, it necessarily is not real. There is only one ultimate path; how could there be many ultimate paths? As previously stated regarding the various teachers, they all reject entry into the truth [by maintaining that all dharmas are provisional]; how could they then turn around and defend the basis of this position? ^[39] [This is unreasonable.]

If it is said that all dharmas are both provisional and real, then from whatever standpoint this is examined, it is again unreasonable.

[Therefore,] among all dharmas there must be both the provisional and the real; one cannot maintain that there is only one correct approach and no other explanations. Within each individual dharma there are also both the provisional and the real; one cannot incline wholly to one side [and maintain] that it is solely provisional or solely real.

If it is said that all dharmas are neither provisional nor real, then from whatever standpoint this is examined, it is again unreasonable. Why hesitate and contrive to establish such a doctrine?

Merely enumerating the names [of these doctrines] already reveals this to be so; merely contemplating from afar their vast, luminous profundity reveals this to be so—how much more so when deeply discussing the central purport and orientation [of each doctrine]?

We shall now employ the doctrine that includes both the provisional and the real and unfold it into ten dharmas. Regarding these ten dharmas, eight points of explanation will be presented in sequence. The first enumerates the ten names; the second explains the sequence of their arising; the third interprets them; the fourth cites scriptural evidence; the fifth summarizes the ten dharmas into three categories of the provisional and the real; the sixth distinguishes the three categories of the provisional and the real and illuminates the three levels of the two truths; the seventh briefly examines the scriptures to determine the provisional and the real; and the eighth briefly explains, according to the original and the trace teachings, how the provisional and the real are determined.

1. Enumeration of Names

[All dharmas fall within the following ten categories:] phenomena and principle, principle and teaching, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, cause and effect, essence and function, gradual and sudden, opening and combining, common and distinct, and siddhanta. These are the ten general designations [for all dharmas].

2. The Sequence of Arising

[The Vimalakirti Sutra says:] “From the root of non-abiding, all dharmas are established.” “Non-abiding” is principle, while all dharmas are phenomena. [Because there are] principle and phenomena, there is the Dharma teaching. Because there is teaching, there is practice. Because there is practice, there is bondage or liberation.

Because there are bondage and liberation, there are cause and effect. Because there are cause and effect, there is an essence that can be revealed and a function that is its efficacy; from these there is instruction and transformation that proceed either gradually and sequentially or suddenly and immediately. Because the gradual and the sudden are unfolded, there are opening and combining.

Because there are opening and combining, there are benefits that are common or distinct. Because the common and distinct benefits are differentiated, there are the four kinds of siddhanta.

These are the ten in their sequence of arising. Such is the general outline.

3. Explanation—Phenomena and Principle

Principle is true suchness. True suchness is originally pure; whether or not a Buddha appears in the world, it always remains thus and never changes. Therefore, it is called real.

Phenomena are mind, mentation, consciousness, and so forth, which give rise to pure or impure karma. Because they change, fluctuate, and are unstable, they are called provisional.

Without principle, there would be nothing upon which to establish phenomena; without phenomena, there would be nothing through which to reveal principle. Phenomena have the capacity to reveal principle; therefore, they are earnestly praised and extolled as skillful means.

—Principle and Teaching

The principle and phenomena discussed above are here both generally termed “principle,” just as both the ultimate [truth] and the conventional [truth] are generally termed “truth.” By realizing [this principle], all Buddhas become sages. That sagehood is real. [Because all Buddhas] wish to use the Dharma they themselves [have realized] to rescue sentient beings, they establish teachings on the basis of that [real] principle; those teachings are provisional. Without these teachings, there would be nothing through which to reveal the principle. The revelation of principle depends upon teaching; therefore, the Tathagata praises and extols it as skillful means. Such is the general outline.

—Teaching and Practice

Relying upon the teaching to seek [the truth] gives rise to correct practice. Practice tends to advance and transform, with differences in depth and shallowness; therefore, practice is called provisional. Teaching has no tendency to advance or transform and no differences in depth or shallowness; therefore, teaching is called real. Without teaching, there would be nothing upon which to establish practice; without practice, there would be no means of understanding the teaching. Understanding the teaching depends upon practice; therefore, the Tathagata praises and extols it as skillful means. Such is the general outline.

—Bondage and Liberation

Conduct contrary to principle necessarily produces bondage, namely, binding (縛). That bondage is false and delusive; therefore, it is called provisional. Conduct in accordance with principle necessarily brings liberation (脫). Because it resolves delusion concerning principle, it is called real. Without bondage, there would be no reason to seek liberation; thus, liberation is attained because bondage exists. It is like a person who, by clinging to a corpse in the sea, is carried drifting to the shore. That corpse has the capacity to carry the person to shore, [just as bondage has the capacity to impel one to seek liberation]; therefore, it is praised and extolled as skillful means.

—Cause and Effect

Because a cause tends to advance and transform and is provisionally employed, it is called provisional. Because an effect is the final destination and is realized forever, it is called real. Without an effect, a cause would have nowhere toward which to proceed. Without a cause, an effect could not manifest by itself. Therefore, the two methods of contemplation ^[40] are used as skillful means for entering the path. Eliminating delusion, perfecting the correct cause, and entering the liberation of the Middle Way constitute the effect. Without the two methods of contemplation, how could one accord with the Middle Way? The effect is accomplished through the cause; therefore, the cause is praised and extolled as skillful means.

