妙法蓮華經文句

Preface

A Commentary on the Lotus Sutra
by Great Master Zhiyi of Mount Tiantai

Related by Śramaṇa Shenjiong of Jingzhong

First, let it be said: ultimate truth has no name; yet when given a name, it circulates throughout the four quarters beneath heaven. The Buddha Vehicle is unmoving; yet when it moves, it appears within the three realms. Upon realizing the teaching, all phenomena become utterly still and quiescent; nevertheless, as skillful means, the four siddhāntas ^[1] are employed to teach and transform beings according to their capacities and conditions. Guiding sentient beings without calculation or seeking—how truly magnificent is such merit!

The Great Hero, the World-Honored One, appeared in the world and, for the sake of one great cause and condition, expounded the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wondrous Dharma. Yet medicinal plants are not all alike, and what is suitable differs from patient to patient; likewise, understandings of the teaching vary. Therefore, employing skillful means, he turned the Dharma wheel at Deer Park and taught the Four Noble Truths; then, upon Vulture Peak, he revealed the truth and three times transformed the Pure Land. ^[2] [The World-Honored One’s teaching] is profound in purport and complete in expression.

The Venerable One proclaimed the lofty Way, illuminating the [Tathagata’s] lifespan from the original gate of immeasurable past kalpas and [enabling beings] to comprehend the true meaning of the recent manifested traces at the Bodhi-manda. ^[3] The rain of Dharma poured down and nourished all, encouraging goodness and destroying evil. The teaching was expounded everywhere, casting aside the earlier provisional teachings of skillful means, like a fisherman discarding his fish trap or a hunter throwing away his snare; it opened and revealed the Buddha’s knowledge and vision so that sentient beings might awaken to and enter it, thereby gaining present benefit, like the fisherman who has caught the fish or the hunter who has caught the hare.

Bodhisattvas as numerous as motes of dust increasingly advanced in attainment of the Way, while transformational birth-and-death steadily diminished. ^[4] The śrāvakas in their thatched huts, after hearing the Dharma, felt ashamed of the Lesser Vehicle and joyfully accepted the Great Vehicle. [In the Dharma assembly,] Bodhisattva Medicine King burned his arms as an offering, and the Tathagata Many Treasures manifested his entire body to bear witness to [the Buddha’s words].

The teaching is perfectly consummate, supremely subtle and refined, and cannot be fully expressed in words.

There was a Great Master of Mount Tiantai whose Dharma name was Zhiyi. In a former life, he had personally heard this scripture in the presence of the Tathagata. The Great Master attained the stage of the Five Grades, ^[5] and his renown resounded through two dynasties. ^[6] Without needing to attend lecture halls, he thoroughly understood the Buddha Vehicle.

Having acquired the power of dhāraṇī, ^[7] he delighted in expounding the Dharma without exhaustion. He once stayed in the Taiji Hall of the Chen emperor, where he explained the Sutra on the Prajñā of Benevolent Kings before the sovereign; ^[8] the Son of Heaven knelt before him, ^[9] and all the officials offered praise. Moreover, the Great Master’s method of contemplating the mind ^[10] skillfully transcended the two extremes of existence and nonexistence.

Taking true nature as its standard, he penetrated all things through his own illuminating insight. In explaining names and presenting the central purport, [the Great Master] differed in every respect from earlier teachers. He established the five levels of meaning ^[11] to examine the doctrines and principles [of the scriptures], all for the purpose of elucidating the sacred teaching.

For more than thirty years after Great Master Zhizhe ^[12] began propagating the Dharma, the only commentary [he composed] was on the Vimalakīrti Sutra. ^[13] It was not until the Sui dynasty, in obedience to an imperial decree from Emperor Yang of Sui, that this wondrous text was compiled. The notes of Dharma Master Guanding alone were assembled into twenty fascicles. Without wisdom, no judgment of it is possible—these are truthful words.

More than a hundred years after the Great Master entered final nirvana, ^[14] in the Wuzi year ⁽⁷⁴⁸⁾, the seventh year of the Tianbao era of the Tang dynasty, there was Venerable Xu朗 ^[15] of Qingtais Monastery in Dongyang Commandery. He was an elder in the Dharma, ^[16] complete in both wisdom and conduct; ^[17] he was equally diligent in meditative cultivation and the strict observance of the precepts, ^[18] and was deeply versed in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist scriptures.

He possessed the power of preaching the Dharma like Pūrṇa, ^[19] and comprehended the meaning of emptiness like Subhūti. ^[20] Whenever he lectured on this text, he would quietly lament: “When examined in terms of doctrine and principle, it is indeed profound and accords with the Buddha Vehicle; yet when its literary structure is investigated, it often fails to follow an appropriate sequence. Sometimes the text continues while the meaning is interrupted; sometimes a passage appears later although its meaning has already been stated earlier; sometimes a chapter begins with prose; sometimes its meaning is given only afterward; sometimes the preceding verses enumerate the full number, yet the names are nowhere stated in what follows.

But the sage’s intent [of the Great Master] is truly difficult to fathom, so one can only reverently accept it in faith.

“Now, because those who came to hear the Dharma repeatedly entreated and encouraged me, saying: ‘Those of superior faculties can easily attain awakening; they investigate the profound meaning without becoming confused. But those of middling or inferior faculties may go astray from the purport when they have to trace it through the wording. If passages were compared, rearranged, and reordered, this would surely bring extensive benefit to very many people.’ The Venerable repeatedly pondered these words and, seeing that this was truly unavoidable, single-mindedly prayed to the Great Master to learn whether the work might be undertaken.

Receiving an auspicious response [of approval] in a dream, he then began to rearrange and revise [this text]. Yet everything was reordered only where appropriate, with sincere and careful deliberation. It was not done carelessly out of a desire to create similarities or differences, nor were additions and deletions made arbitrarily according to personal preference.

“May scholars of later generations understand the original intention, pursue what is essential, seek what is practical, select pure gold, and cast aside gravel; may they expound the true Dharma and not deceive others. To further the widespread diffusion of the wondrous true Dharma, the work of addition, deletion, and revision was completed upon Danqiu Peak. ^{[21] [22]} Thus the hundred Dharma realms and thousand suchnesses will surely all accord naturally; ^[23] whether through the conjured city or the treasure ground, ^[24] all will reach the shore of liberation.

This was made possible through Bodhisattva Maitreya’s compassionate inquiry and the reply of Mañjuśrī, Prince of the Dharma. ^[25] [Now] the meanings of the six works of the Ṣaṭpādābhidharma ^[26] are used to further illuminate the Jñānaprasthāna Treatise, ^[27] and a single word of praise is set forth with the truthfulness of the Spring and Autumn Annals.” ^[28]

We—[Śramaṇa] Shenjiong and our colleagues—together collected and selected the ancient text, dwelling serenely and freely in truth. Not one among us failed to arouse the [bodhi] mind together before the ancient Buddha King of Emptiness, just as the sixteen śrāmaṇeras each expounded [the Lotus Sutra] on behalf of the Buddha. ^[29] [Encountering this sutra] is like a flower in darkness meeting the sunlight, bringing afflictions and hardships to an end and cultivating precious treasures.

Now I am truly ashamed that I do not possess the literary talent of Yanmen; ^[30] how could I presume to peer into profundities as unfathomable as a dragon’s brow? [Yet this work was undertaken] solely in the hope that those who investigate its wondrous and subtle meaning may be immersed in the stream of the Way and gain a firm foundation.

1. EXPLANATION OF THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

([It is said:] It is difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world; it is difficult to hear the Buddha’s teaching; it is difficult to translate and transmit the scriptures; it is still more difficult to awaken through one’s own efforts. It is difficult to hear a teacher expound the teaching, and still more difficult to record it after hearing it only once. When I was twenty-seven years old in Jinling, I heard and received this Dharma. Only at the age of sixty-nine did I undertake the revision, additions, and deletions [of this text] at Mount Danqiu. I now record and preserve it as a gift to the worthy ones of later generations, so that all may share in and benefit from the Buddha’s wisdom.) ^[31]

SUTRA TEXT

Chapter One: Introduction

Explanation of the Chapter Title

The origins of this commentary on the sutra have already been explained clearly above. The word “introduction” [in “Introduction Chapter”] means to elucidate matters thoroughly. That is, it clearly sets forth the roles of the one who expounds the Dharma and those who hear it, and of the questioner and the respondent.

