妙法蓮華經文句

Three Rounds of Preaching the Dharma

From the passage, “At that time, the Blessed One said to Śāriputra: You have earnestly made your request three times; how could I not speak...” onward, the meaning of opening and revealing, removing the Three Vehicles, and disclosing the One Vehicle is extensively explained.

In general, this section comprises seven and a half chapters, and the entire text is divided into three [rounds of preaching the Dharma].

The first round is the exposition of the true Dharma for those of superior faculties. The second round is the exposition of parables for those of middling faculties. The third round is the exposition of causes and conditions from past lives for those of inferior faculties.

[These three rounds of preaching the Dharma] are also called principle, phenomena, and practice. Likewise, the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra also distinguishes three classes of faculties. Such is the general outline.

We shall now employ ten meanings to analyze and distinguish [the meanings explained in the three sections of Dharma preaching described above].

First is the discussion of what is common and what is particular in the preaching of the Dharma. Second is the discussion of whether śrāvakas exist. Third is the discussion of whether doubts are deep or shallow. Fourth is the discussion of whether faculties are transformed. Fifth is the discussion of whether those of differing faculties attain awakening or fail to attain it. Sixth is the discussion of whether they express their understanding. Seventh is the discussion of whether they receive predictions. Eighth is the discussion of the depth or shallowness of their awakening to the Way. Ninth is the discussion of the benefits of the provisional and the true. Tenth is the discussion of whether it is necessary to await the proper time.

1. Discussion of the Common and the Particular

The first round of exposition is particular [to those of keen faculties] and is called the preaching of the true Dharma. The common exposition [within this round] fully encompasses all three [classes of superior, middling, and inferior faculties]. [As the scripture says:] “...like the udumbara flower, which blooms but once at the proper time...” This is the exposition of a parable [for those of middling faculties]. [Again, as stated in the verse section:] “Whenever I encounter sentient beings, I teach them all by means of the Buddha Way.” This is the exposition of causes and conditions [for those of inferior faculties].

The second round of exposition is particular [to those of middling faculties] and is the exposition of parables. The common exposition [within this round] is likewise directed toward all three classes of faculties. [As the scripture says:] “Did I not formerly say... ...all of this was for the sake of teaching and transforming bodhisattvas?” ^[1] This is the fitting exposition of a parable [for those of middling faculties]. It also says: “[Through the power of skillful means, the Buddha,] within the single Buddha Vehicle, distinguished and taught three vehicles.” This is the preaching of the true Dharma [for those of superior faculties].

The scripture says, “...in the presence of twenty thousand koṭis of Buddhas, ...I constantly taught and transformed you.” ^[2] This is the exposition of causes and conditions. If this scriptural passage is regarded as belonging to the preaching of the Dharma [for those of superior faculties], then the verses, “When the elder heard this, he rushed in alarm into the burning house and sought a way to rescue his children,” may be regarded as the exposition of causes and conditions [for those of inferior faculties].

The third round of exposition is particular [to those of inferior faculties] and expounds causes and conditions from past lives. The common exposition [within this round] is again directed toward all [three classes of faculties]. [The scripture says,] “...when the time came to enter nirvana, the assembly was once again pure...” ^[3] [The Buddha then preached the Dharma,] enabling them to enter the Buddha’s wisdom. This is the preaching of the Dharma [for those of superior faculties]. The scripture says, “There was a guide...” This is the exposition of a parable [for those of middling faculties].

This division into three rounds of exposition is based on such meanings as “many” (the majority), “true” (genuine and correct), “brief” (concise), and “incidental” (related). To avoid an excessive proliferation of designations, in each instance only one meaning is cited as the basis.

● Question: The three rounds of exposition are for the three classes of faculties, yet each round [including both the particular and common expositions] also fully addresses all three classes. Therefore, should not a single round of exposition already be sufficient [in meaning] for all three classes of faculties?

● Answer: The preaching of the true Dharma is suitable not only for those of superior faculties and for the superior among those of middling faculties, but also for those of middling and inferior faculties. Yet because of the meanings of “genuine and correct,” “concise,” and “incidental,” it is said only to be suitable for those of superior faculties. The two rounds expounding parables and causes and conditions are likewise so.

2. Discussion of Śrāvakas

Master Guangzhai maintained that the cultivation of the [Dharma] of the śrāvakas truly and definitely exists. If śrāvakas do not truly exist, then to what does the Buddha’s provisional Dharma correspond?

Master Kaishan, however, explained that the cultivation of the [Dharma] of the śrāvakas does not truly exist. He cited the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra, [which says that] among those of the Three Vehicles, even at the beginning of their cultivation [some] are not deluded regarding the Dharma. ^[4] If ordinary beings outside the teaching already know the One Vehicle, how could followers of the Two Vehicles still cling to inferior attainments? ^[5] When the sutra says that the [śrāvaka Dharma] exists, this is merely a provisional expedient.

Both of these theories cling one-sidedly, contradict the scripture, and lose its meaning.

If it is asserted that the [śrāvaka Dharma] definitely exists, does not this sutra say that there are no śrāvaka disciples and that only bodhisattvas are taught and transformed? ^[6] Yet if it is asserted that the [śrāvaka Dharma] definitely does not exist, who enters the conjured city? Furthermore, if there are no three [vehicles] through which understanding is attained, whom does the provisional expedient guide?

Moreover, if it is said that the [śrāvaka Dharma] truly exists as the object guided by provisional expedients, then the Buddha-fruit of the Tripiṭaka Teaching should likewise truly exist, and [śrāvakas] would be those guided by the provisional Buddha of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. But if it is said that such a Buddha-fruit does not truly exist and is only a provisional Buddha, why not also accept that there are only provisional śrāvakas and that the [Dharma] of the śrāvakas does not truly exist? [Reasoning according to] this meaning is untenable. [Again, if it is because śrāvakas] truly eliminate the delusions within the three realms ^[7] that this is considered real and corresponding provisionally manifested [śrāvakas] therefore exist,

then what Buddha eliminates the delusions within the three realms, such that there might be a provisional Buddha corresponding to that Buddha?

We now explain clearly that neither of the views of existence and nonexistence [described above] should be one-sidedly clung to.

[As examined in this Lotus Sutra,] from the standpoint of the elder’s true wisdom, there was never any distant laborer who came seeking employment. But according to the faculties and nature of the impoverished, wandering son, he necessarily regarded himself as a hired laborer. ^[8]

According to the Profound Treatise on the Lotus Sutra, ^[9] there are four kinds of śrāvakas. The first are resolute śrāvakas; ^[10] the second are overbearingly arrogant śrāvakas; ^[11] the third are śrāvakas who have retreated from the aspiration for the Mahayana; ^[12] and the fourth are responsive-transformation śrāvakas. The faculties of the first two kinds have not yet matured, and they do not receive predictions; the latter two kinds both receive predictions [of future Buddhahood].

According to this sutra, however, there are five kinds of śrāvakas. The first kind have cultivated the Lesser Vehicle for many lifetimes; in the present life, their minds have matured in the Way, and upon hearing the teaching of the Lesser Vehicle, they immediately attain its fruit. According to the treatise, these are resolute śrāvakas.

The second category originally consists of bodhisattvas who had cultivated over many lifetimes, but midway became weary and disenchanted with birth and death, and therefore abandoned the Great Vehicle to cultivate according to the Lesser Vehicle. ^[13] In the Larger Prajnaparamita, these are called persons possessing distinctive roots of goodness. Because the Buddha provisionally brought those of lesser capacities to maturity, he taught them an inferior Dharma, likewise instructing them to sever the bonds of affliction and attain the fruit.

These persons had not long since retreated from their resolve and had only recently begun cultivating according to the Lesser Vehicle; therefore, in principle, they could be awakened very easily. According to the treatise, these are shravakas who have retreated from the resolve for bodhi.

The third category exists because of the two kinds of shravakas mentioned above. Buddhas and bodhisattvas [manifest provisionally], concealing the true aspect within while outwardly displaying [the appearance of shravakas], in order to bring those two kinds of shravakas to maturity and guide them into the Great Vehicle. According to the treatise, these are transformation-manifested shravakas.

The fourth category [mistakenly] believes that both the provisional and the real Dharma can enable one to escape birth and death. Because they delight in nirvana, they cultivate morality, concentration, and wisdom, and acquire a small measure of contemplative wisdom; yet they have not entered the stage of resemblance. Having obtained only a meager degree of attainment, they suppose that they have already realized the fruit. This is called claiming to have attained what one has not attained and claiming to have realized what one has not realized. According to the treatise, these are shravakas of overweening pride.

The fifth category consists of Great Vehicle shravakas, who employ the sound of the Buddha Way to enable all [sentient beings] to hear it.

[Thus,] if considered in terms of the two kinds—the definitively determined shravakas and the shravakas who have retreated from the resolve for bodhi—then the shravaka [Dharma] truly exists.

If considered according to the principle of the Great Vehicle, one cannot eliminate everything ^[14] and remain forever in the “conjured city”; ultimately, all must proceed to the “place of treasures” (the place where many precious jewels are found). Since the truth is such, there is no provisional Dharma, and therefore there are in reality no shravakas.

As for those of overweening pride, since they have not realized or entered the stages, they are not real; and since they are not transformation manifestations, they are not provisional. If one understands this meaning, then whether shravakas exist or do not exist, one naturally gives the matter no further thought. Why labor so strenuously to dispute it [with one another]?

Furthermore, if one discusses existence or nonexistence solely on the basis of Great Vehicle shravakas, then if they are produced through provisional expedients and transformation manifestations—outwardly displaying the traces and appearance of the Lesser Vehicle while inwardly concealing the nature and virtues of the Great Vehicle—one must say that Great Vehicle shravakas do not exist.

If considered according to the meaning of personal practice, whereby the manifested traces reveal the fundamental essence, one must say that Great Vehicle shravakas truly exist. The principal intent [of the scripture] here is to open up and reveal, abolishing the Three Vehicles and disclosing the One Vehicle; therefore, it will certainly cause shravakas who have retreated from the resolve for bodhi to become Great Vehicle shravakas. Once the meaning of personal practice has been established, they can then manifest responsively as shravakas. If one understands this meaning, one has comprehended [the significance of] whether shravakas exist or do not exist.

3. Discussion of Doubts as Profound or Shallow

Master Fayao said that those of superior, intermediate, or inferior capacities, after attaining the fruit, delight in the contemplation of non-arising, [seeing that] the principle of non-arising is one. When they emerge from the state of contemplation, however, and follow the teachings they cultivate ^[15] and take as objects, they then perceive distinctions. Because of those inevitable distinctions, they doubt the single principle of non-arising, thinking: Since the teachings are three, how can the principle be one? [Or conversely,] on the basis of the single principle [of non-arising], they doubt the three teachings, thinking: Since the principle is one, how can the teachings be three?

They waver hesitantly between principle and teaching, perplexed and doubtful about gain and loss. To use the principle to question the teachings carries the meaning of gain; to use the teachings to question the principle carries the meaning of loss. Those of superior capacity use the principle to question the teachings and have more feeling [than conceptual thought]; as soon as they hear the true Dharma taught in accord with their disposition, they awaken.

Those of inferior capacity use the teachings to question the principle and have more feeling [than conceptual thought]. When they hear the true Dharma declare that there are no Three Vehicles, it contradicts their existing deliberations; therefore, they must hear it three times before they understand. Those of intermediate capacity stand between these two ranges: when they hear the true Dharma taught, they do not awaken, but when they hear the parable taught, they immediately understand clearly.

We now hold that this explanation of the three capacities is not necessarily so. Concerning which principles and which teachings do these three kinds of capacities hesitate? If they remain perplexed about the principles and teachings of the Lesser Vehicle, then their doubts have not yet been eliminated, and they certainly have not attained the first fruit and severed the bonds of affliction.

If they are perplexed about the principles and teachings of the Great Vehicle, the Great Vehicle is manifestly and consistently distinct and has never been confused with the Lesser Vehicle; how, then, can they be said to hesitate [between the two]? If they use the Lesser Vehicle to question the Great Vehicle, or the Great Vehicle to question the Lesser Vehicle, then previously they had still not relinquished the [Dharma of] expedient means; how could they delight in the contemplation [of non-arising] and speak of emerging from and entering it?

Their hesitant minds would already have existed; because they hesitated, attachment would have arisen through doubt—it would not have arisen only now. But if doubt arose only when attachment became active, then upon hearing the teaching that opens and reveals, abolishes the Three Vehicles, and discloses the One Vehicle, they should have understood. How could they instead have become frightened and doubtful?

Examined from either direction, this interpretation has no basis, and therefore it is not adopted.

We now explain that capacities may be keen or dull, and these are discussed in terms of the capacities and dispositions of the Great Vehicle. Doubts may be profound (grave) or shallow (slight), and this is stated with reference to particular doubts. [Combining the two gives] four cases. First, slight doubt and keen capacity. Second, grave doubt and keen capacity. Third, slight doubt and dull capacity. Fourth, grave doubt and dull capacity.

If the particular doubt is slight and the Great Vehicle capacity is extremely keen, one awakens immediately upon hearing [the Dharma for the first time]. If the doubt is grave but the capacity keen, one understands after hearing it taught again on the next occasion.

If the doubt is slight and the capacity dull, one arrives at decisive [faith and understanding] only after hearing it three times.

In the fourth case, [grave doubt and dull capacity], even after hearing [the Dharma taught] three times, one still cannot awaken and merely becomes one of those who form a karmic connection [at the Dharma assembly].

[According to the foregoing,] the first two cases, both possessing keen capacities, may be included among those of superior capacity. Alternatively, the two middle cases may be classified as those of intermediate and inferior capacities. Such is the general outline.

Furthermore, the initial grade of ignorance has three layers, which obscure the Middle Way for those at the first abode. On the first occasion when the true Dharma is taught, those of superior capacity [upon hearing it] immediately eliminate all three layers of ignorance, open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, enter the stage of bodhisattvas, and receive the prediction of the fruit of bodhi. Those of intermediate capacity eliminate two layers of ignorance, while those of inferior capacity eliminate only one layer.

On the second occasion, [the Buddha] expounds the parable. Those of intermediate capacity [continue to] eliminate completely the two [remaining] layers of ignorance, open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, enter the stage of bodhisattvas, and individually receive predictions. Those of inferior capacity advance and eliminate one more layer of ignorance.

Next, when they hear [the Buddha] expound causes and conditions, those of inferior capacity also eliminate all three layers of ignorance, open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, and enter the stage of bodhisattvas.

Likewise, according to the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle, until [a practitioner] has completed the sixteen mental moments, that person is not yet said to have attained the first fruit. Only upon completing the sixteen mental moments is one said to have realized the fruit of stream-entry. ^[16]

4. Discussion of Whether or Not Faculties Can Be Transformed

The earlier commentators said that when the Buddha first preached the true Dharma, those of superior faculties attained awakening as soon as they heard it; those of middling faculties, after hearing it, were transformed into persons of superior faculties; and those of inferior faculties were elevated to middling faculties. The second time [the Buddha] preached, he taught by means of parables. Those formerly of middling faculties had already been transformed into persons of superior faculties, so upon hearing the teaching they could immediately attain awakening; while those of inferior faculties [who had previously been transformed into persons of middling faculties, on this occasion] were elevated to superior faculties.

Next, when the Buddha taught causes and conditions, those of inferior faculties had by then become persons of superior faculties and immediately attained awakening.

If inferior faculties were thus [gradually] transformed into superior faculties, then when the Buddha taught causes and conditions, all would already have possessed superior faculties and would have been equally keen. How, then, could they be regarded as having dull faculties and as needing the teaching of causes and conditions [before they could awaken]? If they had already been transformed into persons of superior faculties, their awakening should have been the same as that of those originally possessing superior faculties. But if they had not [equally] attained awakening, they would still have to be called persons of dull faculties. Thus, the argument that their faculties were [in this way] transformed does not accord with the meaning. ^[17]

Likewise, Venerable Sariputra heard [the Dharma] once, while Venerable Maudgalyayana heard it again [a second time], yet both realized the first fruit. If both possessed keen faculties, there could be no superiority or inferiority between them. But if they are described as differing in the keenness or dullness of their faculties, then the notion of transforming the faculties is unreasonable.

In general, the mental dispositions [and faculties] of all sentient beings are not fixed. Upon encountering adverse conditions, keen faculties may become dull; upon encountering favorable conditions, dull faculties may become keen. In previous lives, [some people] encountered a Buddha and heard the Dharma, and were able by themselves to transform their inferior or middling faculties into superior faculties; [today] they all attain awakening upon hearing the Dharma. [Others] transformed themselves from inferior faculties into middling faculties, and therefore understood clearly as soon as they heard [the Buddha] teach by means of parables.

Those of inferior faculties who had not been transformed [upward] understood only after hearing [the Buddha preach] all three times. This transformation of faculties is not the same as the explanation given by the earlier commentators. It is like using three knives to cut down a tree: the first is a sharp knife, representing those of keen faculties; the second is a less sharp knife, representing those of middling faculties; and the third is a blunt knife, representing those of dull faculties.

Although they are designated as keen or dull [in different respects], the result of felling the tree is nevertheless the same and no different. ^[18]

● Question: When persons of these three [different] faculties have entered the stage of the First Abode, is there still a distinction between keen and dull faculties?

● Answer: Through genuine cultivation, the essential nature becomes manifest, and naturally there is no longer any distinction of superiority or inferiority.

● Question: If that is so, when those at the stage of the First Abode and above engage in cultivation conditioned by circumstances, is there any superiority or inferiority among them?

● Answer: Since these persons occupy the same stage, there is no longer any superiority or inferiority among them. Through genuine cultivation, the essential nature is perfectly integrated; how could they still differ from one another?

5. Discussion of Awakening and Non-Awakening

The scriptures are for the most part [interpreted by readers] ^[19] as teaching that bodhisattvas are those of superior faculties, pratyekabuddhas are those of middling faculties, and sravakas are those of inferior faculties.

If bodhisattvas are said to possess superior faculties, then when the Buddha [first] preached the true Dharma, all [bodhisattvas] should have attained awakening. [Similarly,] pratyekabuddhas [being of middling faculties] should all have attained awakening upon hearing the teaching through parables, while sravakas [being of inferior faculties] should all have attained awakening upon hearing the teaching of causes and conditions.

Yet, when one examines the scriptural text, which describes the three classes of faculties and even the awakening [of each class], its meaning is not necessarily so. In this [Lotus] Sutra, only sravakas are seen presenting their understanding; no mention is made of pratyekabuddhas. Pratyekabuddhas belong to the class of middling faculties, but when they encounter a Buddha appearing in the world, they are included among the sravakas. [Those in the assembly] attained awakening according to their faculties, and therefore the pratyekabuddhas are not mentioned separately.

In the verse in which Venerable Sariputra makes his request, it is said: “Those who seek [the vehicle of] the pratyekabuddha—bhiksus, bhiksunis...” From this passage, it is known that those of the pratyekabuddha vehicle were included among the fourfold assembly.