—Essence and Function

First, skillful means are employed as the cause; afterward, correct contemplation is used to enter and abide, which is the effect. From that abiding emerge essence and function. Essence is the true aspect and therefore makes no distinctions; function establishes all dharmas and therefore gives rise to differences of high and low. It is like the earth, which is one yet produces all kinds of sprouts. Without the earth, [the sprouts] could not arise; if they did not arise, there would be nothing through which it could be revealed. By following a stream against its current, one necessarily discovers its source; thus, by inferring from function, one knows the essence. The revelation of essence depends upon function; therefore, function is praised and extolled as skillful means.

—Gradual and Sudden

Cultivating the cause in order to realize the fruit, or giving rise to function from the essence—both of these may [proceed swiftly or slowly], either gradually and in due sequence, or be accomplished immediately and suddenly. Here, only the arising of function [from the essence] is elucidated. The gradual and sequential arising of function is provisional; its immediate and sudden arising is real. Yet without gradual guidance to initiate the process, there would be no means by which one could immediately enter the sudden arising. From the gradual, [which is provisional], one attains the sudden, [which is] real; therefore, it is praised and extolled as an expedient means.

– Opening and Convergence

When, from the standpoint of the sudden, the gradual is opened and set aside, that gradual teaching neither converges with itself nor with the sudden; therefore, it is called provisional. When, from the gradual, one ultimately converges with the sudden, it is called real. Through opening and setting aside [the gradual], one converges [with the sudden]. Such opening has the capacity to bring about convergence, and this convergence takes its name from that opening; therefore, it is praised and extolled as an expedient means.

– Universal and Particular

Here, “universal and particular” refers to universal and particular benefits. The universal benefit is not yet ultimate ^[41] and does not endure forever, [and is therefore called provisional]; the particular benefit is ultimate and eternally abiding, [and is therefore called real]. Yet on the path toward the eternally abiding benefit, as their practice progresses, [sentient beings] repeatedly give rise to thoughts of retreat and fall back. [Therefore, the Buddha] uses a conjured city to receive and guide them, causing sentient beings to conceive it as a place of peace and security, and only afterward leads them onward to the treasure land, [which is the fruit of ultimate liberation].

Without the benefit that is not yet ultimate, they could not reach the eternally abiding [benefit]. That which is not yet ultimate has the capacity to reveal the ultimate; therefore, it is praised and extolled as an expedient means.

– Siddhanta

Here, siddhanta refers to the four siddhantas. Among them, three pertain to the worldly realm and are therefore provisional. ^[42] The siddhanta of the ultimate truth pertains to the supramundane and is therefore real. Without worldly dharmas, supramundane Dharma cannot be attained. Through the three [worldly] siddhantas, the siddhanta of the ultimate truth is attained; therefore, the Tathagata praises and extols them as expedient means.

All four propositions ^[43] may be employed to explain the ten meanings of the provisional and the real [set forth above]. Among them, three meanings belong to other sutras, while one meaning is particular to this chapter. Such is the general outline.

4. Scriptural Citations

The ten meanings set forth above are appropriately applied throughout both the Mahayana and Hinayana teachings and encompass all dharmas.

[First, regarding the meaning of “phenomena and principle,”] as this Lotus Sutra states: “It is not as the three realms perceive the three realms.” The “three realms” are phenomena; “not as the three realms perceive them” is principle. [Regarding the meaning of “principle and teaching,”] all dharmas are originally quiescent and cannot be expressed in words; this is principle. Through the power of expedient means, the Buddha taught the five bhiksus; ^[44] this is teaching.

“If one hears this sutra, one skillfully practices the bodhisattva path”; this expresses the meaning of “teaching and practice.” Furthermore, [the sutra says,] “What you are doing is precisely the bodhisattva path.” After disciples of the Buddha cultivate the path of Dharma, they will attain Buddhahood in a future life. Furthermore, they seek the Buddha-path through all manner of causes and conditions; “merely abandoning falsehood is called liberation.” Before attaining complete liberation, they exert themselves to the utmost in practicing the Dharma-path of the Buddhas, until they [sit at] the place of enlightenment and realize the fruit of Buddhahood.

Such is the general outline.

[The sutra further states:] “With the Buddha-eye, I contemplate sentient beings in the six realms. All those who see my body and hear me teach the Dharma believe and accept it, and enter the wisdom of the Tathagata, except for those who previously cultivated the Hinayana.” Such is the general meaning.

[The sutra recounts the story of] the impoverished son [of the wealthy elder], who initially abandoned his home and fled away [to wander abroad], then returned and became a hired laborer who removed excrement [from his own household], until at last [the elder] entrusted all his wealth and estate to him. The earlier stage is precisely the “conjured city,” while the later stage is being led to the “treasure land.” [The sutra also says: “The Tathagata has compassion for sentient beings, who, because of] their various desires, their various natures and characteristics, and their thoughts and recollections, [remain bound endlessly within samsara, with no day of escape].” Such is the general outline.

The passages above are citations drawn broadly from throughout the entire sutra as proof. Now passages will be cited specifically from this chapter [Expedient Means]. Although they do not follow the sequence [given above], they contain all ten meanings already set forth.

[The sutra states:] “The wisdom of the Buddhas is profound and immeasurable. This gateway of wisdom is extremely difficult to understand and extremely difficult to enter.” All phenomena and principle, objects and wisdom, and so forth are called real. The exposition and explanation of the Agama teachings are all gateways of wisdom. This demonstrates the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “principle and teaching.”

[The sutra states:] “Difficult to understand and difficult to enter; none of the sravakas or pratyekabuddhas can comprehend it.” This is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “bondage and liberation.”

[In the sutra passage] from “Why is this? The Buddha formerly drew near...” through “...his name became widely known,” ^[45] is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “teaching and practice.”