Scholars of the scriptures, based on this meaning, distinguish three senses: sequential introduction (presenting the order of events), causal introduction (presenting the reasons), and narrative introduction (presenting the entry into the main subject). For example, the five matters stated at the beginning of every sutra ^[32] constitute the sequential introduction. The Buddha’s emission of a ray of light and manifestation of six auspicious signs ^[33] before teaching this sutra constitute the causal introduction.

The fitting questions and answers [between Bodhisattva Maitreya and Bodhisattva Manjushri] that lead into the principal discourse constitute the narrative introduction. Because all three meanings—sequential introduction, causal introduction, and narrative introduction—are present, it is called an introduction.

The word “chapter” is called varga in the Madhyama Agama and is translated into Chinese as “chapter.” ^[34] A chapter means a classification of mutually similar meanings. Because [similar meanings] are gathered together into a single section, it is called a chapter. [The establishment and naming of each chapter of a sutra] may have been done by the Buddha himself, as in the Brahma Net Sutra; ^[35] or arranged and named by those who compiled the canon, as stated in the Great Treatise;

or added for completeness by the translator, as was the practice of Master Kumarajiva. ^[36] Now, [with regard to this Lotus Sutra,] the chapter “Former Deeds of Bodhisattva Medicine King” was designated and named by the Buddha himself, ^[37] while the chapters on [Bodhisattva] Wonderful Voice and [Bodhisattva] Avalokiteshvara were recorded by the scribes of the sutra. ^[38] We have not heard of any chapter in this sutra whose title was added by the translator.

Because [this chapter] stands at the beginning of all the chapters, it is called the first. ^[39] In accordance with the causes and conditions [of sentient beings], ^[40] the Buddha [spoke sutra prose as though] scattering flowers everywhere, or [spoke verses as though] stringing flowers into a garland. ^[41] The compilers transmitted [this sutra] according to what the Buddha had taught. The masters of treatises relied on the sutra text to elaborate and expound it extensively, but none of them divided it into sections. The teachers of old likewise only expounded its principles at length without dividing it into chapters and passages. If one were to follow this method exclusively, later generations might be unable to comprehend fully [the meaning of the sutra].

Furthermore, although the Buddha’s teaching in verse (contemplating flowers) and in sutra prose (scattering flowers) [takes different forms], the compilers had to establish [divisions into] chapters and categories according to their meaning. The Ekottarika Agama says: [The Buddha’s teaching comprises] one part Sutra, one part Vinaya, and one part Treatise [Abhidharma].

The Sutra division is further divided into four parts: the Ekottarika Agama, the Dirgha Agama, the Madhyama Agama, and the Samyukta Agama. ^[42] The Ekottarika Agama illuminates cause and effect in the two realms of devas and humans. The Dirgha Agama refutes wrong views. The Madhyama Agama clarifies profound meanings. The Samyukta Agama clearly teaches meditative concentration.

The Vinaya Pitaka includes the Vinayas of the Five Schools ^[43] and the Eighty-Recitation Vinaya. ^[44] The Abhidharma treatises are divided into the Six Pada Treatises, the Treatise in Eight Granthas, ^[45] and so forth.

The Agama sutras teach the perfection of giving, the perfection of moral discipline, the perfection of wisdom, and so forth; all six perfections are present. They fully teach the faculties, the path, concentration, and so forth within the eight classes of categories. ^[46]

Earlier Methods of Division ^[47]

Master Vasubandhu ^[48] composed the [Treatise on the Lotus Sutra], using the seven accomplished merits ^[49] to divide the Introduction Chapter and the five manifestations ^[50] to divide the Skillful Means Chapter. The other chapters are likewise divided into sections. In earlier times, [Shi Dao]ping ^[51] in Hexi and [Shi Fa]yao ^[52] in Jiangdong both followed this method to divide the sutra text into sections, making it exceedingly complicated. Later, Master Guangzhai ^[53] adopted an even more meticulous method of division. [Yet such minute division is like] dense mist obscuring the vast, lofty sky, causing the light of the sun, moon, and stars all to disappear. This is not something to be prized by those who seek to learn the Way. ^[54]

Master Tanluan said: Dividing the sutra text into excessively minute sections is like confused clouds of smoke and dust caught in a strong wind, [obscuring the essential purport of the sutra. Therefore, from earlier times until now, the division of the sutra text into sections] has either been excessively intricate or too cursory and incomplete. Master Long of Mount Lu divided the sutra text [into three parts]: the Introduction, the Main Exposition, and the Transmission.

The entire sutra of twenty-seven chapters ^[55] was divided into two groups. The first, from the Introduction Chapter through the Dharma Teacher Chapter, teaches the provisional Dharma and the true Dharma: although in truth there is only the One [Vehicle], it is expounded as the Three Vehicles. The second, from the [Appearance of the] Jeweled Stupa Chapter onward, [teaches] the provisional body and the true body.

This means that [the Buddha attained buddhahood] in the distant past, while employing [his attainment of enlightenment] in the recent past [at the Bodhi Seat] as an expedient way of teaching it. ^[56]

Furthermore, the section from the Skillful Means Chapter through the Peaceful Practices Chapter teaches the gateway of cause, while the section from the Emerging from the Earth Chapter onward teaches the gateway of fruition. Master Xuanchang of Qixing (Zhongxing) Monastery and Master Fayao of Xiaoshan Monastery both followed Master Longshu and divided the sutra text in the same way. Master Xuanchang regarded the section from the Introduction Chapter through the Appearance of the Jeweled Stupa Chapter ^[57] as the part concerning cause; the section from the Encouragement to Uphold Chapter through the Tathagata’s Transcendent Powers Chapter as the part concerning fruition;

and the section from the Entrustment Chapter through the end of the sutra as the part concerning protection and preservation.

Another master held that the section from the Introduction Chapter through the Prophecies for Those Still Learning and Those Beyond Learning Chapter constitutes the essence of the Lotus Sutra; the section from the Dharma Teacher Chapter through the Entrustment Chapter explains the merits of upholding [this sutra]; and the section from the Former Practices and Vows of Bodhisattva Medicine King Chapter through the end of the sutra praises the original vows of the bodhisattvas.

Another master divided [the sutra text] into four parts. The Introduction Chapter is the first part. The section from the Skillful Means Chapter through the Peaceful Practices Chapter is [the second part], which extensively expounds the Three Vehicles in order to reveal the One Vehicle. The section from the Emerging from the Earth Chapter through the end of the Distinctions in Merits Chapter is [the third part], which extensively expounds the meaning of [the Buddha’s attainment of enlightenment] in the recent past in order to reveal that [the Tathagata originally attained buddhahood] in the distant past. The remainder from that point onward is the transmission section.

Master [Fa]yun of Guangzhai divided each of the three parts of the sutra text into two: [within the Introduction (the Introduction Chapter),] there are the general introduction and the specific introduction; the main exposition is divided into the gateway of cause and the gateway of fruition; and the transmission section is divided into teaching others and one’s own practice. [Thus,] the introduction contains five passages, each divided into two, making ten; the main exposition contains four passages, each divided into two, making eight; and the transmission section contains three passages, each divided into two, making six. Altogether, the entire work comprises twenty-four passages. This is the general outline.

Generally speaking, the division of the scriptural text into sections [as above] is entirely based on each person’s understanding. Orchids and chrysanthemums each possess their own beauty. Later generations should not contend over right and wrong because of such differences, [for by doing so] they gain none of the three benefits and lose the single path. The three benefits refer to [the three siddhantas, namely] the worldly siddhanta, [the individually adapted siddhanta, and the therapeutic siddhanta]. The single path refers to the siddhanta of the ultimate truth. ^[58]

Master Zhiyi of Tiantai divided the entire sutra into three parts. The first chapter is the Introductory Section. From the Skillful Means chapter through [the beginning of] the Distinctions in Benefits chapter, [ending with] the nineteen passages of verse, ^[59] altogether comprising fifteen and a half chapters, is the Main Text. From after those verses to the end of the sutra, altogether comprising eleven and a half chapters, is the Dissemination Section. ^[60]

At other times, [the entire sutra] is divided into two parts. From the Introductory chapter through the Peaceful Practices chapter, comprising fourteen chapters, is classified as the Trace [Gate], which opens and removes skillful means and reveals the truth. From the Emerging from the Earth chapter to the end of the sutra, comprising fourteen chapters, is classified as the Origin [Gate], which opens and removes skillful means and reveals the truth.

