妙法蓮華經文句
Chinese title:妙法蓮華經文句
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Gavampati
Gavampati is translated into Chinese as “Ox-Rumination.” [1] In the Infinite Life Sutra, he is called “Ox King,” [2] while the Ekottarika Agama calls him “Ox Tracks.” [3] Long ago, five hundred lifetimes in the past, he was once the king of oxen. Oxen chew the cud after eating. Because the residual karmic effect of that life had not yet been exhausted, his mouth was always chewing [even when he had eaten nothing], and so people at that time called him Ox-Rumination.
[There is also the story that] long ago there was a flock of five hundred wild geese, [4] among which one goose, whenever it found flowers or fruit, would provide them to the leader of the flock. [That goose was Gavampati in a former life.] When the Buddha accepted King Agnidatta’s invitation for the summer retreat, [because the king completely forgot about making offerings, the Buddha] and five hundred bhiksus had to subsist on inferior grain intended as feed for horses. Gavampati alone was then in the celestial realm, in the Sirisa Garden, receiving offerings from the heavenly king.
The Ekottarika Agama says: “Among those who delight in the celestial realm and do not delight in the human realm, the bhiksu Ox Tracks is foremost.” Delighting in the celestial realm means pursuing sensual pleasures; this expresses the worldly siddhanta. Receiving that blessed recompense because he provided [food] for the leader of the geese expresses the individual siddhanta. [It is also said that he ascended to the celestial realm in order] to avoid people’s ridicule [of his cud-chewing]; this expresses the corrective siddhanta. The devas did not ridicule him; this expresses the siddhanta of the ultimate truth. Such is the explanation in brief.
It is also said that people look only at [outward] appearance and do not know [inward] virtue; if they ridicule an arhat, they thereby incur an offense. To prevent people of the world from committing such an offense through ridicule, he usually remained in the celestial realm. The devas understood his virtue and did not ridicule his appearance; therefore, he dwelt in the celestial realm.
After the Buddha entered extinction, Kasyapa summoned one thousand great arhats [to compile the scriptures] and immediately dispatched Sangha envoys to seek Gavampati. Gavampati asked [the monks] about the Buddha and his preceptor, and they replied that both had entered extinction. [Gavampati] then said: “When the Buddha appeared in the world, I appeared in the world; while the Buddha remained in the world, I remained in the world. Now that the Buddha has entered extinction, I too shall enter extinction. The four streams of the Path all flow toward Kasyapa.” Having said this, he recited the verse:
The great elephant has departed; the young elephant follows.
The World-Honored One and my preceptor have entered extinction;
Why should I now remain behind?
This accords with the siddhanta of the ultimate truth.
To explain briefly according to the teachings, the Tripitaka Teaching holds that dwelling in a garden in the celestial realm manifests [the cause and effect of] good, while the appearance of an ox chewing the cud manifests [the cause and effect of] evil.
According to the Shared Teaching, although he bore the appearance of an ox chewing the cud, he personally attained the Path; this manifests what is bad yet is not bad. Dwelling in a garden in the celestial realm while bearing the appearance of an ox chewing the cud manifests what is good yet is not good.
According to the Separate Teaching, it manifests the realm of good within and evil without.
According to the Perfect Teaching, it manifests the true aspect of good and evil.
According to the meaning of the original and the trace, the original is that he had fundamentally abided in the four fearlessnesses, as a holy sovereign dwelling in peace, like the Ox King of the ultimate truth; he manifested his trace in the celestial realm. The trace is his manifestation as Ox-Rumination, delighting in life in the celestial realm.
According to the contemplation of mind, one contemplates the principle of the Middle Way within the mind-nature. This is to contemplate one’s form as being like that of the king of oxen: walking steadily, the body upright and well-balanced, while faults [and defects] are merely like a passing wind outside.
Revata
Revata, also pronounced Revata, is translated into Chinese as “Constellation,” “Lunar Mansion,” or “Provisional Combination.” [5] The Sutra of Manjusri’s Questions [6] calls [him] “Constantly Making a Sound.”
His parents prayed to the constellations and, through that sympathetic response, conceived him; therefore, they named him Constellation. Although he entered monastic life, he retained the courtesy name he had borne as a householder, namely Provisional Combination.
Some cite the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise, which says: “[Once, while] lodging overnight in a deserted shrine, he encountered two ghosts fighting over a corpse. They asked him to settle their dispute. He thought that whether he spoke directly according to principle or evaded the matter with indirect words, he would inevitably be harmed; therefore, he answered according to the truth. The larger ghost immediately tore off all his limbs, while the smaller ghost took the [limbs] of the corpse and attached them to [him]. After the ghosts had finished eating all [his limbs], they wiped their mouths and departed. As a result, he became troubled and could not know to whom the body he now possessed belonged; therefore, he was called Provisional Combination.
[As for the name] Constantly Making a Sound, because he doubted what had happened, [he constantly reflected]: If this is my body, I saw with my own eyes [the ghost] tear off [its limbs and eat them]; but if this is the body [of that corpse], how can [these limbs] now walk and stand together with me? Because he remained doubtful and hesitant in this way, whenever he met anyone, he would ask: “Have you seen my body?” [Because he constantly asked this], he was called Constantly Making a Sound.
The members of the Sangha [who knew what had happened] said: “This man is easy to deliver.” They then told him: “That body of yours exists only by relying upon the remains of another; [it does not truly exist].” [Upon hearing this,] he immediately realized the Path. Such is the explanation in brief.
The Ekottarika Agama says: “Among those who practice seated meditation and enter samadhi with minds neither inverted nor confused, the bhiksu Revata is foremost.”
According to the teachings, the Tripitaka Teaching holds: “Analyze and break apart the five skandhas, [clearly seeing] that they are not mine.”
The Shared Teaching explains: “Realize that the five skandhas are intrinsically not what I possess.” The Separate Teaching holds that one distinguishes the ten Dharma realms, in each of which the five skandhas are not mine.
According to the Perfect Teaching, one reaches the realization that the five skandhas are neither mine nor another’s; this is to perceive the true aspect of the skandhas.
Understood according to the original and the trace, the original is that he had fundamentally abided in the Sun, Moon, and Constellations Samadhi, while the trace is his manifestation of such a name.
According to the contemplation of mind, one contemplates the mind recollecting the Buddha and beholds the innumerable Buddhas of the ten directions, like seeing the stars in the heavens at night. Such is the explanation in brief.
Pilindavatsa
Pilindavatsa is translated into Chinese as “Residual Habit.” For five hundred lifetimes, he had been born into the brahmin caste. Residual habitual tendencies still remained, and so he often appeared arrogant. Once, while crossing the Ganges, he scolded [the goddess of the Ganges]: “Lowly slave girl, stop flowing!” The goddess of the Ganges had to divide the river into two currents [so that they would avoid the place where he stood].
Later, the goddess of the Ganges reported this matter to the Buddha. The Buddha instructed Pilindavatsa to repent and apologize to the river goddess. He immediately joined his palms and said to the goddess of the Ganges: “Lowly slave girl, do not be angry anymore.” The assembly all laughed at him, because although he was repenting and apologizing, he ended up insulting her once again.
The Buddha said: “He truly has no arrogant intent. It is only because his deeply rooted habitual tendencies still remain that he manifests himself in this way.”
The Ekottarika Agama says: “Among those who undertake arduous seated meditation beneath trees and do not seek shelter even from wind and rain, the bhiksu Pilindavatsa is foremost.”
According to the doctrinal interpretation, the Tripitaka Teaching states that he had eliminated arrogance and was no longer arrogant. According to the Shared Teaching, what was regarded as his arrogance was in fact non-arrogance. The Distinct Teaching explains that he could discern higher and lower throughout the ten Dharma realms. According to the Perfect Teaching, the true self possesses the eight masteries, that is, the Buddha-Dharma in its fullness.
Interpreted in terms of the original and the manifest, the original is that he had always abided in permanence, bliss, self, and purity—the true self endowed with the eight masteries—and possessed the wondrous Brahma voice; the manifest is that he appeared to harbor arrogance and utter harsh, unwholesome words.
Interpreted in terms of contemplation of the mind, one contemplates and sees that whether words are coarse and harsh or gentle and sweet, they all return to the ultimate truth. Such is the general meaning.
Bakkula
Bakkula is translated into Chinese as “Good Countenance,” or by such other names as “Majestic Form,” “Greatly Plump and Flourishing,” “Soft Pouch,” “Angular and Even,” and “Seller of Surnames.” Because his form and facial features were upright and handsome, he was called Good Countenance. Throughout his life he was never ill, did not die prematurely, and lived to the age of 160. He received the karmic reward of five instances of being unable to die.
His stepmother once cast him into a cauldron heated over a fire, then submerged him in water; he was swallowed by a fish and cut with a knife, yet in every case he did not die. This was because in former lives he had observed the precept against killing; throughout ninety-one lifetimes, he never died prematurely. Long ago, he once offered a haritaki fruit to a monk [as medicine for an illness, and consequently received the karmic reward that for many lifetimes] his body was always free of illness.
[Regarding observance of the precepts,] if one can strictly uphold a single precept, the other four precepts will all be adorned thereby. [7] Because he steadfastly observed the precepts without transgression, he could not be harmed by fire or water. Although others also observed the five precepts, they violated them many times [and therefore did not obtain the same result as he did]. Such is the general meaning.
He delighted in secluded and tranquil places, and so he usually dwelt in solitude and did not enjoy crowded places. His eyes did not delight in pursuing visible forms; his ears did not delight in hearing worldly sounds; his nose did not delight in smelling the fragrant or unpleasant odors of the world; his tongue never uttered even one or two sentences for the sake of others; and his mind constantly rested in meditative concentration without distraction. Even the stupa enshrining his relics was situated in a secluded and peaceful place. When King Ashoka went to pay homage at the stupas of the arhats, upon reaching his stupa he spoke this verse:
You cultivated alone and dispelled ignorance,
But brought little benefit to the world.
The king then offered twenty silver coins.
The Ekottarika Agama [recounts this event differently,] saying: “The king offered a single coin, [8] but that coin flew back out from within the stupa and fell before the king’s feet. All the attending officials were astonished. He delighted in secluded places and had few desires; therefore, even his stupa possessed such spiritual power.”
The Ekottarika Agama says: “Of those whose lifespans were exceedingly long and who never died prematurely, who always delighted in secluded places and did not dwell together with the assembly, Bakkula was foremost.”
According to the doctrinal interpretation, leaving clamor and entering reality is the meaning of tranquility in the Tripitaka Teaching; clamor itself is reality, and this is the meaning of tranquility in the Shared Teaching; departing from both extremes [clamor and reality] and entering the Middle Way is the meaning of tranquility in the Distinct Teaching; the two extremes [clamor and reality] themselves are the Middle Way, and this is the meaning of tranquility in the Perfect Teaching.
[According to the meaning of the original and the manifest,] the original is that he had always abided in the concentration of Great Tranquil Cessation: longevity is permanence, freedom from illness is bliss, freedom from premature death is self, and tranquility is purity. In the original, he had always abided in these four virtues [permanence, bliss, self, and purity]; in the manifest, he appeared with the six sense faculties tranquil and still.
[According to the meaning of] contemplation of the mind, the nature of mind is the Middle Way; emptiness itself is the provisional and is also the middle. This is the contemplation of permanence, bliss, self, and purity.
Mahakauṣṭhila
Mahakauṣṭhila, [also called Kauṣṭhila,] is translated into Chinese as “Great Knees.” [9] He was Shariputra’s maternal uncle. Ordinarily, whenever he debated with his elder sister, he always prevailed. But when she became pregnant [with Shariputra], he could no longer defeat her.
He then thought that if the child, while still in the womb, could [influence] his mother’s eloquence in this way, how extraordinarily gifted would he be after birth? [Fearing that he would later be unable to defeat his nephew in debate,] he immediately left home and traveled to southern India [to study further]. When he [began] reading the eighteen divisions of scriptures, people of that time all mocked him, [saying that] even over many kalpas it would be difficult to master [those eighteen divisions of scriptures, much less] to complete their study in a single lifetime.
Seeing this, he lamented: “At home, I was defeated in debate by my sister; now that I have left home, I am ridiculed by others.” From then on, he vowed to devote himself to reading without pause. Even when his fingernails grew long, he had no spare time to cut them, and so people called him the Long-Nailed Brahmin. [10]
After completing his studies, he returned home and asked about Shariputra. People told him that Shariputra had become a disciple of the Buddha. He immediately became arrogant and thought: “When my nephew was only eight years old, he was already renowned throughout the five regions of India. [11] What spiritual art does that shramana possess that enabled him to entice my sister’s son?”
He then went to where the Buddha was [and listened to the Dharma]. After thinking for a long while, yet finding that his mind could not penetrate any Dharma, he asked the Buddha: “I accept no dharmas whatsoever. To accept means to be secure, [yet the Buddha now says] that ‘all dharmas can be refuted by me,’ which renders them insecure. [Therefore, I] say, ‘I accept no dharmas whatsoever.’”
The Buddha asked: “Do you accept your own view? [By your reasoning,] you lose either way. If you say, ‘I accept my own view,’ this [contradicts] your earlier statement, ‘I accept no dharmas whatsoever.’ If you say, ‘I do not accept my own view,’ then you have nothing by which to surpass the Buddha.”
Kauṣṭhila then bowed his head [in submission] and immediately attained the pure Dharma-eye. Shariputra, standing nearby in attendance and hearing the Buddha debate with his uncle, attained arhatship.
The Ekottarika Agama says: “Of those who attained the four kinds of eloquence and could answer difficult questions, Kauṣṭhila was foremost.”
The heavenly king of the south, Virupaksha, [12] often appeared to attend upon him.
According to the doctrinal interpretation, the Tripitaka Teaching explains the four kinds of eloquence as mastering the four Vedas [13] among non-Buddhist writings and mastering the Tripitaka scriptures among Buddhist teachings. According to the Shared Teaching, [it is as the goddess says in the Vimalakirti Sutra:] “It is because I have nothing to attain that I am able to debate in this way.” According to the Distinct Teaching, eloquence means that both names and meanings manifest throughout the ten Dharma realms. According to the Perfect Teaching, eloquence means relying upon the true aspect in all discourse.
Interpreted in terms of the original and the manifest, the original is that he had always abided in the mystery of speech [14] and in the inconceivable wheel of speech, [15] from which great concentration and great wisdom were manifested; the manifest is that he appeared as Great Knees, namely Kauṣṭhila.
According to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, one contemplates that this very mind is emptiness, which is concentration; it is also the provisional, which is wisdom. These inherently adorn one’s own mind. Such is the general meaning.
Nanda
Nanda, also called Cowherd Nanda, [16] is rendered in Chinese as Good Joy, and also as Delight. When King Śuddhodana compelled 100,000 members of the Śākya clan to leave home and follow the Buddha, he was one of them. [17] One master says that this was the bhikshu Upananda mentioned in the Vinaya Piṭaka. [18]
According to the doctrinal interpretation, the Tripiṭaka Teaching says that [his name] signifies joy in phenomena, but not joy in principle. According to the Shared Teaching, joy in phenomena is itself joy in principle. According to the Distinct Teaching, it is the Ground of Joy. According to the Perfect Teaching, it is the Abode of Joy.
According to the interpretation in terms of origin and manifestation, in his origin he fundamentally abides in reality, which is neither joy nor absence of joy; in his manifestation, he displays the name Joy. According to the interpretation of contemplation of the mind, when the mind is contemplated in accordance with principle, its outward form naturally accords with it; hence this is called contemplating joy.
Sundara-nanda
Sundara-nanda is rendered in Chinese as Lovely and also as Handsome and Upright. The meaning of Nanda is as explained above. His clan was the same as that of Aniruddha, as previously explained. [19]
He was born on the ninth day of the fourth month. His body was four finger-widths shorter than the Buddha’s, [20] and his appearance and bearing surpassed those of other people and were altogether unlike those of an ordinary person. Whenever he entered the assembly, those who did not know him sometimes mistakenly thought that the Buddha had arrived. [21]
The Mahīśāsaka Vinaya says: “In the kingdom of Magadha there was an extremely intelligent naked ascetic whom all the people of the kingdom acclaimed as a wise and widely learned man. He debated with Śāriputra, but when his arguments were exhausted and he could say nothing further, wholesome thoughts arose in him, and he wished to leave home and study the Buddha-Dharma. He then encountered [Sundara-]nanda and, seeing his extraordinarily handsome form and countenance, exclaimed in admiration: ‘Even a short bhikshu [such as Śāriputra] possesses wisdom that is difficult to fathom; how much more must this one possess, whose majestic appearance shines so brilliantly!’ Nanda thereupon enabled him to leave home.
[Before he left home,] his wife Sundarī was exceedingly beautiful, and [the husband and wife] were never apart, whether eating or resting. One day, while the Buddha and Ānanda were going on almsround, they came before Nanda’s house. At that time, Nanda was eating with his wife on an upper story.
He immediately rose and went to the door to welcome the Buddha. His wife said, ‘I shall wait for you to return so that we may eat together!’ Nanda went out to meet the Buddha and said to him, ‘You belong to the lineage of a wheel-turning king; why lower yourself [by begging for food]?’ [22] Having said this, he took the Buddha’s alms bowl and went inside to fill it with rice. At that very moment, the Buddha [did not wait to take back the bowl but] returned to the Nyagrodha Grove, [23] instructing Ānanda to tell Nanda that he must bring the bowl of rice to the Buddha.
Ānanda conveyed the Buddha’s instruction, so Nanda had to bring the rice and offer it to the Buddha. [After Nanda arrived at the Nyagrodha Grove,] the Buddha ordered that [Nanda’s] head be shaved. Nanda clenched his fist and threatened the man shaving him: ‘Do not touch your razor to the crown of the king of Jambudvīpa!’ [24] The Buddha urged him not to stop, and in the end all of Nanda’s hair was shaved off.
The following day, the Buddha and five hundred bhikshus went to accept an invitation to receive offerings. Nanda asked to remain at the monastery, intending to seize the opportunity to flee home. The Buddha instructed him to close the doors and sweep the ground clean. When Nanda closed the southern door, the northern door opened by itself; when he swept one place clean, another became dirty. [Although he kept sweeping, he could not finish.] Fearing that [the time had come for] the Buddha to return, he hurriedly fled toward home.
On the way, he encountered the Buddha and immediately hid behind a tree. [Through his spiritual power, the Buddha caused] the tree to fly into the air, leaving Nanda nowhere to hide. The Buddha saw him and told him to return to the monastery. The Buddha asked why he had tried to flee home. Nanda replied, ‘When I left yesterday, my wife was still waiting for me to return so that we could eat together. Now I miss her greatly and therefore wish to go home.’
[Thereafter, in order to transform and guide Nanda,] the Buddha took him up to the celestial palaces and down into the hells.... [25] Such is the account in brief. [Because of these events,] his wife’s name was included in his own. [26]
According to the doctrinal interpretation, the Tripiṭaka Teaching holds that within conventional truth there is joy that accords with the Dharma, while within ultimate truth there is no mind of rejoicing. The Shared Teaching says, “That very conventional joy is itself true joy.” According to the Distinct Teaching, from the Dharma joy of the Shared Teaching arise conventional Dharma joy and Dharma joy of the Middle. According to the Perfect Teaching, the Dharma joy of the Shared Teaching itself fully contains every kind of Dharma joy.
[The explanations in terms of] origin and manifestation and contemplation of the mind are the same as in the preceding section. Such is the account in brief.
Pūrṇa
Pūrṇa [27] is rendered in Chinese as Fulfilled Wish. Maitrā is rendered as Loving-Kindness, while the syllable ṇī [in Sanskrit] marks the feminine gender.
His father went to the Pūrṇa River and set up an altar to pray to Brahmā for the birth of a son. At that very time, the river’s waters rose until they were full, and he also dreamed that a vessel made of the seven precious substances, filled with jewels, flew into the mother’s bosom. Then, when his mother conceived him, all his father’s wishes were fulfilled. Because his wishes were thus fulfilled, he named [his son] Fulfilled Wish.
His mother was named Maitrāyaṇī, which is rendered in Chinese as Practice of Loving-Kindness and also as Spiritual Friend. Among the four Vedas was a section bearing this name. Because his mother frequently recited it, she took it as her name. The syllable ṇī [in Sanskrit] indicates the feminine gender: in general, what belongs to the female gender is designated by “ṇī,” while what belongs to the male gender is designated by “ṇa.” [28] Since he was born of a mother named Maitrā, he was called Maitrā’s Son.