The sutra passage from “Profoundly accomplished” through “meanings difficult to comprehend fully” ^[46] is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “essence and function.”

[The sutra further states:] “Since I attained Buddhahood.” Attaining Buddhahood is the fruit, and that fruit must have a cause. This is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “cause and fruit.”

[The sutra states:] “Various causes and conditions, [various] parables” through “causing them to abandon their attachments” ^[47] is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “gradual and sudden.”

The sutra further states: “Why is this? Because the Tathagata is fully endowed with all expedient means, knowledge and vision, and paramitas.” This is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “opening and convergence.”

The sutra says that the Buddhas appear in the world because of one great cause and condition: they wish to enable sentient beings to open, see, understand, and enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. ^[48] This is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of benefit [“universal and particular”].

The sutra further states: “In brief, [the immeasurable and boundless unprecedented dharmas] have all been accomplished by the Buddha.” This refers to the accomplishment of the three siddhantas, an accomplishment [pertaining to the worldly realm]. [It further says:] “Enough, enough! There is no need to speak further!” This is the siddhanta of the ultimate truth. The foregoing is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of the “four siddhantas.”

It further says: “Why is this? The Dharma accomplished by the Buddha is rare and most difficult to understand; [only a Buddha together with a Buddha can fathom the ultimate reality of all dharmas].” This is principle. [It further says:] “That is to say, the suchness of the characteristics of all dharmas.” This is phenomena. Thus, this is the discussion of the provisional and the real in terms of “principle and phenomena.”

This single prose passage elucidates the provisional and real Dharma of the Buddhas of the five periods. ^[49] All Buddhas are likewise.

However, the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra ^[50] further explains that the wisdom of the Buddhas is extremely profound because their realization is extremely profound. This profundity has five aspects: profundity of meaning, profundity of true essence, profundity of inner realization, profundity of the basis of reliance, and profundity of the unsurpassed Dharma. The profundity of the unsurpassed is the realization of great bodhi. It is called the gateway of wisdom because the Buddha expounds the extremely profound meaning of the Agamas. This is equivalent in implication to the meaning of the provisional and the real in terms of “principle and teaching.”

The Treatise explains that “the Buddha formerly drew near to hundreds of thousands of Buddhas,” because his cultivation was extremely profound. “Courageously and vigorously advancing, his name became widely known,” because the growth of his merit was extremely profound. This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “teaching and practice.”

The Treatise explains that “he accomplished the profound Dharma never known before,” because the subtlety of “phenomena” is extremely profound. “Its meaning is difficult to comprehend fully,” because the supreme meaning is extremely profound and entry into it is extremely profound. This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “essence and function.”

The Treatise explains that “since I attained Buddhahood” refers to the Dharma of merit accomplished by the Tathagata. This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “cause and effect.”

The Treatise explains that “innumerable skillful means” means the accomplishment of teaching and transformation and the accomplishment of expounding the Dharma. This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “gradual and sudden.”

The Treatise explains that the passage of the sutra from “the Tathagata’s skillful means and knowledge and vision” through “deeply entered and boundless” ^[51] is precisely the inconceivable realm of self-accomplishment, surpassing all bodhisattvas. This elucidates the [universal and particular] meaning of benefit.

The Treatise explains that “[the Tathagata] can distinguish all the various dharmas, [skillfully expound the dharmas, and speak gently and pleasingly,] causing the assembly to rejoice,” is precisely accomplishment in language. This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “[universal and particular] benefit.”

The Treatise explains that the sutra passage from “In summary, [the Buddha has accomplished immeasurable and boundless dharmas never known before]” through “Enough! Say no more!” concerns the accomplishment of the capacity to transform sentient beings. This corresponds in implication to the meaning of the Four Siddhantas, which distinguish [sentient beings] who can be transformed from those who cannot be transformed.

The Treatise explains that “only a Buddha together with a Buddha can thoroughly fathom the true aspect of all dharmas,” because the Buddhas’ capacity for clear knowledge arises from their accomplishment of immeasurable merit. The essential nature of the Tathagata’s Dharma body is immutable and is therefore called awakening; it can accomplish realization by itself and can accord with sentient beings in teaching all the aspects of dharmas.... This corresponds in implication to the provisional and real meanings of “principle and phenomena.”

This [Lotus Dharma] Treatise explains the sutra spoken by the Buddha. The extensive explanation now given above accords with the words of the two sages, ^[52] and may be said to accord with both the sutra (Sutra) and the Lotus Dharma Treatise (Upadesha).

5. Summary of the Categories of the Provisional and the Real

The ten dharmas [of the provisional and the real described above] are all present in the Tripitaka Teaching, the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching, thus making a total of forty dharmas of the provisional and the real.

If, by cultivating according to the Tripitaka Teaching, one personally realizes these ten dharmas of the provisional and the real, they are called the provisional and the real of one’s own practice. If one expounds the ten dharmas one has personally realized in order to benefit sentient beings, they are called the provisional and the real of transforming others. The ten dharmas for transforming others are collectively called provisional, while the ten dharmas of one’s own practice are collectively called real. This is called the provisional and the real of oneself and others.

For practitioners of the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching, the ten dharmas are likewise classified into these three categories of the provisional and the real.

Furthermore, within each teaching, the four dharmas of phenomena and principle, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, and cause and effect constitute the provisional and the real of one’s own practice; the two dharmas of principle and teaching, and opening and combining, constitute the provisional and the real of transforming others; and the four dharmas of essence and function, gradual and sudden, universal and particular, and siddhanta constitute the provisional and the real of oneself and others. Although [all four teachings] use the same names for [these three categories of the provisional and the real], their meanings differ within each teaching.