Furthermore, the Chapter on the Dharma Teacher says: “Bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas [among whom are] those who seek [the fruit of] the sravaka and those who seek [the fruit of] the pratyekabuddha.” How, then, could there have been no pratyekabuddhas who attained understanding [in the Dharma assembly]?

The earlier commentators said that bodhisattvas are those of superior faculties, but they are not necessarily called superior because they all possess keen faculties; rather, it is because their attached minds are easily transformed. [These persons] had always cherished the aspiration to seek the fruit of Buddhahood, but because they had remained attached for more than three hundred [kalpas], they [retreated in resolve and] sought a lower fruit. ^[20] Doubts of this kind were easy to resolve. [Therefore,] bodhisattvas [possessing all] three kinds of faculties attained awakening upon hearing the Buddha preach the true Dharma.

Bodhisattvas of superior faculties [awakened to the Way when they heard the Buddha] teach in brief. Bodhisattvas of middling faculties [awakened to the Way when they heard the Buddha] begin to expound the teaching extensively. Bodhisattvas of inferior faculties were equal to Venerable Sariputra.

The present explanation clarifies that the designation “bodhisattva” is a general one: all who have merely aroused the aspiration for the Great Vehicle ^[21] are called bodhisattvas; they are not necessarily all persons of keen faculties. [Thus,] there were not even many who were equal to Venerable Sariputra; how, then, could all of them have attained awakening before or during the first preaching of the true Dharma? For if that had been so, why does the Chapter on the Lifespan, in the Dissemination section, say that bodhisattvas successively realized the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas and aroused the aspiration for bodhi?

The earlier commentators said that those described in the Chapter on the Lifespan as having attained realization were all Dharma-body bodhisattvas whose wisdom had increased and who were gradually eliminating transformational birth and death. ^[22] The present interpretation holds that this is not so. [The scriptural text in this chapter says that] those who realized the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas were as numerous as the grains of sand in six million eight hundred thousand kotis of nayutas of Ganges Rivers.

These persons realized this patience for the first time; hence, it is known that before [hearing the Dharma described in] the Chapter on the Lifespan, they were not yet Dharma-body [bodhisattvas]. Therefore, it is known that the bodhisattvas’ attainment of realization was not confined solely to the beginning of the first preaching of the true Dharma.

● Question: If bodhisattvas attained realization from the beginning to the end [of the Dharma assembly], then persons of the Two Vehicles should likewise have attained realization at the end [of the assembly], should they not?

● Answer: After the three [preachings], the relationship of father and children had been definitively established, ^[23] and therefore all [who attained realization] were called bodhisattvas. Thus, even those who attained realization only later were said to be bodhisattvas who had attained realization.

6. Discussion of Presenting One’s Understanding

If persons of all three vehicles attained realization, why does the sutra describe only sravakas presenting their understanding, while no such account is found for the other two vehicles? The present explanation clarifies that one who attains awakening when no Buddha has appeared in the world is called a solitary awakened one. One who attains realization by hearing the Buddha teach the twelve links of dependent origination is called a pratyekabuddha. Such persons were already included among the sravakas who attained understanding, and therefore they were not distinguished and discussed separately. The general purport of this matter may thus be discerned.

Venerables Sariputra, Kasyapa, and the others all possessed faculties suited to the Middle Vehicle. Therefore, when it is said that the sravakas presented their understanding, this also includes the pratyekabuddhas; there is no need to laboriously discuss them separately. Furthermore, among the four assemblies were those who had aroused the aspiration for the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle. The awakening attained by these people was not identical to that of the sravakas. In the Chapter on Faith and Understanding, the passage stating that he “secretly dispatched two men...” to work together with him ^[24] expresses precisely this meaning.

Nor is it said that the bodhisattvas presented their understanding, because the teaching for the sravakas [previously] did not say that [they] could attain Buddhahood. Now this Lotus Sutra of the Wondrous Dharma opens the path of return to the Great Vehicle. The [sravakas] themselves feared that their understanding might be mistaken, and therefore stated it before the Buddha [to receive confirmation]. Bodhisattvas were not in this situation, and thus did not need to present their understanding.

Furthermore, this matter has three meanings. First, the bodhisattvas’ original aspiration was to seek Buddhahood. Even if they had other attachments, these were not deep or grave, and they would ultimately attain the fruit of Buddhahood; there was no concern that they might fail to become Buddhas. Now, having heard the Buddha preach three times, what they heard was also in accord with their own Dharma contemplation and wisdom. Therefore, they did not need to present their understanding.

Second, the bodhisattvas’ realization of the Great Vehicle is spoken of throughout the scriptures, whereas the possibility that those of the Two Vehicles could attain Buddhahood was proclaimed for the first time in this [Lotus] Sutra. [Perhaps] because only the essential meaning was transmitted, the bodhisattvas’ presentation of their understanding was omitted. [It is also possible that] it existed in the Sanskrit scripture but was omitted and not recorded in the Chinese text.

Third, the stages and practices of the bodhisattvas are exceedingly profound, so newly aspiring lesser bodhisattvas did not dare to present their understanding. However, after the Buddha had finished preaching the Chapter on the Lifespan ^[25], Bodhisattva Maitreya presented their understanding on behalf of all the bodhisattvas. It began with those who had realized the patience of the non-arising of dharmas and concluded with a bodhisattva bound to one more birth ^[26]. Thus, the presentation of their understanding was complete; what further cause could there be for doubt? This is the general meaning.

7. Discussion of Whether Predictions Were Bestowed

If, [as stated above], all [of the Three Vehicles] presented their understanding, why did the sravakas receive predictions, while there is no account of predictions being bestowed upon the pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas?

This also has three meanings. First, [the Buddha had previously taught that] those of the Two Vehicles who had entered the correct stage ^[27] could not arouse the aspiration [for bodhi], and therefore there was no basis for bestowing predictions upon them. Now that they had awakened through the Great Vehicle and rejoiced with a transformed resolve, [the Buddha] bestowed predictions upon them, revealing the names of their future Buddha lands and the kalpas in which they would attain Buddhahood.

Bodhisattvas had aroused the aspiration to seek Buddhahood and considered accomplishment in practice itself sufficient. They did not delight in attaining Buddhahood quickly, nor did they urgently seek predictions. Furthermore, in the teachings [preached by the Buddha] previously, the bestowal of predictions upon bodhisattvas had been discussed in many places and was therefore commonplace.

Moreover, only the essential meaning was transmitted, as explained above. This is the general meaning.

Second, individual bodhisattvas also received predictions. Were Devadatta ^[28] and the Dragon Girl not given predictions? Furthermore, the Chapter on the Dharma Teacher states: “Those who seek the Sravaka Vehicle, those who seek the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and those who seek the Buddha Way—when such people come before the Buddha and hear the Lotus Sutra, I bestow predictions upon them all that they will realize the fruit of Buddhahood.” Does this not mean that all [of the Three Vehicles] received predictions?

Third, from the past until now, those of the Two Vehicles had never received predictions involving the eight specific characteristics ^[29]. Therefore, [they were now] given predictions concerning the names of their Buddha lands and the ages in which they would attain Buddhahood. Bodhisattvas, however, had already received predictions in the past, so these were not repeated.

A prediction of near attainment, such as the realization of the First Abode, was not a cause of rejoicing for bodhisattvas. What delights bodhisattvas is a prediction of distant attainment, extending to the ultimate perfection of the stage of Wondrous Awakening, [that is, the fruit of Buddhahood]. Therefore, in the Chapter on the Lifespan, beginning with those who had newly aroused the aspiration and concluding with those in the stage of one remaining birth [before Buddhahood], through wondrous causes they attained the ultimately perfect fruit and immediately reached fulfillment.

This, in particular, was the bestowal of predictions concerning the Dharma body; how could it be said that they received no predictions?

● Question: If those of the Lesser Vehicle had awakened to the [Dharma of the] Great Vehicle, they should likewise have received predictions concerning the Dharma body. Why, then, were they given predictions involving the eight specific characteristics?

● Answer: The mention of the eight [specific] characteristics corresponds to predictions concerning a manifestation body. Since they received predictions concerning a manifestation body, it is known that they already possessed the root. This was intended to enable all sentient beings to know and hear of them and to form Dharma affinities with them in the future; therefore, predictions concerning their manifestation bodies were bestowed. Moreover, if these people of the Two Vehicles [who received predictions concerning manifestation bodies] heard the Chapter on the Lifespan, they would immediately diminish the birth and death of transformation ^[30] and receive predictions concerning the Dharma body.

8. Discussion of the Depth or Shallowness of Awakening to the Way

[Generally speaking, the listeners] all dispelled ignorance and realized the stage of the First Abode; examining the details would certainly illuminate the obscurities even more clearly. Upon hearing [the Buddha preach] the true Dharma for the first time, [some] entered the Buddha’s wisdom. How could hearing [the Buddha preach] the parable on the next occasion fail to bring them greater clarity?

Then, upon hearing [the Buddha preach] causes and conditions, they advanced still further. Next, when they heard [the Buddha preach] about the [Tathagata’s] lifespan, [their understanding] became even more profound. Just as one who hears the Dharma should understand it more clearly upon hearing it again than on the previous occasion, so the simplicity or complexity, depth or shallowness of [their awakening to the Way] can all be clearly known.

9. Discussion of the Benefits of the Provisional and the True

Some say that practicing the true Dharma brings benefit, while the provisional Dharma merely [serves as a skillful means] for guidance and involves no benefit. Here it is made clear that this is not so. If we consider the Chapter on the Lifespan, both the provisional and the true bring benefit.

Wisdom of the Middle Way grows ever more exalted; the birth and death of transformation is progressively diminished until it is entirely extinguished; one approaches perfection and reaches the ultimate limit [of the Way], with only a single rebirth remaining [before attaining the fruit of Buddhahood]. How could this not be the benefit derived from practicing the provisional Dharma? Thus, in the beginning, [the provisional Dharma] exerts its influence alongside the maturation of practice in the true Dharma; afterward, when the ultimate fruit is proclaimed, the Way becomes clear of itself.

The scripture states: “In conducting business, whether going out or coming in, he made profits throughout all the countries.” The benefits throughout all the countries are precisely one’s own benefits; the benefit gained from practicing the true Dharma depends upon the guidance of the provisional Dharma. The merit of teaching and transforming [others] returns as benefit to oneself, and therefore the provisional Dharma also brings benefit.

Thus, [the Vimalakirti Sutra states]: “The Buddha proclaims the teaching with a single sound, and sentient beings understand it according to their respective kinds.” ^[31] Why would it be necessary to wait [until hearing the Chapter on] the Lifespan? This is the general meaning. [The scripture] also states: “We ourselves also wish to attain this great, true, and pure Dharma.” ^[32] This is precisely benefiting oneself.

10. Discussion of Whether It Is Necessary to Await the Proper Time

If one did not awaken to the Way previously and had to wait until the Lotus Dharma was expounded before awakening, this is called waiting for the appropriate time. If one had already understood the teachings expounded before the Lotus Dharma, this is called not waiting for the time.

Why is this so? The Buddha’s teaching of the Dharma is of two kinds: explicit and secret. If discussed according to the explicit teaching, before the Lotus Dharma was expounded, those of the Two Vehicles had not yet awakened to the Great Vehicle. They had to wait until the five flavors ^[33] had been blended and brought to maturity before they could understand at the Lotus Dharma assembly. Therefore, [the scripture] says: “The reason [I have never spoken it before] is that the time was not yet appropriate. Now is precisely the proper time, and I have resolved to expound the Great Vehicle.” This describes waiting for the time.

If discussed according to the secret teaching, however, it was not necessarily required to wait until all five flavors had been completed at the Lotus Dharma assembly before one could understand. There had previously been those who secretly entered and realized it; therefore, this is called not waiting for the time.

This is a general and comprehensive explanation of waiting or not waiting for the time. If [explained in detail], the three rounds of exposition [the true Dharma, parables, and causes and conditions] also involve waiting and not waiting for the time. Or, if divided into the Trace Gate and the Origin Gate, these likewise involve waiting and not waiting for the time. Even the successive order in which beings awaken and enter is also an expression of this meaning.

● Question: There is a type of spiritual capacity that is neither secret nor explicit and is not encompassed by either of these two periods [of teaching the Dharma]. Does this mean that such beings have missed the proper time and will never attain awakening?

● Answer: According to other sutras, it may be said that they have missed the time, but according to this [Lotus] Sutra, this is not so. Although such persons fail to awaken during either the explicit or the secret period, they may conceive the thought that [the Buddha] has already entered extinction; yet afterward, when born in another realm [beyond the three realms], they will again hear this sutra. Thus, they have not missed the time altogether. They are merely waiting for the time in another realm.

● Question: The five thousand people who rose and departed from the Dharma assembly must surely have missed the time?

● Answer: Those people will surely also receive benefit from those who propagate this sutra after the Tathagata’s nirvana.

● Question: During the first round [of expounding the true Dharma], Venerable Sariputra made his request on behalf of all three capacities among the four assemblies. When the parable was expounded, he made his request on behalf of those of middling and lower capacities. Why, then, is it said that all three rounds of the Buddha’s exposition were intended for all three capacities?

● Answer: It is not proper to speak in that way. Since the request was made on behalf of all three capacities, the exposition was likewise given generally for all three capacities. It was simply that those of superior capacity possessed keen wisdom and awakened as soon as they heard the true Dharma. Those of middling capacity were of an intermediate level and awakened upon hearing the exposition of the parable. Those of lower capacity were at an inferior level and awakened when they heard the third round of exposition. You should rely upon the meaning; why cling to the words? Such is the matter in brief.

● Question: Accounts of former lives concern events in the past, whereas [the exposition through] parables concerns events of the present—is that correct?

● Answer: The scriptural text does not say so, but when inferred from the meaning, it is so. The three vehicles are led back to the One Vehicle; all three vehicles proceed toward the single vehicle, and that single vehicle pertains to the present time. Events are set forth to convey parables, and those parables refer precisely to the present. Considering what came before and reckoning what follows, it is exactly as you have asked.

● Question: The earlier commentators said that the five turbidities obstruct the Great Vehicle and presented four cases to explain this, as previously stated. ^[34] Others also say that annihilationism and ignorance combine to form an obstruction. The Treatise on the Lotus Dharma says: “Although a person is free from afflictions, because of cognitive delusions ^[35] that person does not know that the eternally abiding Dharma-body of the One Vehicle exists.” This is precisely the meaning.

If ordinary beings ^[36] do not cling to nirvana but cannot hear the Dharma, then ignorance alone obstructs [the Way]. If so, is ignorance destroyed only after hearing the three rounds of exposition [the true Dharma, parables, and causes and conditions], or is it destroyed before hearing the Dharma? If ignorance is destroyed only after hearing the Dharma, then that ignorance [does not hinder the hearing of the Dharma and therefore] is not an obstruction.

But if ignorance can be destroyed before hearing the Dharma, then it is merely a cause for concern and is not truly an obstruction. ^[37] How should this meaning be understood?

● Answer: That is an interpretation presented by others; ^[38] I shall now help clarify it for them. It is like lighting a lamp: as the light arises, darkness vanishes, and it is impossible to determine which comes first and which comes afterward. Although there is no before or after, darkness is nevertheless certainly an obstruction. Such is the matter in brief.

● Question: The Srimala Sutra says: “If practitioners of the Three Vehicles are not deluded concerning the Dharma at the beginning of their cultivation, they will know for themselves that they will attain awakening.” Chapter Fourteen of the Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts says: “Those of the Two Vehicles know for themselves that they will attain the fruit of bodhi and only provisionally accept the fruit of the Lesser Vehicle.” Chapter Thirteen also says: “Knowing is easy, but practicing is difficult.

Although they clearly know the One Vehicle, they accept the fruit of arhatship.” Both of these sutras say that [those of the Two Vehicles] know [that they will attain the fruit of bodhi]. ^[39] Why, then, does this [Lotus] Sutra say that those of the three capacities still do not know for themselves [that they are capable of attaining the fruit of bodhi]? At first they harbor doubts, but afterward they attain awakening.

How should this meaning be understood?

● Answer: This sutra likewise says that [those of the Two Vehicles] do know. The scriptural text says: “If any bhiksu has truly attained the fruit of arhatship yet does not believe and accept the Dharma of the One Vehicle, this is utterly unreasonable—except after the Buddha’s nirvana, when no Buddha is present. Why is this?

After the Buddha’s nirvana, it is extremely difficult to encounter persons capable of receiving and upholding, reciting, and explaining sutras such as this. But if they encounter a Buddha in another realm, they will immediately attain complete and lucid understanding of this teaching.” In general, this [scriptural passage] has three meanings. First, it clarifies that [those of the Two Vehicles] know [that they will attain Buddhahood].

Next, it clarifies what they do not know. Finally, it concludes with the meaning that they do know; it is not that they remain forever unknowing. Moreover, Venerable Sariputra said, “...we do not know where this meaning is directed,” and also said, “Now the four assemblies have all given rise to doubt...” ^[40]

Furthermore, during the time of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, most of the sravakas gave rise to doubts. Although they encountered the Buddha and heard the Dharma, they still doubted and did not know; how much less could [those who did not encounter the Buddha and hear the Dharma] have known? If one clings to the two scriptural passages above, they will appear mutually contradictory and will only increase disputation. What benefit would that bring to cultivation of the Way? Debaters are capable only of discussing other matters. As for whether sravakas who attain sanctity can know or do not know, only the Buddha’s sphere can make this clear; it is not something we are capable of understanding.

Now let us analyze the statement in the sutra concerning “those of the Three Vehicles who were at the initial stage of cultivation.” There are two cases of initial cultivation. Those who “began cultivation” in the very distant past and had previously heard the Mahayana Dharma were naturally not ignorant of the Dharma. Those who “began cultivation” but forgot it along the way and therefore now study according to the Lesser Vehicle, having only just begun to cultivate the foundations of mindfulness, naturally could not understand this meaning clearly. If this meaning is understood, then it is known that those who provisionally manifest as “beginners in cultivation” are capable of understanding clearly, while those who truly are beginners in cultivation are incapable of understanding clearly.

Some say: “Those of keen faculties can understand clearly, while those of dull faculties cannot.” [If keen and dull faculties are discussed in this way,] four cases should be distinguished. First, those who provisionally manifest keen faculties or dull faculties display that neither group is capable of knowing. Second, those who provisionally manifest keen faculties or dull faculties display that neither group can understand clearly. Third, those who provisionally manifest keen faculties or dull faculties can understand clearly upon hearing [the Dharma], but do not know if they have not heard it. Fourth, those who provisionally manifest keen faculties or dull faculties are both neither knowing nor not knowing.

Here we do not judge according to the arguments above. We simply hold that those who provisionally manifest had long understood inwardly, whereas those who actually belonged to the [Two Vehicles] did not understand clearly because they had not yet entered the Mahayana. Thus the meaning becomes self-evident.

● Question: Pratyekabuddhas are born in an age when there is no Buddha. Why, then, were there Pratyekabuddhas among those present during the Buddha’s three rounds of teaching?