The Ekottarika Āgama [29] [records him as saying]: “My father’s name was Pūrṇa, and my mother’s name was Maitrā; therefore, those who cultivate the holy life call me Pūrṇa, Son of Maitrā.” His name was thus formed by combining the two conditions of his father’s and mother’s names; therefore, he was called Pūrṇa, Son of Maitrā.
His father [30] thoroughly understood the scriptures, both the inner and outer canons, and there was nothing he did not comprehend. Because his understanding was complete, he was named Pūrṇa.
The Ekottarika Āgama says, “Pūrṇa, Son of Maitrā, is foremost in skillfully expounding and distinguishing meanings and principles at length.” Later it also says, “[He is] foremost among those who teach the Dharma.” The one called foremost here is Pūrṇa, Son of Maitrā.
[After attaining accomplishment in his cultivation,] he wished to return to his homeland to [teach and transform] the people for their benefit.
The Buddha asked, “The people of that region are exceedingly base and cruel. How will you [teach and transform them]?”
He replied, “I shall practice patience. If they slander and insult me, I shall consider myself fortunate that they have not struck me with their hands. If they strike me with their hands, I shall consider myself fortunate that they have not beaten me with clubs. If they beat me with clubs, I shall consider myself fortunate that they have not stabbed or slashed me with knives. If they stab or slash me, I shall consider myself fortunate to be freed from [this body,] a vessel containing the harmful five skandhas.”
Thus he practiced patience to perfection, and therefore he was named Pūrṇa.
In the Discourse on the Seven Chariots, [31] the greatly wise Śāriputra praised and extolled him, saying, “Those who cultivate the holy life should wrap their robes around their heads and respectfully bow to the worthy one. To encounter the worthy one is truly of immense benefit.” This was praise in its fullness, and therefore he was named Pūrṇa.
According to the doctrinal teaching, the Tripitaka Teaching explains “the fulfillment of vows” as diligently analyzing the teachings, with everything that needed to be done already completed. The Shared Teaching holds that “the fulfillment of vows” means penetrating to the point where all dharmas are empty and attaining realization within that very emptiness of dharmas. According to the Distinct Teaching, “the fulfillment of vows” means attaining the complete Dharma-eye. According to the Perfect Teaching, “the fulfillment of vows” means abiding in the secret treasury.
Explained in terms of the original and the trace, the original vows had long since been completely fulfilled, while the manifested trace was that of one foremost in expounding the Dharma, appearing as a spiritual guide for sentient beings.
According to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, as taught in śamatha-vipaśyanā, one who contemplates practitioners and principle as identical is a good spiritual guide.
Subhūti
Subhūti is translated into Chinese as Empty-Born. [32] At the time of his birth, all the storehouses, vessels, and other receptacles in his home spontaneously became empty, with nothing remaining in them. When his family consulted a diviner, they were told that this was an auspicious sign. Because he was born when emptiness appeared, he was named Empty-Born. Since all the receptacles constituting his dependent retribution displayed the auspicious sign of emptiness, [emptiness] was used to name his primary retribution. [33] As both his dependent and primary retributions were auspicious, he was called Empty-Born.
Because he constantly cultivated the practice of emptiness, he was also called Good Karma. All who made offerings to him received excellent rewards in this very life, so he was also called Auspicious Goodness.
He always delighted in dwelling in secluded forests, rocky caves, and tranquil, solitary places. His cultivation was founded upon the practice of contemplating emptiness; he frequently entered the concentration on emptiness and peacefully abided in the Samadhi of Non-Contention. He delighted in expounding the Dharma of emptiness, and whenever he taught or debated, he distinguished and elucidated the meaning of emptiness.
He constantly aided and protected sentient beings, never allowing obstructions to arise: with those who did not like walking, he would stand still; with those who did not like standing, he would walk, [always accommodating sentient beings in this manner].
When the Buddha had just returned to this world from the Trayastrimsha Heaven, great crowds everywhere vied to be the first to approach and bow before him. Subhūti remained seated peacefully in his rocky cave, contemplating that all dharmas are empty: [therefore,] form is not the Buddha; [the other skandhas—feeling, perception, and formations,] up to and including consciousness, are likewise not the Buddha; the eye is not the Buddha; [the other faculties—the ear, nose, tongue, and body,] up to and including the mind, are likewise not the Buddha. [Having contemplated in this way,] he suddenly attained realization.
[At that time,] the Buddha said to the bhikshuni Utpalavarna: “You were not the first to bow before me. You merely bowed before my physical body, whereas Subhūti had already encountered my Dharma-body before you.” [34]
According to the doctrinal teaching, when one personally extinguishes [attachment to] form, wisdom concerning emptiness arises; when one comprehends form, wisdom concerning emptiness arises. From wisdom concerning existence arises wisdom concerning emptiness. From wisdom concerning emptiness arises wisdom within conventional truth.
From the wisdom of conventional truth arises the wisdom of the Middle Way. According to the Perfect Teaching, [the realization of] emptiness arising is itself the presence of wisdom and is itself the arising of wisdom concerning emptiness. Thus, [Subhūti] here gives rise to wisdom concerning emptiness according to the Perfect Teaching.
In terms of the original and the trace, the original is his primordial abiding in the true aspect of the Dharma-body, while the trace is his manifestation of being born when everything appeared empty.
According to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, [the Dharma-body] is neither within, nor without, nor in between, nor does it exist by itself. This is the Dharma-body according to contemplation of the mind.
Ānanda
Ānanda is translated into Chinese as Joy or Undefiled. King Shuddhodana wished the prince [Siddhartha] to become a Golden Wheel-Turning [Sage King] and rule the kingdom, but [the prince] suddenly renounced [succession to the rule of] the kingdom, causing the king endless grief and anxiety. [At that time,] Māra appeared and falsely told him, “Your son has died.” The king wept and lamented: “Asita’s words [35] were untrue, and the auspicious signs have not been fulfilled.” Celestial beings then appeared and told him, “Your son has attained Buddhahood.” The king was doubtful and did not yet believe them.
Before long, another report arrived: “Last night heaven and earth trembled; the prince has attained Buddhahood.” The king rejoiced exceedingly. [At that time,] King Shuklodana [36] reported: “Your servant has just had a son, born at a time when the entire kingdom is rejoicing.” He was therefore named Joy. This was the name given to him by his parents.
Ānanda’s appearance was dignified and handsome, and all who saw him felt delighted. [After he went forth,] the Buddha instructed him to wear his robe so that it covered his shoulder. [37] [It is said that] a young woman once took a child with her to draw water from a well. When she saw Ānanda [passing by], she stared after him without blinking and became oblivious to everything around her, to the point that she wound the [water-drawing] rope around the child’s neck [instead of around the well’s windlass].
The Madhyama Āgama says: “When the fourfold assembly [38] heard Ānanda expound the teachings, whether the audience was large or small, all delighted in listening. Before he wished to raise any question, he would always smile brightly, causing the entire assembly to rejoice. The fourfold assembly also always rejoiced upon seeing him, whether he was silent or walking, standing, lying down, or sitting; whether issuing instructions or settling matters; and in all his actions and movements.
Ānanda was born on the eighth day of the fourth month, [39] the same day the Buddha attained enlightenment, and served as the Buddha’s attendant for twenty-five years. From this it may be inferred that when the Buddha was fifty-five years old, Ānanda was twenty-five. When the Buddha wished to find an attendant, five hundred bhikshus all requested Ānanda to serve, as explained earlier. [40] [In the end,] Ānanda accepted the assembly’s counsel, and all five hundred bhikshus rejoiced.
Maudgalyayana presented [to the Buddha] Ānanda’s three requests. [41] The Buddha said: “[Ānanda], wishing to guard in advance against [others’] jealousy, requests that he not receive [the Tathagata’s] old robes and that he not accompany the Tathagata when accepting invitations to offerings. Moreover, wishing personally to benefit [the fourfold assembly], he requests permission to enter and leave [the Buddha’s quarters] at any time.” [42] The Buddha consented to [all three requests].
The Buddha further said: “Ānanda surpasses all the attendants [of the Buddhas] of the past. The attendants of the past understood only after hearing [their Buddhas] speak, but today, before the Buddha has even spoken, Ānanda already understands the Tathagata’s intent. He clearly knows all that should and should not be done.” Therefore, the Tathagata joyfully entrusted the True Dharma to Ānanda.
Each of the Four Heavenly Kings offered the Buddha an alms bowl [made of precious stone]. The Buddha stacked all four together and pressed them down, whereupon they became a single bowl with four distinct ridges along its rim; therefore, this bowl was very heavy. [43] Ānanda joyfully carried [this bowl while attending the Buddha], never shrinking from weariness. Fascicle 7 of the Madhyama Āgama says: “Ānanda served as the Buddha’s attendant for twenty-five years. Having heard 80,000 verses, [44] he could recite them all without omitting a single one. He never needed to ask [the Buddha] to repeat even one sentence, but always joyfully exerted himself to remember them.”
Ananda attended upon the Buddha and entered the palaces of kings, devas, and dragon kings. Although he saw palace women, celestial maidens, and dragon maidens [of extraordinary beauty], his mind was never defiled by attachment. Though he had not yet completely eliminated the afflictions of thought, he was still able to [keep his mind] free from defiled attachment; therefore, all devas, humans, dragons, and spirits [who encountered him] rejoiced.
After the Buddha entered nirvana upon the lion throne, [45] Mahakasyapa and the great assembly praised him, saying:
His face is fair as the full moon,
His eyes like blue lotus blossoms.
The Buddha-Dharma, like the great ocean,
Flows into Ananda’s mind. [46]
He himself vowed that he would enter nirvana while seated. [When he was about to enter nirvana,] if he remained where he was, he feared that the Licchavis would resent him; if he went farther onward, he feared that King Ajatasatru would resent him. [47] He therefore [rose into the air] above the middle of the Ganges River, entered the Samadhi of Wind-Like Vigor, [48] [cremated his own body], and then divided [his relics] into four portions: one portion for the devas, one for the dragon palace, one for the state of Vaisali, and one for King Ajatasatru.
When King Asoka paid homage at the stupa [enshrining the relics] of Ananda, he offered tens of millions of measures of gold and recited verses in praise:
Through you, the Dharma-body was preserved;
The Dharma lamp was kindled, and the Dharma abides in the world.
You remembered the Buddha’s words like the great ocean;
Therefore, I now perform this rite of offering.
Through much learning, remembrance, and preservation,
Your mouth proclaimed wondrous words.
The World-Honored One once extolled and praised you;
Devas and humans of both realms revere and cherish you.
The Ekottarika Agama states:
Knowing the appropriate time,
Wisely understanding all things,
Following the path of cultivation without doubt,
Never forgetting what he remembered,
Learned in much and broad in understanding,
Reverently receiving and preserving the True Dharma—
Ananda was foremost.
According to the doctrinal meaning, the Tripitaka Teaching calls him Ananda the Joyful; the Shared Teaching calls him Ananda the [Joyful] Worthy; the Distinct Teaching calls him Ananda, Repository of the Canon; and the Perfect Teaching calls him Ananda, Ocean of [Joy].
According to the meaning of origin and manifestation, his origin is that he fundamentally abides in what is neither joy nor non-joy. The Dharma-body is originally like empty space, while wisdom is like clouds and rain [within empty space], capable of preserving and receiving; his manifestation was his appearance as [Ananda] the Joyful.
The meaning according to contemplation of the mind is likewise: emptiness itself is the conventional, and is itself the Middle Way; all are mutually concordant. This is joy according to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, and even the contemplation of reality is likewise concordant.
Rahula
Rahula (Rāhula) is translated into Chinese as “Obstructive Envelopment.” This was because, in a former life, he blocked a mouse hole; it is also [said in one account that, when he was a king,] for six days he failed to visit and make offerings to a brahmin [seer], [causing him to suffer hunger and thirst, and consequently receiving the karmic retribution of remaining in his mother’s womb for six years]. For these reasons, he was called Obstructive Envelopment.
When Prince [Siddhartha] asked for permission to renounce the household life, his royal father refused, but he continued pleading without cease. King [Suddhodana] said, “If you beget a son, I will permit you to renounce the household life.” The Bodhisattva [prince] then pointed to the belly of Princess [Yasodhara] and said, “Six years from now, she will give birth to a son.” Because he remained in his mother’s womb for six years, he was called Obstructive Envelopment.
Tripitaka Master Paramartha said, “Rahula was originally named Sura; [the asuras] can cover the light of the sun and moon with their hands, so the name should be translated as ‘Obstructor of the Sun and Moon.’”
The Buddha said, “My Dharma is like the moon, and this child obstructed my renunciation of the household life. For many lifetimes he created obstructions, and throughout many lifetimes I was able to relinquish them all; therefore, he is named Obstructive Envelopment.”
After the Buddha renounced the household life, [it was not until six years later that everyone learned] Yasodhara was pregnant. [49] The people of the Sakya clan were all enraged, [doubting and wondering] how this child had come to be. Some wanted to punish her, while others wanted to kill her, and scandal spread everywhere. The woman named Gopika [50] came forward to bear witness [51], but this changed nothing.
Therefore, [the people] dug and kindled a fiery pit [in preparation to cast Yasodhara into it]. [At that time, Yasodhara] made a great vow: “If I have committed any wrongdoing, may both mother and child die; but if [this child] truly is [the one left by the prince], may heaven bear witness.” Having spoken, she embraced her child and leapt into the fiery pit. The pit immediately transformed into a lotus pond, and a lotus blossom supported both mother and child. [At that time,] King [Suddhodana] and the people of the kingdom were finally freed from doubt.
Later, when the Buddha returned to his homeland, Yasodhara sent Rahula to present pills of joy to the Buddha. [52] Because Rahula was young and did not yet understand, he crossed directly in front of the great assembly, went straight to the Buddha, and presented them. Through this, Yasodhara put an end to the slander against her. Because she had been slandered on account of having a child, she named her son Obstructive Envelopment.
King [Suddhodana] was then joyful. Although he had lost his son [who would not succeed to the throne], he now had this grandson, who would become a Golden-Wheel [Sage King], and so he felt neither sorrow nor anger. The king thought within himself that, when his grandson grew up, he expected the various treasures to appear. [53]
But then the Buddha asked that Rahula be allowed to renounce the household life. King Suddhodana did not consent. Yasodhara hurriedly led Rahula [away] to a high tower, but Maudgalyayana flew through the air and brought him down. The Buddha then ordained Rahula and entrusted him to Sariputra as a disciple. Once he had renounced the household life, the kingship was also lost; therefore, he was called Obstructive Envelopment.
While Rahula was a novice, he repeatedly delighted in telling lies. When kings, great ministers, brahmins, and householders came requesting to see the Buddha, Rahula would falsely say that the Buddha was away, causing many people to be unable to see the Buddha. Thus, he obstructed others and also committed the offense of false speech.
The Buddha then rebuked him. [One day,] when the Buddha returned, he told Rahula to bring water for washing his feet. With his foot, the Buddha overturned the basin containing the water, then turned it upright again. He did this three times.
Afterward, he again placed the basin upside down on the ground and told Rahula to pour water into it. Rahula said, “The basin is overturned; if water is poured into it, it cannot retain the water.” The Buddha taught, “Because you [often tell lies], you are also like this overturned basin. Though you dwell within the Buddha-Dharma, when the water of Dharma is poured into you, you cannot retain it.
From now on, you must speak truthful words and no longer tell lies.”
Thereafter, [Rahula] diligently and single-mindedly cultivated, but did not attain the fruit, so he questioned the Buddha. The Buddha asked, “Have you yet taught others about the five skandhas?” Rahula replied, “No, I have not.” The Buddha taught, “You should teach others in this way.”
[Following the instruction, Rahula] taught the Dharma, but [still did not attain the fruit], so he came again to ask. The Buddha taught, “Have you taught about the twelve ayatanas? Have you taught about the eighteen dhatus? Teaching the Dharma is the Dharma gate through which the fruit of the path is attained. If you wish to attain the fruit of the path, you should teach the Dharma to others.”
Because [Rahula] extensively taught the Dharma and only afterward [personally] attained the path, he was called Obstructive Envelopment.
After attaining the fruit of the path, he immediately eliminated all afflictions of views and afflictions of craving. [54] Because he brought rebirth in the three realms to an end, he was called Obstructive Envelopment. Because he had ended rebirth in the three realms, even the power of vows could no longer draw him back; therefore, he was called Obstructive Envelopment.
The Buddha exhorted the four great arhats [55] not to enter cessation too soon, but to wait until the Buddhadharma had disappeared. Therefore, Rāhula still remains to preserve the True Dharma and, even to this day, has not entered the nirvana without remainder; hence he is called “Abundant Obstructions.” Such is the meaning in brief.
According to doctrinal interpretation, the Tripitaka Teaching holds that, by analyzing and contemplating the teaching of the truth of the path, one can obstruct the four abiding grounds. [56] According to the Shared Teaching, by entering into and comprehending the teaching of the truth of the path, one can obstruct the four abiding grounds. According to the Distinct Teaching, by cultivating sequentially [57] and realizing the three wisdoms, [58] one can obstruct the five abiding grounds. [59] According to the Perfect Teaching, there is the “three wisdoms in a single mind,” that is, within one mind all three wisdoms are realized simultaneously, thereby obstructing the five abiding grounds.
According to the meaning of origin and manifestation, in origin he originally abided in the Middle Way, blocking both extremes; [60] [in manifestation, he displayed ten kinds of obstruction]: eight kinds obstruct nirvana, one kind obstructs [and causes one to enter] birth and death, and one kind obstructs neither birth and death nor nirvana, but obstructs [entry into] nirvana without remainder. [61]
As for the meaning of contemplation of the mind, it may be explained as above. Such is the meaning in brief.
6. Conclusion
SŪTRA TEXT
These were the great arhats known to many people.
Those mentioned above were honored as “those known and recognized by the assembly” (眾所知識), meaning that everyone knew them. Some say that “known” and “recognized” have the same meaning. Others say that hearing their names is called “knowing,” while meeting and seeing them is called “recognizing.” Still others say that seeing their outward form is “knowing,” while clearly understanding their minds is “recognizing.”
According to the meaning of origin and manifestation, in origin they had already served as the ultimate spiritual friends of sentient beings; in manifestation, [as an expedient means,] they appeared as spiritual friends of the provisional vehicle. [62] Such is the meaning in brief.
Spiritual friends in contemplative practice are as explained in the teachings on calming and contemplation.
The preceding section discussed [the śrāvakas] known to many people. Next will be discussed those known to few.
SŪTRA TEXT
There were also two thousand persons, some still in training and others beyond training.
Bhikṣus Known to Few
The sūtra text states: “There were also two thousand persons, some still in training and others beyond training.” [63] Here it merely identifies their stages and specifies their number, without praising their virtuous conduct [as before]; therefore, they are called [bhikṣus] known to few.
[Since ordinary members of the Sangha cannot understand the noble Sangha,] noble ones and ordinary persons are not intermixed, nor is any distinction made between those known to many and those known to few. [Nevertheless,] for those who look up to and seek persons of lofty virtue, those known to many are presented to guide them; while for those who delight in withdrawing, concealing their names, and hiding their virtues, those known to few are presented to guide them. Because the teaching accords with sentient beings, the numbers are greater or smaller. One must not allow the manifested appearance of being known to many or few to obscure the fundamental meaning.
Explanation of Those in Training and Those Beyond Training
Within the Tripitaka Teaching, there are eighteen stages of those in training and nine stages of those beyond training. The first five stages of the Shared Teaching are all called stages of training, while beginning with the sixth stage one is called beyond training. Alternatively, it may be said that all nine stages of the Shared Teaching are stages of training, while the stage of Buddhahood is beyond training.
In the Distinct Teaching and the Perfect Teaching, those in training and those beyond training are distinguished according to whether practice still requires effort or is effortless, [64] or according to whether the qualities are complete or not yet complete. [65]
The Āgama Sūtra states: “A non-Buddhist asked the Buddha: ‘Does an arhat still train?’ [66] The Buddha replied: ‘An arhat no longer commits evil deeds and abides in wholesome dharmas. Because he trains in this matter of being beyond training, he is called one in training. If a person trains in this manner, he is also called one beyond training. One in training is one who cultivates in order to eliminate what must be eliminated; if nothing remains to be eliminated, one is called beyond training.’” [67]
The foregoing presents four ways of distinguishing [those in training and those beyond training]. In addition, according to the Five Expedient Practices, [68] one is neither in training nor beyond training; this is the fifth distinction.