There is yet another method of classification. In the Tripitaka Teaching, the Shared Teaching, and the Distinct Teaching, [all dharmas], whether [their benefit is] universal or particular, are collectively called the provisional and the real of transforming others, because they are spoken in accordance with the intentions of others. In the Perfect Teaching, [all dharmas], whether [their benefit is] universal or particular, are collectively called the provisional and the real of one’s own practice, because they are spoken in accordance with one’s own intention.

All dharmas for transforming others in the Tripitaka Teaching, the Shared Teaching, and the Distinct Teaching are provisional, while all dharmas of one’s own practice [in the Perfect Teaching] are real; [therefore, taken together, they are called the provisional and the real of oneself and others.]

Next, they may also be classified according to the four propositions. All dharmas spoken in accordance with the intentions of others are provisional; all dharmas spoken according to one’s own intention are real. If both of the foregoing propositions are affirmed, then all dharmas are both provisional and real. If both of the foregoing propositions are denied, then all dharmas are neither provisional nor real.

Next comes the classification according to the three interpretations of [the title of] this chapter of the sutra.

If [considered in terms of dharmas] of one’s own practice and one’s own intention, this text calls them the Dharma attained at the place of enlightenment. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra says they are “attained through cultivating the path.” The Mahayana-samgraha Treatise calls them “true knowledge in accordance with principle and true knowledge in accordance with measure.” These all refer to the provisional and the real dharmas of one’s own practice, spoken in accordance with one’s own intention, and belonging to the Perfect Teaching.

Although the Buddha is able to employ skillful means to expound dharmas that cannot be expressed, sentient beings lack the capacity to receive them. If, out of compassion, [the Buddha] were to expound this Dharma alone, the sentient beings who heard it would still be unable to understand it. Therefore it is said to be “inexpressible, inexpressible.”

Therefore, [such an exposition of “one’s own practice and one’s own intention”] was set aside, and the provisional and real dharmas of one’s own practice were expounded to sentient beings together with the provisional and real dharmas of the Distinct Teaching. [In this way,] those of great capacities who were keen could understand immediately, while those who were dull had to reason through a circuitous course before they could understand. Yet those of lesser capacities, whether keen or dull, could not understand. This meaning refers to the Avatamsaka Teaching.

Therefore, such an exposition of the Dharma was again temporarily set aside, and only the provisional and real dharmas of the Tripitaka Teaching were used to teach sentient beings. [In this way,] those of great capacities, whether keen or dull, could implicitly understand the hidden intent, but could not understand it on the explicit level. Those of lesser capacities, whether keen or dull, could only realize it but could not understand it. This meaning is stated according to the Tripitaka Teaching.

Such an exposition of the Dharma was again temporarily set aside. If all four kinds of the provisional and the real [of the Four Teachings] were used to teach sentient beings, then those of great capacities, whether keen or dull, could either understand immediately or understand through reasoning. Those of lesser capacities could only realize it but could not understand it. This meaning refers to the Vaipulya Teaching.

If the provisional and real dharmas of the Tripitaka Teaching were relinquished, and only the provisional and real dharmas of the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching were used to teach sentient beings, then those of great capacities, whether keen or dull, could all understand, while those of lesser capacities could only realize it but could not understand it. This meaning refers to the Prajnaparamita Teaching.

Again, if the three kinds of the provisional and the real belonging to the Tripitaka Teaching, the Shared Teaching, and the Distinct Teaching were relinquished, and only the provisional and real dharmas of one’s own practice in the Perfect Teaching were used to teach sentient beings, then all beings—whether of great or lesser capacities, keen or dull—could understand. This meaning refers to the Lotus Dharma Teaching.

The wisdom of the Tathagata comprehends all things without obstruction, discerning clearly the appropriate occasion and where a method should or should not be employed. Accordingly, the title of this chapter is explained thus: “means” refers to the various methods, and “expedient” refers to their skillful application. Skillfully applying various methods to teach living beings so that they may understand is therefore earnestly praised and extolled as expedient means. [This is the first explanation of the title of this chapter.]

Furthermore, that which the Tathagata has personally realized, whether provisional or real, cannot be expounded. Out of compassion for living beings, he teaches the provisional dharmas personally realized by the Buddha as gateways [to the path]. Because they are not suited to them, none of the living beings can enter through them. Therefore, the Dharma personally realized [by the Tathagata] likewise cannot be expounded.

[The Buddha then] teaches the provisional and real dharmas of the Separate Teaching as gateways to the path. Those of sharp faculties can enter, whereas those of dull faculties cannot. Therefore, for living beings to whom they are unsuited, the provisional and real dharmas of the Separate Teaching likewise cannot be expounded.

He further teaches the provisional and real dharmas of the Tripitaka Teaching as gateways to the path. Those of sharp faculties enter implicitly, while those of dull faculties still cannot enter. Therefore, they still cannot be expounded to living beings to whom they are unsuited.

He further teaches the three kinds of provisional and real dharmas for transforming others as gateways to the path. Those of sharp faculties can enter, whereas those of dull faculties still cannot; therefore, they still cannot be expounded to living beings to whom they are unsuited.

He further teaches the two kinds of provisional and real dharmas for transforming others as gateways to the path. Those of sharp faculties can enter, while those of dull faculties still cannot; therefore, [these dharmas] still cannot be expounded to living beings to whom they are unsuited.

The Buddha then relinquishes the three kinds of provisional and real dharmas for transforming others and teaches only the provisional dharmas of his own practice. [In this way,] those of both sharp and dull faculties can enter.

From beginning to end, expedient means are used as gateways [to the path] for living beings. Therefore, the Tathagata praises and extols expedient means.