[The two parts,] the Origin Gate and the Trace Gate, [each] fully include an introduction, a main text, and a dissemination section. [Thus, within the Trace Gate,] the first chapter is the Introductory Section; from the Skillful Means chapter through the Bestowal of Predictions upon Those Still in Training and Those Beyond Training chapter is the Main Text; and from the Dharma Teachers chapter through the Peaceful Practices chapter is the Dissemination Section. [Within the Origin Gate, it is divided as follows:] in the Emerging from the Earth chapter, [from the beginning] through [the statement concerning Maitreya,] “having already asked about this matter, the Buddha will now answer; through this, you yourselves will be able to hear,” ^[61] is the Introductory Section.

From the words, “At that time, the Buddha addressed Bodhisattva Maitreya,” ^[62] through the end of the [nineteen passages of] verse in the Distinctions in Benefits chapter is the Main Text. From there to the end of the sutra is the Dissemination Section. The threefold division above is recorded here so that the meaning of the sutra may be clearly understood. ^[63]

● [Someone] asks: [If it is as stated above, then how can] a single sutra have two Introductory Sections?

● Answer: In the Avatamsaka Sutra, wherever the assembly gathers, [there is an Introductory Section]. ^[64] In the Agama Sutras, each section also [begins with] “Thus” [as though it were a separate sutra]. ^[65] In the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra, both its earlier and later parts contain an Entrustment. ^[66] [None of these things] prevents them [from constituting] a single scripture. Therefore, there is likewise no difficulty in this sutra having two Introductory Sections.

Now, [if it were not divided in this way,] the five meanings could not be fully established, ^[67] the beginning of the Origin Gate could not be demarcated, and the Trace Gate alone would possess a separate Dissemination Section, leaving the teaching of the Dharma incomplete. The question of whether such meanings are present amounts to no more than this.

The Method of Division in This Work

For the present, the scriptural text is provisionally divided according to four approaches.

The first is to enumerate them; the second is to explain the reasons; the third is to cite scriptural evidence; and the fourth is to clarify their true characteristics.

To enumerate them: first, causes and conditions; second, interpretation in terms of the teaching; third, [the meaning of] the Origin Gate and the Trace [Gate]; and fourth, contemplation of the mind. From the opening words “Thus [have I heard]” to the concluding words “[having paid homage, they] departed,” all passages must be understood by applying these four approaches to the scriptural text. In the present record they are treated briefly, so at times only three, two, or one approach remains. What matters is understanding the sutra’s intent; there is no need for cumbersome wording.

The second is to explain the reasons. Someone asks: If treated briefly, surely only one approach would remain; if expounded extensively, surely there would be more than four. Why, then, is it done this way? The answer is that an excessively extensive exposition would overwhelm the learner’s wisdom, while an excessively brief account would fail to convey the meaning fully. I therefore expound it midway between these two, so that the meaning [of the scriptural text] may be more readily clarified.

Causes and conditions are also called stimulus and response. When sentient beings lack the requisite conditions, they cannot perceive [the Buddha] even when close beside him. [Conversely,] when loving-kindness and wholesome roots are complete, they naturally commune with him even from afar, because stimulus and response meet and harmonize upon the path. This is explanation through causes and conditions.

In general, sentient beings of such capacities who seek liberation are exceedingly numerous; the manifestations arising from the sages in response must necessarily be correspondingly numerous. Since this [scriptural] meaning is so vast, where can the midpoint be found? Yet the Mahayana scriptures teach that the power of loving-kindness and wholesome roots operates in immeasurable ways, which may simply be called supernormal powers.

If the capacities [of sentient beings] and the responses throughout the ten directions are as vast as empty space, then here we consider only the Saha world, where sounds performing the work of the Buddha are precisely what opens wide the gate of amrita. By relying upon the teaching to explain it, one adopts a middle course and expounds it clearly. If teachings are established in accordance with differing capacities, those teachings must include the provisional and the true, the shallow and the profound, all unlike one another.

One should therefore know to forget the finger and apprehend the moon, and to forget the Trace [Gate] in seeking the Origin [Gate].

Master Sengzhao ^[68] said: “Without the Origin [Gate], there would be nothing by which to transmit the Trace [Gate]; without the Trace [Gate], there would be nothing by which to reveal the Origin [Gate].” Therefore, the Origin [Gate] and the Trace [Gate] are used in explanation. If one seeks the Trace [Gate of “opening the provisional and revealing the true”], the Trace [Gate] is boundlessly vast, and [the seeker] merely expends effort in vain.

If one seeks [the Origin Gate of “opening the near and revealing the distant”], the Origin Gate is lofty and remote, and [the seeker] cannot pursue it to its ultimate extent. If, throughout day and night, one does nothing but count another person’s jewels, one will not possess even half a coin oneself. One need only contemplate the loftiness and vastness of one’s own mind, thereby eliciting the sage’s boundless response.

Only when one’s capacities reach and meet that response can one obtain benefit for oneself. Therefore, contemplation of [one’s own] mind is used in explanation.

The third is to cite scriptural evidence. The Skillful Means chapter states: “The Buddhas of the ten directions appear in the world because of the causes and conditions of one great matter.” [Accordingly, the teachings of] the Human Vehicle, the Heavenly Vehicle, and the Lesser Vehicle are neither the One Vehicle nor the Great Vehicle. Moreover, without the work of the Buddha, the conditions for stimulus and response cannot be fulfilled.

True reality is called the One Vehicle, and all-pervasiveness is called the Great Vehicle. The Buddha’s revelation of this is the “matter,” and the Buddha’s appearance in the world is called the “causes and conditions of one great matter.” [The Skillful Means chapter] also states: “Using all manner of Dharma gates to reveal the Buddha path.” Thus one should know that [the Buddha teaches] all doctrines through sound—whether subtle and refined, lucid and explicit, provisionally adapted and skillful, or true and ultimate—and that all of them are merely skillful means established for the Buddha’s path of liberation, [like] a fish trap [for catching fish] or a snare [for catching rabbits].

The Mahayana scriptures teach that “whether speech is coarse or gentle, it all returns to the ultimate meaning”; this expresses precisely such a meaning. In the Tathagata’s Lifespan chapter, [the Buddha] says: “In this world, all devas, humans, and even asuras think: ‘The present Buddha Shakyamuni left the palace of the Shakya clan, went to sit at the place of enlightenment not far from the city of Gaya, and attained unsurpassed, complete, perfect enlightenment.’ Yet, good sons, in truth, since I attained Buddhahood, immeasurable, boundless hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of nayutas of kalpas have passed.”

The Skillful Means chapter also contains the verse:

“The Buddhas of old made this vow:

To deliver all sentient beings,

So that they might become no different from the Buddhas.” ^[69]

Again, the Prophecy of Enlightenment for the Five Hundred Disciples chapter contains the verse:

Within, they conceal the bodhisattva practice;

Without, they manifest the appearance of shravakas...

...They themselves purify Buddha lands.

They manifest the three poisons,

And also the appearance of wrong views.

In this way, the Buddha’s disciples

Use skillful means to deliver sentient beings.

Thus, both the Buddha and his disciples elucidate the meaning of the Origin Teaching and the Trace Teaching. Such is the general outline.

In the [reiterative verse] of the Parable chapter, [the Buddha tells Shariputra]: “If anyone is able to believe the words you speak, that person thereby sees the Buddha, and also sees you yourself, together with the Sangha of bhikshus and all the bodhisattvas.” ^[70] Therefore, it should be understood that if one carefully contemplates what one has heard, within that mind of faith one will behold the Three Jewels. Hearing the teaching that has been expounded is the Jewel of the Dharma; immediately “seeing the Buddha” is the Jewel of the Buddha; and seeing “the Sangha of bhikshus...” is the Jewel of the Sangha. Such is the general outline.