● Answer: The [Lotus Sutra] Treatise explains Pratyekabuddhas and Solitary Buddhas as follows: “A Solitary Buddha is born in an age when there is no Buddha; a Pratyekabuddha vows to be born in an age when there is a Buddha.” The Avatamsaka Sutra states: “When the bodhisattva descended from Tusita Heaven, he emitted rays of light that shone everywhere. [Practitioners] who had attained awakening immediately relinquished their bodies [to be reborn and meet the Buddha], while those who had not attained awakening immediately departed [for other realms].” The Mahaparinirvana Sutra states: “[A Pratyekabuddha appears in an age when there is no Buddha,

just as] a comet [appears when the sun is absent].” ^[41] The Treatise on the Middle Way states: “A Pratyekabuddha appears in the world after the Buddha-Dharma has become extinct and is therefore one who attains awakening alone by himself.” Those who vow to be born in an age when there is a Buddha have previously attained the first fruition and have not yet exhausted their fourteen rebirths.

If they encounter a Buddha, they become arhats; if they do not encounter a Buddha, they become Solitary Buddhas. [Those in this Dharma assembly] had encountered the Buddha and neither relinquished their lifespans nor departed [elsewhere]. Since they had vowed to encounter a Buddha, it was also natural that they should be among those of the second and third fruitions.

Furthermore, there are also group-practicing Pratyekabuddhas, ^[42] whose teachers and disciples instruct one another in an age when there is no Buddha. Here, [a distinction] must be made between two types. After the Buddha has entered nirvana, in a later age when there is no writing and sentient beings have dull faculties, a Pratyekabuddha [who appears] and does not teach the Dharma does not belong to the group-practicing type. Those of the group-practicing type are capable of teaching the Dharma. There are also transformation Pratyekabuddhas, who manifest the body of a Pratyekabuddha to accord with [sentient beings] who wish to see one. [Therefore,] the presence of Pratyekabuddhas today among the audience during the Buddha’s three rounds of teaching can be understood in this way.

The First Teaching of the True Dharma

The Buddha’s first teaching of the True Dharma is divided into five sections in the scriptural text.

The first section extends from the passage, “You have earnestly made your request three times; how could I not speak?” to the end of [volume 1]. ^[43] This is the section in which the True Dharma is taught. The second section extends from the beginning of volume 2 ^[44] to the end of the verses. ^[45] In this section, Venerable Sariputra presents his understanding before the Buddha.

The third section extends from the passage, “Today, in the midst of this great assembly of devas, humans, and others, I shall clearly proclaim...” to the end of the passage, “This Mahayana sutra is called the Lotus of the Wonderful Dharma, the Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas, of Which the Buddhas Are Protective and Mindful.” This is the section in which the Buddha speaks of the accomplishment [of his teaching and transformation].

The fourth section extends from the passage, “Sariputra! In the future...” to the end of the passage, “Since you yourself shall become that Buddha, you should rejoice.” This is the section in which [the Buddha] bestows a prediction [upon Venerable Sariputra].

The fifth section extends from the passage, “At that time, the fourfold assembly of bhiksus, bhiksunis...” to the end of the passage, “Together with the merit of encountering the Buddha, they all dedicated it to the Buddha path.” This section describes the rejoicing of the fourfold assembly.

I. Teaching the True Dharma

A. Prose

The first section consists of prose and verses.

The prose is further divided into three parts. First, the Buddha promises [to teach]; second, [the assembly] receives and accepts [the Buddha’s] intent; and third, the principal content of the teaching.

The promise is likewise divided into three parts. First is the promise of assent [to teach]; second is the admonition [on listening to the Dharma]; and third is the selection [of the audience].

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

At that time, the Blessed One addressed Venerable Sariputra: “You have earnestly made your request three times; how could I not speak? Now listen attentively, reflect well and carefully, and remember it. I shall distinguish and explain it for all of you.”

As soon as the Buddha spoke these words, five thousand bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas in the assembly immediately rose from their seats, bowed to the Buddha, and withdrew. Why was this? These people had deep and grave roots of wrongdoing and were also afflicted with overweening pride. Though they had not realized, they claimed to have realized; though they had not attained, they claimed to have attained. Because they had faults such as these, they did not remain. The Blessed One remained silent and did not restrain them.

At that time, the Buddha addressed Venerable Sariputra: “This assembly now has no branches or leaves and consists solely of firm kernels. Sariputra, it is also good that those afflicted with overweening pride have withdrawn. Now listen well, and I shall teach for all of you.”

Venerable Sariputra said: “Yes, Blessed One! We joyfully wish to hear.”

[The Buddha addressed Venerable Sariputra,] “You have earnestly made your request three times,” which is the granting of assent [to teach the Dharma]. He further said, “Now listen attentively, reflect well and carefully, and remember it,” which is the admonition [on listening to the Dharma]. Attentive listening is the wisdom born of hearing; reflecting well and carefully is the wisdom born of reflection; and remembering is the wisdom born of cultivation.

The Mahaparinirvana Sutra [volume 23] clearly teaches that there are four wholesome dharmas because they are causes for attaining Great Nirvana. The first is [drawing near to] a good spiritual friend, namely the Tathagata. The remaining three can be understood. ^[46]

The passage beginning, “As soon as the Buddha spoke these words,” concerns the selection of the audience. [Because there were] five thousand unsuitable people in the Dharma assembly, the Tathagata stopped the request three times and only now assented [to teach]. Through [the Buddha’s] awe-inspiring spiritual power, [these people] were caused to withdraw; therefore, this is called the selection of the audience.

[These people had accumulated] many obstructions from the five turbidities, which is “grave offenses”; they clung to the Lesser Vehicle and obscured the Great Vehicle, which is “deep roots.” Therefore, the scripture says that “the roots of their offenses were deep and grave.” Moreover, “claiming to have realized what one has not realized, and claiming to have attained what one has not attained” is called “overweening pride.” That is, they had not realized the three fruits [of stream-enterer, once-returner, and non-returner], nor had they realized the stage beyond training [arhatship]. Because they had such faults, they were said to fall into three categories: obstruction, attachment, and pride; [the Buddha allowed them to withdraw] without restraining them.

[These people] had only just heard the revelation that abolished the three vehicles and disclosed the One Vehicle. Since the explanation was still brief and its meaning still concealed, they had not yet given rise to slander. [Later], when the causes and conditions were fully explained through [the parable of] the jewel [in the lining of the robe], their withdrawal would prove more beneficial. For if they heard an extensive exposition abolishing the three vehicles and disclosing the One Vehicle, it would run counter to their present dispositions, and [they would certainly] give rise to slander; thus, remaining would harm them. Therefore, [the Buddha] did not prevent [their withdrawal].

[The Buddha taught,] “This assembly of mine now has no more branches or leaves.” Branches and leaves are small and frail and cannot be made into useful implements. Those [who withdrew were all people who] clung to expedients within expedients and were not vessels for the Great Vehicle. The Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra says: “One who grasps the branches and leaves but abandons the root is not wise.” This expresses precisely the same meaning.

[The Buddha said that] “their withdrawal is also good,” because by clinging to the Lesser Vehicle they obstructed themselves and also prevented the light of the Great Vehicle from reaching others. Now that they had withdrawn, they would avoid the offense of slandering the true Dharma and would no longer commit the fault of obstructing others. Therefore, it was said to be “also good.”

Previously, because those who were “branches and leaves” had not yet withdrawn, the Tathagata three times restrained [the request that he teach. Now, only] the “firm kernels” who longed to hear remained in the assembly, and so Sariputra made his request for the fourth time. Master and disciples carefully examined their capacities; it was not merely that the disciple persistently made his request.

● Question: The Buddha possesses a mind of great loving-kindness and compassion. Why did he not use his spiritual power to make [these people] remain [in the assembly] without hearing or understanding, like [the followers of the Two Vehicles who were] deaf and mute in the Avatamsaka assembly? Why did he not employ [the expedient of] the “poisoned drum” ^[47], as in [the case of the two bhiksus] Joyful Root and Superior Intention? ^[48]

● Answer: Each situation had its own [distinct] cause. Only near the conclusion of the Avatamsaka assembly was the gradual teaching set aside, but attachment to the Lesser Vehicle had not yet been refuted. Therefore, [they were still allowed] to sit in the Dharma assembly, though [a barrier] separated them from the teaching.

Now, however, because the teachings spoken by the Buddha were to circulate for a long time, the complete truth had to be proclaimed. It was precisely because [the Buddha] wished to abolish the conjured [city] and demolish the thatched hut ^[49] that he caused [these people to withdraw] in order to sift the assembly. If [he had known that], whether they remained or departed, [these people] would slander [the true Dharma] in either case, he would surely have compelled them to hear the Dharma, as Bhiksu Joyful Root did.

But now that [the Buddha had taught that] their withdrawal was good, why should he suddenly wish them to remain? If [these people] remained, they would certainly incur harm; why, then, should one suddenly wish [the Buddha] not to let them withdraw? Bhiksu Joyful Root, out of loving-kindness, insisted on teaching the Dharma [to Superior Intention], whereas the Tathagata, out of compassion, caused [these people] to withdraw.

● Question: If these five thousand people remained in the Dharma assembly, they would gain no benefit; but what benefit could they gain by withdrawing?

● Answer: These people were not members of the assembly whose capacities corresponded to the teaching ^[50], but belonged only among those who formed a karmic affinity with it. As explained above, in the time of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, innumerable sentient beings also gave rise to doubt and confusion. [Thereafter], lifetime after lifetime, they continued to be born together with their teacher, and by the present time they had all attained liberation. Those [who withdrew today] were likewise.

When the Buddha preached the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, as many as 1,500 billion people failed to give rise to faith in that sutra. Yet those people would also come to have faith in the future. Accordingly, the benefit would not be long in coming.

The Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra states that at that time there were two kinds of people in Jambudvipa; this likewise accords with the meaning of this analogy.

The sentence, “Now you should listen attentively, reflect upon it well and carefully, and remember it” ^[51], concludes the section granting the request.

The section in which [the assembly] accepted [the Buddha’s] intention is clear [and may be understood] from the scriptural text.

SCRIPTURAL TEXT

The Buddha addressed Sariputra: “This subtle and wondrous Dharma is preached by the Buddha Tathagatas only at the proper time, just as the udumbara flower blooms only once at the proper time. Sariputra! You should believe the words spoken and taught by the Buddha; they are never false. Sariputra! The Buddhas teach the Dharma in accordance with what is appropriate, and its meaning is difficult to understand.”

From the words “this subtle and wondrous Dharma” onward is the principal content of the extensive exposition. The scriptural text is divided into two parts.

The first part consists of four rounds of teaching concerning the Buddhas ^[52], extensively explaining the provisional and the real in relation to the Buddhas mentioned previously.

The second part concerns Buddha Sakyamuni, extensively explaining the provisional and the real in relation to Buddha Sakyamuni as stated previously.

The preceding section contained only a few sentences, and was therefore brief in wording; it spoke generally of the Buddhas, and was therefore brief concerning persons; it spoke only of abolishing the three vehicles and disclosing the One Vehicle, and was therefore brief in meaning. In this section, the scriptural text contains many passages and sentences, and is therefore extensive in wording; it speaks of the Buddha five times ^[53], and is therefore extensive concerning persons; and it explains six meanings, and is therefore extensive in meaning.

These six meanings are as follows: First, praising the true Dharma [of the Buddha] as rarely encountered. Second, [the Buddha’s] preaching is not false. Third, abolishing the expedient teachings. Fourth, revealing the true teaching. Fifth, setting forth the five turbidities to explain the provisional expedient teachings. Sixth, distinguishing and eliminating the false while exalting the true.

Praising the Dharma gives rise to reverence. Declaring that the teaching is not false forestalls [others’] disparagement and slander. Revealing the expedients causes [listeners] not to cling to the Lesser Vehicle. Disclosing the truth enables [listeners] to awaken to the Great Vehicle. Setting forth the five turbidities clarifies [why the Buddha] was compelled to provisionally establish the three vehicles. Distinguishing and eliminating all [that is] false necessarily leaves the truth.

Each of these five sections [in the first exposition of the true Dharma] fully contains the six meanings [described above], but because the earlier and later passages complement one another, there is no [need] to state them all in full. This is because the Tathagata skillfully expounds the teaching, causing [some passages] to be abbreviated without omission, while elsewhere expressing the ultimate meaning without making the text verbose. Moreover, these six meanings do not occur in any of the preceding or subsequent sections. Such is the general outline.

PART ONE

The first part contains four rounds of teaching concerning the Buddhas and is divided into two topics. First, it speaks generally of the Buddhas; afterward, [in three rounds], it enumerates the three periods of time. The general discussion should contain all six meanings, but only four are found here. The first is praise of the true Dharma; the second is that [the teaching] is not false; the third is abolishing expedients; and the fourth is revealing the truth. The remaining two meanings are absent and are indicated by the later scriptural text.

In praising the true Dharma, both the Dharma and the analogy are praised at the same time. The scripture says, “Only when the proper time had come did he teach,” meaning that all Buddhas appear in an evil age of the five defilements; therefore, they must first provisionally set forth the Three Vehicles, just as the World-Honored One does now. Only after more than forty years did he begin to reveal the truth.

Such a long interval is exceedingly rare; therefore, it is said, “Only when the proper time had come did he teach.” For a very long time, [the Buddha] did not expound [the truth] because [he knew that] the listeners were not yet capable of believing and accepting it. Before the proper time had come, the five thousand people [in the assembly] had not yet withdrawn. Now that people’s minds were capable of believing and accepting, the time [for teaching] had come, and the five thousand [who were unsuitable] had withdrawn; therefore, [the Buddha] resolved to teach the Mahayana Dharma.

Hence it is said, “Only when the proper time had come did he teach.”

The uḍumbara flower (優曇) is translated into Chinese as “the flower of an auspicious portent” (靈瑞), [meaning a wondrous flower whose appearance heralds an auspicious event]. This flower blooms only once every three thousand years, and whenever it blooms, a Wheel-Turning Sage King of the Golden Wheel ^[54] is certain to appear in the world. [The example of the uḍumbara flower] signifies that only after those of the Three Vehicles have been trained and brought to maturity is the wondrous Dharma taught and the prediction bestowed that they will become Dharma Kings.

It also [means that] only after passing through the flavors of curds, raw butter, and clarified butter is the flavor of ghee ^[55] taught.... [Furthermore, the expression “auspicious portent,” when explained] according to contemplation of the mind, means that to contemplate the mind as identical with the Middle [Way] is called an auspicious portent; that this contemplative Dharma penetrates all dharmas and reaches the true aspect is called wondrous efficacy.

Such is the general meaning.

[The scripture says,] “You should believe the Buddha’s words,” exhorting the listeners to have faith in the Dharma [taught by the Buddha], which is never false. This doctrine is exceedingly profound, unlike the doctrines [taught by the Buddha] in the past; these words are exceedingly wondrous, unlike the words [spoken by the Buddha] in the past; this practice is exceedingly universal, unlike the practices taught in the past; and the people [in this Dharma assembly] are exceedingly excellent, far surpassing the inferior people [who heard the Dharma] in the past.

Because [the Buddha] turns back and points out that the four provisional teachings previously set forth ^[56] were coarse and inferior, whereas, in comparison, everything taught today is subtle and wondrous, he feared that sentient beings might give rise to slander. Therefore, he encouraged [the listeners] to arouse faith and to believe that the one who is not false [the Buddha] would teach the Dharma that is not false.

From [the words] “teaching the Dharma according to what is appropriate” ^[57] onward is the section that removes skillful means. It is divided into three parts: removal, explanation, and conclusion. First, it clarifies that the Buddha, in accordance with the three kinds of capacities, [provisionally] taught the appropriate skillful means; therefore, it says, “according to what is appropriate.” Yet the Buddha’s intention lies in the truth. It is only because sentient beings are unable to understand it that [the scripture] says, “Its meaning is difficult to comprehend.”

SCRIPTURE

“Why is this? I employ countless skillful means, various causes and conditions, analogies, and expressions to expound the dharmas. These dharmas cannot be understood through deliberation and discrimination; only the Buddhas are fully capable of comprehending them. Why is this? The Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, appear in the world solely because of one great matter of causes and conditions.

[The words] “Why is this?” [begin] the explanation. By setting forth the provisional Dharma of the present Buddha, the skillful means of all Buddhas may be explained. Because the skillful wisdom of all Buddhas is identical, what [this Buddha does] here is used to explain [what the Buddhas do] elsewhere.

[The scripture says,] “I employ countless skillful means,” to indicate that all Buddhas likewise provisionally set forth provisional teachings. It further says, “These dharmas cannot be understood through deliberation and discrimination.” This sentence may be understood in two ways. It may be regarded either as the conclusion of the section removing the provisional teachings or as the beginning of the principal section revealing the truth.

If it is said to conclude the section removing the provisional teachings, then it means that the Buddha’s intention is difficult to comprehend and only a Buddha together with another Buddha can fully understand it. Those who receive and follow the teaching see that there are three [vehicles], whereas the Buddhas clearly know that there is only the single [Buddha Vehicle].

If it is said to begin the principal section revealing the truth, then this sentence belongs to the passage that follows. That passage is further divided into five parts. First is the presentation of the excellence of the Dharma and the person [who teaches the Dharma]. Second is the presentation of the purpose of appearing in the world. Third is the restatement [of the preceding meaning]. Fourth is the principal explanation. Fifth is the conclusion, which presents the Dharma and the person.

[The first part] presents the Dharma free from discrimination, which only a Buddha can clearly know. The Buddha uses nondiscriminating wisdom to comprehend the nondiscriminating Dharma; this is precisely the revelation of the true Dharma.

From [the second occurrence of] “Why is this?” [in this passage] onward is the second part, which presents the meaning of appearing in the world. This is further divided into two parts. First comes the general presentation, followed by the analysis of the words.

The general presentation states that all Buddhas awaken to the true aspect as it really is and, following this true path, manifest in the world solely to enable sentient beings to attain the true aspect. They appear in the world for this one matter alone and for nothing else. Apart from the true aspect of all dharmas, all other dharmas are the works of Māra.

The analysis of the words provides an explanation, [as in the phrase “one great matter of causes and conditions”].

One means the one true aspect. Because it is neither five, nor three, nor seven, nor nine, it is called one.

Great means that the nature of the one is vast and all-encompassing, pervading all five [dharmas], three [dharmas], seven [dharmas], and nine [dharmas]; therefore, it is called great.

Matter means an affair and refers to the majestic deportment and outward forms assumed by the Buddhas when they appear in the world; therefore, it is called a matter.

Causes and conditions [mean causes and supporting conditions]. Sentient beings possess [their respective] capacities. Because these capacities [are suitable] and elicit a response from the Buddha, they are called the cause. Because the Buddha responds and manifests [in the world] in accordance with those receptive capacities, he is called the condition.

This [“one great matter of causes and conditions”] is the principal intention [of all Buddhas] when they appear in the world. Yet the present opening and presentation of the Three Vehicles are merely provisionally established skillful means for guidance. It is like someone who wishes to take something away and therefore should first give something, [so that the person may afterward be guided]. Although [the Buddha] teaches many different paths, in truth there is only the single [Buddha] Vehicle. This is the meaning.

SCRIPTURE

“Śāriputra! What does it mean that the Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, appear in the world solely because of one great matter of causes and conditions?