[Accordingly,] this [chapter title] is explained as follows: expedient means are the gateway to the true principle. This is precisely its meaning. The preceding explanation clarified that the Tathagata skillfully knows and skillfully employs expedient means. This explanation clarifies that practitioners skillfully follow expedient means. Such is the explanation in brief. [This is the second explanation.]

Furthermore, the Tathagata personally cultivated and realized the path. Within what he realized, all expedient means are themselves immediately the real; yet this reality cannot be expounded. Even if it could be expounded, living beings could not thereby immediately enter the true principle.

[The Tathagata] uses the power of expedient means to expound a dharma through which one cannot immediately enter as a dharma through which one can immediately enter. Those of sharp and keen faculties can thereby immediately enter the true principle, whereas those of dull and sluggish faculties cannot.

He then teaches separately a single dharma through which one cannot immediately enter. Those of sharp faculties implicitly enter immediately, whereas those of dull faculties cannot.

He further expounds three dharmas through which one cannot immediately enter as a single dharma through which one can immediately enter. Those of sharp faculties can thereby enter immediately, whereas those of dull faculties cannot.

He further expounds two dharmas through which one cannot immediately enter as a single dharma through which one can immediately enter. Those of sharp faculties can enter immediately, whereas those of dull faculties still cannot.

He then sets aside the three dharmas through which one cannot immediately enter and teaches solely that all dharmas permit immediate entry. Those of both sharp and dull faculties can thereby enter immediately, and through those expedient means they all perceive the true principle.

The preceding two explanations both employ expedient means and accord with expedient means; this explanation alone holds that expedient means are themselves immediately the real. The real is the perfect cause. That perfect cause is the expedient means of one’s own practice. By relying upon those expedient means of one’s own practice, one now realizes and enters the true principle.

According to the explanation of the title of this chapter given here, expedient means are themselves the real. Because the title is established with reference to the expedient means of one’s own practice, it is called the Chapter on Expedient Means.

6. Distinguishing the Provisional and the Real, and Illuminating the Two Truths

The preceding section distinguished the various kinds of the provisional and the real according to the shared and the distinct, and also arranged them into groups. Now, by likewise relying on this framework to discuss the wisdom that illuminates them, their meaning can readily be seen.

For example, when the Shared Teaching uses the ten kinds [of the provisional and the real] to clarify the meaning of the two wisdoms of one’s own practice, this is the illumination of the two truths according to wisdom. ^[53] When the Shared Teaching uses the ten kinds of the provisional and the real in accordance with conditions [to teach and transform], this is the illumination of the two truths according to sentient beings’ dispositions. When the four dharmas are combined into two, ^[54] this is the illumination of the two truths according to both sentient beings’ dispositions and wisdom.

If the illumination of the two truths is discussed by dividing them [into groups], then the groups of principle and phenomena, teaching and practice, bondage and liberation, and cause and effect all belong to the dharmas of one’s own practice and personal realization; this is the illumination of the two truths according to wisdom. The two kinds—principle and teaching, and opening and combining—both belong to transforming others; this is the illumination of the two truths according to sentient beings’ dispositions. The four kinds—essence and function, gradual and sudden, shared and distinct, and siddhanta—belong both to one’s own practice and to transforming others; this is the illumination of the two truths according to both sentient beings’ dispositions and wisdom.

The illumination of the two truths in the Tripitaka Teaching, the Separate Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching should likewise be understood according to the foregoing.

Furthermore, the Three Teachings contain thirty kinds [of the provisional and the real] within the two wisdoms. Because they belong to the two wisdoms for transforming others, they all illuminate the two truths according to sentient beings’ dispositions.

The Shared Teaching and the Separate Teaching together contain sixty kinds [of the provisional and the real within the two wisdoms]. Because they belong to the two wisdoms of one’s own practice and of transforming others, this is the illumination of the two truths according to both sentient beings’ dispositions and wisdom.

Sometimes [the dharmas of] the Shared Teaching are also grouped together with those of the Tripitaka Teaching [as sixty provisional and real dharmas] and regarded as [illuminating] the two truths according to sentient beings’ dispositions.

As for the Perfect Teaching, it contains thirty kinds of the provisional and the real. Because they belong to the two wisdoms of one’s own practice, they illuminate the two truths according to wisdom.

Furthermore, within the Tripitaka Teaching, Shared Teaching, and Separate Teaching, whether the dharmas are shared (universally applicable) or distinct (specifically intended), they all accord with conditions [in teaching and transforming]. Therefore, they all belong to the two wisdoms for transforming others and illuminate the two truths according to sentient beings’ dispositions.

Within the Perfect Teaching, whether shared or distinct, they all belong to the two wisdoms of one’s own practice; that is, they illuminate the two truths according to wisdom.

If all dharmas of the Tripitaka Teaching, Shared Teaching, and Separate Teaching are regarded as provisional, while all dharmas of the Perfect Teaching are regarded as real, then, taken together, they belong to the two wisdoms of one’s own practice and of transforming others, illuminating the two truths according to both sentient beings’ dispositions and wisdom.

7. A Brief Examination of the Scriptures to Determine the Provisional and the Real

As for the teachings of the Avatamsaka, in terms of doctrine they teach only the ultimately perfect and complete Dharma; ^[55] in terms of the stage, they resemble milk [still retaining its pure, original flavor]; in terms of Dharma practice, they possess both the aspect of one’s own practice and that of transforming others. All who hear [the Dharma] are regarded as bodhisattvas, while the followers of the Two Vehicles alone are [like people who are] deaf and mute, [incapable of receiving it]. Even the bodhisattvas of the present lifetime ^[56] are not yet able to initiate the provisional dharmas of their own practice that accord with the reality known by wisdom. Judged according to the text of this [Lotus] Sutra, those who heard it had never before been taught such matters.