Fourth is the clarification of the true characteristics. Let us briefly discuss the three stages through which the characteristics of causes and conditions are clarified. Since the distant past, sentient beings have awaited the Buddha’s skillful means to help them plant the causes and conditions of the Buddha path. During [that period of waiting], they encountered [the Buddha], who used other skillful means to reveal the ultimate meaning and thereby bring [the seeds of Buddhahood] to maturity. Today, flowers rain down and the earth trembles; through the Tathagata’s nirvana, [those sentient beings] are brought to liberation. ^[71]

Furthermore, because [the causes and conditions arose] in the very distant past, this is called planting; in the past, they were brought to maturity; and in the recent lifetime, liberation was attained. Such matters are taught in the Emerging from the Earth chapter.

Furthermore, during the period [before enlightenment], causes and conditions were planted; through [the passage of] the four flavors [of milk], ^[72] they were brought to maturity; and [birth in] the royal palace brought liberation. Now the work is to open, reveal, [enable sentient beings to] awaken to, and enter [the Buddha’s knowledge and vision].

Furthermore, [deeds performed in] this life plant causes and conditions; subsequent lives bring them to maturity; and a still later life brings liberation. This is the meaning of those who attain deliverance in later generations. Although this is not yet the Origin Teaching, it is provisionally explained according to the intended meaning. At every moment throughout that period [before liberation], across three lifetimes and nine lifetimes, causes and conditions are planted, brought to maturity, and then brought to liberation. The responsive accord [with capacities and conditions] is never obstructed. Why is this? Because the Tathagata possesses the sovereign power of supernatural abilities and the mighty, swift, vast, majestic, and valiant power of a lion’s vigorous advance.

Because the sovereign power and such capacities are to be expounded, [the scripture] contains an Introductory Section. When the assembly beheld the rare auspicious signs, they became solemnly and ardently eager to hear the Buddha path in its entirety. In accordance with those capacities and conditions, the Buddha established the Dharma teaching to transform beings, opening, revealing, [enabling sentient beings to] awaken to, and enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision; therefore, [the scripture] contains the Main Exposition. Not only did [sentient beings] of that time receive great benefit, but even more than five hundred years later, beings would still partake of the wondrous path; therefore, [the scripture] contains the Transmission Section.

Furthermore, with regard to revealing the form and characteristics of the teaching, the Introductory Section [of the scripture] was not spoken for [ordinary beings seeking] advancement within the two realms of devas and humans; it was not spoken for those of the Two Vehicles who seek a narrow path; it was not spoken for [pratyekabuddhas contemplating the “emptiness of dharmas”] that penetrates the three realms; nor was it spoken solely for the teaching intended for bodhisattvas.

Rather, this Introductory Section was spoken because the upright and true teaching casts aside [all] skillful means and expounds only the unsurpassed Buddha path. This upright truth does not regard worldly dharmas as true; it does not regard the discriminating, analytical wisdom [of ordinary beings], like the light of a firefly, as true; it does not regard the wisdom [of those of the Two Vehicles who perceive] the reality of dharmas, like the light of a lamp or torch, as true; it does not regard the wisdom that comprehends worldly and supramundane dharmas ^[73] [possessed by bodhisattvas], like the light of the moon and stars, ^[74] as true.

It regards only the all-knowing wisdom [of the Buddhas], like the light of the sun, as true.

This Transmission Section [of the scripture] was not spoken for provisional and temporary expedient means; ^[75] it does not transmit the incomplete teaching ^[76] [of the Lesser Vehicle]; it does not transmit the shared teaching ^[77] [of the Two Vehicles]; nor does it transmit the distinct teaching ^[78] [of the bodhisattvas]. It is entirely intended to transmit the ultimate and perfectly complete scripture [of the One Vehicle].

Next is the clarification of the origin—the place of the initial arising—and the traces—the manifested traces of its development. ^[79] In the distant past, while [the Buddha] was still cultivating the bodhisattva path, he proclaimed the Lotus Sutra of the Buddhas who preceded him. It likewise had three sections—the beginning, middle, and end—^[80] and fully contained both origin and traces.

Yet although the Buddhas succeed one another without end, only the three sections—the beginning, middle, and end—of the Lotus Sutra expounded by the very first Buddha are regarded as the initial portion and called the origin. Why is this? Because it was expounded by the very first Buddha, it is regarded as the initial portion and called the origin. The meaning of this can be understood.

Then, during the intervening period of carrying out the work of transformation, [the bodhisattva] ^[81] assisted such Buddhas as the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence and the Buddha Dipamkara in proclaiming the Lotus Sutra, which likewise comprised three sections. This is regarded as the middle portion and is called the traces. Why is this? Because an initial portion already existed and had already been called the origin.

Today, [the Lotus Sutra expounded by Buddha Shakyamuni] in the city of Rajagriha has three sections. It is regarded as the final portion and is also called the traces.

Even when Buddhas throughout the eternal future use the mighty vigor of a lion to expound [this Lotus Sutra] complete in three sections, only the scripture expounded in the very beginning will be regarded as the initial portion and called the origin. This is like a great tree: although it has a thousand branches and ten thousand leaves, when discussing the root, all [those branches and leaves] cannot be regarded as equal to the root itself. This analogy clearly explains [the meaning of origin and traces set forth above]. Such is the general outline.

Fourth is the discussion of the characteristics of contemplating the mind. In this focusing upon the mind, three divisions must be discussed: precepts, concentration, and wisdom. Cultivation and practice must begin with precepts, followed by concentration, and finally wisdom. Yet [when distinguished] in terms of the Dharma gateway, wisdom is regarded as the origin, while concentration and precepts are the traces.

Within morality, concentration, and wisdom, each factor in turn fully contains the three divisions [introduction, main exposition, and dissemination]. ^[82]

Morality has three divisions: the preliminary skillful means [for undertaking it are the introduction], the jñapti-caturtha-karman [is the main exposition], and proceeding to the general adjudication [is the dissemination].

Concentration has three divisions: the twenty-five skillful means [are the preparation, or introduction], [the cultivation of] correct contemplation of conditions [is the main exposition], and skillfully entering, emerging from, or abiding in hundreds of thousands of samadhi Dharma-gates [is the dissemination].

Wisdom has three divisions: all dharmas arise through causes and conditions, and [seeing that all dharmas] are empty [is the introduction]; [viewing dharmas according to] the Middle Way [is the main exposition]; and [seeing that all dharmas are] provisionally existent [is the dissemination].

The three divisions are provisionally distinguished in this way to clarify the four kinds of characteristics; their meaning should therefore be applied accordingly. [That is to say,] from the phrase “Thus [have I heard...]” through [the concluding words of the scripture] “they paid homage and departed,” ^[83] this entire sutra may be divided into four principal meanings. Yet, when these are compared with the meaning just stated, differences will certainly be seen.

It would be extremely difficult to distinguish and clarify the wording [in that manner], so readers must skillfully examine it for themselves. [They must see that,] although the wording differs in some places, the meaning remains the same. This is precisely the meaning of a thousand carts [passing by and leaving] the same track, and ten thousand streams [flowing into the sea and] all acquiring the same salty taste.

The introductory section (preface) is divided into the common introduction and the specific introduction. ^[84] From “Thus...” through “withdrew and sat to one side” is the common introduction. From “At that time, the Blessed One” through the end of this chapter is the specific introduction.

The common introduction means that which is shared and corresponds with other doctrines and scriptures. The specific introduction is the distinct and particular section of an individual sutra. The common introduction [may be divided into] five, six, seven, or more meanings.

For example, “thus” indicates the essential nature of hearing the Dharma; “I have heard” states that the listener was capable of remembering and retaining [the teaching]; “at one time” states that hearing the Dharma and retaining it occurred at the same time, not at some other time; “the Buddha” makes clear that the teaching heard came directly from the Buddha’s golden mouth; “in the city of Rajagriha, on Mount Gridhrakuta” clearly indicates the place where the sutra was heard and retained; and “together with the great bhikshus” identifies those who heard and retained the sutra together.