From the words “Śāriputra! What does it mean...” onward is the third part, [which restates the preceding meaning]. Because [the Buddha] is about to set forth [an explanation] and make distinctions, he restates the previously mentioned subject to begin the explanation. Furthermore, this great matter [of appearing in the world] is something the Buddhas regard as important [and is therefore restated], just as the commentary on the [Lotus Sutra] says: “The royal father wished to hear the Crown Prince’s name many times, [so his attendants] repeated it countless times, yet the king never tired of hearing it.” Such is the general meaning.

SCRIPTURE

The Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, appear in the world because they wish to enable sentient beings to open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision and attain purity; they appear in the world because they wish to reveal the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to sentient beings; they appear in the world because they wish to enable sentient beings to awaken to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; and they appear in the world because they wish to enable sentient beings to enter the path of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

From the words “all Buddhas, World-Honored Ones” onward is the fourth meaning, entering into the proper explanation. First, [here] the explanations of other masters will be presented.

The earlier commentators set forth four kinds of oneness: oneness of the fruit (果一), oneness of the person (人一), oneness of the teaching (教一), and oneness of the cause (因一).

Regarding the oneness of the fruit, the first two statements are based on the speaker, ^[58] while the latter two are based on the listener, who receives the teaching. ^[59]

Regarding the speaker, the initial, cursory exposition opens up the Dharma of cultivating the cause and briefly expounds the principle of the fruit; therefore, it first opens the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. The subsequent attainment of the fruit is the extensive exposition that reveals the principle of the fruit and shows the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

Regarding the recipient, because the Dharma of cultivating the cause had previously been briefly opened up, one is thereby able to receive and understand it, [awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]. Afterward, upon attaining the fruit, one broadly understands and deeply enters its principle and purport, [entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].

This explanation is not adopted here. Why? In all four statements, the scriptural text says that [their meaning] is “for the sake of sentient beings.” ^[60] Thus, the principal meaning concerns the benefit received by the sentient beings whose capacities are being addressed and has nothing to do with the one who teaches and transforms them.

Therefore, [all four statements] must be understood as referring to those being taught and transformed who are enabled to awaken. Why, then, divide out two statements [as referring separately] to the one who teaches and transforms, who opens and shows? Moreover, precisely when the Dharma of cultivating the cause is expounded, the three vehicles are opened up [and set aside] and the One Vehicle is revealed.

How can two statements be separated out as referring to the attainment of the fruit? The causes and conditions have not yet been fully assembled to bring the fruit to completion, so how could it be spoken of beforehand? If that were so, then when the six auspicious signs first appeared, while the Buddha had not yet emerged from samadhi, this would have to be regarded as the brief exposition; and when the five thousand persons [whose capacities were unsuitable] had not yet withdrawn from the Dharma assembly, this would have to be regarded as the extensive exposition.

If both of these are unreasonable, how can one speak of attaining the fruit in the manner described above? [The bodhisattvas] from beneath the earth had not yet appeared, ^[61] and the Buddha’s emanation bodies had not yet assembled; how, then, can the two statements concerning the Dharma of cultivating the cause be taken as referring to the attainment of the fruit?

Next is [Master] Guangzhai’s explanation, which holds that the first statement contains the meanings of “opening entry” and “opening forth.” [“Opening entry” means that] previously, expedient means were used to expound the three vehicles so as to [help sentient beings] eliminate the five defilements. [“Opening forth” means] opening and showing the teaching of Great Vehicle awakening, [helping sentient beings] clearly understand the principle.

Although the Buddha had previously [provisionally] opened and expounded this teaching for sentient beings, he did not clearly state its reason. Now he further shows how comparison of these teachings gives rise to the wisdom of hearing. Although they hear and know, they have not yet awakened to and understood the reason; therefore, [the Buddha] subsequently distinguishes and expounds it extensively to open up the wisdom of reflection.

Once they possess sufficient faith and have received and understood the meaning, [the Buddha] causes them to bring forth the resolve to train in the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, enabling them to attain the wisdom of cultivation and enter the principle—the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

This explanation is likewise not adopted here. Since this thesis argues, as did the preceding one, that this passage concerns the “oneness of the fruit,” ^[62] all four statements [in the passage] should accordingly be understood in terms of the fruit. Why, then, is the meaning of the three wisdoms ^[63] used to explain the scriptural text? In that case, cause and fruit contradict one another, and what precedes conflicts with what follows.

Moreover, the three wisdoms are of many different kinds. This sutra specifically refutes the Two Vehicles, so the three wisdoms of the Tripitaka Teaching certainly cannot be applied. The expedient means of bodhisattvas are also shared with the Two Vehicles; all belong to the meaning of the Shared Teaching and likewise cannot be applied.

If these are the three wisdoms of the Distinct Teaching, they are the Dharma of bodhisattvas, not the Dharma of the Buddha. If they are taken as the three wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching, then the three wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching have not yet opened the Buddha’s knowledge and vision and cannot clearly explain the meaning of the sutra. If they are the three wisdoms of other schools, they are even further removed from the meaning. [Furthermore,] if they are taken as the three wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching, the meaning of the “oneness of the fruit” cannot be established. [Therefore,] none [of the meanings above] can be adopted.

This is the general outline.

Next, the masters of the Dilun school ^[64] said: “Those [who had previously brought forth the resolve for bodhi before Buddhas as numerous as] the sands of five Ganges Rivers [were thereby able] to understand eight parts out of the sixteen parts of meaning [in the Great Vehicle scriptures]. ^[65] That is, the stage of the thirty minds [before entering the first bhumi] ^[66] is regarded as ‘opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].’ From the first through the sixth bhumi, they completely eliminate the delusions of views and thought, and their understanding becomes increasingly luminous and clear; this is ‘showing [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].’ From the seventh through the eighth bhumi, they contemplate both the emptiness and existence of all dharmas without obstruction;

this is ‘awakening to [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].’ Reaching the tenth bhumi is regarded as ‘entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.’” [These masters further] cite a sutra stating that the tenth bhumi is called seeing with the eye. [This thesis] is likewise not adopted here.

Why is this so? This [Lotus] Sutra clearly expounds the opening of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. The Buddha knows through wisdom of all modes and sees through the Buddha-eye. [Therefore,] only opening [the wisdom of all modes] and the [Buddha-]eye is called the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

How can those [who had brought forth the resolve before Buddhas as numerous as] the sands of five Ganges Rivers, who understood merely eight parts [out of the sixteen parts of meaning in the Great Vehicle scriptures] and had not yet even entered the first bhumi, be said to have opened [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]? What is opened according to this thesis is not the opening of the Buddha-eye, and what is known according to this thesis is not what is known by the wisdom of all modes.

Because it does not accord with [the meaning of] this sutra, it is not adopted. This is the general outline.

Someone explains that the first statement sets forth the principle, while the following three statements briefly explain it. [This thesis holds that] the eight sufferings and five defilements obstruct the present fruit and are therefore called a “closing.” This [Lotus] teaching now eliminates the five defilements and causes the knowledge and vision of the Buddha-fruit to be revealed; therefore, it is called opening. When defilement is eliminated and the true principle is revealed, this is called purity. The following three statements concern the [three wisdoms of] hearing, reflection, and cultivation. The refutation of this thesis is the same as that of the preceding thesis.

Someone says that the Distinct Teaching within the three vehicles is “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision],” while the Shared Teaching within the three vehicles is “showing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” Pointing out the limitations [of the Two Vehicles] and extolling [the bodhisattvas] ^[67] is “awakening to [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].” [When the Buddha expounds] the Lotus Sutra, this is “entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.”

Another explains that the Shared Teaching within the three vehicles is “opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”; pointing out the limitations [of the Two Vehicles] and extolling [the bodhisattvas] is “showing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”; [the Buddha’s exposition of] the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings is “awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”; and [his exposition of] the Lotus Sutra is “entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.”

These two explanations sever three statements and direct them toward other sutras, while cutting out a single statement and assigning it to the Lotus Sutra. By mutilating and distorting [the meaning of the scriptural text], thereby causing harm and deceiving [later generations], their fault is truly exceedingly grave.

Some say: Attaining the stage of the thirty minds is “opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” From the first bhumi through the sixth bhumi is “revealing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” From the seventh bhumi through the ninth bhumi is “awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” Ascending to the tenth bhumi is “entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” This person relies upon the Shared Teaching but conflates it with the Separate Teaching, and thus speaks in this way. He has not perceived the extraordinary uniqueness of the Lotus Sutra; how could it still need such praise?

Some cite the Avatamsaka Sutra, the [Bodhisattva] Necklace Sutra, the Humane Kings Sutra, fascicle 17 of the Compendium of the Mahayana, and fascicle 5 of the Treatise on the Sutra of the [Ten] Bhumis, saying that all ordinary beings fully possess the fifty-two stages; therefore, before entering the first of the Ten Bhumis, there are forty minds—why are they not mentioned? This person cites the Avatamsaka Sutra incorrectly, for the Avatamsaka Sutra does not teach the Ten Faiths.

Moreover, even if these sutras all clearly state that the forty stages of mind are complete before one reaches the Ten Bhumis, they are still not the ultimate point of the Path. Why, then, use those forty minds to explain the opening of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision? [Thus,] these are all rambling and erroneous explanations.

Some cite the [Commentary on the Lotus Sutra] as explaining that the four wisdoms ^[68], both general and particular, are attained simultaneously. This argument should not be used to explain [the meaning of] “opening, revealing, awakening, and entering,” for opening, revealing, awakening, and entering appear to have differing degrees of depth and shallowness. Furthermore, the four wisdoms belong to lofty stages, whereas [the meanings of] opening and revealing extend from the shallow to the profound; they should not be compared. This person sees only where the [Commentary on the Lotus Sutra] speaks of the simultaneous attainment of the four wisdoms, but does not see the simultaneity of “opening and revealing” [in the Lotus Sutra].

Some explain: Neither empty nor existent is “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; capable of being empty and capable of being existent is “revealing [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; [seeing that] emptiness and existence are not two and are not different is “awakening to [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; and clearly knowing that emptiness and existence, though not different, are different is “entering [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].” This person relies upon the Two Truths ^[69] for the explanation, yet this still does not transcend the stage of the Two Vehicles, much less accord with the meaning of the Lotus Sutra.

Some say: Attaining the principle of the Three Truths ^[70] is “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; clearly distinguishing the Three Truths is “revealing [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; not seeing the Three Truths as either identical or different is “awakening to [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision]”; and following causes and conditions while proceeding with the current of the Noble Path is “entering [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].” This person understands the meaning by relying upon the periphery of the Three Truths, yet this still does not transcend the Dharma of bodhisattvas, much less reach the Dharma of the Buddha.

Some explain: Regarding the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, the general aspect of knowledge of all things is “knowledge,” while the particular aspect of knowledge of all things is “vision.” This too is incorrect. The [Commentary on the Lotus Sutra] clearly states that knowledge of all things is the wisdom of the sravakas, knowledge of the varieties of the Path is the wisdom of bodhisattvas, and knowledge of all modes is the wisdom of the Buddha. This argument singles out knowledge of all modes rather than treating the three wisdoms as present together in one mind. How could one separate the understanding of the Two Vehicles from the Buddha’s knowledge and vision and use it to explain the Buddha’s ultimately perfect and complete knowledge and vision?

Still others explain: When the knowledge of exhaustion ^[71] arises and all afflictions become purified, this is called “knowledge”; when the knowledge of non-arising ^[72] is realized and all the causes and effects of suffering and bondage ultimately cease to arise, this is called “vision.” This person uses the doctrine concerning the designation “Buddha” in the Shared Teaching to explain the ultimate meaning of the Buddha; none of this is appropriate.

As shown above, these masters have labored in vain to cite all manner of passages from the scriptures, [yet] none of them has perceived the principal meaning of the Lotus Sutra.

The Treatise on the [Profound Meaning of the] Lotus Sutra explains [these four scriptural statements] as follows: ^[73] First is the meaning of unsurpassedness: apart from knowledge of all modes, there is nothing else whatsoever. As the scripture says, the Buddhas appear in the world to open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision because they wish to enable sentient beings to attain purity. Second is identity: [all] sravakas and pratyekabuddhas are equal and identical with respect to the Dharma-body and Buddha-nature.

As the scripture says, the Buddhas appear in the world because they wish to reveal the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to sentient beings, for [sentient beings’] Dharma-body and Buddha-nature are ultimately [equal and identical], without distinction. Third is the meaning of not knowing: the Two Vehicles do not know that, in the ultimate and final sense, there is only the single Buddha Vehicle. As the scripture says, the Buddhas appear in the world because they wish [sentient beings] to awaken to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

Fourth, the Buddhas manifest because they wish to enable [sentient beings] to realize the stage of non-retrogression, [revealing to them] the innumerable activities of wisdom. As the scripture says, they wish to enable sentient beings to enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

This treatise explains [the four scriptural statements] sequentially. First, opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision (opening) means unsurpassedness. Next, revealing (revealing) shows that all three vehicles equally possess the Dharma-body and Buddha-nature.

Although [sentient beings] have come to understand that the Buddha’s wisdom is unsurpassed, they may fear that [this wisdom] is possessed by the Buddha alone; therefore, the following section clarifies that all three vehicles possess it. Although all three vehicles inherently possess [the Buddha’s wisdom], those of the Two Vehicles do not know this; therefore, [the Buddha must] reveal it so that they clearly understand and awaken to it (awakening).

Although they have clearly understood [that they possess the Buddha’s wisdom], they have not yet attained the stage of non-retrogression. Therefore, the fourth [statement means] enabling them to attain the stage of non-retrogression (entering).

Second, it discusses [the meaning for] bodhisattvas. [The meaning of] opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision] (opening) is the same as explained above. The meaning of revealing is that bodhisattvas still harbor doubts, so [the Buddha] reveals (revealing) it to them, enabling them to understand clearly and accordingly practice in conformity with reality. The meaning of understanding and awakening (awakening) is that those who have not yet generated the aspiration for bodhi are immediately caused to generate it. The meaning of entering (entering) is that those who have already generated the aspiration for bodhi are immediately enabled to enter the true Dharma.

Third, it discusses [the meaning for] ordinary beings. [The meaning of] opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision] (opening) is the same as explained above. The meaning of revealing (revealing) is to reveal that [ordinary beings also inherently] possess the Dharma-body and Buddha-nature. The meaning of understanding and awakening (awakening) is to enable followers of non-Buddhist paths and sentient beings alike to understand and awaken. The meaning of entering (entering) is to enable them to enter great bodhi.

The masters of the present day offer four interpretations, which likewise do not contradict the treatise. The treatise explains each statement individually, whereas now four interpretations are given for each statement. The treatise clarifies the realization of the stage of non-retrogression; this is now explained in terms of four stages. The treatise clarifies that one knows the Tathagata can realize the true meaning; this is now explained as the four wisdoms. The treatise sets forth the meaning of identity [and equality]; this is now explained in terms of contemplation of the mind. The treatise sets forth the failure to understand the ultimate point; this is now explained as the four gates. Such is the general outline.

Now, to explain the immeasurable dharmas and reveal that in truth they are all “one”: the ten subtleties set forth in the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra are precisely the ten aspects of oneness. Therefore, following the former commentators, we may provisionally regard them as four kinds of oneness. If there are immeasurable aspects of oneness, then every single form and every single fragrance is itself the Middle Way. This meaning can readily be understood.

If the ten aspects of oneness are set forth, they are all fully present in the scriptural text. Although they do not occur in order, the ten meanings are complete and none is lacking. [The scripture says:] “Why is this? I employ countless skillful means, various causes and conditions, parables, and expressions to expound the dharmas.” This passage of scripture [speaks of provisionally] establishing the expedient provisional vehicles.

Beginning with the words, “That Dharma cannot be understood through deliberation and discrimination,” it reveals “the oneness of principle.” The words, “Only the Buddhas are fully capable of comprehending it,” reveal “the oneness of wisdom.” The phrase, “solely because of one great matter,” must be carefully distinguished: “one” is principle, “great” is wisdom, and “matter” is practice. From principle, wisdom arises; through wisdom, practice is guided.

Considered according to this meaning, this passage is understood as revealing “the oneness of practice.” As for the meaning of knowledge and vision: wisdom that clearly understands principle is knowledge, while the eye that clearly sees the true Dharma is vision. Clearly realizing the unconditioned true Dharma means that there is no further discrimination; yet, from the unconditioned, distinctions arise. Based on this meaning of knowledge and vision, “opening, revealing, awakening, and entering” are explained.

Expanding upon what is stated in brief, there must be forty stages. This reveals “the oneness of stages.”

Moreover, the concluding portion of the four phrases [may be] used to clarify the meaning of “oneness.” [The scripture speaks of] “one,” which is the Dharma body; “great,” which is prajna; and “matter,” which is liberation. This secret treasury reveals “the oneness of the three dharmas.” “Appearing in the world” reveals “the oneness of stimulus and response.” “Teaching and transforming only bodhisattvas” reveals “the oneness of the retinue.” “Everything that is done” reveals “the oneness of spiritual powers.” “The sole purpose is to reveal and open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision so that sentient beings may awaken to them,” reveals “the oneness of benefit.” “Only by means of the One Buddha Vehicle does he expound the Dharma to sentient beings,” reveals “the oneness of Dharma teaching.”

^[74]

[Thus,] the scriptural text corresponds perfectly and lends credence to the meaning of the [ten aspects of oneness] explained above. ^[75] If, for brevity, we follow the former commentators, we speak of the four aspects of oneness. Although the number of categories remains the same, the meanings [in the past and at present] differ.

The former commentators spoke of “the oneness of the fruit” (果一), whereas we now speak of “the oneness of principle” (理一), in accordance with both the meaning and the wording of the scripture. In accordance with the scripture’s meaning, if there were no “oneness of principle,” everything [that was said] would be inverted and would necessarily be the teaching of Mara rather than a Buddhist scripture. Therefore, there must be “the oneness of principle.” In accordance with the scripture’s wording, the scripture speaks of “the Buddha’s knowledge and vision,” which we now understand as that which each person personally sees and knows.

That which is seen is precisely the truth, while that which is known is the external object. The true object is the principle of the true aspect; therefore, it is called “the oneness of principle.”

The former commentators spoke of “the oneness of the cause” (因一), whereas we now speak of “the oneness of practice” (行一). The word “cause” (因) has various meanings, while the expression “oneness of practice” is comprehensive and encompasses [the meanings of] both cause and fruit. Therefore, it is called “the oneness of practice.”

Regarding “the oneness of persons” (人一) and “the oneness of the teaching” (教一), the former commentators and present-day interpreters understand and employ the terms in the same way.

For now, following the concise explanation, we shall use the “four aspects of oneness” [described above] to interpret the scriptural text.

First, the “oneness of principle” is explained under four headings. The first is explanation according to the “four stages,” the second according to the “four wisdoms,” the third according to the “four gates,” and the fourth according to “contemplation of the mind.”