Briefly considered in terms of the Tripitaka Teaching, with regard to doctrinal exposition, it speaks only of the provisional Dharma; with regard to practice, it speaks only from the perspective of transforming others; with regard to its stage, it resembles the time when milk has been processed into curds. According to the text of this [Lotus Sutra], this is the man standing outside the gate, wearing filthy clothes and holding an implement for removing excrement. This refers only to those of the Two Vehicles.

Briefly considered in terms of the Vaipulya teachings, with regard to doctrinal exposition, they explain the ultimate in relation to the provisional Dharma; with regard to practice, there are three kinds of transforming others and one kind of personal practice; with regard to their stage, they resemble the time when curds, left to settle, have become raw butter (sheng-su). According to the text of this [Lotus Sutra], this is [the poor son at the time when] confidence had arisen in his heart and he could enter and leave [the elder’s house] without difficulty.

Briefly considered in terms of the Prajnaparamita teachings, with regard to doctrinal exposition, they employ the provisional Dharma to explain the ultimate; with regard to practice, there are two kinds of transforming others and one kind of personal practice; with regard to their stage, they resemble the time when raw butter (sheng-su) has become clarified butter (shu-su). According to the text of this [Lotus Sutra], this is [the poor son at the time when the elder] made him fully acquainted with all the various forms of wealth.

Now, briefly considered in terms of the teaching of the Lotus Sutra, with regard to doctrinal exposition, it completely discards the provisional Dharma and discusses only the perfectly complete and ultimate Dharma; with regard to practice, there is only personal practice; with regard to its stage, it [resembles the time when the processing of milk has been completed and] there is solely the pure, single flavor of ghee. According to the sutra text, this is the time when the provisional is eliminated and the real is revealed, [as when the elder disclosed the truth], “This is my son, born of me, and I am his father,” and then entrusted the family estate to him, [that is,] conferred upon him the prediction of Buddhahood.

Whatever the preceding teachings did not state was fully disclosed when the Lotus Sutra was expounded. Expedient means were formally relinquished, and only the unsurpassed path was taught. Therefore, this is the provisional aspect of personal practice, and hence this chapter is called “Expedient Means.”

The other teachings speak either of the two wisdoms of self and others or of the two wisdoms for transforming others. Furthermore, the Avatamsaka teaching expounds to the two kinds of bodhisattvas one Dharma of personal practice and one Dharma for transforming others, without concern for those of the Two Vehicles, who neither hear nor understand it. The Tripitaka Teaching expounds to those of the Two Vehicles solely the transformation of others; because it gives no consideration to bodhisattvas, there is no Dharma of personal practice.

The Vaipulya teachings address both the Mahayana and the Hinayana; therefore, they expound two Dharmas for transforming others to those of the Two Vehicles, and one Dharma of personal practice and one Dharma for transforming others to bodhisattvas. The Prajnaparamita teachings comprise three: one Dharma of personal practice and two Dharmas for transforming others. Of these, they expound one Dharma for transforming others to those of the Two Vehicles, and one Dharma of personal practice and one Dharma for transforming others to bodhisattvas.

The teaching of the Lotus Sutra is extensively expounded for those whose capacities have matured. It elucidates only the one Dharma of personal practice and does not discuss the transformation of others. The sutra text states: “When bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, all their doubts will be dispelled, and the 1,200 arhats will all attain Buddhahood.” All sentient beings will enter the expedient means of personal practice; therefore, it is called the chapter “Expedient Means.” Such is the general outline.

8. A Brief Presentation of the Original and the Manifest to Determine the Provisional and the Real

Considered in terms of the original ground, the Tathagata had long ago realized all the provisional and real Dharmas; this is called personal practice. Out of compassion, he manifested himself to liberate sentient beings ^[57], and during that period successively expounded the teachings of the Avatamsaka, Agama, Vaipulya, and Prajnaparamita ^[58], until today ^[59], when he again manifested the attainment of quiescence at the place of enlightenment.

Together with the Dharma for transforming others of the Distinct Teaching, he also expounded the Dharma of personal practice. Next, he separately expounded one Dharma for transforming others [at the Agama assembly]. He then expounded three Dharmas for transforming others [at the Vaipulya assembly].

After that, he expounded two Dharmas for transforming others [at the Prajnaparamita assembly]. Finally, he taught that the three Dharmas for transforming others were no longer to be employed. All such Dharmas are collectively called the provisional and real teachings for transforming others.

[Again, considered in terms of the original and the manifest,] all provisional Dharmas belonging to the original are called real, while all real Dharmas belonging to the manifest are called provisional. Taken together, these are the self and others, the provisional and the real.

In conclusion, there are four propositions: all are real; all are provisional; all are both provisional and real; and all are neither provisional nor real. Such is the general outline.

Venerable Shariputra ^[60], considered in terms of his original ground, had already realized all the provisional and real Dharmas, which constitutes personal practice. Yet he manifested a form at Deer Park and separately received the Dharma for transforming others; at the Vaipulya assembly, he was once reproached and three times subjected to criticism ^[61]; at the Prajnaparamita assembly, he [manifested] the transition from the Two Vehicles to the Mahayana; and at the Lotus Sutra assembly, he relinquished the Three Vehicles and awakened to the Buddha Vehicle.

All [these manifestations] constitute the provisional and real teachings for transforming others. Considered in terms of the original source, what was provisional therein was real; considered in terms of the manifested form, what was real therein was provisional. Thus, these are the self and others, the provisional and the real, also fully comprising the four propositions set forth above.