All these arose through causes and conditions coming into harmony and successively acting upon one another.

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was in the city of Rajagriha, on Mount Gridhrakuta.

Explanation of the word “thus”

The word “thus,” written in Chinese as “ru shi,” means that the Buddhas of the three times all abide in the same peace and security, their practices of the Way being alike, and [accordingly] they do not contend with the world. This is the explanation according to the worldly siddhanta. ^[85]

The Great [Prajnaparamita] Treatise says: “Only by specifying the time and place can one cause people to give rise to faith.” This is the explanation according to the siddhanta for the individual.

Furthermore, it refutes the non-Buddhist schools, [for they] use the two syllables “a” [meaning nonexistence] and “u” [meaning existence], ^[86] which are fundamentally neither “thus” nor “so.” This is the explanation according to the therapeutic siddhanta.

Furthermore, “ru shi” is an expression of faithful acceptance. Through faith, one can receive and understand what is heard; through acceptance, the transmission between teacher and disciple is accomplished. This is the explanation according to the siddhanta of the ultimate truth.

Because the explanation in terms of causes and conditions is extremely extensive, it cannot be recorded here in full.... To explain it briefly according to the doctrinal teachings: the sutras are the teachings of the Buddhas of the three times, and their beginnings are all alike;

therefore, they are called “ru shi.” The Buddhas of the past distinguished scriptures belonging to the Gradual Teaching, the Sudden Teaching, the Secret Teaching, and the Indeterminate Teaching. ^[87] Within the Gradual Teaching there are also the Tripitaka Teaching (or Storehouse Teaching), the Shared Teaching, the Distinct Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching. ^[88] The Buddhas of the present are likewise so: they also distinguish various scriptures and cannot employ only a single method to reveal and show the teaching to all sentient beings.

Furthermore, what the Buddha spoke and what Ananda heard do not differ; this is called “ru” (“thus”). The speaker elucidates the Dharma that is spoken; this is called “shi” (“so”). Now, Ananda must explain and transmit the Buddha’s words exactly as they were spoken. He cannot transmit a gradual teaching as a sudden teaching, nor transmit a provisional-vehicle teaching as an ultimate teaching. If the transmission and explanation deviate, the scriptural text cannot be called “ru.” If the scriptural text is not “ru,” then its principles cannot be “shi.” This meaning is truly difficult to understand clearly, so a supplementary explanation is required.

Furthermore, if distinctions are made according to the Gradual Teaching, the Buddha clearly taught that, according to conventional truth, written words exist, but according to true ultimate truth, written words certainly do not exist. Ananda transmitted the Buddha’s written words belonging to conventional truth, without the slightest difference from what the Buddha taught; therefore, this is called “ru.” By means of conventional written words, one understands the principle of ultimate truth; therefore, this is called “shi.” This is precisely the meaning of the two words “ru shi” as explained according to the Storehouse Teaching.

The Buddha clearly taught that “form itself is emptiness, and emptiness itself is form”; form and emptiness, emptiness and form, are fundamentally neither two nor different. That emptiness and form do not differ is “ru”; that the ultimate is present precisely within phenomena is “shi.” Ananda transmitted the Buddha’s words without deviation; this is “ru.” His explanation did not differ from what was being explained; this is “shi.” This is the meaning of the two words “ru shi” according to the Shared Teaching.

The Buddha clearly taught that within the cycle of birth and death there are limits, while the attainment of nirvana is limitless. Transcending birth and death, there are still limits; entering nirvana, there are no longer any limits. Emerging beyond that limitless nirvana is to enter the Middle Way. Ananda transmitted this meaning as “leaving the realm of existence, entering the realm of emptiness, transcending the realm of emptiness, and entering the Middle Way.” Because this does not differ from what the Buddha taught, it is called “ru”; because there is no error from the shallow to the profound, it is called “shi.” This is precisely the meaning of the two words “ru shi” according to the Distinct Teaching.

The Buddha also clearly taught that birth and death are themselves nirvana and are also the Middle Way; how, then, could nirvana not be the Middle Way? The Dharma-realm, true thusness, true nature, and reality-limit pervade every place; nowhere is there anything that is not Buddha-Dharma. Ananda transmitted this meaning without any difference from what the Buddha taught; therefore, it is called “ru.” Because thusness remains unmoving, it is called “shi.” This is precisely the meaning of the two words “ru shi” according to the Perfect Teaching.

If one uses the dynamic meaning of conventional truth to enter the meaning of “ru,” this is the meaning according to the Storehouse Teaching. If one uses the nonmoving meaning of conventional truth, this is precisely the meaning according to the Shared Teaching. If one uses the meanings of “moving toward thusness” and “entering thusness,” this is the meaning of the Distinct Teaching. If one uses the meaning of “unmoving thusness,” this is the meaning of the Perfect Teaching. Such is the general outline.

According to the Sudden Teaching, the meaning of “thus” is identical to that in the Perfect Teaching. According to the Indeterminate Teaching, the meanings of “thus” presented earlier and later mutually support one another. According to the meaning of the Secret Teaching, it remains concealed and is not transmitted.

Although the [net] of the eight teachings ^[89] is spread out in this way, broadly encompassing the entire ocean of the Dharma realm, one may still fear that something has escaped it, how much more so if only a single mesh of the net is cast. Again, even one who simultaneously catches four arrows and prevents them from falling to the ground would not dare call himself swift; ^[90] how much less could one as slow as a person urging on a dull-witted donkey or chasing a lame tortoise—unable to catch even one—speak of catching four? ^[91] Such is the general outline.

Now, the meaning of “original and trace” will be briefly explained in order to interpret “thus” (truly thus). Throughout the ten directions and the three periods of time, vertically and horizontally, all is truly thus—even the remote past, the boundless present, and the endless future: all is truly thus. How, then, can one know what is “original” (the primordial) and what is “trace” (the manifested vestige)? Therefore, we provisionally say that when the Blessed One Shakyamuni first attained the Way in the primordial past, it was truly thus; this is called the original. His subsequent period of being a Buddha and expounding sutras was truly thus; and all the sutras preached by the Buddha down to the present day were truly thus. These are all called traces.

Furthermore, all that Ananda transmitted as truly thus is called the trace, while all that the Buddha expounded as truly thus is called the original.

Furthermore, that which has been communicated without interruption from teacher to disciple as truly thus—neither beginning only today nor having any intermediate interval—is called the original. That which has passed through intermediate stages of transmission down to the present day is called the trace.

If explained in terms of contemplation of the mind, all the meanings of “thus” previously discussed according to the [four] siddhantas, the doctrinal classifications, and original and trace are dharmas arising through causes and conditions. This is contemplation according to the Shared Teaching. All causes and conditions are originally empty and are provisional combinations; this is contemplation according to the Distinct Teaching. [If one regards] the two contemplations [of the Shared and Distinct Teachings] as skillful means, one can enter the ultimate meaning of the Middle Way.

Furthermore, simultaneously contemplating both Emptiness and Provisional Existence (the two truths) is the mode of contemplation belonging to both the Shared and Distinct Teachings. As seen above, contemplation according to the Middle Way is neither the Shared Teaching nor the Distinct Teaching.

The subsequent scriptural passage [in the Parable chapter] states: “If there is anyone who can believe the words you speak, ^[92] that person sees the Buddha, and also sees you yourself, together with the Sangha of bhikshus and all the bodhisattvas.”

This passage elucidates the practice of contemplation. “Believing the words” concerns the “capacity,” while “seeing” concerns the “response”; that is, it expresses the principle of causes and conditions. Furthermore, within “faith and acceptance” there are shallow and profound degrees, while within what is “seen” there are the provisional and the true. The differentiation of all the various, dissimilar categories on this basis constitutes doctrinal discrimination.

Furthermore, to believe and accept the text of the Lotus Sutra is to perceive the primordial ground of the true aspect. To see the manifested transformation of Shariputra ^[93] is to perceive that his primordial identity was Buddha Golden Dragon Dhara. ^[94] If one sees the Venerable Shakyamuni when he had only recently attained the Way, one also sees that the Buddhas of the past had attained the Way long before. If one sees the 1,200 bhikshus and the 80,000 bodhisattvas, one also sees their primordial ground.