Explanation According to the Four Stages

First is the explanation according to the “four stages.” The true object cannot be seen or known except through the eye of wisdom. The four kinds of eyes ^[76] and the two wisdoms [provisional and true] are all unable to see and know it. Only the Buddha-eye and the wisdom of all modes can see and know [the truth].

The scriptural text says: “Desiring to enable sentient beings to open the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.” [This means that] it is not speaking of the fruit of Buddhahood; [even sentient beings can] personally see and know. If one speaks exclusively from the standpoint of the fruit of Buddhahood, sentient beings are left out; if one speaks only of sentient beings, there is no Buddha’s knowledge and vision. Therefore, one cannot cling one-sidedly to either position.

Practitioners belonging to the Tripitaka, Shared, and Distinct Teachings are merely sentient beings and do not yet possess the Buddha-eye or Buddha-wisdom; thus, they cannot see or know the true aspect. Those in the four stages ^[77] of the Perfect Teaching are likewise still sentient beings. Furthermore, upon attaining a portion of the Buddha-eye and Buddha-wisdom, the meaning of sentient being is established, and the meaning of knowledge and vision is also established.

Therefore, the “oneness of principle” is explained according to these four stages.

Likewise, the auspicious sign of the heavens raining down four kinds of flowers represents the return of all auspicious qualities to [the attainment of] the four stages. Relying on these flowers—the four stages—one advances toward the fruit, the stage of Buddhahood. Therefore, the four stages are used to reveal and clarify the principle.

[As for the meaning of] “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision],” it refers specifically to those at the Ten Abodes, who first break through ignorance, open the Tathagata-garbha, and see the principle of the true aspect. But why is the intrinsic virtue of the true principle tainted by [the delusions of views and thought of] the Shared Teaching and [the delusion of ignorance of] the Distinct Teaching? This is difficult to understand clearly.

Those at the initial level of aspiration can perfect their faith (perfect faith), fully receive the teachings (perfect reception), and completely subdue delusion (perfect subjugation); but because they have not yet eliminated [delusive defilements], this is not called “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].” Internally, they intensify the practice of contemplation; externally, they are further aided by the rain of Dharma.

They thereby break through the latent delusions of views and thought and the delusion of ignorance, revealing the true nature cultivated through practice. Their knowledge and vision become radiant, open, revealed, and increasingly developed, just as darkness vanishes when the sun rises and the eye can see clearly. Therefore, this is called “opening [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].”

Because delusion is eliminated through cultivation, it is called purification. The Benevolent Kings Sutra ^[78] says: “Entering the principle of prajna is called abiding.” Abiding in the Ten Abodes is the stage [symbolized by] small white flowers. ^[79]

[As for the meaning of] “revealing [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision],” it means that once the obstructing delusions have been eliminated, the true essence of knowledge and vision immediately becomes manifest. This essence is endowed with the myriad virtues. All the intrinsic virtues of the Dharma realm are revealed, differentiated, and made perfectly clear; therefore, this is called “revealing.” This is precisely the Ten Practices, the stage [symbolized by] large white flowers. ^[80]

[As for the meaning of] “awakening to [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision],” it means that once the obstructing delusions have been eliminated and the true essence has become manifest, the myriad practices of the Dharma realm are all clearly revealed, and phenomena and principle interpenetrate without obstruction. Ultimately, there is only one path [leading directly to the fruit of Buddhahood]. The teachers who expound the Compendium of the Great Vehicle say: “Wisdom in accordance with principle and wisdom in accordance with measured extent.” Now, [upon reaching the point where] principle and measure are no longer differentiated, it is called awakening. This is precisely the Ten Dedications of Merit, the stage [symbolized by] small red flowers. ^[81]

[As for the meaning of] “entering [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision],” this means that when phenomena and principle have perfectly interpenetrated, one attains unhindered freedom, accords with causes and conditions, and freely follows the current [of the noble path], proceeding from the initial arousal of the aspiration to the stage of Wondrous Enlightenment, ^[82] and entering the ocean of omniscience. ^[83] As the Mahayana-samgraha says: “In accordance with principle and in accordance with measure, one penetrates without obstruction.” ^[84] Knowledge and vision in accordance with measure can uphold the myriad virtues inherent in the nature, while knowledge and vision in accordance with principle can prevent delusion.

This is precisely the Ten Grounds, the stage [symbolized by] the great red lotus. ^[85]

Nevertheless, in the wondrous stage of the perfect path, a single stage already contains in full the merits and virtues of all forty-one stages. The single Dharma of “opening” alone fully includes “revealing, awakening, and entering”; they are equal and identical, and ultimately do not arise from any other mind. There is only knowledge and vision in accordance with reality, without distinctions of shallow or profound. [It is only] in order to reveal knowledge and vision in accordance with measure that it is [provisionally] distinguished into four stages. [In truth,] the mind at the initial arousal of aspiration and the mind at [the attainment of] the ultimate are not at all different.

Yet of these two minds, the mind at the initial arousal of aspiration [is regarded] as difficult. Once difficulty and ease are discussed, it is understood that there is an initial mind and an ultimately accomplished mind; hence instructions and reminders must distinguish between the profound and the shallow. This is like the moon, which is always full from beginning to end, though there is a difference between its appearance on the first day of the month and at midmonth.

The knowledge and vision of all four stages clearly illuminate the true aspect, yet because opening, entering, and so forth are expounded, distinctions arise. Such is the general meaning.

Explanation According to the Four Wisdoms

Second is [the explanation] based on the four wisdoms. Here [this treatise] will use the four wisdoms of the Perfect Teaching to correspond to the four stages, unlike the explanation of the Shared Teaching within the [teaching of] Prajnaparamita.

The first [wisdom] is Wisdom of the Path, which perceives the true nature of the path. From within that true nature, the Buddha’s knowledge and vision are opened; [this is the meaning of “opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”].

The second [wisdom] is Wisdom of the Varieties of the Path, which clearly knows the differing characteristics of understanding and delusion regarding the path within the ten Dharma realms. Each such [clear knowing] reveals the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; [this is the meaning of “revealing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”].

The third [wisdom] is Wisdom of All Things, which clearly knows that all dharmas share the single characteristic of quiescent cessation. Quiescent cessation itself is the comprehension of the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; [this is the meaning of “awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”].

The fourth [wisdom] is Wisdom of All Modes, which clearly knows that all dharmas share the single characteristic of quiescent cessation and also clearly comprehends every characteristic and appearance of all practices. This is to enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; [this is the meaning of “entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision”].

Furthermore, because Wisdom of the Path [knows] in accordance with principle, it is called “opening.” Because Wisdom of the Varieties of the Path accords with measure, it is called “revealing.” Because Wisdom of All Things does not distinguish principle and measure as two, it is called “awakening.” Because Wisdom of All Modes illuminates both principle and measure, it is called “entering.”

This is to say that, according to truth, there is originally neither profound nor shallow, yet distinctions of profound and shallow are made.

Explanation According to the Four Gates

Third is [the explanation based on] the four gates ^[86] of the Perfect Teaching. In general, there are four cases. With respect to the Dharma gate of emptiness, when one dharma is empty, all dharmas are empty; this is the meaning of opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

With respect to the Dharma gate of existence, when one dharma exists, all dharmas exist; this is the meaning of revealing the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. With respect to the Dharma gate of both emptiness and existence, all dharmas are both empty and existent; this is the meaning of awakening to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. With respect to the Dharma gate of neither emptiness nor existence, all dharmas are neither empty nor existent; this is the meaning of entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

The observing subject penetrates by way of four, while the observed object is only one. [Thus,] opening, revealing, awakening, and entering are the gateways through which contemplation penetrates; what is known and what is seen constitute the principle of the observed object.

Explanation According to Contemplation of the Mind

Fourth is [the explanation] according to contemplation of the mind. When contemplating the nature of mind, the principle of the Three Truths ^[87] is inconceivable. Because this contemplation is luminous and pure, it is called “opening.” Although it is inconceivable, emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle Truth can nevertheless be clearly distinguished.

Because they are luminously clear and unobstructed, this is called “revealing.” The minds of emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle, though three, are one, and though one, are three; this is called “awakening.” The minds of emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle are neither emptiness, conventionality, nor the Middle, yet they simultaneously illuminate emptiness, conventionality, and the Middle; this is called “entering.” These are called the three contemplations within one [and the same] mind, though they are divided into the distinct aspects of opening, revealing, awakening, and entering.

The reason for employing the four modes of explanation [above] is that the true principle is perceived through realization of the stages; the stages are established through the arising of wisdom; wisdom arises through Dharma gates; and Dharma gates are penetrated through contemplation. [Thus,] where there is contemplation, the Dharma gates will necessarily be penetrated; because the Dharma gates are penetrated, wisdom is perfected; because wisdom is perfected, the stages are established; because the stages are established, the true principle is perceived; and because the true principle is perceived, it is called “the one principle.”

SUTRA TEXT

Sariputra, the Buddhas appear in the world solely because of the causes and conditions of one great matter.

From the words, “Sariputra, the Buddhas appear solely because of one great matter...” onward, the meaning of “the one principle” is concluded. Previously, [the Buddha] taught by skillful means and also discussed the meaning of “opening, revealing, awakening, and entering,” but this was not the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; therefore, it is called provisional. Now, [in teaching the Lotus Dharma,] he elucidates the Buddha’s knowledge and vision, and therefore it is real. This reality is precisely “the one principle.”

SUTRA TEXT

The Buddha said to Sariputra: “The Buddhas, the Tathagatas, teach and transform only bodhisattvas. Everything they do is always for the single purpose of revealing and opening the Buddha’s knowledge and vision so that sentient beings may awaken to it. Sariputra! The Tathagata expounds the Dharma to sentient beings solely by means of the One Buddha Vehicle; there are no other vehicles, such as the Two Vehicles or the Three Vehicles.

Beginning with the words, “The Buddha said to Sariputra: The Buddhas, the Tathagatas, teach and transform only bodhisattvas...” is the exposition of the meaning of “the one person” (人一). Generally speaking, the Buddha previously used skillful means to say that he taught and transformed [people of] the Three Vehicles, but according to the truth, he taught and transformed only bodhisattvas. It is like the destitute, wandering son who considered himself a lowly outsider, although in the eyes of the elder he was truly his own son. This is the meaning of “the one person.”

Regarding the words, “Everything they do is always for the single purpose,” Master Guangzhai called this “the one teaching,” whereas here it is called “the one practice.” All the practices of the Three Vehicles are therefore called “everything”; moreover, because they are complete, they are called “everything”—that is, [everything is directed toward] a single purpose. Toward what are all these practices directed? They are directed solely toward the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; this is the meaning of “the one practice.” This may also be understood as “the one teaching” if teaching is taken as the primary meaning: everything [the Buddha] does is for the sake of teaching and transformation.

Thus, to call it “the one teaching” is also appropriate. But if the meaning is understood in terms of what a person does, then each individual act is a practice. Here the latter appropriate meaning is adopted, and it is therefore called “the one practice.”

Nevertheless, all four statements have two meanings. Regarding “the one principle,” if considered in terms of the subject that sees and knows, the meaning of “the one wisdom” is appropriate; but if considered in terms of the object that is seen and known, the meaning of “the one principle” is appropriate. Regarding “the one person,” if spoken of in terms of teaching and transforming, the meaning of “the one teaching” is appropriate; but from the standpoint of the bodhisattvas, the meaning of “the one person” is appropriate.

Again, regarding “the one teaching,” if understood in the sense that the one Buddha Vehicle is used to expound the Dharma for sentient beings, the meaning of “the one teaching” is appropriate; but if understood in the sense that a vehicle is that which conveys one forward, the meaning of “the one practice” is appropriate. The meanings of all four statements interpenetrate; it is merely a matter of selecting the appropriate meaning for explanation.

Beginning with the words “using only the one Buddha Vehicle,” Master Guangzhai takes this as “the one person,” whereas we now call it “the one teaching.” The complete and direct teaching is called the Buddha Vehicle. Thus, in the Introductory Chapter, the words “expounding the Mahayana sutra” refer to the meaning of the teaching. From the Separate Teaching onward, all [teachings expounded] are called teachings with remainder; that is, they are not ultimate in meaning and are not the Buddha’s One Vehicle.

Master Guangzhai explains: “When [the sutra says] there is no second [vehicle], it refers to the Pratyekabuddha and Sravaka Vehicles; when it says there is no third [vehicle], it refers to bodhisattvas whose practices are one-sided.”

Someone else says: “The absence of the Bodhisattva and Pratyekabuddha Vehicles means that there is no second vehicle, while the absence of the Sravaka Vehicle means that there is no third vehicle.” If explained in this way, it means only that the vehicles of the Tripitaka Teaching do not exist, while the vehicles of the Shared Teaching still remain. What connection would this have with the one Buddha Vehicle?

Someone says: “The absence of the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle means that there is no second vehicle, while the absence of the Sravaka Vehicle means that there is no third vehicle; nevertheless, the Bodhisattva Mahayana still exists.” If so, this merely means that within the Tripitaka Teaching the two vehicles do not exist, but it does not deny the Bodhisattva Vehicle. Thus, there would still be a remainder. What connection would this have with the Buddha Vehicle? [Moreover,] where in the sutras or treatises is the Sravaka Vehicle ever called the third vehicle? Since no such statement exists, all that has been said above is inconsistent from beginning to end.

Again, if one follows the explanation that the absence of a second vehicle means the absence of the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle, and the absence of a third vehicle means the absence of the Bodhisattva Vehicle, then the Sravaka Vehicle would be the first and therefore would not be absent. If so, the interpretation is utterly inverted and confused.

We now [hold that the sutra’s] words “using only the one Buddha Vehicle” refer entirely to the Buddha Dharma of the Perfect Teaching Vehicle. Apart from this, “there is no other vehicle”; there is no provisional teaching with remainder belonging to the Separate Teaching. The absence of a second vehicle means that there are none of the two vehicles taught during the Prajnaparamita period. The absence of a third vehicle means that there are none of the three vehicles taught during the Vaipulya period. If even these two and three vehicles do not exist, how much less the three vehicles of the Tripitaka Teaching?

SUTRA TEXT

Sariputra! The Dharma of all Buddhas throughout the ten directions is likewise. Sariputra! The Buddhas of the past employed immeasurable and innumerable skillful means, various causes and conditions, parables, and expressions to expound the various teachings for sentient beings; all those teachings were for the sake of the one Buddha Vehicle. The sentient beings who heard the Dharma from the Buddhas all ultimately attained wisdom of all modes.

Beginning with the words “Sariputra! The Dharma of all Buddhas throughout the ten directions is likewise” is the fifth section, the general conclusion. This section states that the Buddhas of the three times all make clear the one teaching and the one practice, and afterward gives a general discussion of the one person and the one principle. It would also be permissible for this passage itself to set forth the meanings of the “four kinds of oneness,” but it is not as clear as the general concluding passage.

Fascicle 13 of the Bodhisattva Jewel Necklace Sutra ^[88] speaks of Buddhas of nine times. [That is,] there are three times among the Buddhas of the past, [and] the present and future likewise [each have three times].

The three times of the Buddhas of the future comprise the past of the future, the present of the future, and the future of the future. [The Buddhas of] the past of the future are ancient Buddhas [of the past] who, out of compassion, enter the future and manifest in various forms to transform sentient beings. [The Buddhas of] the present of the future are those now present who have received predictions that they will later [attain Buddhahood]. [The Buddhas of] the future of the future are those who successively receive predictions from the present Buddha that they [will attain Buddhahood in] future lives.

The [three times of the Buddhas] of the past may be understood by analogy with this. Such is the general outline.

[The three times of the Buddhas of the present comprise] the Buddhas of the present, who are the Buddhas presently teaching and transforming; [the Buddhas of] the future of the present, who are those in the position of [one lifetime away from Buddhahood] and will next [attain Buddhahood]; and [the Buddhas of] the past of the present, who are ancient Buddhas [of the past] that, out of compassion [for sentient beings, manifest] traces [in the present].

Beginning with the words “the Buddhas of the past,” this section should be understood as encompassing all six meanings, [although here] only two [meanings] are set forth. The first is the elimination of skillful means; the second is the revelation of the truth. Two [sentences] indicate the former meaning, and two sentences indicate the latter.

The words “employed immeasurable and innumerable skillful means” express the meaning of provisionally establishing the expedient vehicles. The words “all those teachings were for the sake of the one Buddha Vehicle” reveal the truth. According to the explanation given above, “the one Buddha Vehicle” is “the one teaching.”

Although the words “heard the Dharma from the Buddhas” speak only of hearing the Dharma, they imply sentient beings [as those who hear], and therefore convey the meaning of “the one person.”

In the words “all ultimately attained wisdom of all modes,” [considered in terms of] the object comprehended by that wisdom, it is “the one principle”; considered in terms of the subject that comprehends, it is “the one practice.” Although these do not occur in their proper sequence, [this section] nevertheless contains all “four kinds of oneness.”

SUTRA TEXT

“Sariputra! The Buddhas who will appear in the world in the future will likewise employ immeasurable and innumerable skillful means, various causes and conditions, parables, and expressions to expound the various teachings for sentient beings; all those teachings will be for the sake of the one Buddha Vehicle. The sentient beings who hear the Dharma from the Buddhas will all ultimately attain wisdom of all modes.

“Sariputra! The present Buddhas, the World-Honored Ones, in immeasurable hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of Buddha lands, bring abundant benefit, peace, and happiness to sentient beings. These Buddhas likewise employ immeasurable and innumerable skillful means, various causes and conditions, parables, and expressions to expound the various teachings for sentient beings; all those teachings are for the sake of the one Buddha Vehicle. The sentient beings who hear the Dharma from the Buddhas all ultimately attain wisdom of all modes.

“Sariputra! [All] these Buddhas also teach and transform only bodhisattvas. They wish to reveal the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to sentient beings; they wish to awaken sentient beings to the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; and they wish to enable sentient beings to enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.”

Beginning with the passage concerning “the Buddhas of the future,” there are again two meanings; when the meanings of the preceding and following passages are considered together, all six meanings are present. Such is the general outline.

The section concerning the present Buddhas specifically refers to the Buddhas who are presently teaching and transforming. First, it explains the meaning of a Buddha’s appearance in the world. As in the section concerning the Buddhas, [the sutra says,] “They appear in the world solely because of the one great cause and condition.” This likewise means that [the Buddhas] appear in the world solely to bring benefit, peace, and happiness to sentient beings.

Next comes the meaning of eliminating the Dharma of the expedient vehicles; following that is the revelation of the true Dharma. It likewise fully encompasses the meaning of the “four kinds of oneness.” ^[89]

SECTION TWO

SUTRA TEXT

“Shariputra! I too am now like this. Knowing clearly that sentient beings have all manner of desires and that their minds are deeply attached, I teach the Dharma in accordance with their inherent natures, using all manner of causes and conditions, parables, expressions, and the power of skillful means. Shariputra, all this is done to enable sentient beings to attain the one Buddha Vehicle and acquire the wisdom of all modes.