According to the meanings of the four teachings—the Tripitaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect Teachings—the pattern is likewise the same. Thus, multiplying four by five yields twenty ways of distinguishing [those in training and those beyond training].
Explained according to origin and manifestation, in origin they were already great beings of the Dharma-body, constantly abiding in the ultimate stage of both training and being beyond training; [in manifestation,] for the sake of sentient beings, [they appeared as] persons in training and beyond training, adorning the grove of twin śāla trees.
According to the meaning [of contemplation of the mind], right contemplation is the Middle Way and does not take either extreme or the intervening middle as its object; this is being beyond training. Being able to contemplate in this manner is called training.
If the number is clarified through the method of contemplation, the contemplation of form and mind contains all ten Dharma realms and the ten suchnesses. The realms and suchnesses mutually interpenetrate and, [together with form and mind,] comprise the number two thousand. [69]
To present the manifested appearance is precisely to reveal the origin, which is the foundation of the Dharma; therefore, this manifestation is the manifestation of the origin.
The following section discusses the assembly of nuns.
B. The Assembly of Bhikṣuṇīs
SŪTRA TEXT
The bhikṣuṇī Mahāpajāpatī came together with an assembly of six thousand nuns. Yaśodharā, the mother of Rāhula, also came together with an assembly of nuns. [70]
According to the old explanation, the division follows the preceding method, meaning that they are divided into two assemblies; this interpretation is not adopted here. If the preceding pattern were followed, they would be divided into those known to many and those known to few. However, this section does not contain the phrase [“known and recognized by the assembly” [71] at the end], so such a division cannot be based upon the meaning of the text. Therefore, only the two leaders of the [bhikṣuṇī] assembly are named, without laboriously dividing them into greater or lesser groups, or into those known to many or few.
Mahāpajāpatī
[The sūtra text] first names [the bhikṣuṇī Mahā]pajāpatī, whose name is translated into Chinese as “Great Love of the Path.” She is also called Gautamī, translated into Chinese as “Leader of the Assembly.” The word “nī” [as in bhikṣuṇī] is a general Sanskrit designation for the feminine gender.
[According to origin and manifestation,] in origin she originally abided in the Dharma-gate of prajnaparamita (the Perfection of Wisdom); in manifestation, she [appeared] as the mother of one thousand Buddhas, nurturing the teacher of the path.
According to contemplation of the mind, [this name] is explained as follows: because contemplation of the Middle Way is all-pervasive, it is called “Great”; because there is unconditional loving-kindness, it is called “Love”; and because the principle of the Middle Way is empty and unobstructed, it is called the “Path.”
“Great” refers to the practice benefiting oneself, while “Love” refers to teaching and transforming others. Just as one undergoes birth because of attachment, one gives rise to loving-kindness and thereby enters into the path. Thus, the name encompasses both meanings: practicing for oneself and teaching and transforming others.
[The sūtra states] “six thousand” to indicate the number. According to the method of contemplation, one contemplates the purification of the six sense faculties, [each faculty] being endowed with one thousand merits. Although it is separately stated that the eye has eight hundred merits and the ear has twelve hundred merits, the greater number is used to supplement the lesser; thus, the whole is counted as six thousand, revealing the foundation of this Dharma-gate. This is also an explanation according to contemplative practice.
Yaśodharā
“Yaśodharā, the mother of Rāhula, was a bhikṣuṇī.” Here the son’s name is given to identify his mother. [Yaśodharā] is translated into Chinese as “Flower-Hued,” and also as “Renowned,” while some hold that the name is untranslatable. She was gentle, virtuous, respectful, diligent, and frugal, and her virtue matched that of the prince. While living as a householder, she was the wife of the bodhisattva and was known to gods and humans alike. After going forth, she became the foremost of the assembly of nuns and attained the stage beyond training. How, then, could it be said that this assembly of bhikṣuṇīs was without renown? [72]
The Sutra of the Twelve Journeys [73] relates that the prince had three wives. The first consort was Gopi, the second was Yasodhara, and the third was Mrgaja. Both the Sutra of Unprecedented Events and the Sutra of Auspicious Responses say that Rahula was the son of Gopi. [74] The Nirvana Sutra and the Lotus Sutra both say that [Rahula] was the son of Yasodhara. How can these two differing accounts be reconciled? It may be that those sutras [the Sutra of Unprecedented Events and the Sutra of Auspicious Responses] speak of [Gopi] as his senior mother, [75] while [the Lotus Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra], in speaking of [Yasodhara], refer to the woman who gave birth to him.
The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says that Gopika [76] was the jeweled maiden who did not become pregnant; she was none other than Gopi, whose name is rendered in Chinese as Luminous Maiden. Thus it is certainly known that [Rahula] was the son of Yasodhara.
Explained in terms of the original and the manifested, a wife must necessarily be her husband’s equal; how could an ordinary person [77] have been the prince’s wife? Thus it is known that originally [Yasodhara] abided in tranquil meditative concentration and attained the sublime joy of the Dharma, while in her manifested role she appeared as the prince’s wife.
The Karunapundarika Sutra says: “When [Yasodhara] was in the presence of Buddha Ratnagarbha, she vowed to become [the prince’s] wife.”
[Explained in terms of contemplation of the mind,] through contemplation of emptiness one attains the undefiled joy of the Dharma; hence Mrgaja is presented as [the prince’s] wife. Through contemplation of the provisional, one attains the Dharma joy of the wisdom of all paths; hence Yasodhara is presented as [the prince’s] wife. Through contemplation of the Middle [Way], one attains the joy of the Dharma; hence Gopi is presented as [the prince’s] wife. [78]
Bodhisattvas Manifesting as Sravakas
The preceding section has clarified [the modes of explanation in terms of] the original and the manifested and contemplation of the mind. We shall now proceed to a general discussion, elucidating the skillful and intricate expedients and revealing the subtlety of contemplative practice. The Surangama Sutra contains every manner of manifestation. In order to accord with the capacities of each being, there is nothing that cannot be done. To discuss the matter now in broad terms: the Bodhisattva entrusted his birth to the royal palace and descended in spirit into the sacred queen. All bodhisattvas who manifest the Dharma body do so to assist the Buddha in carrying out his work of teaching and transformation; they therefore manifest everywhere.
When [the Buddha] responsively manifested his birth, adorned with the thirty-two excellent marks, each of the great beings likewise followed him in [manifesting] birth. Some [manifested omens such as] houses becoming empty, jewels raining down, eloquence being displayed through [their mothers], or messages being conveyed in dreams...
When the prince resolved to relinquish the throne, renounced the authority to govern the realm, left the city, and went forth to study the Way, the great beings necessarily followed him in [manifesting] the search for teachers and the study of the Way. They displayed extraordinary abilities, and each became the leader of the school [in which he studied].
When [the Buddha] first turned the Dharma wheel and the gate of the ambrosial Dharma had just opened, knowing that the great beings’ conditions for teaching and transformation were not yet mature, they manifested as likewise refusing to submit, each adhering to his own path and regarding it as true. [At that time,] teachers and those being taught alike retained their original quality, like milk.
When the conditions of those being taught had matured, they became like white silk readily taking dye, or like flowers in a pond opening at dawn. They abandoned the state of ordinary beings and became sages, transforming milk into curds. [79] The teachers of the various schools all became the Buddha’s foremost disciples. Whether in wisdom, supernatural powers, eloquence, or samadhi, each discipline had one who was preeminent. Together they assisted the Dharma King in delivering those not yet delivered and caused those already mature to become still more mature.
In the Vaipulya assemblies, [80] upon hearing of the inconceivable merits of the bodhisattvas, [they again manifested] shame at [their inclination toward] the Lesser Vehicle and aspiration for the Great Vehicle. Ashamed of [their inclination toward] the Lesser Vehicle, they sorrowfully lamented and reproached themselves for having forfeited the Tathagata’s immeasurable knowledge and vision. Although they aspired to the Great Vehicle, they did not know how to attain the Buddha’s unsurpassed wisdom. [This stage of manifestation] was like transforming curds into raw butter.
Next, they heard the Mahayana Dharma teaching [81] of prajnaparamita. They first studied the dharmas of form and the dharmas of mind, and ultimately [studied the wisdom of all] modes, encompassing [all myriad dharmas], great and small, the inner mind and external objects, grasping and relinquishing, whether shared or distinct, partial or perfect. Although they obeyed the Buddha’s instruction and listened, clearly understanding and knowing, they never expected to possess such wisdom themselves. Although they did not immediately relinquish their attachments, they gradually attained comprehensive and penetrating understanding. [This stage of manifestation] was like transforming raw butter into clarified butter.
Next, they heard the teaching of the Lotus Sutra and realized their innately pure true nature. They knew with certainty that the Buddhas are like fathers and bodhisattvas like children. They received the Buddha’s prediction and were entrusted with the Mahayana teaching. They abandoned the expedient provisional vehicle and thoroughly understood that the Three Vehicles become One. This was like [milk having become curds, raw butter, and clarified butter, and now] these four flavors becoming solely the single flavor of ghee. They did not seek merely for one person to attain cessation, but caused all [sentient beings] to attain cessation together, just like the Tathagata.
These [great beings], who were ministers in the teaching of the Dharma King, appeared in the world for the great matter [of teaching and transforming sentient beings] and skillfully employed expedient means. At first, they used the Dharma of the provisional vehicle [82] to break attachment to the twenty-five realms [of existence], with all their afflictive complexity, and established the teachings of suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and non-self [83] to benefit all sentient beings.
Next, they employed a portion of the ultimate teaching [84] to break the narrow inclination of the Two Vehicles, [85] transforming it into the vast aspiration of bodhisattvas, and established the teachings of permanence, bliss, self, and purity [86] to benefit the noble ones. Only at the end did they employ the perfect teaching of eternal abiding [87] to refute the earlier and later teachings and the partial extremes on either side, thereby establishing the secret Dharma treasury of the Buddhas, which is neither this side nor the other, [88] and which brings true and ultimate benefit.
When the Dharma King had completed the teaching and transformation of sentient beings [89] and his great vows had been wholly fulfilled, Sariputra and Maudgalyayana entered cessation immediately after the Lotus Sutra assembly. [90] The Great Sage himself also did not remain in the world much longer. Therefore it is said:
My original vow,
Is now completely fulfilled.
Before long the Tathagata,
Will also enter nirvana.
The practice of reciting verses before entering cessation began from that time.
[The sutra says that] the twenty thousand Buddhas [all bearing the name Sun-Moon] Lamp Radiance, as well as Buddha Kasyapa, all took this Lotus Sutra as the ultimate teaching. Because every [attainment] of these teachers and disciples arose from this sutra, today [they manifested together], inwardly concealing the bodhisattva path while outwardly appearing as sravakas. [As the Buddha said:] “Since I truly attained Buddhahood, immeasurable hundreds of millions of kalpas have passed.” From this statement it may be inferred that the great arhats [in this Dharma assembly] were originally transformations of the Dharma body.
In accordance with conditions, like water flowing into myriad streams, they appeared either as those still in training or those beyond training; as men or women; as monastics or laypeople. Through the power of [the great samadhi] Surangama, there was no form whatsoever that they did not manifest. Such were the deeds they performed through skillful and ingenious expedient means.
This is their general outline.
In a general explanation according to contemplation of the mind, the great beings manifest from the Dharma-body and carry out the work of teaching and transformation as described above. Yet if one does not contemplate the [meaning of] skillful means, [such deeds] bring no benefit to the practitioner, just as a poor person counts [another’s] jewels, or as a blind person holds a torch [to light the way].
However, since the mental factors [91] are very numerous, only the wholesome mental factors will be discussed briefly, just as the Buddha’s disciples were very numerous, but only ten are mentioned. The ten wholesome mental factors are: faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, joy, equanimity, reliance, discernment, [92] and moral discipline. These ten wholesome mental factors assist the mind-king, enabling it to correct evil, turn toward goodness, and transform the ordinary person into a sage. All Dharma-gates take these ten minds as their foundation, just as the ten great disciples assisted the Buddha in carrying out his teaching, bringing beings to maturity, and establishing the Buddhadharma.
– Faith: This mental factor is likened to Aniruddha, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in the divine eye. The eye is foremost among the five faculties, just as the east is foremost among the directions. Faith is among the first mental factors when one initially approaches the Buddhadharma.
– Diligence: This mental factor is likened to Kasyapa, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in ascetic practices. The diligent perseverance of ascetic practice, willingly enduring hardship, corresponds to the mental factor of diligence.
– Mindfulness (remembering): This mental factor is likened to Upali, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in upholding the Vinaya. His power of memory was exceedingly strong, and he always remembered without forgetting [what he had learned].
– Concentration (stability): This mental factor is likened to Maudgalyayana, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in supernormal powers.
– Wisdom: This mental factor is likened to Sariputra, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in wisdom, who was able to understand clearly [all dharmas].
– Joy (gladness and rejoicing): This mental factor is likened to Ananda, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in learning. Through extensive learning, he distinguished the various kinds of joy; that joy is precisely the mental factor of joy.
– Reliance (depending upon and following): This mental factor is likened to Katyayana, whose reasoning penetrated to the utmost subtlety and whose principles were perfectly lucid. He used reasoning to refute wrong views and reveal the right path, just as, by relying upon the abandonment of evil and the cultivation of goodness, one departs from suffering and attains happiness.
– Equanimity (relinquishment): This mental factor is likened to Subhuti, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in understanding the meaning of emptiness. When one abides peacefully in the equality of the nature of emptiness, one accords with the mental factor of equanimity.
– Discernment (clear awareness): This mental factor is likened to Purna, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in preaching the Dharma. Clear understanding is the foundation of speech; once that foundation has been established, one becomes capable of inexhaustible eloquence.
– Moral discipline (strict observance of the precepts): This mental factor is likened to Rahula, foremost [among the Buddha’s disciples] in observing the precepts. This can be understood [without explanation].
The ten wholesome mental factors [described above] assist the mind-king in accomplishing contemplative practice. Within a single thought, one penetrates deeply into wholesome Dharma and fully possesses the Three Jewels. The mind-king is the Buddha Jewel; the mental factors are the Sangha Jewel; and the reality taken as the object of contemplation belongs neither to the mind-king nor to the mental factors—this is the Dharma Jewel. When one penetrates deeply into reality, the functions and powers of the mind-king and mental factors are fully manifested.
Furthermore, if this is explained according to the ten universally pervasive mental factors [93] that arise together with the mind-king, they may be conjoined with any wholesome or unwholesome dharma and pervade them all. These universal mental factors [94] are: perception, aspiration, contact, wisdom, mindfulness, volition, liberation, recollection, concentration, and feeling.
– Perception (conceptualization): This mental factor is likened to Purna. Through perception, one comprehends provisional names. Purna skillfully comprehended all provisional names and therefore possessed unobstructed eloquence.
– Aspiration (seeking): This mental factor is likened to Kasyapa, who had no aspirations regarding worldly dharmas but aspired only to unconditioned dharmas.
– Contact: This mental factor is likened to Katyayana. Contact and the ayatanas are two dharmas that ultimately enter into and engage one another. Katyayana excelled in debate, and the meanings he presented could ultimately interrelate and correspond with one another.
– Wisdom: This mental factor is likened to Sariputra, who was able to understand all dharmas clearly.
– Mindfulness (remembering): This mental factor is likened to Upali, the disciple foremost in remembering the precepts.
– Volition (mental activity): This mental factor is likened to Rahula. Volition belongs to the skandha of formations. Rahula was the disciple foremost in the practice of observing the precepts.
– Liberation (unbound): This mental factor is likened to Subhuti. Liberation means not being bound. Because Subhuti understood the meaning of “emptiness,” he remained liberated and unbound even within the realm of “existence.”
– Recollection: This mental factor is likened to Aniruddha. Arising from the movement of memory, it retains external objects and makes the divine eye easy to cultivate and attain.
– Concentration (samadhi, right concentration): This mental factor is likened to Maudgalyayana; [this] can be understood.
– Feeling (reception): This mental factor is likened to Ananda, who, through extensive learning and hearing, received and remembered everything without the slightest error.
Each of these ten disciples possessed all virtues, yet each followed a particular Dharma-gate in order to proclaim and reveal the Buddha Way in accordance with the wishes of sentient beings. [Those beings who] delighted in wisdom revered Sariputra as their teacher, while those who delighted in extensive learning revered Ananda as their teacher. Together they assisted the Dharma King, each fulfilling a particular role.
The explanation according to contemplation of the mind is likewise. Within each mind are fully present the mind-king and the mental factors, which together constitute the Dharma of contemplation. Thus, the mind-king and mental factors interact with one another to attain awakening. One may enter the Way through the mental factor of perception, or through the mental factor of aspiration. According to what is appropriate, the mind-king and mental factors [95] act together to take hold of and transform the defiled minds of worldly toil, thereby performing the work of the Buddha.
When contemplating in this way, before awakening to the Way, contemplative practice is like milk. If undefiled [wisdom] arises, contemplative practice is like curds. If one can eliminate the afflictions as numerous as dust and sand, [contemplative practice] is like raw butter and clarified butter. If one can eliminate ignorance, contemplative [practice] is like ghee. Once the stage likened to ghee is attained, both the mind-king and mental factors cease entirely. Because mind, mental dharmas, and mental factors no longer function, this is called practicing prajnaparamita.
The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states: “Contemplate the mind as no-mind; dharmas do not abide in dharmas... ...My mind is originally empty in itself; neither transgression nor merit has any agent.” [96] This means that there is neither mind nor mental factors; this is called right contemplation. If the defiled mental factors of worldly toil have not been completely extinguished, the Dharma of contemplation is not yet complete. Therefore, the sutra says: “Until sentient beings have all been delivered, I shall not attain Perfect Awakening.” This is precisely its meaning. [97] Such is the general explanation.
II. The Assembly of Bodhisattvas
SCRIPTURE TEXT
There were eighty thousand great bodhisattvas, all of whom were irreversible in their progress toward unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment. They had all attained dharanis, possessed eloquence and delighted in preaching, and turned the irreversible Dharma wheel. They had made offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of Buddhas, planted roots of merit in the presence of the Buddhas, and were constantly praised and extolled by them. They cultivated themselves with loving-kindness, skillfully entered the wisdom of the Buddhas, penetrated great wisdom, and reached the shore of liberation. Their names were known throughout countless worlds, and they constantly brought deliverance to countless hundreds of thousands of sentient beings.
The second section enumerates the assembly of bodhisattvas. The Treatise of Explanation states: “Since ‘bodhisattvas are included among the fourfold assembly of monastics and householders, [98] why must they be enumerated separately?’ Answer: ‘There are bodhisattvas among the fourfold assembly, but there are also members of the fourfold assembly who are not bodhisattvas, for they have not aroused the aspiration to seek Buddhahood. Therefore, those who have aroused the aspiration to seek Buddhahood must be enumerated separately here, and they are collectively called the assembly of bodhisattvas.’”
This section is divided into six topics. The first is category, the second number, the third stage, the fourth praise of their virtues, the fifth enumeration of their names, and the sixth conclusion.
1. Category
As to category, all those in this assembly were bodhisattva-mahasattvas. In full, the term should be Bodhi-sattva Mahā-sattva. [Of the four characters in the Chinese transliteration of Bodhi-sattva], Master Kumārajīva considered it cumbersome and therefore omitted the two characters “dhi” and “tva,” [leaving Bodhisattva].
Bodhi is translated into Chinese as the Way; sattva is translated as mind; [99] and mahā is translated as great. All these beings [personally] sought the great Buddha Way and also [strove to teach and transform] sentient beings, bringing them to maturity. “Mind of the Way” (Bodhi-sattva) and “great mind of the Way” (Mahā-bodhi-sattva) are [designations distinguishing] their category. Bodhisattvas are further divided into many categories, such as those of the Tripitaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect Teachings. [100]
The Treatise of Explanation cites the case of Kātyāyana to clarify the meaning of taking [the successful cultivation of] the six paramitas as the limit and regarding this as perfection. This is the transformation of [the evil of] sentient beings, [likened to] blood, into [wholesome dharmas, likened to] milk. The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra, however, explains that there are bodhisattvas who, as soon as they first arouse the aspiration, become responsive to universal equality; [101] this is the transformation of milk into curds. [102]
The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra further explains that there are bodhisattvas who, as soon as they first arouse the aspiration, [possess the power] to sport in supernormal abilities and purify Buddha lands. [103] Likewise, the Vimalakīrti Sutra [104] says that [bodhisattvas who have just aroused the aspiration] [105] attain the [Dharma gate of] inconceivable liberation; they can all enlarge their bodies to sit upon lofty seats, [106] and can also humble themselves and submit to rebuke. [107] This is the transformation of curds into raw butter and clarified butter. [108]
The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra also explains that there are bodhisattvas who, immediately upon first arousing the aspiration, sit beneath the Bodhi tree, [109] attain perfect enlightenment, turn the Dharma wheel, and liberate sentient beings. [110] This is likened to transforming raw butter and clarified butter into ghee. [111]
Therefore, [the scripture] later says [in verse]: “When bodhisattvas hear this Dharma, all their doubts are completely extinguished.” [112] Again, [another passage] says that if bodhisattvas have not heard the Lotus Sutra, they are not yet skillful in practicing the bodhisattva path. Once they have heard this sutra, they are skillful in practicing the bodhisattva path. [113]
Moreover, the Nirvana Sutra says: “When bodhisattvas have not heard of nirvana, they always retain hopes. Once they hear of nirvana, all hopes cease.”