Furthermore, when one hears the sutra and gives rise to faith and acceptance without doubt, clearly realizing that lucid and pure mind of faith and acceptance is itself seeing the Buddha; wisdom that is perpetually lucid and discerning is seeing Shariputra; lucidly and clearly discerning numerical quantities is the assembly of bhikshus; and a pure mind of compassion is seeing the bodhisattvas. Such, in brief, are the four meanings concerning the mind, successively elucidating one another.

When explaining other sutras, only three meanings are employed, because they do not yet possess the meaning of “revealing the original to disclose the trace” (setting forth the primordial ground in order to illuminate the meaning of the manifested trace). One should therefore know that this sutra elucidates three meanings that it shares with other sutras, while possessing one distinct meaning of its own. Here the fourfold explanation of the meaning of [the two characters] “thus” is complete. Such is the general outline.

Explanation of the Words “I Heard”

The [two words] “I heard” are wo wen in Chinese; [some sutras also record them as] wen ru shi, “heard thus.” Although the textual versions of the sutras differ, each places the hearing of the sutra either before or after. Four explanations will now be presented.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “The ordinary ear faculty is unimpaired; a sound is produced within audible range; and the person gives rise to the intention to hear. Because conditions such as these are fully present and harmoniously united, it is said, ‘I heard.’”

Someone asked: “It should say, ‘the ear heard’; why does it instead say, ‘I heard’?” The answer was: “The ‘I’ is the subject to which the ear belongs. The word ‘I’ is stated to encompass all the [aforementioned] conditions. This is an explanation according to the worldly [siddhanta].” ^[95]

When Ananda ascended the high seat and declared, “I heard,” the entire assembly was filled with sorrow, for they had only recently seen the Tathagata, yet now they had to hear the words “I heard.” The arhats all spoke verses, clearly recalling the Buddha’s teachings. When Manjushri [presided over] the compilation, he first stated the title of the sutra, after which the words “Thus have I heard” had to be spoken. At that time, “the assembly grieved”; this is an explanation according to the individual [siddhanta].

When Ananda ascended the high seat and declared, “I heard,” it was to dispel the assembly’s doubts. Because Ananda’s bodily appearance resembled that of the Buddha, being only three finger-joints shorter than the Buddha, [when he first ascended the high seat,] three doubts arose [within] the assembly. [First, some] suspected that the Venerable Shakyamuni had appeared once again; [second, some] suspected that a Buddha had come from another direction; [third, some] suspected that Ananda had now attained Buddhahood. When he clearly said, “I heard,” these three doubts were immediately dispelled. This is an explanation according to the meaning of counteraction [siddhanta].

[Furthermore,] Ananda had attained the fruit of one still in training; it was only in conformity with worldly convention that he said, wo wen (“I heard”). According to the ultimate meaning (the supreme truth), there is neither an “I” nor any “hearing.” Explanations from ancient times down to the present have all concurred with this meaning of causes and conditions. This is an explanation according to doctrine.

The commentaries state that ordinary beings have three kinds of attachment to self: the view of self, the conceit of self, and the nominal self. One who has attained the fruit of one still in training has two kinds, while one who has attained the fruit of one beyond training still retains one kind. Ananda had attained the fruit of one still in training. He no longer held the erroneous attachment to self and was able to subdue the conceit of self; yet, in accordance with worldly convention, he used the “nominal self,” and therefore committed no error. This explains the meaning of “I” according to the Tripitaka Teaching.

According to the Treatise on the Ten Stages, to fall into any of the four propositions concerning attachment to “self” is an erroneous view. ^[96] In the Buddha’s true Dharma there is no self; who, then, is the one who hears? This is stated according to the meaning of the Shared Teaching.

The Mahayana scriptures state that Ananda, foremost in learning, knew that “self” and “no-self” were originally nondual, while at the same time clearly distinguishing “self” from “no-self.” This is an explanation according to the meaning of the Distinct Teaching.

Furthermore, Ānanda clearly understood that self and non-self are fundamentally not two; yet, as an expedient means, he manifested as the Buddha’s attendant in order to transmit, continue, preserve, and uphold the Tathagata’s unobstructed wisdom. Using mastery of sound to transmit both the provisional and the true teachings, there was nothing he could not accomplish. This explains the meaning of “self” according to the Perfect Teaching.

Furthermore, the Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma clearly explains that there were three persons named Ānanda. The first was Ānanda, translated into Chinese as Joy, who transmitted and preserved the scriptural treasury of the Lesser Vehicle. The second was Ānandabhadra, translated into Chinese as Virtuous Joy, who received and upheld the Miscellaneous Treasury. The third was Ānandasāgara, translated into Chinese as Ocean of Joy, who received and upheld the Buddha Treasury. In the Āgama Sutras, there is also Ānanda, Keeper of the Treasury, who received and upheld the Bodhisattva Treasury. Generally speaking, these were merely one person endowed with four virtues, transmitting four kinds of teachings. ^[97] The meaning of this is clear in itself. This is the explanation in brief.

To explain according to the meaning of “origin and trace”: before their integration, it may be said that Ānanda conformed to worldly convention and therefore referred to himself as “I.” But when entering into “revealing the origin through manifesting the trace,” the present manifestation is set forth to disclose the original source: in the beginning, in the presence of the Buddha King of Emptiness, Ānanda and the Buddha simultaneously aroused the aspiration. Today, Ānanda expediently manifests as one who receives, upholds, transmits, and preserves the teachings—what could be impossible about this?

To explain according to contemplation of the mind: all dharmas arise through causes and conditions and are therefore emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle Way. Emptiness refers to “self” and “non-self.” Provisional existence refers to the differentiation of self. The Middle refers to the wondrous true self. This is the explanation in brief.

According to the commentaries interpreting the scriptural text, Ānanda was born on the night the Buddha attained enlightenment and subsequently served as the Buddha’s attendant for more than twenty years. Thus, before becoming his attendant, he presumably did not hear the Buddha’s teachings. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom says: “When Ānanda compiled the teachings, he himself stated, ‘When the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel, I had not yet met the Buddha; only later did I gradually come to hear the teachings.’ From this it is known that hearing need not necessarily mean hearing in the ordinary sense.”

The ancient commentaries hold that Ānanda, through the empowering strength of the Samādhi of the Buddha’s Awakening, ^[98] was himself able to hear the sutras that the Buddha had taught previously.

The Sutra of Requiting Kindness says: “Ānanda requested four things. Among them was the vow, ‘As for the sutras I have not heard, may the Buddha expound them for me.’” It also says: “From his golden mouth, the Buddha secretly spoke them privately for Ānanda to hear.”

The Womb Sutra ^[99] says: “After entering nirvana, the Buddha extended his golden arm from within the golden coffin and, for Ānanda’s sake, manifested once again the appearance of entering the womb.” Therefore, he heard all the sutras from the time the Buddha entered the womb onward, to say nothing of those later taught in other places. This scriptural passage says that Ānanda was able to remember them because of his original vow to receive and uphold the teachings of previous Buddhas, just as he now received and upheld the teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha. This is the explanation according to causes and conditions.

If explained according to the doctrinal teachings, Ānanda, Joy, had a face radiant like the full moon and eyes beautiful like blue lotus flowers. He personally received the Buddha’s teachings as water is poured into a vessel, and then transmitted the teachings to instruct sentient beings as water is poured into another vessel without any being lost. This is the transmission of teachings that ordinary beings are able to hear. ^[100] Ānandabhadra, Virtuous Joy, abided at the stage of one who still had more to learn and realized emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. ^[101] His faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue, and so forth were all unimpaired, and he was capable of receiving, upholding, and transmitting teachings that ordinary beings could not hear. ^[102] Ānanda, Keeper of the Treasury,

received and preserved most of what the Buddha taught, just as a great cloud contains and retains rainwater.