Such is the general outline.

If discussed from the standpoint of the form manifested by the Buddha, it is also the provisional and real teachings for transforming others and is likewise called the chapter “Expedient Means.” If considered from the standpoint of leading beings into the perfectly complete cause, it is the Dharma of personal practice and is likewise called the chapter “Expedient Means.” If considered in terms of the provisional Dharmas manifested by Venerable Shariputra, it is also the chapter “Expedient Means.” If considered from the standpoint of Venerable Shariputra’s manifested form entering the truth, it is also the chapter “Expedient Means.” Because of all these meanings, it is called the chapter “Expedient Means.”

Explanation of the Main Exposition

From this chapter [“Expedient Means”] through the end of the first nineteen lines of verse in the chapter “Distinctions in Merits” ^[62]—or, according to another division, from after those verses through the end of the passage on “the four kinds of faith of present disciples”—constitutes the main exposition.

If divided according to the arrangement in which there are two parts to the main exposition, then from here through the end of the chapter “Bestowal of Predictions upon Those Still Learning and Those Beyond Learning” ^[63] constitutes the main exposition of the Manifest Gate.

For the present, taking the main exposition of the Manifest Gate, it is further divided into two parts. The first, beginning here ^[64], briefly explains the meaning of eliminating the Three Vehicles and revealing the sole One Vehicle ^[65]. The second, beginning with the words, “The Buddha said to Shariputra, ‘Since you have now earnestly...’” ^[66], extensively explains the meaning of eliminating the Three Vehicles and revealing the Buddha Vehicle.

The first part, the brief exposition, is further divided into two sections. The first section begins with “At that time, the World-Honored One...” and briefly explains the meaning of eliminating the Three Vehicles and revealing the Buddha Vehicle. The second section begins with “At that time, the great assembly...” ^[67] and explains the meaning of “disturbing attachments and giving rise to doubt.”

Explanation of the Prose Passage

The first section comprises a prose passage and verses. The prose passage is further divided into two subsections. The first employs words to praise the two wisdoms; the second ceases using words to praise the two wisdoms. If no words were spoken, no one could know them. Nevertheless, even words of praise and proclamation are insufficient to express fully the two wisdoms [of the provisional and the real] possessed by the Buddhas, as explained above. Such is the general outline.

The first section is further divided into two subsections. The first elucidates the provisional and the real as taught by all Buddhas; the second elucidates the provisional and the real as taught by Śākyamuni Buddha. Since all Buddhas follow the same course of practice, they are praised alike. Above, it was said that the ray of light illuminated other realms; Maitreya raised a question concerning the present event, and Mañjuśrī cited what the assembly had heard in the past. ^[68] This precisely shows [all Buddhas] arousing compassionate concern for [sentient beings] and emerging from samādhi, thereby indicating that the course of practice of all Buddhas is the same.

The scriptural passage praising all Buddhas is further divided into three parts. The first praises both [the provisional and real wisdoms], the second explains both, and the third summarizes both.

Within the praise of both, first comes the introductory statement of the compiler of the scripture, followed by the content of the praise.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

At that time, the World-Honored One serenely emerged from meditative concentration and said to Śāriputra: “The wisdom of all Buddhas is extremely profound and immeasurable. The gateway to this wisdom is difficult to understand and difficult to enter. None among all the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are capable of comprehending it.”

The scriptural words “at that time” indicate that the time was precisely that moment.

“The World-Honored One serenely emerged from meditative concentration”: the Buddha constantly abides in concentration, so why is it said here that he “emerged”? This itself carries several meanings of manifestation.

In the past, before teaching this [Lotus] Sutra, all Buddhas of former times entered the Samādhi of Immeasurable Meanings, which is to enter the Lotus Samādhi. [Therefore] the [Śākyamuni] Buddha now did likewise. This is the Buddha’s manifestation of the worldly siddhānta [accordance with the world]; out of compassionate concern for [sentient beings], he emerged from concentration.

The Buddha had fully undergone the conditions associated with the Dharma and had thoroughly discerned the truth in every respect; thus, when he taught, there could be no error, and the faith of sentient beings was increased. This is the Buddha’s manifestation of the siddhānta for each person; out of compassionate concern for [sentient beings], he emerged from concentration.

The Buddha abides in tranquil quiescence yet constantly illuminates with clear awareness. Even so, he first had to enter concentration before teaching the Dharma; how much less could [those whose] minds are distracted recklessly expound the Dharma? This is the remedial siddhānta; out of compassionate concern for [sentient beings], he emerged from concentration.

When [the Buddha] enters concentration, he accords with conditions, and his mind rests securely in the true aspect; when he emerges from concentration, he enables sentient beings to rest securely in the true aspect. This is the siddhānta of the ultimate truth; out of compassionate concern for [sentient beings], he emerged from concentration.

Because [the Buddha abides] securely in these four [siddhāntas], it is said that he “serenely emerged from meditative concentration.”

“He said to Śāriputra” means [that he addressed] the foremost in wisdom among followers of the Lesser Vehicle. The Buddha thereby intended to break through narrow and limited wisdom and reveal great and expansive wisdom. This refers to the teachings of opening, abolishing, integrating, and concealing, of which the [Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra] says there are ten kinds. ^[69]

The foregoing is the introductory statement used by the compilers of the scripture.

The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra ^[70] states: “The Buddha entered an extremely profound samādhi; with right mindfulness unmoving, he contemplated in accordance with reality by means of wisdom, ^[71] and then emerged from samādhi.” This reveals the power of mastery attained by the Tathāgata.