[According to the meaning above], the four classes of bodhisattvas—those of the Tripitaka, Shared, Distinct, and Perfect Teachings—may thus be stated in brief.
According to the meaning of origin and trace, in their origin the bodhisattvas’ stages are difficult to fathom. They may abide at the stage of Equal Enlightenment or be equal in rank to a Dharma King, just as [the youth] Sudhana, upon entering the Dharma realm, saw Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī possessing boundless forms and profound Dharma gates. In their origin, they were close to the Buddhas; in their traces, they manifested as bodhisattvas in order to assist Śākyamuni Buddha.
They manifest physical forms everywhere, universally transform their forms through the power of samadhi, and universally preach the Dharma. In accordance with what is appropriate [for sentient beings], they teach and transform them inconceivably. This can only be known with the mind and cannot be fully expressed in words.
Thus, in their traces, they [manifest to] guide beings through four flavors—milk, curds, raw butter, and clarified butter—but all ultimately return to the single true flavor of ghee, [114] just as hammer and anvil [115] work together to forge crude materials into implements. Once the flavor of ghee has been attained, the period of teaching and transformation also comes to an end. Yet their stages were already ultimately accomplished long ago; how could they only now begin to enter the Mahayana?
Nor is it the case that some enter quiescent extinction at the place of enlightenment while those of keen faculties attain sudden awakening, [116] for whether sudden or gradual, all are manifested forms of their traces.
Interpreted in terms of contemplation of the mind, to contemplate the Middle Way while simultaneously illuminating both emptiness and provisional existence—the Two Truths—is called “great.” Penetrating through to the fruit of bodhi is called the “Way.” Destroying the defilements of the five abiding states [117] is called “sentient beings.” [118] Such is the general meaning.
2. Number
The phrase “eighty thousand persons” states the number [of bodhisattvas]. The assemblies in other sutras are extremely large; why is the assembly in this sutra smaller? One explanation is that only the number of the eminent ones is given. Another is that when a king deliberates upon confidential affairs, they cannot be discussed throughout the entire country. Such is the general meaning.
Briefly stated in terms of contemplation of the mind, contemplating a single wholesome mind reveals that it fully contains the ten Dharma realms. Through their mutual inclusion, the ten Dharma realms become one hundred Dharma realms and one thousand natures and characteristics. [Therefore], the ten wholesome deeds are precisely the myriad dharmas.
Briefly stated according to the meaning of the teachings, the Noble Eightfold Path constitutes eighty thousand Dharma gates. Such is the general meaning.
3. Stage
[The sutra says:] “All were irreversible in their progress toward anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.” [119] This clarifies the stages [of the bodhisattvas].
Anuttara is translated into Chinese as the unsurpassed Way, as explained in the section on the subtlety of the objective realm. [120] The stages are explained in the section on the subtlety of stages. [121]
“Irreversible” is briefly explained as three kinds of irreversibility: irreversibility of stage, of practice, and of mindfulness. These should be distinguished according to the four siddhantas. No longer being born in the three evil destinies is irreversibility of stage. Not being born in border regions, possessing all the faculties, and not being born in a female body constitute irreversibility of practice. Constantly remembering and knowing former lives is irreversibility of mindfulness. Fully possessing [these three kinds of irreversibility] is called the stage of Avaivartika, [translated into Chinese as Irreversibility]. This is the explanation according to the Tripitaka Teaching.
[According to the Shared Teaching,] before the sixth mind [at the Stage of the Dharma of Patience], [122] bodhisattvas are still liable to wavering; [123] the roots of faith have not yet been established, [124] and so they may still regress. From the seventh mind [at the Stage of the Foremost Mundane Dharma] onward, from the First Bhumi through the Sixth Bhumi [the Stage of Freedom from Desire], they no longer return to the state of ordinary beings or the Two Vehicles; this is called the stage of non-regression.
Although the principal afflictions have been severed, they have not yet extensively cultivated the myriad practices, and their practices may still regress. Upon reaching the Seventh Bhumi [the Accomplished Stage], their practices are said to be non-regressing; yet because thoughts of the Two Vehicles still arise, there remains regression in thought. Upon reaching the Eighth Bhumi [the Pratyekabuddha Stage], both the work of teaching and transformation and the work of cultivation are fulfilled together; they enter the stream of the Dharma and flow onward without ceasing.
This is called non-regression in the power of thought, namely avaivartika. This meaning applies throughout the Three Vehicles and the Ten Bhumis.
The masters of the Dilun school [125] say that the Ten Abodes constitute non-regression in realization, the Ten Practices constitute the stage of non-regression, the Ten Dedications constitute non-regression in practice, and the Ten Bhumis constitute non-regression in the power of thought. [126] This is the meaning according to the Separate Teaching. It does not accord with the meaning of this sutra and therefore is not applied here.
The Yingluo Sutra [127] says: “Upon reaching the First Bhumi, the three contemplations [128] simultaneously become present; the mind remains constantly quiescent and naturally enters the stream.” This is the meaning of non-regression according to the Separate Teaching and likewise is not applied here.
Furthermore, as clearly stated in the Avatamsaka Sutra, a bodhisattva at the First Abode attains one Tathagata body, extending to immeasurable Tathagata bodies, all fully endowed with the three kinds of non-regression. This is the meaning of non-regression according to the Perfect Teaching. It is the true unity of principle and phenomena and is applied here to distinguish and determine the stages.
According to the meaning of the original and the trace, in the original all stages are fundamentally quiescent and completely extinguished. Even the Ten Bhumis do not exist, much less the First Abode; nor is there non-regression at the First Abode, much less [the meanings belonging to] the Separate or Shared Teachings. The stages of the Separate and Shared Teachings are appropriate for explaining the enumeration of the assembly in other sutras, while the stages of the Perfect Teaching alone pertain to this sutra.
The masters who commented on other sutras did not even understand the trace; how could they know the original? What they praised was already mistaken and corrupted the very substance of the text. Thus, their praise instead became slander through the two modes of exaggeration and diminution.
How could it be called praise of excellence?
Explained according to contemplation of the mind, the three contemplations [emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle Way] are the three kinds of non-regression. Furthermore, when one mind simultaneously cultivates the three contemplations, that one mind simultaneously possesses the three kinds of non-regression. Such is the meaning in brief.
4. Praise of Virtue
According to the earlier commentators, [129] the praise of virtue begins with the phrase “all attained dharani.” Here, however, the phrase “never to regress” already contains both meanings [the stage and the praise of virtue]. Thus, as part of the preceding section, it discusses the stage, while as the opening of the following section, it praises virtue.
Also according to the earlier commentators, the section praising virtue contains twelve phrases, [130] divided into four [principal] meanings. The first three phrases praise their present virtues of benefiting beings. [131] The next three phrases praise their virtuous practices in the past. [132] The following four phrases praise the essential nature within them, [133] and the final two phrases praise their external renown. [134]
Although these four meanings differ, their main point is entirely to speak of [the bodhisattvas’] virtues; hence this is called the praise of virtue.
The praise of their present virtues of benefiting beings is further divided into two meanings. The first phrase praises their own practice: [“all attained dharani.”] The next two phrases praise their teaching and transformation of sentient beings: [“possessed eloquence, delighted in expounding the teachings, and turned the non-regressing Dharma wheel.”]
The praise of [their past] virtuous practices also has three meanings. The first phrase praises the foundation of their virtue: [“made offerings to innumerable hundreds of thousands of Buddhas”]; it was originally from the Buddhas that they obtained prajnaparamita wisdom. The next phrase praises their original practice: [“planted roots of virtue in the presence of the Buddhas”]; this is the practice of planting merit. By virtue of merit, they could further support [their cultivation of] wisdom. The third phrase speaks of their being praised by the Buddhas: [“were constantly lauded and praised by the Buddhas.”]
The praise of their own essential nature also has three meanings. The first phrase sets forth loving-kindness: [“cultivated themselves with a mind of loving-kindness”], thereby praising the Transformation Body. The two middle phrases, [“skillfully entered the wisdom of the Buddha and penetrated great wisdom”], praise the Reward Body of the wisdom-mind. The final phrase, [“reached the farther shore of liberation”], praises the Dharma Body.
The praise of their renown also has two meanings. The first phrase, [“their names were heard throughout innumerable worlds”], praises [their] renown as being heard far and wide. The second phrase, [“always delivered innumerable hundreds of thousands of sentient beings”], praises [their] constant deliverance of sentient beings.
The foregoing division of the passages [by the earlier commentators] is very clear in form, but when examined in terms of the doctrinal principle and essential purport, it is entirely devoid of a guiding aim.
If this were praise according to the Shared Teaching, the Shared Teaching has no Three Bodies, nor does it enter the wisdom of the Buddha; its renown is not universal either, and none of these meanings can be established.
If this were said to be praise according to the Separate Teaching, the First Bhumi of the Separate Teaching already surpasses those of the Two Vehicles. Why, then, is it said that at the Seventh Bhumi thoughts of shravakas and pratyekabuddhas still arise?
If this were said to be praise according to the Perfect Teaching, it should not be said that those below the Seventh Bhumi lack the virtue of non-regression.
[Upon careful] examination from every direction, [135] none of these interpretations accords with the text. Whom, ultimately, do we know to be praised? Therefore, [the foregoing meanings] are not applied here. We shall now take [this section] as containing thirteen phrases [136] and analyze it in two ways to understand the meaning of the sutra text. [137] First, according to the sequence of advancement in cultivation, it briefly explains the meaning of [the ten stages of] the Ten Bhumis. Second, by expanding upon a single meaning, it briefly explains the meaning of [the single stage of] the First Abode.
1. [Thus,] the sutra phrase “never to regress” both concludes the preceding section, thereby clarifying the stage, and opens the following section, thereby praising virtue. It is used to praise [bodhisattvas of] the First Bhumi. The First Bhumi is called the Bhumi of Joy. [138] They rejoice because they no longer regress and fall into [discrimination between] the two extremes, but enter the Middle Way and attain the three kinds of non-regression. [139] Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the First Bhumi, namely, the Bhumi of Joy.
2. The phrase “all attained dharani” praises the Second Bhumi. The Second Bhumi is called the Stainless Bhumi [140] and is also called the Bhumi of Freedom and Attainment. “Freedom” means being free from and preventing all evils; “attainment” means attaining and retaining all wholesome qualities. This is the meaning of dharani. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the Stainless Bhumi.
3. The phrase “possessed of eloquence and delighting in preaching” praises the Third Bhumi. The Third Bhumi is called the Luminous Bhumi. [141] Only when wisdom is luminous within can one outwardly possess eloquence in preaching. If one wishes to know the wisdom [within], it is precisely through the preaching [without]. There are many different ways of preaching, among which delighting in preaching is foremost. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the third stage [of the Ten Bhumis], the Luminous Bhumi.
4. The phrase “turning the irreversible wheel of Dharma” praises the Fourth Bhumi. The Fourth Bhumi is called the Radiant Bhumi. [142] Radiance [is a flame that] has the power to dispel darkness and also the power to burn. Turning the Dharma wheel means extinguishing one’s own outflows and delusions, like burning, and also dispelling the delusion of others, like dispelling darkness. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the fourth stage [of the Ten Bhumis], the Radiant Bhumi.
5. The phrase “making offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of Buddhas” praises the Fifth Bhumi. The Fifth Bhumi is called the Difficult-to-Conquer Bhumi. [143] At this stage, one has attained profound meditative concentration and employs spiritual powers that are difficult [for anyone] to equal and difficult [for anyone] to surpass. Within the brief span of a single thought, one can manifest throughout the ten directions to make offerings to all Buddhas. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the Fifth Bhumi.
6. The phrase “planting roots of merit in the presence of the Buddhas” praises the Sixth Bhumi. The Sixth Bhumi is called the Manifest Bhumi. [144] Because one has attained meditative concentration, one constantly makes offerings to the Buddhas. Through that merit, the seed of wisdom is nourished, and the seed of wisdom develops and becomes manifest. Wisdom is the root of merit, just as a plant is set into the earth. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the Sixth Bhumi.
7. The phrase “constantly praised and extolled by the Buddhas” praises the seventh stage, the Far-Traveling Bhumi. [145] At this stage, one accomplishes the two kinds of wisdom, [146] surpasses all others in skillful means, extensively cultivates beneficial dharmas, and accords and communes with the mind of the Buddha. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the Seventh Bhumi.
8. The phrase “cultivating the body with a mind of loving-kindness” praises the Eighth Bhumi, namely, the Immovable Bhumi. [147] [At this stage,] right wisdom no longer wavers. Without departing from the three realms, one constantly cultivates the body with loving-kindness, manifesting within the five destinies [to relieve suffering], [148] cultivates speech by preaching the Dharma [to teach sentient beings], and cultivates the mind by establishing skillful means [to liberate sentient beings]. The True Dharma Flower Sutra fully encompasses the cultivation of the three karmic activities. Therefore, it is known that [this phrase] praises the Eighth Bhumi.
9. The phrase “skillfully entering the wisdom of the Buddha” praises the Ninth Bhumi. The Ninth Bhumi is called the Good Wisdom Bhumi. [149] [At this stage, one contemplates and] penetrates deeply into ultimate reality, skillfully comprehending its fundamental source. This designation accords perfectly with the meaning [of this phrase]; therefore, it is known that this praises the Ninth Bhumi.
10. The phrase “thoroughly comprehending great wisdom” praises the Tenth Bhumi. The Tenth Bhumi is called the Dharma Cloud Bhumi. [150] The Dharma body is like empty space, meditative concentration is like a great cloud, and wisdom is like great rain. Skillfully entering the Buddha-Dharma is called prajna; skillfully applying the Buddha-Dharma is called wisdom. [This phrase is presented to praise the Tenth Bhumi] because of their mutual interrelation.
11. The phrase “reaching the further shore of liberation” praises the inner virtues of [the bodhisattvas of] the Tenth Bhumi, who reach the further shore of the Three Truths, [151] with the result being spoken of while still at the causal stage, [152] and who, having reached that place, do not remain there for long. [Because of this meaning, it is known that this phrase praises the inner virtues of the bodhisattvas of the Tenth Bhumi.]
12. The phrase “their names being heard and known throughout countless worlds” praises the outer virtues of [the bodhisattvas of] the Tenth Bhumi. Because their inner virtues are profound and vast, their renown is heard and known everywhere; thus, the inner and outer [virtues] accord with one another.
If this is extended to the stage of Equal Enlightenment, [153] these two phrases may also be understood in the same way.
13. The phrase “constantly liberating countless hundreds of thousands of sentient beings” [collectively praises all of the Ten Bhumis]. Although those at other stages liberate sentient beings, they do so only within one Dharma realm up to nine Dharma realms and are not said to “constantly liberate.” [The bodhisattvas of] the Ten Bhumis are superior and therefore are said to “constantly liberate.” Those at the other stages also possess all these merits, but they are not explained here, because people’s minds delight in distinctions, and it is convenient to follow the designations of the Ten Bhumis. Moreover, the meaning according to the sequence of progressive cultivation is easy to explain; hence this method of analyzing the scriptural passage is presented.
Next, the praise is explained expansively. Only the First Abode is discussed briefly; the other stages may all be explained on this basis.
The First [Abode is called] the Abode of Arousing the Aspiration. When one [mind] arises, all [minds] arise. One transcends the two discriminating extremes, turns from the ordinary to the noble, enters the Middle Way, and inwardly becomes quiescent and utterly free from conceptualization. Thought after thought flows into the ocean of the wisdom of omniscience; [154] therefore, it is said to be “irreversible.”
The First Abode [is the stage at which one] restrains and relinquishes all marks of attachment, together with the obstructions of ignorance, fundamental ignorance, and so forth, and attains and maintains the virtues of prajna, liberation, the Dharma body, and so forth. Therefore, it is said that one has “attained all dharanis.”
[The bodhisattvas of] the Ten Faiths, with merely approximate understanding, [155] can still cause their wondrous voices to resound throughout the great trichiliocosm; [156] how much more so can [bodhisattvas] who have truly attained the merit of the mystery of speech. [157] Therefore, it is said that they are “possessed of eloquence and delight in preaching.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode can divide their body and manifest as a Buddha in a hundred worlds in order to perform the work of a Buddha; if considered in terms of the places where [such manifestations] actually occur, they are measureless and boundless. Because such a bodhisattva can manifest the body of a Buddha, preach the Dharma, and teach and transform beings, it is said that they “turn the irreversible wheel of Dharma.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode attains inconceivable spiritual power and can serve the Buddhas throughout all Dharma realms. Therefore, it is said that they “make offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of Buddhas.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode attains the foundation of the true aspect and constantly plants every kind of merit; [therefore, it is said that they “plant roots of merit in the presence of the Buddhas.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode opens the Buddha’s knowledge and vision. Once that knowledge and vision have been opened, [the bodhisattva understands] the Dharma in the same way as the Buddhas. Therefore, it is said that they are “constantly praised and extolled by the Buddhas.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode, through unconditioned loving-kindness, [158] manifests physical bodies everywhere in accordance with the Dharma realms. Therefore, it is said that they “cultivate the body with a mind of loving-kindness.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode can enter the treasury of the secret [teachings]; therefore, it is said that they “skillfully enter the wisdom of the Buddha.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode attains the three kinds of wisdom within a single mind, [159] and nothing can obstruct them any longer. Therefore, it is said that they “thoroughly comprehend great wisdom.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode has fully consummated every aspect of principle and phenomena. Therefore, it is said that they have “reached the further shore of liberation.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode possesses perfectly complete and genuine merit that accords with their name. Therefore, it is said that “their names are heard and known throughout countless worlds.”
[A bodhisattva of] the First Abode constantly serves as a refuge and model for [sentient beings] throughout the ten Dharma realms, aiding them and bringing them peace and security. Therefore, it is said that they “constantly liberate countless hundreds of thousands of sentient beings.”
The bodhisattva at the First Abode possesses immeasurable and boundless varieties of inconceivable merit and virtue; here these are only briefly described in these thirteen passages of scripture. From the Second Abode—the Abode of Governing the Ground—up to the stage of Equal Enlightenment, all likewise possess such merit and virtue. Therefore, the Larger Prajnaparamita states: “Beginning with the initial letter A, [160] it possesses all forty-one qualities of the letters; the final letter Ṭha likewise possesses all such qualities of the letters. All the letters in between are also likewise. The letters are the same, the phrases are the same, and their qualities are also all the same.” [161]
● Question: “This section praises the qualities and virtues of severing delusions. Since the Tripitaka Teaching does not sever delusions, it may therefore be left unpraised. Yet even the sravakas are praised for their manifested traces. Why, then, are the virtues of those in the Shared Teaching and the Distinct Teaching not praised?”
● Answer: “The Shared Teaching praises manifested traces, and thus this meaning exists there. But this Lotus Sutra now reveals precisely the ultimate; therefore, it does not praise expedient means.”
● Question: “Why do the passages concerning merit and virtue praise only the bodhisattvas at the First Abode?”
● Answer: “All the other stages are likewise; how could this apply only to the First Abode?”
● [Question:] “The ancient commentators said that the Eighth Bhumi possesses abundant merit and virtue, and there is nothing doubtful about that. Yet the Perfect Teaching now praises the First Abode as lacking none of these merits and virtues. If even the First Abode is so, how much more so the stages that follow?”
● [Answer:] The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra [162] states: The division of a Dharma gateway into upper and lower is nothing more than its general characteristic and its particular characteristics. It should therefore be understood that the opening phrase, “no longer subject to retrogression,” is the general characteristic. This general characteristic of “no longer subject to retrogression” is manifested in ten ways.