This is the receiving, upholding, and transmission of the teachings of the bodhisattvas. ^[103] Ānandasāgara, Ocean of Joy, was deeply learned and was naturally able to understand clearly the meanings of permanence and impermanence. Whoever knows that the Tathagata is eternally beyond expounding any Dharma is called a bodhisattva fully endowed with the virtue of great learning. It is said: “The Buddha-Dharma, like the waters of the great ocean, flowed entirely into Ānanda’s mind.” ^[104] This is called receiving, upholding, and transmitting the teaching of the ultimate truth. ^[105] The scriptures of the present day were all received, upheld, and transmitted by Ānandasāgara, Ocean of Joy, and belong to the wondrous teaching of the ultimate truth.

If explained according to the meaning of origin and trace, all four meanings stated above belong to the trace, while the place of the initial arousal is inconceivable. This is the explanation in brief.

If explained according to contemplation of the mind, contemplating dharmas as arising through causes and conditions is contemplation of the teachings that ordinary beings can hear and understand. Contemplating all dharmas as empty is contemplation of the teachings that ordinary beings cannot hear and understand. Contemplating all dharmas as provisionally existent is contemplation of the teachings of the bodhisattvas. Contemplating the Dharma of the Middle Way is contemplation of the teaching of the ultimate truth. This is the explanation in brief. Every single moment of contemplation is wondrous contemplation.

Explanation of the Words “At One Time”

Now we shall discuss the two words “at one time,” rendered in Chinese as “one time.” Master Sengzhao ^[106] said: “[Time here] is the time when the Dharma King inaugurated an auspicious dispensation.”

Regarding time according to the worldly siddhānta, the commentary says: “[There are real time and provisional time.] Kāla is real time, the time indicated to disciples. For example, the time for the meal, when robes are donned and alms bowls carried, is understood according to the siddhānta for the individual. Samaya is provisional time; it refutes the wrong views of non-Buddhists and corresponds to the remedial siddhānta. When time and the Way accord with one another, this is the siddhānta of the ultimate meaning. This is the explanation in brief.

If those in the assembly hearing the sutra included persons who had realized the four fruits of sainthood, ^[107] the meaning of “one time” would be of the lower level. If persons of the Three Vehicles ^[108] together realized the ultimate meaning, the meaning of “one time” would be of the middle level. If all were bodhisattvas who had entered the bhūmis ^[109] or above, the meaning of “one time” would be of the higher level. If all were bodhisattvas at the First Abode or above, the meaning of “one time” would be of the highest level. The assembly in this sutra belongs to the highest level. This is the differentiated explanation according to the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

If “one time” is considered according to the meaning of origin and trace, the explanations given above all belong to the trace, while only the extremely remote past belongs to the origin.

Again, considered according to contemplation of the mind, one first contemplates the emptiness of intrinsic nature, next contemplates provisional existence, and finally contemplates the principle of the Middle Way. This is the sequential contemplation of the mind. If, in the very act of contemplating the mind, one sees all dharmas as empty, provisionally existent, and the Middle Way, then this is the perfect and wondrous contemplation of the mind.

Explanation of the Word “Buddha”

At the beginning of the kalpa, sentient beings had no illnesses; by the time the kalpa approaches its end, illnesses are numerous. In the age when the average lifespan is long, sentient beings enjoy happiness; when the lifespan becomes short, they suffer. In the eastern continent, ^[110] sentient beings are wealthy and long-lived. The western continent ^[111] has many precious jewels and raises many cattle and sheep. In the northern continent, ^[112] sentient beings live in equality, with neither rulers nor subjects.

The times and lands described above could not evoke the Buddha’s appearance in the world. [During the period when the human lifespan] declines from 80,000 years [gradually] to only 100 years, in the southern continent, ^[113] [although sentient beings] have not yet seen the fruit, they already know to cultivate the cause; therefore, the Buddha appears in this land.

[In a Mahayana sutra, the brahmin Anuttara said] to the Licchavi prince: “The Buddha’s appearance in the land of Magadha is like a great lotus arising in a great lake.” ^[114] Anuttara further said: “The Buddha regards sentient beings equally, without discrimination. Because you are engrossed in the five sensual desires, you do not see the Buddha; it is not that the Buddha avoids you and appears in the land of Magadha.” ^[115] This is an explanation according to the worldly siddhanta.

If the sun did not rise, all the flowers in that lake, whether not yet born or already arisen, would surely wither and die. When the Buddha appears in the world, kshatriyas, brahmins, householders, the Four Heavenly Kings, and even the devas of the Heaven of the Summit of Existence ^[116] [gather around him]. This is an explanation according to the individual siddhanta.

It is because sentient beings possess faculties belonging to the Three Vehicles ^[117] that they evoke the Buddha’s appearance in the world; other kinds of sentient beings cannot evoke it. [Therefore it is said:] “Only by skillfully eliminating the cause of birth in the Heaven of the Summit of Existence can one forever cross beyond the stream of birth and death.” ^[118] This is explained according to the counteractive siddhanta.

With respect to the Dharma-nature, the Buddha never moves, nor does he appear in the world. Although he can cause sentient beings, through stimulus and response, to see the Buddha as acting and appearing in the world, the Tathagata in truth neither acts nor appears. This is explained according to the siddhanta of ultimate truth.

All the explanations above likewise accord with the principle of causes and conditions [and stimulus and response].

“Buddha” is the designation of one who has awakened and clearly comprehended. Seated beneath the [bodhi] tree at the place of enlightenment, he awakened to and clearly comprehended all the general and particular characteristics of [the dharmas of] the mundane and supramundane realms. Awakening to mundane dharmas means awakening to the truth of suffering and the truth of its origin.

Awakening to supramundane dharmas means awakening to the truth of cessation and the truth of the path. The Buddha is also able to teach and transform others, helping them attain awakening. [This is manifested as] a body sixteen feet tall, living to the age of eighty, with the appearance of an elderly bhikshu. Beneath the bodhi tree, he eliminated both the principal afflictions and habitual tendencies through thirty-four moments of mind. ^[119] This is the image of the Buddha who awakens himself and awakens others according to the Tripitaka Teaching.

Furthermore, the Buddha assumes the form of a bhikshu and manifests an exceptionally exalted body. Seated beneath the [bodhi] tree, in a single corresponding thought-moment he completely eliminates every remaining habitual tendency. This is the image of the Buddha who awakens himself and awakens others according to the Shared Teaching.

Merely to speak of his manifesting an exceptionally exalted form, seated upon a lotus throne and receiving the designation “Buddha,” is the image of the Buddha who awakens himself and awakens others according to the Distinct Teaching.

If the three forms just mentioned are concealed and only an inconceivable form like empty space is manifested, this is the image of the Buddha who awakens himself and awakens others according to the Perfect Teaching.

Therefore, the sutra teaches: “Some see the Tathagata’s body as sixteen feet tall; some see the [Tathagata’s] body as either small or great; some see [the Tathagata’s body] seated upon a lotus throne, expounding the Dharma-gate of the mind-ground for hundreds of thousands of Shakyamunis; and some see the [Tathagata’s] body as identical with empty space, manifesting throughout the Dharma-realm without discrimination.” These are precisely the meanings intended here. This is the method of differentiation according to the teachings.

If explained according to the meaning of origin and trace, one Buddha is the origin, while the other three Buddhas are traces, or subsequent manifestations. During the intervening period, he further manifests birth and cessation countless times; all these are traces, while only the four fundamental Buddhas are regarded as origins.

Alternatively, if explained according to contemplation of the mind, it is the contemplation of the mind as arising through causes and conditions. First, [one sees dharmas] as empty; next, as provisional; and afterward, one sees that all understandings between these remain biased and narrow. [Only when], in the very act of contemplating the mind, [one sees everything] as empty, provisional, and the Middle Way is this truly the state of perfect awakening. Such is the explanation in brief.

Explanation of the Words “Dwelling At”

[The words “dwelling at”] are rendered in Chinese by the word “abide,” meaning that “that which abides” (the subject) dwells in “that wherein it abides” (the place of abiding). The place of abiding here is precisely the city of Rajagriha in the Saha world. ^[120] That which abides is [the Blessed One, maintaining] the four modes of deportment, ^[121] still dwelling in the world and not yet having entered nirvana. This explains the word “abide” through the principle of causes and conditions according to the worldly siddhanta.