Shariputra! Throughout the worlds of the ten directions, there are originally no two vehicles, much less three. Shariputra, the Buddhas appear in an evil age afflicted by the five turbidities: the turbidity of the kalpa, the turbidity of afflictions, the turbidity of sentient beings, the turbidity of views, and the turbidity of lifespan. Thus, Shariputra, in the disorder of the turbid kalpa, sentient beings are heavily defiled, filled with greed and jealousy, and create the roots of unwholesomeness. Therefore, through the power of skillful means, the Buddhas distinguish and teach three vehicles within the one Buddha Vehicle.”

This section extensively explains [the meaning of the provisional and the true in relation to] Shakyamuni Buddha. Of the six meanings ^[90], this section does not include the meaning of “praising the True Dharma as rare.”

First, the provisional vehicles are set aside; second, the truth is revealed; third, the five turbidities are presented to explain the meaning of skillful means; fourth, falsehood is excluded and faith in the sole truth is strengthened; and fifth, [it is established that the Buddha’s words] are not false. ^[91]

[The sutra says,] “I too am now like this.” Here, “I” refers to Shakyamuni Buddha. At present, he first presents the three vehicles and afterward says that there is only one. This is likewise no different from the four preceding rounds of exposition concerning the Buddhas; hence it is said, “I too am like this.”

[The sutra says,] “Knowing clearly that sentient beings have all manner of desires.” This refers to the faculties, natures, and desires of sentient beings within the five vehicles. ^[92] [Habitual tendencies from] the past are called the [desire] faculty; [those arising in] the present are called longings and desires; and [those latent until] the future are called the [desire] nature. Because [desire] is attached deep within the mind, it is called the [desire] faculty.

[The sutra says,] “skillful means,” meaning that, in accordance with what is appropriate, the three vehicles are expediently disclosed. The sutra says, “All this is done to enable sentient beings to attain the one Buddha Vehicle and acquire the wisdom of all modes.” This reveals the truth.

The Buddha Vehicle is the meaning of “the one teaching”; the wisdom of all [modes] is “the one practice”; and the principle known by the wisdom of modes is “the one principle.”

From the passage, “Throughout the worlds of the ten directions, there are originally no two vehicles, much less three,” [onward] is the third point: the five turbidities are presented to explain the setting aside of the provisional vehicles [mentioned above]. Since the turbidities are about to be presented, the intent [to set aside the provisional vehicles] is first clarified.

The preceding section explained that the Buddhas set aside the provisional vehicles and reveal the true [vehicle], but it did not yet clearly explain how [they had previously provisionally] concealed the truth and employed expedient measures. That [true] Dharma is pure and quiescent, homogeneous like empty space. Originally, there were no two or three associated provisional [vehicles]; how much less could there be three or five separately established provisional vehicles?

It was only because the five turbidities formed grievous obstructions that this true Dharma could not be proclaimed. It was therefore necessary to disclose five or three separately established provisional vehicles and also to disclose two or three associated provisional vehicles. ^[93] Thus, it is said that, from the single Buddha Vehicle, distinctions were made and three [vehicles] taught. Within this differentiated teaching, three vehicles are sometimes described as accompanied by the Two Vehicles or the three vehicles, and sometimes three vehicles are described as separately divided into the five vehicles or the three vehicles.

PART THREE

In discussing the five turbidities, this section contains four distinct points. First, their number is stated; second, their names are enumerated; third, their essential natures and characteristics are presented; and fourth, they are explained and summarized.

The statement of the number and the enumeration of the names [of the five turbidities] are [already clear] from the sutra text. [The sutra’s words] “thus” [introduce the successive] presentation of the essential natures and characteristics [of the five turbidities].

The turbidity of the kalpa has no distinct essential nature of its own. A kalpa is [a unit] denoting a very long period of time, while a kshana is [a unit] denoting a very brief period. This provisional designation is established on the basis of the other four turbidities. The sutra’s words, “in the disorder of the turbid kalpa,” express this meaning.

The turbidity of sentient beings likewise has no distinct essential nature of its own. This provisional designation is established on the basis of the [turbid] retributions of all erroneous views and arrogance. The sutra’s words, “sentient beings are heavily defiled,” express this meaning.

The turbidity of afflictions refers to the five dull agents, ^[94] which constitute its essential nature. The turbidity of views refers to the five sharp agents, ^[95] which constitute its essential nature. The turbidity of lifespan refers to [the state in which sentient beings] continuously sustain physical form [the body] and consciousness without interruption; this constitutes its essential nature. Such is the meaning in brief.

As for their characteristics, [the sutra describes] the time when the four turbidities greatly increase and accumulate together. When anger increases excessively, the calamity of warfare arises. When greed and desire increase excessively, the calamity of famine arises.

When delusion increases excessively, the calamity of epidemics arises. When these three calamities arise, the afflictions multiply all the more, and erroneous views develop with extraordinary force. Because the physical forms and consciousnesses [of sentient beings become] coarse and evil, this is called turbidity.

As the lifespans [of sentient beings] diminish, the turbidities gather ever more densely, like dark and obscure torrents rushing swiftly, with winds and waves surging violently, while fish and dragons drift about without the slightest security—all transformed in this way by the time [of the kalpa’s end]. It is like the beginning of a kalpa, when [devas] from the Heaven of Radiant Sound descended to the earth [of this world] and the land became permeated by desire.

It is also like [devas] from the Trayastrimsha Heaven who, upon entering the Rough Garden, immediately give rise to thoughts [of] contention within that garden. ^[96] These are the characteristics of the turbidity of the kalpa.

As for the turbidity of afflictions, greed and desire are like the great ocean, which is never filled however [many streams] flow into it. Anger is like a venomous serpent that harms people throughout the world. Delusion is dim, dark, and blacker than lacquer or ink. Arrogance is lofty and haughty, looking upon [others as] lowly and inferior, oppressing and despising them without limit or restraint. The net of doubt is devoid of faith and cannot listen when anyone reveals the truth. These are the characteristics of the turbidity of afflictions.

As for the turbidity of views, [there is erroneous cognition]: although in reality there is no personal [self], one believes that it exists; although the [true] path exists, one believes that it does not. This extends to the sixteen kinds of views and the sixty-two [erroneous] views, [all of which] resemble spreading nets and dense forests, binding and entangling beings so that they cannot escape. These are the characteristics of the turbidity of views.

As for the turbidity of sentient beings, one clings to and grasps this physical form and consciousness, establishing within them a sovereign [self]. Like glue or resin, it adheres and clings to everything without exception. Beings revolve and wander through the six paths, taking birth everywhere—sometimes poor, sometimes wealthy, sometimes long-lived, sometimes short-lived, and so forth. These are the characteristics of the turbidity of sentient beings.

As for the turbidity of lifespan, [the lives of sentient beings are fragile:] born in the morning and dead by evening, appearing by day and gone by night, like a rolling wave or a swirling wisp of smoke, never abiding even for the blink of an eye. These are the characteristics of the turbidity of lifespan.

The characteristics of turbidity are extremely numerous and cannot be fully described. If considered according to the sequence [of their arising], the turbidity of afflictions and the turbidity of views are fundamental. From these two turbidities, sentient beings are formed [thus giving rise to the turbidity of sentient beings]. Once sentient beings have been formed, there is the continuous maintenance of life [thus giving rise to the turbidity of lifespan]. The period of time through which these four turbidities extend is called the turbidity of the kalpa. This is a brief and simplified explanation.

● Question: If the five turbidities [in this realm] create such grave obstructions, how was it that, in the Avatamsaka assembly, persons who had not yet eliminated the turbidities were nevertheless able to hear the Dharma?

● Answer: Here, four cases must be distinguished. The first is that of persons whose Mahayana faculties are keen but whose [turbidities] create grave obstructions. Because their faculties are keen, even grave obstructions cannot obstruct them. Such were the persons of this realm who, in the Avatamsaka assembly, heard the Mahayana teaching for the first time.

The second case is that of keen faculties and light obstructions. The third case is that of dull faculties and light obstructions. Such were those who came from Pure Lands in other directions [to this realm] to hear the Mahayana teaching.

The fourth case is that of dull faculties and grave [turbid] obstructions. Such were Shariputra and the others, who could hear the Mahayana teaching only [after] eliminating the turbidities.

● Question: Do these five turbidities obstruct [the teaching of] the Lesser Vehicle?

● Answer: This principle also applies to the Lesser Vehicle, and four cases should be distinguished. First, those whose Lesser Vehicle faculties are keen and whose [turbid] obstructions are light cannot be obstructed, as in the case of the Venerable Shariputra. Second, those whose faculties are keen, even though their [turbid] obstructions are grave, likewise cannot be obstructed, as in the case of Angulimala. Third, those whose faculties are dull but whose [turbid] obstructions are light are likewise not obstructed [from hearing the Dharma], as in the case of the Venerable Panthaka. Fourth, those whose faculties are dull and whose [turbid] obstructions are also grave cannot hear the Lesser Vehicle teaching; this is the case of those who cannot be transformed.

● Question: There are persons who were neither present at the Avatamsaka assembly nor at the place where the Agama teachings ^[97] were preached, yet were still able to hear the teachings of both the Mahayana and the Lesser Vehicle. How is this so?

● Answer: This must also be explained within the teachings of the four teachings [Tripitaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect], each of which distinguishes four gateways of entry into the Way. ^[98] Persons whose faculties are keen and whose [turbid] obstructions are light enter the Way immediately upon hearing [that all dharmas] are “neither empty nor existent.” Persons whose faculties are keen but whose obstructions are grave enter the Way immediately upon hearing [that all dharmas] are “both empty and existent.” Persons whose faculties are dull but whose obstructions are light enter the Way immediately upon hearing [that all dharmas] are empty. Persons whose faculties are dull and whose obstructions are grave enter the Way immediately upon hearing [that all dharmas] exist.

The four gateways of entry into the Way in the two teachings [Tripitaka and Shared] are distinguished on the basis of the Lesser Vehicle, while the four gateways of entry into the Way in the other two teachings [Distinct and Perfect] are distinguished on the basis of the Mahayana. If one carefully reflects [in accordance with this], the matter can be clearly understood. Such is the general outline.

● Question: Since they are the same five turbidities, why do they obstruct the Mahayana but not the Lesser Vehicle? ^[99]

● Answer: Because the turbidity of sentient beings is grave, they mistakenly reckon the five skandhas [of this body] to be permanent, blissful, possessed of a self, and pure (permanence, bliss, self, and purity). ^[100] If they hear [the Mahayana teaching of] permanence, [bliss,] self, [and purity], they immediately cling to it and take what is wrong [in their own understanding] to be correct. This resembles [the analogy given in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra] ^[101] of an ignorant physician of the old school who does not know the beneficial and harmful qualities of milk, does not know the causes and origins from which illness arises, and does not know when milk should or should not be administered. ^[102] Because they lack clear understanding, the [five] turbidities obstruct the Mahayana.

The scriptural passage states, “If I were to praise the Buddha Vehicle, sentient beings would sink into suffering and anguish.” This is precisely its meaning.

[When such deluded sentient beings] hear [teachings on] impermanence, suffering, emptiness, [and non-self], they immediately become disenchanted with and renounce samsara, while delighting in nirvana. Because [the Lesser Vehicle teaching] can destroy [sentient beings’] mistaken and perverse attachments, the five turbidities do not obstruct [the teaching of] the Lesser Vehicle. The scriptural passage states, “Just as I formed this thought, the Buddhas of the ten directions all manifested the Brahma voice to console and encourage me.” ^[103] This is precisely its meaning.

If the four siddhantas are discussed in relation to the five turbidities, then the turbidity of the kalpa [and] the turbidity of lifespan correspond to the worldly siddhanta; the turbidity of sentient beings [and] the turbidity of views correspond to the siddhanta for each person; and the turbidity of afflictions corresponds to the therapeutic siddhanta. These three siddhantas are used to eliminate the [corresponding] five turbidities, after which the Mahayana siddhanta of ultimate truth is taught.

If discussed in terms of cause and effect, [among the five turbidities] there are two causes and three effects. ^[104] [If discussed in terms of persons and dharmas,] one belongs to persons and four belong to dharmas. ^[105]

[If discussed in terms of time and dharmas,] four belong to dharmas and one belongs to time. ^[106] [If discussed in terms of the three obstructions, ^[107]] two [turbidities] belong to the obstruction of retribution, ^[108] two [turbidities] belong to the obstruction of afflictions, ^[109] while the obstruction of karma is contained within those obstructions. ^[110]

[If discussed in terms of the three provisional designations, ^[111]] the turbidity of sentient beings is the provisional designation established through causes; the turbidity of lifespan is the provisional designation of continuity; and [the remaining turbidities are] provisional designations established through mutual dependence. ^[112] This may be inferred and understood.

[If discussed in terms of contemplating the three provisional designations, ^[113]] the turbidity of sentient beings is the provisional designation of a recipient, the other four turbidities are provisional designations of dharmas, while the provisional designation of names alone encompasses both groups.

[If discussed in terms of ordinary beings and sages,] the turbidity of afflictions and the turbidity of views exist only in ordinary beings, while the remaining three turbidities are present in both ordinary beings and sages.

[If discussed in terms of long and short duration,] the turbidity of lifespan is of short duration, the turbidity of the kalpa is of long duration, while the other three turbidities may be of either long or short duration.

[If discussed in terms of being singular or accompanied,] the turbidity of the kalpa pertains purely to time; the turbidity of lifespan is discussed as time accompanied by the dharmas of the [skandhas] of the body; [the remaining three turbidities neither belong to the body nor accompany it, but pertain only to dharmas]. ^[114]

[If discussed in terms of internal and external,] the turbidity of the kalpa encompasses both internal and external, while the turbidity of lifespan exists only within [the body].

[If discussed in terms of the turbidity of the kalpa,] the three minor [calamities of a kalpa] harm human beings but do not harm the material world, ^[115] while the three great [calamities of a kalpa] destroy the material world but do not harm human beings. ^[116]

The minor calamities of a kalpa occur only among human beings, while the great calamities of a kalpa extend even throughout the Form Realm.

[If discussed in terms of the five destinies and the three realms,] the turbidity of lifespan pervades the five destinies and the three realms. ^[117]

[If discussed in terms of common and particular,] the turbidity of the kalpa is the common turbidity, while each of the remaining four turbidities is particular. ^[118]

[Furthermore,] a minor kalpa is a turbid kalpa, while a great kalpa contains both turbid and non-turbid periods.

[Regarding minor and great kalpas,] the period in which the average human lifespan [gradually increases from ten years to] 80,000 [years and then gradually decreases] to ten years constitutes one minor kalpa. [Twenty minor kalpas constitute one intermediate kalpa.] After eighty such [intermediate kalpas], there is one great kalpa. ^[119]

● Question: Having explained the five defilements, what, then, are the five purities?

● Answer: This is distinguished according to the standards of wrong and right, and according to whether the three poisons [greed, anger, and delusion] are present. What is wrong constitutes the five defilements; what is right constitutes purity.

The Pure Lands of other directions have neither wrongness nor the three poisons; naturally, the obscuring impediments of the five defilements are absent. This meaning can be clearly understood. Such is the general outline.

PART FOUR

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“Shariputra! If any of my disciples claim to be arhats or pratyekabuddhas, yet neither hear nor know that the Buddha Tathagatas teach and transform only bodhisattvas, such people are not disciples of the Buddha, nor are they arhats or pratyekabuddhas.”

From the words “If any of my disciples claim to be...” onward is the fourth part, which eliminates what is false and strengthens faith in the true Dharma. [The scripture says that] if they are disciples of the Buddha, they must themselves be able to believe, accept, and clearly understand. If they neither believe and accept nor clearly understand, then they are not true disciples of the Buddha, nor are they arhats. [The intent here is] to urge the assembly at that time to believe, accept, and clearly understand.

This passage is divided into two sections. The first distinguishes the true from the false. The second sets forth an exception and resolves doubts.

[The first section,] the distinction, is itself divided into two points. First, it says that [those who] neither hear nor know [this Dharma] are not true disciples. Next, it says that those who hear but do not believe and accept are persons of overweening pride.

It is like [learning] in the worldly realm: disciples must follow their teacher’s knowledge in order to continue the tradition and transmit it to later generations. If [while studying under a teacher] they neither hear nor know, then they have no knowledge to follow; how could they be called disciples?

Previously, the Tathagata taught concerning the five defilements and revealed the Three Vehicles. The disciples heard and followed [his teaching in their practice], and therefore attained nirvana. Because they thus heard and knew, they were called [the Buddha’s] disciples. Today, when the five defilements have been eliminated, [the Buddha] teaches the One Vehicle for his disciples; what reason, then, could [the Buddha’s disciples] have for neither hearing nor knowing it?

“Not hearing” means not hearing [the meaning of] “the oneness of the teaching”; “not knowing” means not knowing [the meaning of] “the oneness of practice”; “not true” means not being [in accord with] “the oneness of principle”; and “not disciples” means not being [in accord with] “the oneness of persons.”

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“Furthermore, Shariputra, those bhikshus and bhikshunis claim that they have attained arhatship, that this is their final body, and that they have attained ultimate nirvana; they have no aspiration to seek unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment. You should know that all such people are persons of overweening pride. Why is this? It is utterly unreasonable for any bhikshu who has truly attained arhatship not to believe and accept the Dharma of the One Vehicle, except after the Buddha’s parinirvana, when no Buddha is present.”

Next, from the words “Furthermore, Shariputra...” onward is the second point, stating that [those who] do not believe [in this Dharma] are all persons of overweening pride. Its intent is to urge [the assembly] to believe. Why do these people claim to have attained their final body?

They still have innumerable bodies to undergo; this is truly not their final body. They claim to have [reached] the ultimate culmination, but, like [the travelers in the parable later in the scripture,] they are still two hundred yojanas from their destination and have not truly reached the end. Having not attained realization, they say that they have attained it—is this not overweening pride?

True arhats have eliminated the defilements, possess keen faculties, and clearly know that [the Dharma they have realized] is not yet ultimate. They believe in the true Dharma and know that this is not their final body; therefore, they do not give rise to arrogance and disdain.

Because they clearly know what is not the ultimate, they believe in the ultimate Dharma. This is faith in “the oneness of principle.” Not being persons of overweening pride is “the oneness of practice.” Faith means faith in the teaching; this is “the oneness of the teaching.” [Truly] being disciples of the Buddha is “the oneness of persons.”

From the words “except after the Buddha’s parinirvana...” onward is the second section, which sets forth an exception and resolves doubts.

First, it sets forth the exception, meaning that [in the case of] those living after the Buddha’s parinirvana, [people such as those described above] are not considered persons of overweening pride.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

“Why is this? After the Buddha’s parinirvana, it is extremely difficult to encounter someone capable of accepting and upholding, reciting, and explaining scriptures such as this. However, if they encounter a Buddha in another land, they will immediately gain clear and thorough understanding of this teaching.”

Next, from the words “Why is this? After the Buddha’s parinirvana...” onward, it explains that [at that time] good teachers are rarely encountered and this scripture is profound and difficult to comprehend; [therefore, even if one fails to understand it,] one does not thereby become a person of overweening pride. If, while the Buddha is still in the world and personally teaching this scripture, one neither believes nor accepts it, one is not a true arhat but becomes a person of overweening pride.