1. No longer retrogressing after hearing the Dharma means “all attained dharanis.”
2. No longer retrogressing in delighting in exposition means “possessing eloquence and delighting in exposition.”
3. No longer retrogressing in expounding the Dharma means “turning the irreversible Dharma wheel.”
4. No longer retrogressing in reliance upon good and wise spiritual friends means “making offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of Buddhas,” and also “planting roots of merit in the presence of the Buddhas.”
5. No longer retrogressing in eliminating doubts means “always being lauded and praised by the Buddhas.”
6. No longer retrogressing in entering into matters means “cultivating oneself with a mind of loving-kindness.”
7. No longer retrogressing in entering the realm of suchness as it truly is through the wisdom that comprehends all things means “skillfully entering the wisdom of the Buddha.”
8. No longer retrogressing because, in accordance with the realization that there is no self, the intrinsic nature of all dharmas is empty means “penetrating great wisdom.”
9. No longer retrogressing in entering the realm of suchness as it truly is means “reaching the shore of liberation.”
10. No longer retrogressing in accomplishing what ought to be done means “always liberating countless hundreds of thousands of sentient beings.”
Therefore, that opening phrase, “no longer subject to retrogression,” is the general characteristic and pertains to the upper teaching. The remaining phrases that follow are the particular characteristics and pertain to the lower teaching. The expanded explanation praising the merits and virtues of the bodhisattvas at the First Abode accords with this same meaning.
The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra further states: “The second is the Dharma gateway that encompasses all matters. [163] This concerns the pure stages in which bodhisattvas abide according to circumstances, the expedient means they employ, the realms in which they act, and what they ought to do.” According to this meaning, there is likewise no impediment to praising the merits and virtues of bodhisattvas in the sequence of their cultivation and advancement from lower to higher stages.
In explaining the praise of virtue according to contemplation of the mind, the meaning of “no longer subject to retrogression” is also as already stated.
Regarding the meaning of dharani, contemplation of emptiness is the Rotating Dharani; contemplation of provisional existence is the Hundreds of Thousands of Myriads of Koṭis Rotating Dharani; and contemplation of the Middle Way is the Dharani of the Expedient Means of the Dharma-Sound. [164]
Furthermore, when contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of emptiness, one sees that the mind is merely a name; this is the Dharani of Retaining What Is Heard. When contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of provisional existence, among the immeasurable states of mind, all dharmas of mind-kings and mental factors are Dharma gateways; this is the Dharani of Retaining Practice. When contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of the Middle Way, the mind itself is the true characteristic; this is the Dharani of Retaining Meaning.
[Regarding the meaning of “possessing eloquence and delighting in exposition,”] when contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of provisional existence, the mind contains all dharmas of the ten Dharma realms; this is Unobstructed Eloquence in Dharma. When contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of the Middle Way, all ten Dharma realms enter the true characteristic; this is Unobstructed Eloquence in Meaning. When contemplating the mind according to the contemplation of emptiness, the ten Dharma realms are merely names and words; this is Unobstructed Eloquence in Expression.
[Furthermore,] contemplating one mind as precisely three minds, and the three minds as precisely one mind, one realm as all realms, turning freely without obstruction—this is Unobstructed Eloquence in Delighting in Exposition.
[Regarding the meaning of “turning the irreversible Dharma wheel,”] contemplation of emptiness is turning the Dharma wheel of non-retrogression in stage; contemplation of provisional existence is turning the Dharma wheel of non-retrogression in practice; and contemplation of the Middle Way is turning the Dharma wheel of non-retrogression in the power of mindfulness.
[Regarding the meaning of “making offerings to countless hundreds of thousands of Buddhas,”] making offerings to the Buddha manifests compliance with the Buddha’s teachings. Today, [we] cultivate the three contemplations of the mind in accordance with the Buddha’s teachings; [165] this is making offerings to the Buddha. Destroying the five abiding grounds [166] and thereby attaining liberation is making offerings to the Dharma. Perfectly integrating the principle of the Three Truths [167] is making offerings to the Sangha.
Furthermore, the minds engaged in meritorious practices that assist the contemplative mind endowed with wisdom are offerings to the Buddha. When the contemplative mind endowed with wisdom discloses the realm, this is making offerings to the Dharma. Perfectly integrating the realm, wisdom, and mind is making offerings to the Sangha.
[Regarding the meaning of “planting roots of merit in the presence of the Buddhas,”] the mind of the true characteristic is the root of the contemplative mind endowed with wisdom, and the contemplative mind endowed with wisdom is the root of all minds engaged in meritorious practices. Once the root is firmly established, the tree can be planted; therefore, it is said to be “planting roots of merit.”
[Regarding the meaning of “being lauded and praised by the Buddhas,”] the contemplative mind endowed with wisdom silently probes the depths of the realm, while the realm impresses its seal upon contemplative wisdom. When wisdom continually illuminates and accords with the realm, this is “always being lauded and praised by the Buddhas.”
[Regarding the meaning of “cultivating oneself with a mind of loving-kindness,” cultivating] the contemplation of emptiness is the permeation of loving-kindness conditioned by dharmas; the contemplation of provisional existence is the permeation of loving-kindness conditioned by sentient beings; and the contemplation of the Middle Way is the permeation of unconditioned loving-kindness.
[Regarding the meaning of “skillfully entering the wisdom of the Buddha,” cultivating] the contemplation of emptiness is entering the Buddha’s wisdom according to the Shared Teaching; the contemplation of provisional existence is entering the Buddha’s wisdom according to the Distinct Teaching; and the contemplation of the Middle Way is entering the Buddha’s wisdom according to the Perfect Teaching.
[Regarding the meaning of “reaching the shore of liberation,” cultivating] the contemplation of emptiness reaches the shore of liberation through the Wisdom of All; the contemplation of provisional existence reaches the shore of liberation through the Wisdom of the Varieties of the Path; and the contemplation of the Middle Way reaches the shore of liberation through the Wisdom of All Modes.
[Regarding the meaning of “their names being universally heard and known,” cultivating] the contemplation of emptiness is heard within the Ultimate Truth; the contemplation of provisional existence is heard within the Conventional Truth; and the contemplation of the Middle Way is universally heard throughout the truth of the supreme meaning of the Middle Way, and is also universally heard throughout all Three Truths.
[Regarding the meaning of “constantly saving hundreds of thousands of sentient beings,” through cultivation,] the contemplation of emptiness saves hundreds of thousands of sentient beings from the afflictions of the four abodes; the contemplation of the provisional saves hundreds of thousands of sentient beings from afflictions as numerous as dust and sand; and the contemplation of the middle saves hundreds of thousands of sentient beings from ignorance.
[Through cultivation, one realizes that] a single mind fully contains the three contemplations. [168] This possesses immeasurable merit and virtue, which cannot be exhausted by praise; it is only briefly described thus.
SCRIPTURE TEXT
Their names were: Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī, Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Bodhisattva Constant Diligence, Bodhisattva Never Resting, Bodhisattva Jeweled Palm, Bodhisattva Medicine King, Bodhisattva Courageous Giving, Bodhisattva Jeweled Moon, Bodhisattva Moonlight, Bodhisattva Full Moon, Bodhisattva Great Might, Bodhisattva Immeasurable Might, Bodhisattva Transcending the Three Realms, Bodhisattva Bhadrapāla, Bodhisattva Maitreya, Bodhisattva Accumulation of Jewels, Bodhisattva Guide... Such great bodhisattvas, 80,000 in all, attended the Dharma assembly together.
5. Names
The exalted names of these great beings are based either on the Dharma gates they cultivated, on their virtuous practices and qualities, or on [their respective] original vows. Although each is a single name, it contains immeasurable meanings. We shall now rely on the scriptures and contemplative examination to analyze the meanings of the names of eighteen bodhisattvas.
Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī
Mañjuśrī is translated into Chinese as Wondrous Virtue. The Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra [169] says: “Clearly seeing the Buddha-nature, like Bodhisattva Wondrous Virtue.” The Sūtra of Non-Activity [170] calls him Mañjuśrī. [171] The Sūtra of Universal Transcendence calls him Gentle Head. [172] The Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “Although he expounds all dharmas, he gives rise neither to the characteristic of dharmas nor to the characteristic of what is not Dharma. Therefore, he is called Wondrous Virtue.” [173]
The Sūtra of the Compassionate Flower records [the bodhisattva’s vow before Buddha Ratnagarbha]: “‘I vow that, while I practice the bodhisattva path, all sentient beings whom I teach and transform throughout the ten directions will attain perfect enlightenment before me, and that I shall be able to behold them all with the divine eye. At that time, my land shall consist entirely of bodhisattvas in their final birth [before succeeding to Buddhahood], all of whom will have resolved upon the path through my exhortation.
I shall practice the bodhisattva path without any fixed limit of time.’ Buddha Ratnagarbha said: ‘You have created exceedingly profound merit and virtue and have further vowed to obtain a wondrous land; therefore, I now name you Mañjuśrī. You shall attain Buddhahood in the world Delight in the north, with the title Buddha Joyful Treasury, Accumulation of Maṇi Jewels.’” [174] Even to the present day, [sentient beings] who hear his name immediately eradicate the four grave offenses.
He manifests as a bodhisattva to assist [in the teaching and transformation undertaken by] Śākyamuni Buddha.
Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, in nature and principle, the three secret virtues [of bodily, verbal, and mental action] [175] are neither identical nor different and are neither before nor after one another; [176] therefore, he is called Wondrous Virtue.
Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara
Avalokiteśvara’s Sanskrit name [is transliterated into Chinese as] Pó-lǚ-jí-dī-shuì (Avalokiteśvara). The Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “If sentient beings encounter [this bodhisattva], they are thereby assured of attaining enlightenment. All sentient beings who invoke and recollect his name are delivered from suffering and calamity; therefore, he is named Avalokiteśvara.” [177]
The Sūtra of the Compassionate Flower records [the bodhisattva’s vow before Buddha Ratnagarbha]: “If any sentient being, while undergoing suffering and distress, invokes my name and thinks of me, and after I have heard them with the divine ear and seen them with the divine eye they are not freed from suffering, then I shall not attain perfect enlightenment.” Buddha Ratnagarbha said: “You contemplate all sentient beings and give rise to a mind of great compassion;
therefore, I now name you Avalokiteśvara.” [178] The following passage itself explains the meaning of the name [Avalokiteśvara]: [179] Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, the three wisdoms [180] are “contemplation,” the three truths [181] are the “world,” and the three contemplations [182] are the source of speech and hence are called “sound.”
Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta
[Regarding Bodhisattva] Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “Wherever I set my foot, the great trichiliocosm and the palaces of Māra quake. Therefore, I am named Arrival of Great Might.” [183]
The Sūtra of the Compassionate Flower [records Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta’s vow before Buddha Ratnagarbha]: “I vow that my world shall be just like that of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, without any difference.” Buddha Ratnagarbha said: “Because you have vowed to obtain a magnificent world, I name you Arrival of Great Might.” [184]
Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, the three cessations [185] are the foot. When it is placed upon the ground of the three truths, [186] the ten Dharma realms quake, and wherever the afflictions of views and craving exist, all must sway and tremble. This is the meaning in brief.
Bodhisattva Never Resting
[Regarding Bodhisattva Never Resting,] [187] the Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “If as many kalpas as there are grains of sand in the Ganges were reckoned as a single day and night, thirty such days as a month, and twelve such months as a year, and only after hundreds of thousands of koṭis upon koṭis of such kalpas could one encounter a Buddha, [and then after another vast span of time] one encountered as many Buddhas as there are grains of sand in the Ganges, constantly cultivated pure practices, and accumulated merit and virtue, only thereafter receiving a prediction of Buddhahood—throughout [all that time], his mind would never cease or rest. Therefore, he is named Never Resting.” [188]
Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, the contemplation of emptiness does not abide in emptiness; emerging into [the realm of] the provisional, it does not abide in the provisional; and entering the middle way, it likewise does not abide in the middle way, but simultaneously contemplates the two truths. This is called Never Resting.
Bodhisattva Jeweled Palm
The Sūtra of Universal Transcendence [189] says: “He dons the armor of virtue until he attains the wisdom of a Buddha. Nothing can obstruct or destroy his resolve and cause him to abandon the Great Vehicle; [190] even in dreams he never inclines toward the Two Vehicles. With a sincere mind and minds endowed with penetrating wisdom, he constantly expounds and teaches for others. His mind harbors no avarice toward precious treasures. Therefore, he is named Jeweled Palm.” [191]
Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, the inconceivable three truths are called the Jewel, while the three contemplations fully present within a single mind are called the Palm. With such a Palm of contemplation, one grasps such a Jewel of truth, benefiting oneself and others; therefore, he is called Jeweled Palm.
Bodhisattva Medicine King
The Sūtra of the Compassionate Flower [recounts how the youngest disciple of the brahmin Samudrareṇu, named Swift Upholder of Might, made a vow before Buddha Ratnagarbha]: “I vow that during the Auspicious Kalpa, when there are 1,004 Buddhas, I shall make offerings to each Buddha beginning from the moment he first attains the path. When those Buddhas enter extinction, I shall erect a stupa and reverently enshrine each one.
At the end of the kalpa, when [sentient beings undergo] suffering and distress, I shall aid them all. When there are calamities of warfare and epidemic disease, I shall become a Great King of Physicians [to heal sentient beings], and only thereafter shall I attain Buddhahood.” At that time, Buddha Ratnagarbha said: “[In accordance with your great vow,] I now name you Fire-Pure Medicine King. In the future, when you attain Buddhahood, you shall be called Tathāgata Ruci.” [192] Interpreted according to contemplation of the mind, the meaning is broadly the same.
From this point, the explanation omits seven bodhisattvas. [193]
Bodhisattva Bhadrapāla
Bodhisattva Bhadrapāla is translated into Chinese as Skillful Guardian and is also called Worthy Guardian.
The Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “If any sentient being hears [this bodhisattva’s] name, that being will assuredly attain perfect enlightenment; therefore, he is named Skillful Guardian.” [194]
According to contemplation of the mind, it is explained: “The contemplation of the true Middle Way is foremost among all wholesome deeds; therefore, he is called Good Leader.”
Bodhisattva Maitreya
Bodhisattva Maitreya, translated into Chinese as the Compassionate One. The Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “If any sentient being encounters [the Bodhisattva], that being immediately attains the samādhi of a compassionate mind; therefore, he is called the Compassionate One.”
The Sūtra of the Wise and the Foolish says: “When the king saw the elephant trainer, he immediately gave rise to a compassionate mind, and from that came the name Compassionate One.”
The Sūtra of the Lotus of Compassion says: “He vowed to rescue and protect sentient beings during the kalpa of warfare and the calamity of fire.”
Now, explaining this according to contemplation of the mind, contemplation of the true Middle Way is great compassion without conditions. The power of the wholesome roots of the compassionate mind causes all mental factors to enter the great compassion of identical essence. Among all dharmas, it is free from every unwholesome quality; therefore, he is called the Compassionate One.
It is also said that Maitreya is [the Bodhisattva’s] family name, while his personal name is Ajita, translated into Chinese as Invincible. What follows is, in brief, likewise.
Here, the explanation of [the Bodhisattva’s title] Accumulation of Jewels is omitted.
Bodhisattva Guide
Regarding Bodhisattva Guide, [195] the Sūtra of the Questions of Brahmā says: “Toward sentient beings who have fallen onto erroneous paths, [the Bodhisattva] gives rise to great compassion, rescues and assists them, and leads them onto the Right Path, without seeking repayment of his kindness; therefore, he is called the Guide.” [196]
Explained according to contemplation of the mind, the wondrous wisdom of the three contemplations [emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle] guides all conduct, so that it does not fall into [discrimination between] the two extremes but enters entirely into right contemplation; therefore, he is called the Guide.
Some [titles of] the figures in this section have not yet been explained; we shall return to explain them in a later section.
6. Conclusion
The passage beginning with the words “Thus” [197] concludes this section.
III. The Mixed Assembly
SŪTRA TEXT
At that time, Śakra Devānām Indra, together with his retinue of twenty thousand celestial princes, came to the assembly. There were also the celestial prince Named Moon, the celestial prince Universal Fragrance, the celestial prince Jewel Light, the Four Great Heavenly Kings, and their retinue of ten thousand celestial princes, who came to the assembly. The celestial prince Self-Mastery, the celestial prince Great Self-Mastery, and their retinue of thirty thousand celestial princes came to the assembly. The Brahmā Heavenly King, lord of the Sahā World; Great Brahmā Śikhin; Great Brahmā Radiant Light; and others, together with their retinue of twelve thousand celestial princes, came to the assembly.
The third section concerns the mixed assembly. Earlier commentators called it the assembly of ordinary beings, but it also included noble beings. They also called it the lay assembly, but it also included renunciants. They further called it the assembly of gods and humans, but it also included dragons and ghosts. Thus, none of these designations is appropriate. It is now called the mixed assembly because this designation encompasses them all. This means that it includes [sentient beings from] the five destinies, [198] the two realms, [199] and the eight classes of beings; [200] therefore, it is called mixed.
[This sūtra includes the five destinies and two realms, but] the Vaipulya sūtras [201] additionally include [sentient beings from] the hells [thus completing the six destinies], while the Sūtra of the Intermediate Existence [202] also teaches and transforms beings in the Formless Realm [thus including all three realms]. These manifestations all accord with the capacities and conditions of beings. There can be no single fixed rule common to them all, nor do they follow any definite order.
Earlier commentators said that human beings are the hosts in this realm and therefore yield precedence to the other kinds of beings, who are guests and are enumerated first. [203] Yet compared with the Sūtra of Immeasurable Meanings, [the arrangement] is the same as in this sūtra; moreover, it expressly lists kings, ministers of state, men of the realm, and women of the realm, without discussing an order in which hosts and guests yield precedence to one another. The intention of those who compiled the sūtra is expressed in the sūtra text, though there may be some other meaning that remains unknown. [204]
Examining this passage of the sūtra, we now find the eight classes of beings. It first speaks of Śakra and then of the Four Heavenly Kings. Afterward it enumerates the dragons, and finally the golden-winged birds [that is, the garuḍas]; in between, it repeatedly enumerates various ghosts and spirits [such as kiṃnaras, gandharvas, and asuras]. [205] For this reason, it is called the mixed assembly.
No definite sequence of what comes before and what follows can be stated; this is another reason it is called the mixed assembly. Furthermore, within this assembly are those who have realized the Path and those who have not; their karmic rewards differ, and their bodily forms also differ. Therefore, it is called mixed.
Within this assembly are also those who have realized the Path of the Two Vehicles, whose undefiled wisdom is intermingled with ignorance and afflictions. Therefore, it is called mixed.
Within this assembly are also those who have realized the bodhisattva path and mingle with the great assembly; because their capacities and conditions are intermingled, it is called mixed.
Within this assembly are even those who have attained the Buddha path; because each single dharma contains all dharmas, it is called mixed.
Such is the meaning of “mixed.” It cannot be classified according to the bodily forms of ordinary or worldly beings, nor can it be classified according to the five destinies, such as humans, gods, and so forth. Therefore, it is called mixed. This is an explanation according to the meaning of the teaching. Such, in brief, is its import.
Śakra Devānām Indra is also pronounced Caṇḍīra and is translated into Chinese as Capable of Acting. He is the celestial lord of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven.
Trāyastriṃśa is translated into Chinese as the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. In each of the four directions, this heaven has eight cities; together with the City of Joyful Views at the center, they constitute thirty-three cities, all situated upon the summit of Mount Sumeru.
Sumeru is translated into Chinese as Peaceful and Luminous. It is composed of four kinds of jewels and measures 3,360,000 miles in both height and breadth.
Because [Śakra Devānām Indra] is the celestial lord of a heaven in the Desire Realm, he is enumerated first.
Volume Forty of the Saṃyukta Āgama says: “A bhikṣu asked the Buddha, ‘Why is he named Śakra Devānām Indra?’ The Buddha replied, ‘Long ago, when he was a human being, he always practiced giving with reverence and ardent sincerity. [206] Because he was capable of acting in this way, [207] he is called Śakra Devānām Indra.’ [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Purandara?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because, when he was a human being, he practiced giving on many occasions.’ [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Maghavā?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because this was his former name when he was a human being.’ [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Savāla?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because, when he was a human being,
he often gave a kind of robe bearing that name.’ [208] [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Kauśika?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because this was his former family name when he was a human being.’ [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Śacīpati?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because Śacī is the name of [Śakra’s] wife, he is called by this name.’ [209] [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he named Thousand-Eyed?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because, when [Śakra] was a human being, he was exceptionally intelligent.