When the Tathāgata enters concentration, nothing can disturb him. The meaning of the treatise accords with this. The siddhānta of the ultimate truth transcends the world; therefore, nothing can disturb it. Because the four siddhāntas are unobstructed, mastery is attained. Such is the general meaning.

[The Buddha entered samādhi in] the full-lotus posture. ^[72] Since the distant past, Buddhas as numerous as minute dust particles and the sands of the Ganges, together with their disciples, have all practiced this manner of sitting. Furthermore, even if one sitting in the full-lotus posture gives rise to an unwholesome thought, the posture can still cause others to give rise to reverence; how much more, then, when one [genuinely] enters a profound state—how could this fail to inspire delight among humans and devas? Furthermore, this is not a practice enjoyed by the worldly, nor is it shared with non-Buddhist practitioners. It can destroy the māra-army of the afflictions and give rise to the three kinds of path to bodhi. ^[73] These are the meanings of the four siddhāntas.

● Question: What is meant when other sutras speak of “binding mindfulness in front”?

● Answer: One turns one’s back upon and leaves behind forms and mental conceptions belonging to the realm of afflictions; birth and death lie behind, while one contemplates the conditions leading toward quiescent cessation, with nirvana lying ahead. Therefore, [binding mindfulness to an object before oneself] should be explained according to the four meanings [given below]. Such is the general meaning.

● Question: Why is it placed at the face?

● Answer: People commonly begin to arouse desire through the face, and joy also first appears there before spreading throughout the body. Furthermore, [the body] has nine apertures that discharge impure substances, and the face alone has seven of them; ^[74] therefore, contemplation of impurity at that place is used to counteract sensual desire. For this reason, mindfulness is bound to an object at the face. This is the first meaning.

Furthermore, all six consciousnesses are present at the face, and therefore the mind most frequently takes that place as its object. This signifies that all sages esteem emptiness and correspond with emptiness. For this reason, the object is bound at the face. This is the second meaning.

Furthermore, by contemplating the face, one can distinguish the six consciousnesses. Because [one cultivates contemplation] to distinguish them, the object is bound at the face. This is the third meaning.

Furthermore, the body has six parts, among which the head and face are foremost. This signifies that among all dharmas, the true aspect is foremost. Because it is the foremost dharma, the object is bound at the face. This is the fourth meaning.

The section praising the two wisdoms [is further divided into two parts]: first, praise of the real [wisdom], and then praise of the provisional [wisdom].

The real [wisdom] is precisely the wisdom of all Buddhas. The three kinds of [wisdom] used to transform others are not what is meant by “of all Buddhas.” Because it reveals the truth of the Dharma practiced for oneself, it is called wisdom. The essence of this wisdom is precisely the three wisdoms in a single mind. ^[75]

The scripture says, “extremely profound and immeasurable”; these are words of praise and commendation. They elucidate the Buddha’s real wisdom: in illuminating back to the source, it penetrates to the very depths of the principle of suchness, and therefore it is called extremely profound; in vastness, it universally reaches the bounds of the Dharma realm, and therefore it is called immeasurable. “Extremely profound and immeasurable” describes depth and breadth, like a tree whose deep roots produce luxuriant branches and leaves, or a distant source whose stream flows ever farther. Since real wisdom is thus, provisional and adaptive wisdom is likewise. Such is the general meaning.

The scripture says, “the gateway to this wisdom”; this praises provisional wisdom. These are all skillful means practiced for oneself before entering the path. Because they possess the power to advance in the direction of the path, they are called the “gateway.” Through this gateway, one enters the path. What is within the path is called the real; what precedes entry into the path is called the provisional.

The scripture says, “difficult to understand and difficult to enter”; these are words praising provisional wisdom. Without deliberation, it clearly knows; without any fixed method, it achieves vast application. [Practitioners at] the seven preparatory stages ^[76] are all unable to estimate or fathom it. Bodhisattvas at the Ten Abodes only begin to understand it, and bodhisattvas at the Ten Grounds first enter it.

Because this statement broadly encompasses the stages from the beginning, through the middle, to the end, it is said that [this Dharma] is difficult to encounter yet can be known. However, [the scriptural passage] specifically states, “None among all the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas are capable of comprehending it,” because their attachments remain heavy and therefore must be specifically broken through.

The fundamental meaning of the Dharma-body has always been represented by means of the provisional and the real in one’s own practice; there is no other way to do so. Therefore, it is said that they could not clearly understand. [At the assembly of] the Avatamsaka, [the Buddha employed the teaching of] sudden awakening to illuminate them, yet [those of the Two Vehicles were as though] mute, deaf, blind, and deluded. Therefore, it is said that they could not clearly understand. [During the assembly of] the Vaipulya teachings, [the Buddha] reproached [those of the Two Vehicles] for clinging to their thatched huts [and living in seclusion].

Therefore, it is said that they could not clearly understand. [By the time of the assembly of] prajnaparamita, [the Buddha] entrusted them with teaching the Dharma without attachment, yet [those of the Two Vehicles still wished] to retain a slight intention of their own. Therefore, it is said that they could not clearly understand. Now, [at this Lotus assembly,] the great capacity is opened; [as auspicious signs, the Buddha] emits light and the earth trembles, [revealing that] all Buddhas, from the distant past to the present, wherever they may be, follow one and the same path of practice.

Yet [those of the Two Vehicles] still harbor doubts and delusion. Therefore, it is said that they could not clearly understand. Bodhisattvas of keen faculties each clearly understand.

Bodhisattvas of dull faculties, being like those of the Two Vehicles, likewise cannot clearly understand.