If one attains arhatship only after the Buddha’s parinirvana, then even though one remains partial to and attached to the provisional-vehicle scriptures and does not believe and accept the ultimate, perfect teaching, [the Buddha still] considers such a person not to be one of overweening pride.

Furthermore, although the Buddha has entered parinirvana, this scripture still remains in the world. If someone neither believes nor accepts it, is that person one of overweening pride? [This case too] is regarded as an exception. [This is because,] after the Buddha’s parinirvana, although this scripture still exists, it is extremely difficult to encounter someone capable of explaining the meaning of its text. Therefore, even though someone has attained arhatship, that person may still neither believe nor understand [the meaning of this scripture. Such a case also] is regarded as not involving overweening pride.

Next, various doubts are resolved.

● [Question:] If, after the Buddha’s parinirvana, it is difficult to encounter someone who can explain [the meaning of] this scripture, will all those who have attained arhatship enter nirvana forever?

● [Answer:] Although such people may give rise to the conception that they have attained cessation, after relinquishing this body they will immediately be born in another land beyond the three realms, ^[120] where they will encounter a Buddha. Upon hearing this scripture there, they will immediately attain complete and penetrating realization.

● [Question:] In the commentary of the [Mahaprajnaparamita] Treatise, fascicle 93, the Chapter on Certainty ^[121] states: “The former-life body [produced through causes and conditions] of an arhat must necessarily perish; ^[122] where, then, does [that arhat] abide in order to [cultivate and learn until] the Buddha path is fully perfected?”

● [Answer:] “For arhats, the causes and conditions of the outflows within the three realms have been completely exhausted, and they are no longer reborn within the three realms. Beyond the three realms there are pure Buddha lands [in which] even the names of the afflictions do not exist, [much less the afflictions themselves]. [An arhat reborn in] such a Buddha land hears the Lotus Sutra and immediately perfects the Buddha path.”

[The treatise then] cites the Lotus Sutra: “There are arhats who, if they have not heard the Lotus Sutra, believe that they have already attained cessation. In a land beyond the three realms, ^[123] I shall explain this matter to them: You will become Buddhas.”

The treatise cited the scripture as proof; now, in explaining the scripture, the treatise is cited to elucidate it.

Master Nanyue [Huisi] said: “The Buddha being beyond the three realms refers to the four refuges.” ^[124] When an arhat encounters [a Buddha] and hears the sutra, he immediately understands it thoroughly. Furthermore, an arhat who cultivates the samadhi of mindfulness of the Buddha [may] behold the Buddhas of the ten directions; [those Buddhas] then expound this sutra for him, and thus he also understands it thoroughly. Furthermore, when an ordinary person practices and sincerely repents, ^[125] he immediately beholds the Buddhas of the ten directions; [those Buddhas] then expound [this sutra] for him, and thus he also understands it thoroughly.

Master Fayao said: If one is truly an arhat, one must naturally understand [the doctrinal meaning of] the Lotus Sutra and aspire to seek the Great Vehicle. Those of keen faculties must naturally understand it. Those of middling and inferior faculties must hear [it expounded] before they can understand; hence the expression “know through hearing.” How, then, could there be someone who, after the Buddha’s nirvana, does not hear the Lotus Sutra, or hears it but does not believe, and only comes to understand it clearly upon encountering a Buddha beyond the three realms?

Even ordinary people in the age of the latter Dharma can believe and accept it; how much more so the noble ones [the arhats]? [Therefore], the phrase “except after the Buddha’s nirvana...” refers only to ordinary people [of later ages].

Some say: Ordinary people have not yet realized the characteristics of the Dharma; what they perceive is not clear, and their attachments are not firm, so they readily believe. Arhats have already realized the characteristics of the Dharma; what they perceive is lucid and clear, and their attachments are firm. When they suddenly hear a Dharma expounded that is [different from what they have known], they therefore cannot immediately believe and accept it.

Thus, it is entirely reasonable to say that [arhats] do not believe. This is why, when Venerable Sariputra [first heard the Dharma of the One Vehicle], he thought: “Could this be Mara impersonating the Buddha in order to disturb my mind?” According to this interpretation, the [sutra passage] refers specifically to arhats, not merely to ordinary people. Such is the general purport.

This interpretation is entirely different, and we do not adopt it here.

PART FIVE

SUTRA TEXT

Sariputra! You should wholeheartedly believe, understand, accept, and uphold the Buddha’s words. The words of all Buddha-Tathagatas are never false. There is truly no other vehicle, but only the single Buddha Vehicle.

From the passage “Sariputra! You should wholeheartedly...” onward is the fifth part, clarifying that [the Buddha’s teaching] is never false and preventing thoughts of slander from arising. This part is divided into three points.

First, [the assembly] is encouraged to believe the truthful teaching of Buddha Sakyamuni; hence it says: “You should wholeheartedly believe, understand, accept, and uphold the Buddha’s words.” Second, [the assembly] is encouraged to trust all the Buddhas; hence it says: “The words of all Buddha-Tathagatas are never false.” The Way of all Buddhas is in every respect identical, [and this causes the assembly] to increase its faith and acceptance still further.

Finally, it concludes with the meaning of freedom from falsehood; hence it says: “There is no other vehicle, but only the single Buddha Vehicle.”

B. Verses

This entire verse section comprises 121 stanzas and is divided into two parts. The first part contains four stanzas and one line, reiterating the meaning of [the Buddha’s] promise to give an explanation [stated in the preceding prose passage]. The latter part contains 116 stanzas and three lines, reiterating the content of [the Buddha’s] formal explanation in the preceding section.

SUTRA TEXT

At that time, the Blessed One, wishing to restate the meaning above, spoke these verses:

The promise to give an explanation [in the prose passage] above contains three points: first, [the Buddha’s] consent [to expound]; second, his admonition [to the listeners]; and third, his selection [of the listeners]. In the present verse section, the meaning of [the Buddha’s] consent is not reiterated; only the two points of selection and admonition are reiterated.

The meaning of selecting the listeners, [which is recited first,] is itself divided into two parts. First, three and a half stanzas (fourteen lines) reiterate the departure of the five thousand people [from the Dharma assembly]. Next, two lines reiterate the meaning that the assembly had been purified, and one line reiterates the admonition that they must listen attentively.

Persons of overweening pride, self-conceit, and lack of faith ^[126] were present among all four groups of the assembly. Yet particularly among the two monastic groups [the bhiksus and bhiksunis], many had cultivated and attained meditative concentration but mistakenly believed that they had attained the noble fruits, thus developing overweening pride. Among the laity, people were arrogant and frequently gave rise to self-conceit. Women possessed shallow wisdom and often gave rise to many narrow and mistaken views.

[The verse says,] “They did not perceive their own faults.” This means that, because the three faults above obscured their minds, [they habitually] concealed their faults and displayed their virtues, ^[127] and were unable to reflect upon themselves. Such persons lack the virtue of moral shame. ^[128] If one can perceive one’s own faults, one is a monastic who possesses a sense of shame.

[The verse says,] “Their observance of the precepts was deficient.” Committing faults in the strict observance of the disciplinary rules is called “deficiency”; committing faults in cultivating the Way and practicing concentration is called “omission.” Because their “Way was omitted and their concentration deficient,” unwholesome thoughts constantly arose within them, like flaws concealed inside a precious jewel. Because they lacked observance of the disciplinary rules, their conduct and speech outwardly manifested disorder, like flaws exposed on the surface of a precious jewel.

[The verse says,] “They cherished and concealed their faults.” Concealing one’s offenses without remorse is called cherishing [one’s offenses].

[It also says,] “Those of meager wisdom departed.” “Meager wisdom” refers to those who had attained neither the wisdom of those in training nor the wisdom of those beyond training [in the Buddha-Dharma], but possessed only the narrow wisdom of the world; hence they mistakenly regarded conditioned dharmas as unconditioned. [The world is narrow, yet those who conceal their offenses in this way are] even narrower within the world; hence their wisdom is called meager and narrow.

[The verse refers to] “the inferior and base persons in the assembly.” Because they lacked the refinement of unconditioned meditative concentration, they were inferior and base. Because they lacked wisdom in accord with principle, they were useless, like rice husks. This means that the five thousand people who departed from the Dharma assembly had cultivated only worldly meditative concentration and were therefore inferior and base.

They understood the teachings solely through their written words and were therefore useless, like rice husks. They were encumbered by words and lost the true meaning, like husks with no grains of rice inside. Furthermore, “inferior and base” refers to those who lacked the capacity for the Great Vehicle.

Branches and leaves symbolize the fact that these people were not suitable vessels for the Dharma and had no use [in the Great Vehicle]; therefore, they were cast out.

[The verse says,] “Sariputra, listen well.” This reiterates both the meaning of the promise to expound stated above and the admonition that [the listeners] should listen attentively.

Structural Division of the Verses Giving the Explanation

From the passage “The Dharma realized by all Buddhas...” onward are 116 stanzas and three lines, reiterating [the content of] the principal explanation in the preceding [prose passage].

This content is further divided into two major sections. The first major section, from the line “The Dharma realized by the Buddhas” onward, consists of seventy-three stanzas and one line, reiterating the meaning of the preceding four accounts concerning the Buddhas. The second major section, from the line “Now I, too, am likewise” onward, consists of forty-three and a half stanzas, reiterating the meaning of the preceding account concerning Śākyamuni Buddha.

The first major section [comprising four accounts concerning the Buddhas] is further divided into four parts. First, from the line “The Dharma realized by the Buddhas” onward, comprising thirty-four stanzas and three lines, reiterates the meaning of the preceding section concerning the Buddhas. Second, from the line “Throughout countless past kalpas” onward, comprising twenty-seven and a half stanzas, reiterates the meaning of the account concerning past Buddhas. Third, from the line “The Buddhas of the future” onward, comprising six and a half stanzas, reiterates the meaning concerning future Buddhas. Fourth, from the line “Honored with offerings by devas and humans” onward, comprising four and a half stanzas, reiterates the meaning concerning the Buddhas of the present.

The first part, which reiterates the meaning concerning the Buddhas, differs from the prose passage in three respects. First, what is present in one and absent in the other is mutually supplementary. Second, their sequence differs. Third, they differ in their opening and conclusion, and in their division and combination.

[Regarding the first difference], among the six meanings in the prose passage is the meaning of “praising the rarity of the true Dharma,” but there is no discussion of the five defilements. The verse section discusses the five defilements but does not contain the meaning of praising the true Dharma.

[Regarding the second difference], the prose passage first praises the true Dharma, then states that [the Buddha’s teachings] are not false, discards the provisional Dharma, and reveals the true Dharma. Here, the verse section first states the discarding of the provisional Dharma and the revelation of the true Dharma, and only afterward states that [the Buddha’s teachings] are not false.

[Regarding the third difference], the prose passage presents together the two meanings of encouraging faith and acceptance and [affirming that the Buddha’s teachings] are not false. Here, in the verse section, the meaning of encouraging faith and acceptance is separated from the meaning that [the Buddha’s teachings] are not false.

Now, according to my own understanding, the prose passage sets forth Śākyamuni Buddha’s expedient Dharma to explain the provisional vehicles of the Buddhas, whereas the verse section sets forth Śākyamuni Buddha’s true Dharma to explain the Buddhas’ revelation that there is only the single Buddha Vehicle.

Thus, there are four differences.

This first part is further divided into five major passages.

– The first major passage, from the line “The Dharma realized by the Buddhas” onward, comprises five stanzas and three lines and recounts the meaning of the Buddhas’ implementation of the provisional Dharma.

– The second major passage, from the line “I established these expedient means” onward, comprises thirteen stanzas and recounts the meaning of the Buddhas’ revelation of the true Dharma.

– The third major passage, from the line “If people place faith in the Buddha” onward, comprises four and a half stanzas and recounts the meaning of the Buddhas’ encouragement of faith and acceptance.

– The fourth major passage, from the line “If I encounter living beings” onward, comprises nine and a half stanzas and recounts the meaning concerning the five defilements.

– The fifth major passage, from the line “I possess the power of expedient means” onward, comprises two stanzas and reiterates the meaning stated in the prose passage that [the Buddha’s teachings] are not false.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The first major passage concerns the Buddhas’ establishment and revelation of the provisional Dharma. This major passage is divided into two sections. The first, consisting of four stanzas and one line, recounts the meaning of the actual implementation of the provisional Dharma. The next, consisting of one and a half stanzas, recounts the concluding meaning of the implementation of the provisional Dharma.

In the first section, the [opening] line “The Dharma realized by the Buddhas” speaks of cultivating the Path and realizing the provisional teachings. From the [following] line “Their countless powers and expedient means” ^[129] onward, the verses reiterate the meaning of “using countless expedient means and various causes and conditions to expound the various teachings” in the prose passage. From the line “The thoughts arising in living beings’ minds,” ^[130] the verses reiterate the meaning of teaching the Dharma according to what is appropriate, as stated in the prose passage.

This verse section broadly describes the forms of such adaptation to what is appropriate: namely, teaching [appropriately] for the seven expedient [vehicles] in accordance with the capacities of beings in the nine Dharma realms. ^[131] It speaks only generally of the nine and the seven, without being able to specify them individually; therefore, it says “whatever.” According to what accords with [living beings’] desires, the mundane siddhānta is applied correspondingly.

According to what accords with [living beings’] natures, the siddhānta for each person is applied correspondingly. According to what accords with [living beings’] evil karma, the remedial siddhānta is applied correspondingly.

The yearning and longing that arise [in the minds of living beings] are called “thoughts.” The diversity of Dharma gates is called “all the many”; the tendencies perfumed in the past are called “nature,” and the present experience of satisfaction and delight is called “desire.” It may also be said that the accumulation of desires forms one’s nature, and once that nature has formed, it in turn gives rise to accumulated desires. Such is the general meaning.

The verse statement “Their good and evil karma from former lives” means that [living beings within] the seven expedient [vehicles] continually perform good and evil deeds. Such is the general meaning.

With expedient wisdom, the Buddha illuminates and knows the “natures” and “desires” [of living beings] within the expedient [vehicles]. Only then, using parables and causes and conditions, does he teach the nine divisions of scripture according to what is appropriate [for each living being],1 [or] the twelve divisions, according to The Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra.

The second section, from the line “The foolish, delighting in lesser teachings” [which refers to those of dull capacities who delight in the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle], consists of one and a half stanzas and summarizes the meaning of the implementation of the provisional teachings. [Those whose] capacities were dull in former lives and who lack the requisite conditions in this life [though encountering countless Buddhas] are unable to hear the teachings of the Great Vehicle; therefore, it says, “They still do not cultivate the wondrous Path.” Because of their attachments in former lives and their grave obscurations, they are beset by much suffering and affliction in this life and are able to hear only the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle.

Therefore, it says: “For the sake of these living beings, the nirvana of the Lesser Vehicle is taught.”

SCRIPTURE TEXT

The second major passage, from the line “I established these expedient means” onward, comprises thirteen stanzas and reiterates the meaning of the Buddhas’ revelation of the truth. This major passage is divided into four sections.

The first section consists of three stanzas, versifying the meaning of “the oneness of principle.” “Helping them enter the Buddha’s wisdom” restates in verse the meaning of “one great causal condition” in the preceding prose passage. “Resolutely teaching the Great Vehicle” generally versifies the meaning of “opening, revealing, awakening to, and entering” the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. “Entering the Great Vehicle is the foundation” restates in verse the meaning of “entering the Buddha’s knowledge and vision” in the prose passage.

SUTRA TEXT

The second section, beginning with “There are Buddha-children whose minds are pure,” consists of four and a half stanzas, versifying the meaning that “all those whom the Buddha-Tathagatas teach and transform are bodhisattvas,” thereby elucidating the meaning of “the oneness of persons.” The preceding prose passage directly expressed the meaning that “all those taught and transformed are bodhisattvas.” Here, the verse expands upon this, declaring that all persons within the provisional teachings ultimately become persons within the true teaching.

“There are Buddha-children whose minds are pure” refers to those within the provisional Separate Teaching. The sutra says, “For these Buddha-children, the Great Vehicle sutra is taught.” Because they receive predictions, their minds become joyful and delighted; thus, they become persons of the true Perfect Teaching. The words “whether shravakas or bodhisattvas” include pratyekabuddhas among the shravakas. If bodhisattvas fully practice the six paramitas, then they, together with the bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching, will all certainly attain Buddhahood, without any doubt. This means that all those within the seven provisional vehicles ^[132] are Buddha-children and shall all attain Buddhahood. This is the versification of the meaning of “the oneness of persons.”

SUTRA TEXT

The third section, beginning with “Throughout the Buddha-realms of the ten directions,” consists of one stanza and three lines. It versifies the meaning expressed in the prose passage that the Tathagata teaches the Dharma to sentient beings solely by means of the One Buddha Vehicle, and that there is no other vehicle, such as the Two Vehicles or the Three Vehicles. If all Buddhas throughout the ten directions teach only this same Dharma, this is the meaning of “the oneness of teaching.” The expressions “provisional names” and “used to guide sentient beings” refer to skillful means used in teaching and transformation.

The names of the teachings of the Three Vehicles are provisional; the Buddha’s wisdom is revealed as the sole vehicle. The sutra text states this very clearly. That there is no other vehicle means that there are no bodhisattvas of the Separate Teaching who enter the Separate from the Perfect ^[133].

That there are no two vehicles means that there are no bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching who abide in the mutual opposition of the Half and the Full ^[134]. That there are no three vehicles means that there are no Three Vehicles within the Tripitaka Teaching. Such divisions into the Two Vehicles and the Three Vehicles are merely provisional names used to guide sentient beings.

It is now made clear that there is only the single, perfectly complete and ultimate Buddha Vehicle.

The fourth section, beginning with “When Buddhas appear in the world, there is only this one reality,” introduces the fourth meaning. It consists of three stanzas and three lines and versifies the statement in the prose passage that “everything the Buddhas do is solely for this one purpose,”1 namely, “the oneness of practice,” since “what is done” means practice. “They never employ the Lesser Vehicle to deliver sentient beings” versifies the meaning of “solely for the one great purpose” in the prose passage.

“The Buddha abides in the Great Vehicle and, with the Dharma he has realized, adorned with samadhi, wisdom, and powers, delivers sentient beings” versifies the meaning in the prose passage that “he uses only the Buddha’s knowledge and vision to open and awaken sentient beings.” The final stanza explains the meaning of not using the Lesser Vehicle to teach and transform sentient beings.

SUTRA TEXT

The third main division, beginning with “If people put their faith in the Buddha,” consists of four and a half stanzas, versifying the exhortation to faith found in the preceding prose passage. The prose passage says, “You should believe the Buddha’s teaching.” The verses restating this meaning are divided into two sections.

The first section consists of two and a half stanzas and presents the effect serving as the basis for the exhortation to faith. The second section, beginning with “Shariputra...,” consists of two stanzas and presents the cause serving as the basis for the exhortation to faith.

Within the section presenting the effect serving as the basis for the exhortation to faith, one and a half stanzas describe the Buddha’s inner mind. “If people put their faith in the Buddha, the Tathagata does not deceive them” clearly indicates the purity of the Buddha’s mind. Ignorance, greed, miserliness, and all evil qualities have been eliminated. Because he teaches from a pure mind, his words are worthy of trust.