While sitting quietly on a single occasion, he could simultaneously reflect upon a thousand principles, observing, weighing, and considering them all; therefore, he is called Thousand-Eyed.’ [The bhikṣu further asked,] ‘Why is he called Indra?’ The Buddha said, ‘Because he is the heavenly sovereign of all thirty-two celestial lords.’”
Volume Three of the Sūtra of the Jeweled Necklace says: “The celestial Lord Śakra is named Kuyi.” This is stated according to the teaching. In the Āgama sūtras, Śakra is an anāgāmin. The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra explains that [this figure] inquires throughout the ten directions concerning the meaning of prajnaparamita, and in every case he is called Śakra Devānām Indra.
Both the Separate Teaching and the Perfect Teaching state that Śakra Devānām Indra attained the Śūraṅgama Samādhi, but their accounts of his inner realization differ. After passing through 2,024 kalpas of the Auspicious Kalpa, he will attain Buddhahood with the title Unattached Blessed One. Such, in brief, is its import.
Explained according to the original and the traces, the Ten Abodes, Ten Practices, and Ten Dedications constitute thirty [heavenly levels]; the Ten Grounds are the thirty-first, Equal Enlightenment is the thirty-second, and Wondrous Enlightenment [the thirty-third] is the [heavenly] lord. They dwell together in the heaven of ultimate truth and drink together the ambrosial water of true reality: this is the meaning of the original. Their manifested traces are the [heavenly levels] above the summit of Mount Sumeru.
According to contemplation of the mind, it is explained as follows: one personally practices the Ten Good Deeds, exhorts others [to practice the Ten Good Deeds], and rejoices sympathetically [in those who practice the Ten Good Deeds]. These thirty good deeds are all empty, all provisional, and all the Middle Way. These are the thirty-three contemplations.
The three celestial princes Named Moon, [Universal Fragrance, and Jeweled Light] are the [Celestial Emperor’s] inner ministers, like the chief ministers [of a king]. They are also said to be the celestial princes of the Three Luminaries. [210] Among them, the celestial prince Named Moon is the celestial prince Auspicious Jeweled Moon, manifested in response by the bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta; the celestial prince Universal Fragrance is the celestial prince Bright Star, manifested in response by the bodhisattva Akashagarbha; and the celestial prince Jeweled Light is the celestial prince Jeweled-Mind Sun, manifested in response by the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. This is the explanation according to the original and the traces.
According to contemplation of the mind, the three contemplations are precisely the two wisdoms, [211] and the three wisdoms are precisely the Three Luminaries. [212] From the Three Truths arise the Three Wisdoms. [213] Therefore, “truth” is the celestial one, and “wisdom” is the prince. Such is the general meaning.
The Four Great Heavenly Kings are Shakra’s outer ministers, like military generals. They dwell upon four jeweled mountains, half the height of Mount Sumeru and 240,000 miles wide.
In the east is [Heavenly King] Dhritarashtra, translated into Chinese as [Heavenly King] Upholder of the Nation and also called Pacifier of the People. He dwells upon the mountain of pure gold and commands two classes of spirits: gandharvas and putanas.
In the south is [Heavenly King] Virudhaka, translated into Chinese as [Heavenly King] Increase and Growth and also called Freedom from Harm. He dwells upon the lapis lazuli mountain and commands two classes of spirits: pretas and kumbhandas.
In the west is [Heavenly King] Virupaksha, translated into Chinese as [Heavenly King] Unpleasant Retribution and also called Evil-Eyed and Mixed-Speech. He dwells upon the white silver mountain and commands two classes of spirits: poisonous dragons and pishachas.
In the north is [Heavenly King] Vaishravana, translated into Chinese as [Heavenly King] Who Hears Many Kinds of Things and also called Widely Learned. He dwells upon the crystal mountain and commands two classes of spirits: rakshasas and yakshas.
Each of the heavenly kings above commands two classes of spirits and prevents them from troubling or harming people; therefore, they are called the World-Protecting Heavenly Kings.
Explained according to the original and the traces, the original is permanence, bliss, self, and purity: these are the four Heavenly Kings who protect the Buddha-Dharma, preventing outsiders from carrying away its branches and leaves or felling, cutting, and damaging [the tree of the Buddha-Dharma]. The Heavenly King Permanence protects the east, where there are the two trees of permanence and impermanence. The Heavenly King Bliss protects the south, where there are the two trees of bliss and non-bliss.
The Heavenly King Self protects the west, where there are the two trees of self and non-self. The Heavenly King Purity protects the north, where there are the two trees of purity and impurity. The branches symbolize permanence, the flowers symbolize self, the fruit symbolizes bliss, and the flourishing green leaves symbolize purity.
These flowers and fruit are protected so as constantly to benefit all sentient beings. Their outwardly manifested traces are the Four Heavenly Kings who protect and assist the world.
According to contemplation of the mind, the wisdom that contemplates the Four Truths is precisely the Four Heavenly Kings. Each truth eliminates the two delusions of craving and views; thus, [the Four Truths] help eliminate the eight delusions of craving and views.
Next, above the Trayastrimsha Heaven is the Yama Heaven, translated into Chinese as Good Time and called the Heaven of Wondrous Goodness in the Great [Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom]. It lies 3,360,000 miles from the Trayastrimsha Heaven.
Above the Heaven of Good Time is also the Tushita Heaven, translated into Chinese as Wondrous Contentment. Its distance from the Yama Heaven is merely the same as the aforementioned distance, but it is omitted and not enumerated. Why is this? The heaven below [Tushita] has beings of dull faculties, while the heaven above it is intoxicated with sensual pleasures, yet [the beings of both] still knew to attend [this Dharma assembly]. How much more, then, would [those in Tushita], who are neither dull-witted nor intoxicated with sensual pleasures, attend? [Therefore, it need not be enumerated.]
The celestial prince Mastery is [the heavenly lord of] the fifth heaven [of the Desire Realm], and the celestial prince Great Mastery is [the heavenly lord of] the sixth heaven. [Of these two heavens, one] spontaneously creates the five sensual pleasures for itself, while the other [can enjoy] the five sensual pleasures created by others. [214] Such is the general meaning.
Some hold that Great Mastery refers to [the heavenly lord of] the highest heaven in the Form Realm, [215] but according to the meaning here, the reference cannot extend as far as that heaven.
Explained according to the original and the traces, the original is the primordial abiding in the Samadhi of Mastery and the Samadhi of the King of Mastery, while the manifested traces are the two heavens [of Enjoying Conjurations and Freely Enjoying Conjurations by Others].
According to contemplation of the mind, entering emptiness is the contemplation of Mastery, while entering the Middle Way is the contemplation of Great Mastery. Such is the general meaning.
Next, the Form Realm heavens, [the highest within the Saha world], are discussed.
Saha world is translated into Chinese as the [Land of] Endurance. The sentient beings in this world willingly abide in the ten evil deeds and refuse to escape from them. It is named according to [the character of] its inhabitants and is therefore called the [Land of] Endurance.
The Sutra of the Compassionate Flower states: “Why is it called Saha? The sentient beings here endure the three poisons [216] and the afflictions; therefore, it is called the Land of Endurance.” [217]
It is also called the place where sentient beings of the nine paths dwell together in a mixed manner. [218]
The word Brahma [in Great Brahma Heavenly King] is translated into Chinese as “free from desire,” [meaning separated from sensual pleasure]. Because one casts off the bonds of the lower realm and ascends to the higher Form Realm, it is called freedom from desire. It is also designated Lofty Purity, [meaning exalted and pure].
[The name] Shikhin is translated into Chinese as Topknot, [meaning a coil of hair upon the crown of the head]. Furthermore, in Sanskrit, fire is called shou-ti shikhin. This heavenly king formerly cultivated the Fire-Light concentration and thereby destroyed the delusions of the Desire Realm. He was named [Shikhin] according to that virtue. The scriptural passage [here] first gives the designation Great Brahma and then mentions Shikhin, making them appear to be two [different beings]. However, on the basis of the Treatise of Exegesis, it is known that Shikhin is himself Great Brahma, for the scripture first states his rank and afterward gives his name; they are only one person.
[One who cultivates and] abides in the intermediate dhyana, possessing initial and sustained thought inwardly and verbal expression outwardly, and who attains its essential culmination, becomes a Heavenly King. Those who cultivate dhyana alone become common subjects, namely, ordinary devas; those who additionally cultivate the four immeasurable minds become heavenly kings.
In the First Dhyana heavens are the Assembly of Brahma, [219] the Ministers of Brahma, [220] and Great Brahma. Here, only [Great Brahma Shikhin,] the king [who presides over them], is mentioned in order to encompass them all.
Radiant Light refers to the Second Dhyana heavens, comprising the Heaven of Lesser Light, the Heaven of Immeasurable Light, and the Heaven of Light-Sound.
The Third Dhyana heavens comprise the Heaven of Lesser Purity, the Heaven of Immeasurable Purity, and the Heaven of Universal Purity.
The Fourth Dhyana Heaven includes the Devas of the Secret Body, also called the Devas Free from Obstruction; [221] the Immeasurable Secret Devas, also called the Devas Who Receive Blessings; [222] and the Devas of the Secret Fruit, also called the Secret Devas of the Extensive Fruit and Non-Perception, and also called the Devas of Non-Perception. [223] There are also the Five Anagamin Heavens, [224] comprising the Heaven Free from Affliction, the Heaven Free from Heat, the Heaven of Excellent Manifestation, the Heaven of Excellent Vision, and the Akanistha Heaven, also called the Heaven of Great Sovereignty, namely, the Heaven of Mahesvara.
The sutra text speaks only briefly and does not enumerate them all. It merely adds “such as these,” indicating that there were many more devas of this kind. Since this follows the customary pattern, whether one explains it according to the doctrinal teaching, the original and manifest traces, or contemplation of the mind, the meaning may be discerned accordingly.
SUTRA TEXT
There were eight dragon kings: Dragon King Nanda, Dragon King Upananda, Dragon King Sagara, Dragon King Vasuki, Dragon King Taksaka, Dragon King Anavatapta, Dragon King Manasvin, and Dragon King Utpalaka, each accompanied by several hundreds of thousands of attendants who came to participate in the Dharma assembly.
Next, the eight Dragon Kings are discussed.
[Dragon King] Nanda means “Joy,” while the word Upananda means “Virtuous.” [These two dragon kings were] brothers who constantly protected and assisted the kingdom of Magadha, bringing rain and sunshine in their proper seasons, so that the kingdom never suffered a year of famine or scarcity. For this reason, King Bimbisara convened an assembly once each year. All the people rejoiced upon hearing of it, and hence they were given the name “Joy.” They were the two dragons who lived in the ocean and whom Maudgalyayana had previously subdued. [225]
According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces, originally they abided on the Ground of Joy, while their manifest traces appeared as [dragon kings dwelling] in the ocean.
According to contemplation of the mind, the threefold contemplation is the Middle Way, which gives rise to Dharma joy.
[Dragon King] Sagara was named after the region of the ocean in which he dwelt; this is also the name used in the Avatamsaka Sutra. The earlier commentators said that he was named after a country.
[According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces,] originally he abided in the great ocean of the wisdom-paramita, while his manifest traces appeared as dwelling in the blue ocean.
[Dragon King] Vasuki is translated into Chinese as “Many-Headed,” meaning that he had many heads. He was also called “Jewel Renown” and dwelt in the waters.
[According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces,] originally he abided in the Samadhi of the Universal Manifestation of Form-Bodies, while his manifest traces appeared as [a dragon body] with many heads.
According to contemplation of the mind, entering the contemplation of the provisional enables one to discern immeasurable Dharma-gates. This is the meaning in brief.
[Dragon King] Taksaka is translated into Chinese as “Manifest Poison.” He was also called “Many-Tongued” or “Two-Tongued.”
[According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces,] originally he abided in the Dharma-gate of joyful eloquence free from obstruction, while his manifest traces appeared as [a dragon body] with many tongues.
[Dragon King] Anavatapta was named after the lake in which he dwelt. The name is translated into Chinese as “Free from Heat,” namely, Lake Free from Heat.
Fascicle eighteen of the Dirgha Agama Sutra states: “At the summit of the Snow Mountains is a lake named Anavatapta. Within that lake is a palace with five pillars. The Dragon King who dwells there is named after the lake.”
Dragons in the realm of Jambudvipa suffer three afflictions. First, hot winds blow scorching sand against their bodies, burning their skin and flesh down to the bones and marrow; this is an affliction. Second, fierce winds violently assail their palaces and strip away the precious garments covering their bodies, causing their dragon forms to be exposed; this is an affliction. Third, while the dragons are gathering and enjoying themselves, garuda birds enter their palaces, seize their newly born young, and devour them, causing fear, anxiety, and distress. This lake is free from these three afflictions. If a [garuda] bird merely conceives the thought of approaching this lake, it immediately loses its life. It is therefore called the Lake Free from the Torment of Heat.
[According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces,] originally he abided in the pure coolness of permanence, bliss, self, and purity, while his manifest traces appeared as dwelling in the cool lake.
According to contemplation of the mind, the threefold contemplation [of emptiness, the provisional, and the Middle] is wondrous wisdom. It calms and purifies the afflictions of the five abiding grounds [226] and escapes the scorching sands of the two kinds of death. [227]
[Dragon King] Manasvin is translated into Chinese as “Great Body,” or as “Great Mind,” “Great Strength,” and so forth. [When battling Sakra, the king of] the asuras used the waters of the ocean to inundate the City of Joyful Vision. This Dragon King manifested an [enormous] body and coiled himself around the city, holding back the ocean waters [and thereby assisting Sakra].
According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces, originally he abided in the Dharma-gate of the Boundless Body, while his manifest traces appeared as a vast body.
According to contemplation of the mind, the nature of the true contemplation of the Middle Way is all-pervasive. This is the meaning in brief.
[Dragon King] Utpalaka [228] is translated into Chinese as “Lake of Greatly Colored Lotuses.” [229] Because he dwelt in this lake, he was named after it.
According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces, originally he abided in the Lotus Dharma Samadhi, while his manifest traces appeared as [a dragon body] dwelling in this lake.
According to contemplation of the mind, [cultivating] the threefold contemplation [of emptiness, the provisional, and the Middle] is to cultivate the causal practice, and here the cause is the lotus flower.
The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “The dragons protect the borders of the devas. When the asuras raise an army [to wage war against the devas], they must first battle the dragons. Thus, it should be known that dragons are under the governance of the devas.”
SUTRA TEXT
There were four kinnara kings: Kinnara King Dharma, Kinnara King Wondrous Dharma, Kinnara King Great Dharma, and Kinnara King Upholder of the Dharma, each accompanied by several hundreds of thousands of attendants who came to participate in the Dharma assembly.
Next are enumerated the four [kings of the] kinnaras (kiṃnara), also pronounced chanda. The name is translated into Chinese as “doubtful spirit.” Their forms resemble human beings, but they have a single horn; hence they are called “human yet nonhuman.” They are spirits responsible for the Dharma music of the Lord of the Devas. They dwell upon a mountain composed of ten precious substances, possess bodies of extraordinary form, and devote themselves to performing music. When the Buddha teaches the Dharma, [they accompany] the devas in playing instruments, singing, and offering praise; in the great Yoga assembly, [230] [they] praise the various Dharma-gates in verse.
The earlier commentators said: “[Kinnara King] Dharma performs praises of the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths; [Kinnara King] Wondrous Dharma performs praises of the Dharma of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination; [Kinnara King] Great Dharma performs praises of the Dharma of the Six Paramitas; and [Kinnara King] Upholder of the Dharma performs praises encompassing all three of the foregoing teachings.” The present explanation holds that the teachings praised through their music are the Dharma-gates of the Four Teachings. [231]
[According to the interpretation in terms of the original and the manifest traces,] originally they abided in the inconceivable, never emerging from the Samadhi of Cessation, peacefully dwelling in meditative concentration with palms joined, and praising the Dharma Kings with myriads of verses; while their manifest traces appeared as using strings, flutes, and song to extol the Ten Powers. [232]
According to contemplation of the mind, to contemplate all sounds as being identical with emptiness, identical with the provisional, and identical with the Middle Way, and thereby to accord with the Three Truths, [233] is to praise the Buddha.
SUTRA TEXT
There were four gandharva kings: Gandharva King Music, Gandharva King Musical Sound, Gandharva King Beauty, and Gandharva King Beautiful Sound, each accompanied by hundreds of thousands of attendants who came to participate in the Dharma assembly.
[Next, the four Gandharva Kings are discussed.] Gandharva is translated into Chinese as “Scent-Sniffer.” [These beings] take fragrances as their food. They are also called “Scent Skandhas,” for fragrance issues from their bodies. They are spirits responsible for the secular music [234] of the Lord of the Devas.
The Gandharva Music specializes in music and banner dances. The Gandharva Musical Sound specializes in various drums, clappers, stringed instruments, and flutes. The Gandharva Beautiful likewise specializes in music and banner dances, but is more accomplished. The Gandharva Beautiful Sound likewise specializes in various drums, clappers, stringed instruments, and flutes, but is more accomplished.
SŪTRA TEXT
There were four asura kings: the Asura King Bali, the Asura King Kharaskandha, the Asura King Vemacitrin, and the Asura King Rāhu, each of whom came to attend the Dharma assembly together with several hundreds of thousands of followers.
[Next, the four asura kings are discussed.] Asura is translated into Chinese as “Without Wine.” [In the past, these beings] gathered flowers throughout the four continents and brought them back to ferment wine in the great ocean. However, because of the karmic power of the fish and dragons, [no matter how long it fermented,] it failed to acquire the flavor of wine. Anger arose over this, and they vowed never to drink wine again; hence they are called the spirits “Without Wine.”
[Asura] is also translated as “Not Upright.” Master Dao’an [235] said: “[Asura] is translated as ‘honest and trustworthy’ (質諒), meaning ‘sincere and unadorned’; yet this spirit is deceitful and insincere, and thus does not correspond to that designation.” [236]
There are two kinds of [asuras]. One kind lives along the shores of the great ocean and belongs to the class of ghosts; the other lives beneath the great ocean and belongs to the class of animals.
[The Asura King] Bali is translated into Chinese as “Bound,” meaning one who is subjected to bondage. He is also called “Bound in Five Places” [237] or “Five Evils.” There is something fastened around his neck that cannot be removed, and therefore he is called “Bound.” He is also said to be “One Who Has Been Bound,” because he [was once] bound by Śakra. [238]
Explained in terms of the original ground and manifested trace, on the original ground he was inherently able to bind the māras and non-Buddhist practitioners with the five bonds; [239] as a manifested trace, he appeared in the form of [an asura] such as this.
The Lotus Sutra of the True Dharma says that the most excellent contemplation is to use the wisdom of the three contemplations to bind firmly the afflictions of the five abiding grounds and enter ultimate reality.
[The Asura King] Kharaskandha is translated into Chinese as “Broad-Shouldered Armor-Bearer.” [240] He is also called “Evil Sound” and emerged from the waters of the ocean.
The Lotus Sutra of the True Dharma [241] names him “Jeweled Brocade.” [242]
Explained in terms of the original ground and manifested trace, on the original ground he inherently abided in expedient wisdom and true wisdom, bearing sentient beings upon the shoulders of compassion; as a manifested trace, he appeared with broad shoulders.
Explained in terms of contemplation of the mind, the three contemplations [of emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle] can expand to cover the afflictions of the five abiding grounds within the great ocean of birth and death.
[The Asura King] Vemacitrin is translated into Chinese as “Pure Mind” and also as “Various Doubts.” Because a sound bearing his name issued from the waves of the ocean, he was called Vemacitrin. He was the father of [the asura maiden] Śacī, [the wife of Śakra].
The Sutra on the Samādhi of Contemplating the Buddha [243] says: “The devas of the Ābhāsvara Heaven flew across this earth. [244] Because the earth caused sensual desire to arise in their minds, [245] they descended into the ocean to bathe and wash away their impure substance. [The impure substance floating in the water] sank into the mud and became an egg. After 8,000 years, the egg hatched into a female with 999 heads and twenty-four arms. [246] This female sported in the water, and the essence of the water entered her body, [causing her to conceive.] After 8,000 years, she gave birth to a son with twenty-four heads and 999 arms. [247] From the waves of the ocean came forth a sound naming him Vemacitrin. [Vemacitrin] married a gandharva maiden,
who gave birth to the asura maiden Śacī. Śakra [came to seek her hand in marriage and, at Vemacitrin’s request, performed a transformation;] through [Śakra’s] wholesome karma, a palace made of the seven treasures appeared for [Śacī’s] father to inhabit, and thus Śakra obtained Śacī as his wife. [248] Later, [because Śacī spoke ill of her husband to her father, [249] Vemacitrin became angry and] raised an army [to attack Śakra].
His feet trampled the ocean waters, while his [999] arms simultaneously stretched forth to assault the City of Joyful Sight. Through the awesome power of the Prajñā mantra, Śakra remained unharmed.
The Lotus Sutra of the True Dharma [250] names him “Dwelling in Repose.”
Explained in terms of the original ground and manifested trace, on the original ground his form and mind were originally pure in themselves; as a manifested trace, he manifested the name [Pure Mind].
Explained in terms of contemplation of the mind, the true contemplation of the Middle Way is itself the “pure mind,” the purified mind.
[The Asura King] Rāhu (Rāhuasura) [251] is translated into Chinese as “Obstructing Holder,” [meaning one who covers, obstructs, grasps, and holds], because this being grasps and obscures the sun and moon. Rāhu belongs to the class of animals. His body is 84,000 yojanas long, and his mouth is 1,000 yojanas wide. His body is adorned with jewels, and he constantly gazes upon the celestial maidens in the devas’ parks and groves.
If the people throughout the four continents understand filial care for their parents and make offerings to śramaṇas, then the devas possess awesome power and [can cause] a rain of blades to fall through the sky. If this is not so, the devas must remain within their palaces and cannot venture outside.
It is also said that the sunlight prevents Rāhu’s eyes from seeing, so he raises his hand to cover it. People in the world all call this a solar eclipse, saying that the sun has been devoured; they regard it as a strange and ominous danger and formulate all manner of heterodox theories. [Rāhu’s] obscuring of the moon is likewise.
At times [Rāhu] emits an exceedingly loud sound. People in the world say it is the roar of a celestial beast, regard it as an omen of danger and disorder and a sign that the royal dynasty is in decline, and formulate all manner of heterodox theories.
When Rāhu wishes to harm the sun or moon, he causes his body to grow many times larger and then breathes upon the sun or moon. When the sun or moon loses its radiance, it goes before the Buddha and reports the matter. The Buddha commands Rāhu not to swallow the sun or moon. [Upon hearing the Buddha’s command,] Rāhu’s entire body trembles and streams with sweat, and he immediately releases the sun or moon. [This occurs through] the power of the sun and moon, the power of sentient beings, and the awesome power of the Buddha. Because of all these causes and conditions, [Rāhu] is unable to harm them.
In ancient times, there was an intelligent brahmin who constantly practiced extensive giving. He used all 4,000 of his carts to transport provisions into the open wilderness for [universal] distribution. [At that time,] an evildoer set fire to a stupa dedicated to the Buddha. The brahmin immediately used all 4,000 carts to carry water and extinguish the flames, saving the stupa from being consumed by fire. [Having performed this meritorious deed,] he joyfully made a vow that in the future he would obtain the largest body in the Desire Realm. This person delighted in practicing generosity, but he lacked right faith and took pleasure in confrontation and strife. He was therefore reborn in the City of Radiance as none other than Rāhu, king of the asuras.
The Lotus Sutra of the True Dharma [252] calls [this king] “Inhaler of Breath.”
The original ground and manifested trace, contemplation of the mind, [and the rest are in general likewise]...
SŪTRA TEXT
There were four garuḍa kings: the Garuḍa King Great Awesome Virtue, the Garuḍa King Great Body, the Garuḍa King Great Fullness, and the Garuḍa King Wish-Fulfilling, each of whom came to attend the Dharma assembly together with several hundreds of thousands of followers.
Next are mentioned the four garuḍa kings. Garuḍa is translated into Chinese as “golden-winged.” These birds have golden wings and dwell in great trees throughout the four continents. Their two wings, when extended together, span 3,360,000 li. Some say that this bird is what Zhuangzi called the peng bird. Whenever the peng bird goes anywhere, other birds surround and escort it, and it is also called the phoenix. Yet it is said specifically that when the phoenix travels, it does not tread upon fresh grass; it eats only bamboo blossoms [253] and perches on the milk-tung tree, [254] whereas the golden-winged bird eats dragons. How, then, could they be of the same kind?
[Garuḍa King] Great Majestic Virtue means that his majestic virtue surpasses that of others of his kind. It also means that his awesome power subdues the dragons.
The Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the True Dharma calls him Complete Endowment. [255]
[Garuḍa King] Great Body means that his body is immense, that is, the largest among those of his kind.
[Garuḍa King] Great Fullness implies that he always has enough dragons for his own consumption.
[Garuḍa King] Wish-Fulfilling is so named because he wears a wish-fulfilling jewel around his neck.
The Sutra of the Lotus Blossom of the True Dharma [256] calls him Immovable.
Garuḍa birds possess supernatural powers. The males transform themselves into divine princes, and the females into divine maidens. They also transform their dwellings into palaces built of precious substances and supplied with a hundred kinds of delicacies. Yet, because of karmic retribution, they still eat dragons. A garuḍa born from a womb can eat dragons likewise born from wombs, but cannot eat the other three kinds of dragons—those born from eggs, moisture, or transformation. A garuḍa born from an egg can eat two kinds of dragons, those born from wombs and those born from eggs. A garuḍa born from moisture can eat three kinds of dragons, those born from wombs, eggs, and moisture. A garuḍa born through transformation can eat all four kinds of dragons.
The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha says: The correct Sanskrit pronunciation of this bird’s name is garu. In a single day, it devours one dragon king and five hundred young dragons on the eastern side of the mountain. On each of the other three sides—west, south, and north—it likewise devours the same number of dragons.
After completing the circuit, it begins again, living in this manner for eight thousand years. When its death approaches, its power is exhausted. It wishes to eat young dragons, but the mother dragons protect them with their breath, so it cannot eat them.
It then flies into a rage and plunges from Mount Vajra into the sea, piercing through the earth stratum but unable to penetrate the wind stratum. [257] Repelled by the force of the wind, it shoots upward from there back to Mount Vajra. After plunging down and shooting upward in this manner seven times, it returns to the mountain summit and dies. Its skin and flesh split apart and spontaneously turn into a raging fire that is about to consume the entire jeweled mountain. [Dragon King] Nanda sends down rain and extinguishes the fire.
By then, its skin and flesh have been thoroughly burned and cooked, and only its heart remains. The heart flies down and penetrates as far as the wind stratum, but is again hurled back. After this likewise occurs seven times, it finally falls upon the mountain and transforms into a wish-fulfilling jewel.
Any dragon that obtains this jewel becomes a Dragon King. Even rulers of the human realm covet this precious jewel.
SUTRA TEXT
King Ajatashatru, son of Vaidehi, together with several hundred thousand attendants, all bowed their heads at the Buddha’s feet and then withdrew to sit to one side.
Next, the human [assembly] is discussed. Vaidehi [is the name of King Ajatashatru’s mother], translated into Chinese as Contemplation. [258] Bimbisara, translated into Chinese as Model of Truth, [is the name of] King Ajatashatru’s father. [Neither of these two was present in the assembly.]
Ajatashatru means Enemy Before Birth, that is, an enemy from before he was born. He was also called Balaruci, translated into Chinese as Fingerless. [259] His close relatives and acquaintances called him Good Vision.
[Considered in terms of origin and manifestation,] the name Good Vision refers to his origin, while the name Fingerless represents his manifested trace. The Mahaparinirvana Sutra says: “Ajata means unborn, and shatru means enemy. Because the Buddha-nature is unborn, the enemy of afflictions arises. Because the enemy of afflictions arises, one does not see the Buddha-nature. If the afflictions do not arise, one sees the Buddha-nature.” [260]
Furthermore, ajata means unborn, while shatru refers to worldly dharmas. Because he could not be defiled by the eight worldly dharmas, he was called Ajatashatru. This is the meaning of his origin [according to the teaching of origin and manifestation]. [261]
The Sutra of Universal Transcendence [262] says: “Ajatashatru repented before Bodhisattva Manjushri and thereby attained the acquiescence of pliant conformity. After death, he fell into the Tinzala hell, but departed from it immediately upon entering. He was then reborn in a Buddha-land above and attained the acquiescence in the non-arising of dharmas.
When Buddha Maitreya appears in the world, he will return to this world with the title Bodhisattva Immovable. Later, he will attain Buddhahood with the title Tathagata Pure Precepts. If even his manifested trace is such as this, how could the fundamental source of his original activity be fathomed?
When [the Buddha] taught the Lotus Sutra, [King Ajatashatru] was included in the pure assembly. Yet when [the Buddha] taught the Nirvana Sutra, his heinous offense was again brought forth. This is no different from the Venerable Kashyapa receiving a prediction of Buddhahood in the Lotus assembly, yet not receiving the entrustment when the Nirvana Sutra was taught.
Therefore, one must not be deluded by the manifested trace and thereby doubt the fundamental source of the original activity.”
Explained in terms of contemplating the mind, craving is the mother and ignorance is the father. To destroy these parents is therefore called an act of rebellion. Such rebellion is itself accord. [The Vimalakirti Sutra says:] “To practice what is contrary to the Way is to penetrate the Buddha Way.” [263]
● Question: The Buddha taught the Dharma in the human realm. Why, then, are so few people in the assembly enumerated?
● Answer: The sutra text merely lists them briefly and does not record them in full; nevertheless, even the number given is not small. The sutra says, “Together with minor kings, wheel-turning sage kings, and others.” [This is equivalent to] the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, which enumerates four wheel-turning kings, [264] kings of nations, great ministers, citizens, men and women, and so forth. Such an assembly must certainly have been very large.
● Question: Beings among gods, humans, ghosts, and spirits all came to see the Buddha and hear the Dharma. Yet inhabitants of the hell realms and the Formless Realm are not mentioned. What is the implication of this?
● Answer: This meaning will now be clearly explained. Generally speaking, ascending or descending among the six destinies [265] results from observing or violating the precepts; encountering or not encountering a Buddha [266] results from diligently and vigorously cultivating according to the Dharma or from being lax. Yet observance of the precepts may be coarse or refined, and therefore its resulting retributions may be superior or inferior. Cultivation according to the Dharma may follow the Lesser Vehicle or the Great Vehicle; hence encountering a Buddha may also have the meaning of being provisional or true.
[What follows] may provisionally divide observance of the precepts and cultivation according to the vehicles into three grades: superior, middling, and inferior. Based on the Nirvana Sutra, [we shall further employ] the method of expanding a single statement into four propositions to explain this meaning clearly.
– First, observance of the precepts is strict, and cultivation according to the vehicles is likewise earnest and vigorous. (Both vehicle and precepts are urgent.)
– Second, observance of the precepts is lax, but cultivation according to the vehicles is vigorous. (The vehicle is urgent, while the precepts are lax.)
– Third, observance of the precepts is strict, but cultivation according to the vehicles is lax. (The vehicle is lax, while the precepts are urgent.)
– Fourth is lax observance of the precepts and sluggish cultivation of the vehicles. (Both vehicle and precepts are lax.)
If one discusses observance of the precepts and methods of cultivation, or the vehicles according to the Shared Teaching, then all wholesome dharmas and all practices of contemplative wisdom are called precepts and are also regarded as vehicles, as methods to be cultivated. The human and heavenly realms, [together with the sravaka, pratyekabuddha, and bodhisattva vehicles,] constitute the Five Vehicles; this is precisely the meaning intended here. The path is shared, the precepts are equal, and all of these accord with the meaning of the Shared Teaching.
[However,] we shall now distinguish them according to the Separate Teaching [in order to explain them].
The Three Refuges, the five precepts, the ten wholesome deeds, the eight fasting precepts, the various disciplinary observances of monastics, and even maintaining mental composure and constantly guarding the body and speech—all these prevent one from falling into the evil destinies and bring the karmic reward of rebirth in the two realms of humans and gods. Such things are called precepts.
If one hears the sutras and understands their meaning, then contemplates them with wisdom and investigates such dharmas as the Four Noble Truths, the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, the six paramitas, arising and cessation, non-arising and non-cessation, and so forth, [then through these] wisdom can eradicate the afflictions and gradually lead one beyond the three realms. Such things are called cultivation of the vehicles.
Therefore, the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra says: “Wholesomeness possessing marks neither moves nor leads forth; wholesomeness free of marks constantly moves and constantly leads forth.” [267] This is precisely the meaning intended here.
[First,] if observance of the precepts is strict and cultivation of the vehicles is diligent and urgent, [there are again three cases].
1. If observance of the precepts is strict at the lower level, one receives a karmic reward in the human realm. If one diligently and urgently cultivates the Lesser Vehicle, [268] then, while possessing that human body, one encounters a time when the teachings of the Three Baskets are being expounded and is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma.
If one diligently and urgently cultivates the Middle Vehicle, [269] then, while possessing that human body, one encounters a time when the Mahayana Shared Teaching, or even the Mahayana expedient sutras, are being expounded and is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma. If one diligently and urgently cultivates the Higher Vehicle, then, while possessing that human body, one encounters such teachings as the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, as well as the teachings on the Middle Way in the Perfect Teaching, is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma, and joins the assembly of listeners to hear the teaching expounded.
2. If observance of the precepts is strict at the middle level, one receives the karmic reward of rebirth as a deity in the heavens of the desire realm. If one diligently and urgently cultivates the Lesser Vehicle, then, while possessing that body of a deity in the desire realm, one encounters a time when the teachings of the Three Baskets are being expounded and is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma; the rest is as explained above. Cultivation of the Middle Vehicle and the Higher Vehicle is likewise as explained above.
3. If observance of the precepts is strict at the higher level and is supplemented by the cultivation of meditative concentration, one receives the karmic reward of rebirth as a deity in the heavens of the form realm or formless realm. If one diligently and urgently cultivates the Lesser Vehicle, then, while possessing that body of a deity in the form realm or formless realm, one encounters a time when the teachings of the Three Baskets are being expounded and is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma. Cultivation of the Middle Vehicle and the Higher Vehicle is likewise as explained above.
This completes the explanation of the first case.
[Second,] observance of the precepts is lax, but cultivation of the vehicles is urgent. If observance of the precepts at all three levels—lower, middle, and higher—is lax, the karmic reward is to fall into one of the three evil destinies: [hell beings, hungry ghosts, or animals]. At that time, if one diligently and urgently cultivates the Lesser Vehicle, then, while undergoing rebirth in one of the three evil destinies, one encounters a time when the teachings of the Three Baskets are being expounded and is able to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma. Cultivation of the Middle Vehicle and the Higher Vehicle is likewise as explained above.
This completes the explanation of the second case.
[Third,] observance of the precepts is strict, but cultivation of the vehicles is sluggish. If observance of the precepts is strict at all three levels—higher, middle, and lower—one [may] undergo rebirth in the two realms of gods and humans within the desire realm, or among the deities of the form realm and formless realm. Because cultivation of all three vehicles is sluggish, although one encounters a time when a Buddha appears in the world and expounds the teachings of the Three Vehicles,
attachment to pleasurable karmic rewards and infatuation with the five sensual desires prevent one from seeing the Buddha and hearing the Dharma. [During the Buddha’s time,] even within the kingdom of Sravasti there were three hundred thousand households that were unable to see the Buddha or hear the Dharma.
They were just like the deities absorbed in sensual pleasures throughout the three realms.
This completes the explanation of the third case.
[Fourth,] if observance of the precepts is lax and cultivation of the vehicles is also sluggish, one receives karmic retribution in the three evil destinies, does not encounter the Buddha, and is unable to hear the Dharma.
This completes the explanation of the fourth case.
This sutra does not mention hell beings because lax observance of the precepts separates them from the assembly through the karmic retribution of severe suffering; moreover, because their cultivation of the Higher Vehicle is sluggish, they are unable to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma at the Lotus Dharma assembly. Other sutras mention hell beings; those are beings who know how to cultivate the Lesser Vehicle and Middle Vehicle diligently and urgently.
This sutra likewise does not mention the deities of the formless realm because, through strict observance of the precepts at the higher level, they obtain celestial bodies, yet they are intoxicated by the savor of meditative concentration. Because their cultivation of the Higher Vehicle is sluggish, they are unable to meet the Buddha and hear the Dharma at the Lotus Dharma assembly. Other sutras mention deities of the formless realm; those are deities who know how to cultivate the Lesser Vehicle and Middle Vehicle diligently and urgently.
If one clearly understands the meaning explained above and applies it to all members of the eight classes of beings, such as gods and dragons, one will clearly know whether, in former lives, the causes and conditions of their [observance of the precepts and cultivation] were strict or lax, diligent or sluggish. One can thereby understand why certain kinds of beings came to [this Dharma assembly] while others did not. A detailed explanation is given in the Commentary on the Vimalakirti Sutra. [270]
Furthermore, by clearly understanding the meaning of the provisional expedients, one is led to the true meaning, and the significance of the original and the manifest becomes evident. Applying this meaning to the contemplative practices of the past makes the causes and effects of the three periods of time evident and clearly knowable.
“All bowed their heads at the Buddha’s feet [and then withdrew to sit to one side].” This final sentence concludes the section on the gathering of the assembly.
Explanation of the Specific Introduction
SUTRA TEXT
At that time, the Blessed One was circumambulated by the fourfold assembly, who made offerings to him, revered, honored, esteemed, and praised him. For the sake of the bodhisattvas, he expounded a Mahayana sutra entitled Immeasurable Meanings, a Dharma for Instructing Bodhisattvas, of Which the Buddhas Are Protective and Mindful. When the Buddha had finished expounding this sutra, he sat cross-legged and entered the Samadhi of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings, his body and mind unmoving.
From the words “At that time, the Blessed One...” through the end of this Introductory Chapter is called the Specific Introduction. This Specific Introduction presents five meanings. The first is the gathering of the great assembly; the second is the manifestation of auspicious signs; the third is the arising of doubtful thoughts; the fourth is the asking of questions; and the fifth is the answers.
According to Master Guangzhai, [271] arising occurs in two directions: forward and reverse. [For example, it is said that] because the assembly gathered, auspicious signs appeared, and so forth, until because a question was asked, an answer was given. [Conversely, it is said] that the answer was given because a question was asked, and so forth, until auspicious signs appeared because the assembly gathered. This examines the meaning of dependent arising from many directions, [with all events] closely related and firmly interconnected. [Yet in this way,] the principal purport of the preface itself still remains unclear.
Speaking directly of causes and conditions, when even one explanation is itself unclear, how much more so two, three, or four explanations; ultimately, therefore, there is no governing intent or tendency at all.
We shall now clarify the four most important points among the five meanings in this specific preface. Within the meaning of the assembly’s gathering, the most important is the human assembly. Within the meaning of the manifestation of auspicious signs, the most important is principle. Within the meaning of the arising of mindfulness and doubt, the most important is practice. Within the two meanings of questioning and answering, the most important is the teaching. This is the explanation according to causes and conditions.
Explained in terms of the teachings, this specific preface is definitive: it does not belong exclusively to the Tripitaka Teaching, nor does it belong to the Shared Teaching or the Distinct Teaching; therefore, it may be regarded as belonging to the Perfect Teaching. To speak briefly in terms of the original and the manifest, if the four principal meanings of this specific preface are understood according to the original causal ground set forth in the chapter “The Lifespan of the Tathagata,” their meaning may be understood naturally and need not be recorded here. They may also be explained according to contemplation of the mind. Such is the general outline.
The gathering of the assembly is further divided into two subsidiary parts. First is the manifestation of the assembly’s dignified deportment; next is the assembly’s making offerings. In this section, the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states that dignified deportment means abiding in accordance with the Dharma.
“The fourfold assembly circumambulated”
Regarding the meaning of the fourfold assembly, the earlier commentators said that it comprised the two monastic assemblies and the two lay assemblies, together constituting the fourfold assembly. This [expresses] only part of the meaning and does not encompass it fully.
Here, each assembly is further expanded into four assemblies: the initiating assembly, the assembly whose capacities are directly addressed, the influential assembly, and the assembly forming affinities.