Beginning with “The Buddha’s body is adorned with excellent marks,” one stanza describes the Buddha’s external form: his bodily marks are radiant and magnificent, luminous and dignified.

Thus, inwardly, his mind is free from the darkness of delusion, while outwardly, his radiance shines brightly. Therefore, his mouth utters no false words. He is revered by the great assembly, and the Great Vehicle Dharma he teaches can certainly be believed, accepted, received, and upheld.

The second section, beginning with “Shariputra, you should know: Long ago, the Buddha made a vow,” consists of two stanzas and presents the cause serving as the basis for the exhortation to faith. It is divided into two meanings. The first, beginning with “Shariputra, you should know...,” consists of one stanza and presents the vow made long ago. The second, beginning with “In accordance with that former vow,” consists of one stanza and explains the perfect fulfillment of that vow.

The “vow made long ago” was not merely the vow to attain bodhi, but also the vow to teach and transform all sentient beings so that they might enter the Buddha’s wisdom. Now, in accordance with that vow, the Buddha teaches the Great Vehicle Dharma; therefore, this too is worthy of trust.

Today, the Buddha has fully attained the fruit of bodhi, and sentient beings have also entered the Buddha’s wisdom. The great assembly has personally realized and known the Buddha’s wisdom, thereby also demonstrating that the Buddha’s former vow was never false. In conclusion, this presents the cause serving as the basis for the exhortation to faith.

● Question: The Buddha’s former vow was universal in scope, yet even now there remain very many sentient beings [who have not attained realization]. How, then, can it be said that this vow has been [fulfilled] perfectly?

● Answer: The Buddhas of the three times all benefit the myriad kinds of sentient beings. Here, only the present event [in which the assembly receives predictions of buddhahood] is set forth to discuss the perfect fulfillment of the vow. ^[135]

SUTRA TEXT

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The fourth overall passage, beginning with “If I encounter sentient beings,” comprises nine and a half stanzas and sets forth the five defilements of the five turbidities. The preceding prose passage explained the five turbid defilements after the section concerning Buddha Śākyamuni. In this verse section, they are presented at the end of the general discussion of the Buddhas. They are also mentioned again in the section concerning Buddha Śākyamuni. This makes clear that all Buddhas manifest in worlds marked by the five turbid defilements, and that they all [teach] the three [vehicles] first and afterward [lead beings to] the One [Vehicle].

This overall passage is divided into four sections. The first section consists of one stanza and generally explains how the five turbid defilements obstruct [the cultivation of] the Great [Vehicle]. The second consists of six stanzas and separately explains how the five turbid defilements obstruct [the cultivation of] the Three [Vehicles].

The third consists of one stanza and sets forth the meaning that, because of the obstruction caused by the five turbid defilements, the Lesser Vehicle is taught as a skillful means. The fourth consists of one and a half stanzas and explains that, for the sake of the Great [Vehicle], the Lesser [Vehicle] is taught as a skillful means. Because the Lesser Vehicle is used to counteract the five turbid defilements, the vow of the Great Vehicle is vigorously aroused.

In the first section, the verse says, “If I encounter sentient beings.” Fascicle 12 of the Āgama Sutra states that, at the beginning of the kalpa, [devas] descended from the Ābhāsvara Heaven and were born into this world. There was not yet any hierarchy or social order, nor any distinction between male and female. Multitudes lived together indiscriminately in the world, and thus they were called “sentient beings”; this designation was based on the circumstances at the beginning.

If [the meaning is that] existence arises through the aggregation of the five skandhas and is provisionally designated “sentient being,” then this is based on each individual experience of karmic retribution. If [in the sense of samsara] they are born and reborn everywhere and are therefore called sentient beings, then this is based on their being propelled by karmic force to circulate through the five destinies.

The Sutra of Contemplation of the True Dharma ^[136] speaks of ten kinds of sentient beings, describing [the characteristics of birth and death as] long, short, square, round, triangular, blue, yellow, red, white, and purple. ^[137]

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are long?

In the realm of hell, their bodies undergo inconceivable suffering, while their minds continue to think of immeasurable and innumerable evils. In the animal realm, [creatures] take turns devouring one another’s bodies, while their thoughts in turn oppress and inflict suffering upon one another. In the realm of [hungry] ghosts, their bodies are like mountains consumed by fire, while their minds seethe like boiling water; wrong views burn fiercely within them, driving their delusion and cruelty.

In the human realm, body, speech, and mind continually perform actions that bring no benefit, thereby bringing hardship and anguish upon themselves; body, speech, and mind continually dwell upon unbeneficial matters, thereby impelling and binding themselves. In the heavenly realms, beings become immersed in [the pleasures of] the six sense objects, ^[138] indulging without restraint in amusement and frivolity. They do not hear the true Dharma and thereby obstruct the source [from which] merit and virtue [are created]. [Because beings in all these realms remain deluded, continually create karma, and continue circulating through samsara,] they are called sentient beings [who undergo] birth and death for a long time.

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are short?

In the realm of hell, [while the body undergoes suffering,] the mind is able to preserve a single quiescent thought mindful of the precepts. In the animal realm, [although creatures devour one another’s bodies,] they are able to preserve a single peaceful thought of taking refuge in the Three Jewels. In the realm of hungry ghosts, [although their bodies are like mountains consumed by fire,] they are able to preserve a single tranquil thought that renders their faculties serene.

In the human realm, they constantly practice the six pāramitās, support their parents with filial devotion, reverently trust in the Three Jewels, and adorn body, speech, and mind with wholesome deeds. In the heavenly realms, they relinquish celestial pleasures, delight in observing the precepts, delight in meditative concentration, [receive] instruction and recite [the scriptures], maintain pure conduct, and refrain from excessive speech. [Sentient beings who are able to practice in this way while within samsara] are said to undergo birth and death for only a short time [because they will escape from it].

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are [shaped like] a square?

Sentient beings in Uttarakuru, for example, regard none of the myriad things as their own. When they relinquish their lives, they are immediately born in a heavenly realm. After relinquishing their bodies in that heaven, they are again born in a higher heaven. They proceed in only one direction, ascending toward ever better realms. This is called birth and death [shaped like] a square [because, once they have passed beyond a realm, they do not return to it].

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are [shaped like] a circle?

This refers to [sentient beings] who remain within the three paths and four realms, revolving and circulating like fire entwined with smoke, [continuing without end].

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are [shaped like] a triangle?

This means that [the karmic force of sentient beings has three aspects:] wholesome karma, unwholesome karma, and indeterminate karma.

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are blue?

These are those who constantly enter dark hells and are continually terrified and afraid.

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are yellow?

This refers to hungry ghosts, who are emaciated by hunger and thirst, their bodies sallow and withered.

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are red?

This refers to animals that take turns devouring one another’s flesh, causing bright-red blood to flow.

What are sentient beings whose birth and death are white?

This refers to wholesome karma and favorable destinies in the human and heavenly realms. For example, when a deva is about to die, other devas say, “May you be born in the human realm.” Or when a human being is about to die, a spiritual mentor may say, “May you be born in a heavenly realm.” One should know that birth into these two places is birth and death that is white.

● [Question:] Fascicle 5 [of the Sutra of Contemplation of the True Dharma] also states that the mind depicts the hell realm as black, the hungry ghost realm as [gray like] a dove, the animal realm as yellow, the human realm as red, and the heavenly realm as white. What does this mean?

● Answer: The preceding section speaks of the retributive results in the five destinies, ^[139] whereas this passage speaks of the creation of karma within the five destinies; therefore, they are not the same. This is the general meaning.

If beings such as these encounter the Buddha, those beings use suffering and affliction to torment themselves, while the Buddhas use great compassion to rescue and aid all beings. The Buddha’s compassion responds to the suffering and affliction of beings; therefore, it is said that they “encounter one another.”

Furthermore, the suchness of the Buddha and the suchness of beings are but one suchness, not two. Because their inherent natures ^[140] correspond in this way, it is said that they “encounter one another.”

The mind of great compassion constantly cherishes and pities beings. If beings were taught by means of the Human Vehicle and the Heavenly Vehicle, they would fall into darkness and delusion; these teachings would merely help them escape the blue realm of birth and death (hell), the yellow realm (hungry ghosts), the red realm (animals), or forms that are square, round, triangular, and so forth. This is not “teaching by means of the Buddha Way.”

If, upon encountering beings, the Buddha were to teach them to cultivate the Lesser Vehicle, the Buddha would necessarily fall into the fault of begrudging the Dharma. This is impossible, for that Lesser Vehicle teaching merely helps them escape the twenty-five realms of existence. ^[141]

If, upon encountering beings, the Buddha were to teach them according to the Shared Teaching or the Distinct Teaching, he would fall into narrow partiality and lose the Buddha’s knowledge and vision.

Now he enables all beings to attain the true aspect and wondrous wisdom, thoroughly realizing that all dharmas are the Buddha-Dharma and that nothing is outside the right path. This is precisely “teaching all beings by means of the Buddha Way.”

The suffering of birth and death is forever extinguished. The Buddha has always taught in this way, but because beings have dull faculties and heavy karmic hindrances, the Buddha’s vow cannot be fulfilled as stated.

In the past there was a Buddha named Abiding in Non-Abiding, who vowed that all beings in his Buddha-land would simultaneously attain Buddhahood on the same day. Then, on the very day he made that vow, the Buddha entered nirvana.

Furthermore, before this Bhadrakalpa there was a Buddha named Equality, who likewise vowed that all beings in his Buddha-land, as well as throughout the ten directions, would attain Buddhahood on the same day. Then, on the very day he made that vow, the Buddha entered nirvana.

Today there are still Buddhas and there are still beings. Why is this so? The Buddha taught: “Enough, enough!

What I previously said concerning vows such as these referred only to beings who had attained human bodies.” How could one vow that beings in all five destinies would attain Buddhahood together in a single day? The Buddha taught that the unsurpassed Way cannot be accomplished by means of a body that is not a suitable Dharma vessel. [Therefore,] the first essential task is to teach and transform beings in the three [evil] destinies, ^[142] enabling them to be born in the heavenly or human realms; only afterward can all beings be liberated in accordance with the vow.

The three evil destinies are not wholesome paths; how could beings there attain Buddhahood? It is like a person seeking a treasury of precious things: one cannot seek it in empty space.

The second passage, beginning with the line “I know these beings,” consists of six stanzas and separately discusses the five turbidities. It may be divided into five smaller passages.

The first smaller passage consists of two stanzas and discusses the turbidity of beings. [The verse says, “They have never cultivated roots of goodness.”] “Roots of goodness” refers to true suchness, the true aspect. Because they do not rely upon this root of goodness, they dare not [believe in and accept] the Great Vehicle. “Deeply attached to the five desires” describes the source from which evil deeds arise. [“Deluded and craving, they suffer,” is as stated in the Vimalakirti Sutra:] “Because beings are deluded and craving, my illness arises.”

The second smaller passage, beginning with the line “Receiving a body from the womb,” consists of one stanza and separately discusses the turbidity of lifespan. Interpreted in terms of contemplation of the mind, when a single thought arises in the mind, it has already created karma for the future. That karma [becomes] a womb; [that womb creates] karma, [and this cycle continues] without end, uninterrupted through life after life and age after age.

Being uninterrupted means that it constantly increases; this is also what is meant by “increasing the karma of suffering.” The phrase “receiving a body from the womb” means that the womb itself is the five skandhas. The formation of the five skandhas is called one lifetime. As the lifespan continues, the skandhas enter into the course of that life.

From the very beginning, when the embryo first takes shape, until old age and death, they are also said to increase life after life. This is the turbidity of lifespan.

The Sutra on Receiving the Skandha Body ^[143] states that when an ordinary being receives a body [in the womb], no change occurs during the first week. In the second week, [the embryo] forms like a thin film of cream. At three weeks, its shape is like thick cream.

At four weeks, it is like a lump of curd. At five weeks, the embryo has formed. At six weeks, it resembles a round lump of flesh.

At seven weeks, five protrusions begin to emerge: the head and four limbs. At eight weeks, these five protrusions have clearly formed into the head, two hands, and two feet. At nine weeks, another twenty-four protrusions continue to form: four will become the eyes, ears, nose, and tongue, while the other twenty will become the fingers and toes.

At ten weeks, the shape of the abdomen gradually becomes apparent, and the skin, bones, and other parts are gradually differentiated. Seven hundred sinews and seven thousand blood vessels also develop. According to the formation of different physical characteristics, different kinds of winds blow upon the embryo.

For a white characteristic there is a white wind, and so forth for all the other kinds of winds. When a fragrant wind blows upon it, [the embryo] is peaceful and secure, and [the body that develops] is well-proportioned and beautiful. When a foul-smelling wind blows upon it, [the embryo] is not peaceful or secure, and [the body that develops] is ugly and deformed.

After emerging from the womb and consuming the five kinds of grain, eighty thousand kinds of worms arise within the body. ^[144]

The third smaller passage, beginning with the line “Entering deeply into the forest of wrong views,” consists of one stanza and discusses the turbidity of views. The five wrong views ^[145] intertwine and proliferate like a dense forest. Falling into attachment to existence is the view of permanence; attachment to nonexistence is the view of annihilation. From these two wrong views arise the sixty-two [wrong views].

It may also be explained as follows: non-Buddhist practitioners cling to a self [in relation to the five skandhas] according to four propositions. [First, they hold that] form itself is the self. [Second, they hold that] the self exists apart from form. [Third, they hold that] form is large and the self is small, so the self dwells within form. [Fourth, they hold that] the self is large and form is small, so form dwells within the self. [These four erroneous propositions are also applied to] each of the remaining four skandhas—feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness—thus producing twenty wrong views.

Because the same errors are held regarding all three times—past, present, and future—they amount to sixty wrong views. Together with the two fundamental views [of permanence and annihilation mentioned above], they constitute the sixty-two [wrong views]. Alternatively, [this may be explained] as in the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra.

The fourth smaller passage, beginning with the line “Deeply attached to false dharmas,” consists of one stanza and discusses the turbidity of afflictions. [Its meaning may be understood] directly from the sutra text itself, [so no explanation is necessary].

The fifth subsection, from the line “Throughout thousands of millions of kotis of kalpas” onward, consists of one stanza and speaks of the defilement of the kalpa. [The verse says that] throughout a long period one does not encounter a Buddha or the true Dharma; this is precisely the defilement of the kalpa. Moreover, the four defilements mentioned above converge during this period, and it is therefore called the defilement of the kalpa.

[The verse says,] “People such as these are difficult to save,” because, being obstructed by the five defilements, they neither believe in nor accept the One Vehicle and therefore cannot be transformed and saved.

Explained in terms of contemplation of the mind, every single thought consists of unwholesome and evil conceptions, and there is never the right contemplation of self-awakening; this is precisely not encountering a Buddha. Within the mind there are none of the eight right factors,1 which means not hearing the Dharma. Such a mind is truly difficult to save.

The third passage, from the line “Therefore, Shariputra” onward, consists of one stanza and explains how [the Buddha] expediently teaches [sentient beings] the Lesser Vehicle. Its meaning may be understood directly from the scripture.

The fourth passage, from the line “Although it is called nirvana” onward, consists of one and a half stanzas and explains how, ultimately, [all sentient beings] are caused to enter the Great Vehicle. Even if all delusion within the three realms has been eliminated, if one extinguishes bodily form and then clings to emptiness, this is still not true quiescence. Only when one comprehends that the nature of ignorance is originally and eternally quiescent is there true quiescence. Yet although emptiness is originally and eternally quiescent, if one does not cultivate the right path, there is no means by which to accord with and realize it. Therefore, [the verse] says: “The Buddha’s children who cultivate the path will become Buddhas in the future.”

SCRIPTURE

The fifth principal passage, from the line “Through the power of skillful means, I” onward, consists of two stanzas and reiterates the meaning of “the Buddha’s words are not false” [from the prose section] above. [The prose passage of the scripture] says: “You should wholeheartedly believe, understand, accept, and uphold the Buddha’s teaching. The words of all Buddha Tathagatas are not false.”

The verses exhorting faith were already explained fully above; here they reiterate the meaning that the Buddha’s words are not false. The first two lines clarify how Shakyamuni Buddha previously [temporarily employed skillful means to] establish the three vehicles. The next two lines clarify how all Buddhas subsequently reveal the truth, thereby mutually [illuminating what occurs in] the present. The final stanza expressly clarifies the meaning that the Buddha’s words are not false. First the provisional Dharma is set forth, and afterward the true Dharma is revealed; both are truthful words, not falsehoods. [Therefore, the assembly is exhorted] not to give rise to doubt.

SCRIPTURE

The second section, from the line “Throughout innumerable kalpas in the past” onward, consists of twenty-seven and a half stanzas and reiterates the meaning of the discussion of past Buddhas in the prose passage above. This section is divided into two principal passages. © The first principal passage comprises the first two stanzas and reiterates the meaning of [the Buddhas’] provisional establishment of the three vehicles. It may be understood directly from the scripture [without explanation].

SCRIPTURE

The second principal passage, from the line “Those World-Honored Ones” onward, consists of twenty-five and a half stanzas and reiterates the meaning of revealing [the truth of] the One Vehicle. When the prose passage above revealed the truth, it also set forth the “four unities” (the four meanings of unity). These [four unities] are also fully present in this verse section, which is further divided into two passages.

The first passage consists of one stanza and briefly reiterates three meanings of unity. “All taught the Dharma of the One Vehicle” is the unity of teaching. “Teaching and transforming innumerable beings” is the unity of persons. “Causing them to enter the Buddha path” is the unity of principle, and it also encompasses the unity of practice.

The second passage, from the line “Moreover, those Great Sages” onward, consists of twenty-four and a half stanzas and extensively explains the meaning of revealing the truth of the One Vehicle on the basis of the five vehicles ^[146]. This passage is divided into two subsections.

The first subsection consists of one and a half stanzas and speaks generally of the five vehicles in order to reveal the truth of the One Vehicle. “Devas and human beings” sets forth the various vehicles to clarify the unity of persons. “Employed various skillful means” sets forth the various practices to clarify the unity of practice and also encompasses the unity of teaching. “To help reveal the true meaning” is the unity of principle.

Beginning with the words “various skillful means,” the passage teaches that the direct cause of Buddha-nature is itself the principle of the ultimate truth. Viewed from the perspective of the perfect and wondrous true Dharma, this is precisely the skillful means of the true aspect and cannot be called “various.” Viewed from the perspective that distinguishes the seven kinds of skillful means, [these dharmas] “help reveal the true meaning” and are therefore called “various skillful means.”

SCRIPTURE

The second subsection, from the line “If there were sentient beings” onward, consists of twenty-three stanzas and separately reveals the truth on the basis of the five vehicles. This subsection is further divided into three divisions. The first division consists of two stanzas and explains the opening and revealing of the bodhisattva vehicle. The second consists of one stanza and explains the opening and revealing of the two vehicles [of shravakas and pratyekabuddhas]. The third consists of twenty stanzas and explains the opening and revealing of the human and deva vehicles.