The initiating assembly consists of those whose wisdom illuminates, examines, and clearly knows; who possess skillful expedient means; who know the appropriate capacities and the appropriate time; and who can beat the drum, raise the banner, set [the Buddha’s work] in motion, and fully accomplish benefits [for sentient beings], just as a mother elephant lowers herself onto her two legs so that her calf may drink its fill. “Initiating” means causing the great assembly to gather in order to initiate the auspicious signs, and so forth, up to initiating the questioning and answering. All those capable of doing this are called the initiating assembly.
The assembly whose capacities are directly addressed consists of those who planted roots of merit and virtue in the past and now, with causes and conditions fully assembled, have reached the time of maturation, like a boil that has ripened and is about to burst. Thus, without rising from their seats, they attain the path as soon as they hear the Dharma. Such persons are called the assembly whose capacities are directly addressed.
The influential assembly consists of Dharma-body bodhisattvas who cultivated under the Buddhas of the distant past and who now conceal their own ultimate perfection in order to follow and assist [the teaching work of] the Dharma King, like the stars surrounding the moon. Although they do nothing, [they naturally bring about] exceedingly great benefit. Such persons are called the influential assembly.
The assembly forming affinities consists of those who have no power to guide others and are unable to influence anyone. In terms of virtue, they likewise have no capacity to subdue others or uphold dignified deportment. Furthermore, because these people possessed shallow capacities in the past and were obscured by defiled and miscellaneous afflictions, the three kinds of wisdom [272] could not arise. Therefore, although in this life they encounter the Buddha and hear the Dharma, they obtain no [immediate] benefit according to any of the four meanings of siddhanta; nevertheless, [by encountering the Buddha and hearing the Dharma,] they create the causes and conditions through which they will be taught and delivered in the future. Such persons are called the assembly forming affinities.
[The assembly of] bhiksus [is now divided into four assemblies] in this manner, and each of the other assemblies—[bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas]—is likewise [divided] in the same way. Altogether, there are sixteen assemblies.
For example, in the time of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence, when the [sixteen novice] princes expounded [the Buddha’s words to the assembly] once again, they were the initiating assembly of that time. Those who heard the Dharma and attained the path were the assembly whose capacities were directly addressed at that time. Those who heard the Dharma but had not yet attained liberation and who thereafter continued to encounter one another life after life, even to the present when some are among the sravakas, were the assembly forming affinities at that time.
The Buddha [Great Universal Wisdom Excellence] already possessed all sixteen assemblies in that age; [273] now, since this is likewise the Buddha’s path, how could they not also be complete? This explains the sixteen assemblies according to the Perfect Teaching. If the Tripitaka Teaching, the Shared Teaching, and the Distinct Teaching are examined in the same way, their meaning can be clearly known; [their meaning] according to the original and the manifest can likewise be understood.
According to contemplation of the mind, one carefully examines the object and thereby perfects contemplation. Entering the stage of Contemplative Practice within the identity in name constitutes the assembly forming affinities; entering the stage of Resemblance constitutes the assembly whose capacities are directly addressed; and entering the stage of Partial Realization constitutes the initiating assembly and the influential assembly. Such is the general outline.
Regarding the meaning of circumambulating the Buddha: when the Buddha had only recently appeared in the world and people did not yet know the teaching, devas from the Pure Abodes descended, transformed themselves into human form, approached [the Buddha], and circumambulated him to the right [to express] reverence. Having paid homage, they sat down and listened to the Dharma. Because the devas paid homage [in this manner], human beings took it as a model to follow. This is the explanation according to causes and conditions.
Circumambulation is the dignified deportment of walking around [the Buddha in homage], signifying that through the four gateways to the path, [274] one responds flexibly to causes and conditions and in every case perceives the perfect truth. Comparing the perfect with the partial gives rise to four meanings; [275] this is the explanation according to the teaching. Furthermore, the Buddha’s body is adorned throughout with the excellent marks; circumambulating while gazing upon them increases the power of samadhi in mindfulness of the Buddha. This is the explanation according to contemplation of the mind.
Explained according to the original and the manifest, contemplating the Buddha’s physical body enables one to perceive the Dharma body.
“Making offerings, showing reverence, honoring, and praising”
Regarding the meaning of making offerings, [in general,] actions performed through all three karmic activities—[body, speech, and mind]—are called offerings. More specifically, bowing down and prostrating is called showing reverence; contemplating with utmost sincerity is called honoring; praising and extolling with fine words is called praising; and presenting things belonging to one’s circumstantial retribution [276] is called making offerings.
Here the sutra speaks only briefly. A complete account would have to be given extensively, as in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings: presenting celestial food, celestial fragrances, and celestial alms bowls is called making offerings. [The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings states that] [277] Bodhisattva Great Adornment, together with eighty thousand great bodhisattvas, joined their palms; this is showing reverence. They gazed single-mindedly; this is honoring.
They recited verses in seven-character lines; [278] this is called praising.
Now, the account of the great assembly gathering refers to the passage in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings. The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings states that, after the great assembly had gathered and listened to the Dharma teaching, they remained seated in dignified composure without praising the Buddha, because the Lotus Sutra was to be taught next at this same Dharma assembly. Therefore, we know that the meaning of making offerings through the three karmic activities [of body, speech, and mind] is no different. There is nothing amiss in using the text of the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings to explain extensively what is stated only briefly in this sutra.
“For the bodhisattvas, he taught a Great Vehicle sutra called Immeasurable Meanings.”
From the passage “For the bodhisattvas, he taught a Great Vehicle sutra” through the end of the section “[they] erected stupas of the seven precious substances [to enshrine] the Buddha’s relics” [279], all are manifested signs in this introductory section. Master Fayao [280] clearly explained that there are seven auspicious signs: six are separately presented in this realm, while those in other realms are combined into one.
Master Guangzhai, however, held that both this realm and other realms each manifest all six auspicious signs. Of the six auspicious signs in this realm, the dynamic sign is the teaching of the Dharma to liberate beings, while the quiescent sign is entering samadhi to contemplate principle; activity and quiescence form a corresponding pair. From the heavens descended a rain of four kinds of precious flowers, [281] while upon the earth there were six kinds of trembling; above and below form a corresponding pair.
Inwardly, the great assembly rejoiced, while outwardly, the Tathagata emitted a radiant light; inward and outward form a corresponding pair. Examining the scriptural text now, Master Guangzhai’s interpretation may be said to exhaust its meaning. If one adheres to the terminology, the meaning is easy to examine, but the significance symbolized [by the auspicious signs] is still not entirely clear in itself. [Therefore,] it will now be explained as three corresponding pairs: wisdom and samadhi, cause and effect, and stimulus and response.
Wisdom means expressing many [meanings] with reference to a single [meaning], while samadhi means carefully examining the meaning of conditions. The cause is the rain of celestial flowers [in praise of] the four stages; the effect is the earth trembling in six ways. The stimulus is the arising of the capacities for the Great Vehicle; the response is the immediate emission of light from the [Buddha’s] white urna, illuminating all. These six are all called auspicious signs.
The sutra says: “The signs of today resemble the auspicious signs of old.” [282] An auspicious sign is itself a sign. Because the human mind makes distinctions, hidden and subtle portents are called auspicious signs, while visible and extraordinary manifestations are called signs. What, then, do these signs reveal?
The wondrous truth is profound, abstruse, and exceedingly difficult to expound, while people’s minds are distracted and restless and cannot give rise to reverence and esteem [for the teaching]. Therefore, extraordinary signs are first manifested to inspire awe in people’s minds and transform them. Once their minds have been transformed, they can give rise to reverence, aspiration, and longing [for the True Dharma].
Thus, the meaning of extraordinary manifestation explains the appearance of signs, while the meaning of revelation explains auspicious signs.
[Next,] the six auspicious signs are briefly said to reveal and foreshadow the Ten Subtleties. [283] This has already been discussed under the subtlety of stimulus and response, [284] and will now be explained further.
1. The auspicious sign of teaching the Dharma reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of teaching the Dharma and the subtlety of wisdom [in this Dharma assembly].
2. The auspicious sign of [the Buddha’s] entering samadhi reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of practice.
3. The auspicious sign of the rain of [celestial] flowers reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of stages.
4. The auspicious sign of the earth trembling reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of objects and the subtlety of the vehicle.
5. The auspicious sign of the great assembly’s rejoicing reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of retinues and the subtlety of benefits.
6. The auspicious sign of [the Buddha’s] emitting light reveals and foreshadows the subtlety of stimulus and response and the subtlety of supernormal powers.
Therefore, these six kinds of auspicious signs are all called the manifest signs of this introductory section.
[The Buddha] taught a Great Vehicle sutra. According to the Sutra of Wholesome Precepts, [285] [the Great Vehicle scriptures] possess seven kinds of greatness and are therefore called “great.”
The first is the greatness of the Dharma, meaning that it is the greatest among the twelve divisions of the scriptures and is therefore called vaipulya, [meaning vast and extensive]. [286]
The second is greatness of resolve, referring to [arousing the aspiration for unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment and] seeking the [exceedingly great] fruit of bodhi.
The third is greatness of exposition, referring to the clear exposition of [the vaipulya scriptures contained in] the bodhisattva treasury.
The fourth is greatness of purity, meaning that, after arousing the aspiration, a bodhisattva always preserves purity of mind [until attaining the path of bodhi; hence it is called greatness of purity].
The fifth is greatness of adornment, meaning that a bodhisattva is fully endowed with the adornment of merit and the adornment of wisdom and is therefore called great.
The sixth is greatness of time, meaning that, in seeking the path of bodhi, a bodhisattva undertakes arduous cultivation throughout three asamkhyeya kalpas; hence it is called greatness of time.
The seventh is greatness of completeness, meaning that a bodhisattva is fully endowed with the thirty-two excellent marks and eighty noble characteristics with which to adorn himself and attains the fruit of bodhi; [hence it is called greatness of completeness].
The first six kinds of greatness constitute greatness of cause, while the seventh constitutes greatness of effect. Greatness of cause and greatness of effect together constitute the [great] scriptures of the Great Vehicle.
If the meaning of the Ten Subtleties is now used to summarize [287] the meaning of the sutra, it can be understood. Master Daosheng [288] said: “The teaching of emptiness and signlessness is the foundation of the Great Vehicle. [The Tathagata] taught the Dharma of the Three Vehicles as a provisional preparation; if the Great Vehicle teaching had been presented immediately, sentient beings would have been unable to believe and accept it. Therefore, signlessness is said to be the introduction to the Lotus Sutra.” Master Huiguan [289] also agreed with this.
But if this were so, then the Prajnaparamita sutras and the Vimalakirti Sutra should likewise all have such an introduction. [290] Why should only the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings serve this role?
Master Daosheng explained: “Because there were five periods of teaching, this doctrine was presented only at the end.” [291]
Again, it is asked: “If this is so, then the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings and the other sutras should all be mutually connected and give rise to one another. Why should this be restricted solely to this specific introduction?”
Master Ji [292] said: “The principle of emptiness is originally without form; therefore, it is called immeasurable.” The purport of this explanation of the introduction is the same as before, and the objection to it is likewise the same.
Master Yin [293] said: “Formless goodness has the meaning of attaining Buddhahood; [294] therefore, it is called immeasurable.” He also said: “The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings does not state either that there are Three Vehicles or that there are no Three Vehicles, and therein lies the distinction.”
The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra does not represent the essential teaching of the Lotus Sutra. This essential teaching [at that time] had not yet reached the land of Qin. [295] Upon examination, this sutra was obtained during the [Liu] Song dynasty, in the third year of the Yuanjia era (426), when the bhiksu Huibiao met Dharmayasas at Chaoting Monastery in Nanhai Commandery and received it from him, after which he brought it back to Mount Wudang. It did not begin to circulate until the third year of the Yongming era (485), [during the Southern Qi dynasty]. Once the sutra had arrived here, how could it possibly have been taken back to India?
Master Guangzhai said: “The Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings teaches that the unification of the myriad wholesome qualities can accomplish the Buddha path. The Lotus Sutra elucidates the principle that there are neither Two Vehicles nor Three Vehicles; it refutes the Three Vehicles in order to teach the One Vehicle, [which is solely the Buddha Vehicle]. This is their point of distinction. Therefore, the former is taken as the introductory section to the latter.”
If it is said that the myriad wholesome deeds are united as one, why are the Two Vehicles and Three Vehicles not also united as one? Moreover, if the Two Vehicles and Three Vehicles are both united as one, then the preface is no different from the main text. If it is said that the meaning is to refute the Two Vehicles and the Three Vehicles, why not also refute the myriad wholesome deeds? When the Two Vehicles and Three Vehicles are refuted, there are no longer any Two Vehicles or Three Vehicles; but if the myriad wholesome deeds are all refuted, then this preface could not exist. Using the meaning of the sutra to demonstrate a difference instead turns it into nondifference. Since the intended difference is unclear, the meaning of the preface also cannot be established.
Liu Qiu [296] commented: “Signlessness is the root. The one signless Dharma contains immeasurable meanings. If it contains immeasurable meanings, then it possesses characteristics; how, then, can it be called signless?”
Upon examining the teachings of the various masters, each inclines toward a different interpretation. If it is said that wholesome deeds possessing characteristics have the meaning of attaining Buddhahood, this is an explanation according to the Tripitaka Teaching. If it is said that wholesome deeds without characteristics have the meaning of attaining Buddhahood, this accords with the Shared Teaching. If it is said that the Dharma contains immeasurable meanings, this is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. All these merely elucidate the intent of other sutras and are not the intent of the preface to the Lotus Sutra.
The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra lists seventeen titles, all of which are alternative titles of the Lotus Sutra. Immeasurable Meanings is another title of the Lotus Sutra. Here, according to the meaning of the treatise, the Buddha directly proclaimed the title of this sutra and then entered a samadhi bearing the same name; therefore, this is regarded as part of the preface.
Furthermore, such sutras as the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra, the Golden Light Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra all state their titles beforehand, and this presents no obstruction within their prefaces. Here in this sutra, Manjusri cites the fact that Buddhas of the past likewise proclaimed the title Immeasurable Meanings and afterward also declared that they would teach the Great Vehicle sutra called the Lotus of the Wondrous Dharma. This, too, is the statement of the sutra’s title within the preface and accords with the meaning of the Treatise on the Lotus Sutra.
Now this will be explained on the basis of the contents of the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings. The sutra says: “These immeasurable meanings arise from one Dharma. That one Dharma is called signlessness. Signlessness is devoid of characteristics and is therefore called the true aspect.” From that true aspect arise immeasurable dharmas, namely, the two teachings, the Three Paths, and the Four Fruits.
This passage from the sutra will now be explained.
“Signlessness” means that there is no characteristic of birth and death. “Devoid of characteristics” means that there is no characteristic of nirvana. Nirvana itself is also empty; therefore, it is said that there is no characteristic of signlessness. Only the Middle Way is the true aspect.
The two teachings are the sudden and the gradual. The sudden denotes all the sudden teachings in the Avatamsaka Sutra, while the gradual denotes all the teachings within the Three Baskets, including the Vaipulya and Prajnaparamita sutras. The Three Paths denote the Three Vehicles: sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. The Four Fruits denote the arhat, pratyekabuddha, bodhisattva, and Buddha. All these dharmas are called immeasurable.
The true aspect is the locus of meaning. From this one locus of meaning, immeasurable dharmas are produced; then the immeasurable dharmas are brought back into the one locus of meaning, thereby constituting the meaning of this preface. It is like a person skilled in calculation, who divides one calculation into many calculations and then eliminates the many calculations by combining them again into one calculation. Because there is division, there is also elimination through recombination, thus constituting the meaning of the preface. From one, it divides into many; from many, it is gathered back into one. It unfolds and then reunites. The meaning of this preface is likewise so.
Explaining it in this manner neither contradicts the treatise’s interpretation of the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings nor fails to accord with this sutra. Such, in brief, is the meaning.
Furthermore, the verses praising the Buddha in the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings make clear that the Buddha’s Dharma body transcends every form and characteristic, motion and stillness, yet distinctly and manifestly appears as a radiant, purple-golden body sixteen feet in height.
The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra [297] explains that the four abodes of the paramitas are permanence, bliss, self, and purity. The two texts cited before and after [298] both speak of permanence. How could it be reasonable that, in between them, the teaching on the Tathagata’s lifespan should not also refer to permanence?
Someone further objects: “Since the preface has already taught the principle of permanence, what remains for the main text to teach?”
I now ask in return: “In the Nirvana Sutra, the Cunda Chapter is the preface. Since that chapter already reveals the principle of permanence, what, then, does the remaining sutra text teach?” [299]
That person gives another example: the preface to the Vimalakirti Sutra [300] makes clear that the Dharma body is adamantine, eternally abiding, unconditioned, and immeasurable, yet the main body of that sutra does not teach the principle of permanence. The Lotus Sutra should likewise be understood in this way.
I now ask in return: “Since the preface—the Cunda Chapter—has already taught the principle of permanence, then according to the interpretation above, the main text of the Nirvana Sutra should not teach permanence. Yet we now establish that the preface teaches permanence and that the main text also teaches permanence. What cause is there for doubt?”
“Teachings for Bodhisattvas, Guarded and Kept in Mind by the Buddhas”
As for the Dharma taught to instruct bodhisattvas, all the immeasurable loci of meaning are employed to instruct the bodhisattvas. The locus of meaning is the true aspect, the ultimate and genuine truth. A later passage states: “I cause all sentient beings to attain this path.” It also says: “Whenever I encounter any sentient being, I teach them all and cause them to fully accomplish the Buddha path.” These statements all have this same meaning.
“Guarded and kept in mind by the Buddhas” means that the Buddha has personally realized all these immeasurable loci of meaning; therefore, they are all guarded and kept in mind by the Tathagata.
A later passage also says: “The Buddha himself abides in the Great Vehicle. Although he wished to reveal it, because sentient beings’ faculties were dull and they might not understand, the Buddha contemplated this matter for a very long time and did not teach it hastily.” Therefore, it is said to be guarded and kept in mind.
“After the Buddha had taught this sutra, he sat cross-legged and entered the Samadhi of the Locus of Immeasurable Meanings.”
After the Buddha had taught the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings, he immediately entered the Samadhi of the Locus of Immeasurable Meanings; this signifies that wisdom and meditative concentration were both perfected. Because it was not meditation devoid of wisdom, he first had to enter samadhi. Because it was not wisdom devoid of meditation, he first had to teach the Dharma. Within wisdom there is concentration, and within concentration there is wisdom; whether before or after, entering or emerging, there is no obstruction or impediment whatsoever.
Someone gives rise to doubt and asks: “If the Sutra of Immeasurable Meanings had not yet been taught, it would be possible to enter this samadhi; but after this sutra had already been taught, why did the Buddha enter samadhi again?”
It is explained: “That the Buddha first entered this samadhi and afterward taught the sutra is readily understandable. Yet after teaching this sutra, he entered samadhi again precisely in order to constitute the preface to the Lotus Sutra. Why is this so?
If there had been no prior unfolding, there could have been no subsequent reunification. He first entered the samadhi that unfolds, so that the later samadhi of reunification might constitute the preface. Its being called an auspicious sign lies precisely in this meaning.
If the sequence were followed literally, then after entering the Samadhi of Immeasurable Meanings, he should subsequently have entered the Lotus Sutra Samadhi. If the sutra text had stated this plainly and explicitly, the entire assembly would already have known it; why would it have been necessary to wait for Bodhisattva Maitreya to ask earnestly and for Manjusri to set forth the matter with care? Therefore, it should be understood that this preface exists to make the meaning still clearer.
“His body and mind remained unmoving.”
Body and mind unmoving refers to accord with the object of contemplation. The source of the body is originally empty and open like space. The intrinsic principle of the mind is ultimately ever quiescent. The body and limbs of [the Buddha] Great Universal Wisdom Excellence remained constantly tranquil, serene, and unmoving; his mind likewise remained calm and quiescent, without the slightest distraction. His body was [steadfast] like vajra and could not be shaken. His mind was like space, without discrimination. Because the samadhi of the Abode of Immeasurable Meanings sustained his body and mind, they remained unmoving.
It is called immeasurable because this meditative concentration, quiescent yet constantly illuminating, can clearly comprehend the world. From this single Dharma, immeasurable dharmas flow forth. If explained according to the meaning of the introductory section, the dharma-nature of the body is movement, but now it is made motionless; the dharma-nature of the mind is discrimination, but now it is made nondiscriminating. Thus, the meaning of the introductory section is made clear.
Question: Auspicious signs should, in principle, be extraordinary events, but teaching the Dharma and entering meditative concentration are ordinary activities of a Buddha. How, then, can they be regarded as auspicious signs?
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