Furthermore, “abide” means to abide in the ten wholesome actions ^[122] and to abide in the four dhyana states. This explains the word “abide” through the principle of causes and conditions according to the individual siddhanta.

Furthermore, “abide” means to abide in the three samadhis. ^[123] This explains the word “abide” through the principle of causes and conditions according to the counteractive siddhanta.

Furthermore, “abide” means to abide in the Shurangama Samadhi. This explains the word “abide” through the principle of causes and conditions according to the siddhanta of ultimate truth. Such is the explanation in brief.

If explained according to the doctrinal teachings, the Tripitaka Teaching holds that the Buddha, entering through the gate of analyzing phenomena, gives rise to the true virtue free of outflows and abides in nirvana with remainder and nirvana without remainder. The Shared Teaching holds that the Buddha, entering through the gate of apprehending the essence, gives rise to true virtue and abides in nirvana with remainder and nirvana without remainder.

The Distinct Teaching holds that the Buddha enters sequentially through the Dharma-gates and abides in the secret treasury. The Perfect Teaching holds that the Buddha enters non-sequentially through the Dharma-gates and abides in the secret treasury. For the three Buddhas [as explained] by the Tripitaka, Shared, and Distinct Teachings, both that which abides and that wherein it abides are coarse.

For the Buddha [as explained by] the Perfect Teaching, both that which abides and that wherein it abides are subtle and wondrous. In this Lotus Sutra, it is precisely the Buddha of the Perfect Teaching who abides in the wondrous place.

If the meaning of “origin and trace” is used for explanation, then according to the Tripitaka Teaching, the Buddha should already have entered nirvana, but out of compassionate pity [for sentient beings], he leaves behind the trace of a Buddha-body that continues to abide in the world. The Shared Teaching holds that, through his compassionate vow to rescue and transform sentient beings, the Buddha carries out the work of a Buddha.

The Distinct and Perfect Teachings both hold that the Buddha permeates the Dharma-nature with compassion and, pitying sentient beings, graciously manifests in response within the Dharma-realm. Thus, one should know that [according to these four teachings], the Buddha originally abides in the Buddha’s dwelling—this is the meaning of origin. Out of compassion, [he manifests] dwelling in the city of Rajagriha in the Saha world, [in a physical form possessing the four] modes of deportment—this is called dwelling in the sense of trace.

If explained through the meaning of contemplation of the mind, contemplation abides upon external objects, or abides upon the realm of impermanence; these are precisely the realms of emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle Way. Using the Dharma of non-abiding to abide in these realms is therefore called “abiding.”

Explanation of the Name “City of Rajagriha”

The Sanskrit name for the city of Rajagriha is La-duyệt-kỳ Già-la (Rājagṛha). La-duyệt-kỳ is translated into Chinese as “Royal Residence,” while Già-la is translated as “city.”

This country was named Magadha, ^[124] meaning “non-harming,” because punishments involving killing were not employed there. This country was also called Ma-kiệt-đề, translated into Chinese as Thiên La. ^[125] Thiên La was the name of a king [in ancient times] and was used as the name of the country. King Thiên La was the father of King Bác Túc.

In a distant past kalpa, King Thiên La ruled over one thousand small kingdoms. Once, while the king was making an inspection tour through a mountainous region, he suddenly encountered a lioness. Everyone scattered and fled, [leaving the king there alone].

The lioness then mated with the king. Later, when the full term [of pregnancy] had elapsed, the lioness entered the king’s palace and gave birth to a child. The king knew that this was his child [by the lioness], but falsely declared that, because he had no child, [this infant] had perhaps been bestowed upon him by heaven.

He then adopted the child and [appointed him] crown prince. The crown prince’s two feet were mottled with colored markings, so the people of that time called him Bác Túc. ^[126]

Later, [the crown prince] succeeded to the throne. He was exceedingly fond of eating meat and ordered the royal kitchen never to be without it. On one occasion, when there was no meat, the cook, in his urgency, used the flesh of a child who had just died in the western part of the city and prepared it for the king. The king praised the meat as exceptionally delicious and ordered that this very kind of meat always be used. From then on, the cook had to seize and slaughter one child every day, causing fear and resentment throughout the kingdom. The one thousand small kingdoms jointly raised an army, overthrew King Bác Túc, and confined him in the region of Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa.

The rakshasas [of that region] came to the king’s aid and honored him as their Ghost King. Thereupon, the king and the mountain deity of that place made a vow that he would capture one thousand kings [of the small kingdoms] as offerings in sacrifice to the mountain deity. He subsequently captured 999 kings. Only King Phổ Minh remained, and after continuing the search, he captured him as well. [King Phổ Minh] wept aloud, saying that throughout his life he had spoken only truthful words, yet now he would have to break his promise [because he had unfinished business]. Hearing this, King Bác Túc released him and allowed him to return to his kingdom.

After returning to his kingdom, King Phổ Minh immediately held a great assembly of generosity and installed the crown prince. [Having completed these matters, he returned to submit to death,] yet even when he was led out to be killed, he remained joyful and utterly at peace within. King Bác Túc, [finding this strange,] questioned him. [King Phổ Minh] replied that it was because he had heard the teaching of a noble sage [and thus remained joyful even in the face of death].

He then taught the Dharma to King Bác Túc, fully extolling the mind of loving-kindness and condemning killing. Next, he spoke verses on the four meanings of impermanence. ^[127] Such is the account in brief.

Upon hearing the Dharma, King Bác Túc immediately attained the Ground of Equality in Emptiness, namely the First Ground. Thereafter, each of the one thousand kings [of the small kingdoms] offered one drop of blood and three strands of hair in sacrifice to the mountain deity, in accordance with the [former] vow. ^[128]

King Bác Túc and the one thousand kings [of the small kingdoms] together erected city walls and houses, establishing their capital amid five mountain peaks and forming one great kingdom. Each of the one thousand kings of the small kingdoms transmitted his throne to his descendants, who took turns governing the great kingdom.

[At that time,] the people dwelling among the five mountain peaks built their houses seven times, and seven times they were destroyed by fire. They discussed the matter among themselves, saying: “Because our merit is meager, we have repeatedly been consumed by fire, whereas the king’s merit is great, and so his palace has not burned. Henceforth, we should build our houses in the manner of the royal palace.” As a result, they no longer suffered fires, and the city was therefore named Rājagṛha, [meaning the king’s dwelling].

Furthermore, because King Bác Túc and the one thousand kings all erected houses within this city, it was called Rājagṛha.

Furthermore, after King Bác Túc attained the Way, he spared [their lives] and released the one thousand kings. Because one thousand kings were pardoned in this city, it was called Vương Xá (王赦, “Royal Pardon”). Over the course of many generations, however, the sound xá (赦), meaning “to pardon,” gradually came to be written as xá (舍), meaning “dwelling.”

The causes and conditions described above are drawn from the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom and other scriptures.

If this is explained according to doctrinal meaning, the Scripture Resolving Doubts Concerning the Semblance Dharma states: “What each person in the great assembly sees is not the same. Some see the śāla grove as nothing but earth, sand, trees, grass, rocky cliffs, and so forth. Some see it as pure and adorned with the seven treasures.

Some see this grove as the place to which all Buddhas of the three times come. Some see this grove as the inconceivable realm of the true Dharma-body of the Buddhas.” Examining the matter in this way, one knows that the meaning of the dwelling place is perceived in four different ways. Since this is so regarding the place in which one dwells, it is likewise so regarding the one who dwells there.

This is the distinction [and explanation] according to doctrinal meaning.

[Explanations according to the meanings of] the trace and the origin, and the contemplation of mind, will be discussed later.

Explanation of the Name “Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa”

Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa is a transliteration of the Sanskrit Gṛdhrakūṭa, translated into Chinese as Vulture Peak. It is also called Vulture Head and Wolf Track. [The vulture] ^[129] is also called lương thư ^[130] or vương sư. It is the very bird that the poet of the Book of Odes called the thư cưu bird. ^[131] The Erya says that this bird resembles an owl. ^[132]

Another explanation states that the summit of the mountain resembles the [head] of a vulture, and it was therefore named Vulture Mountain.

Others say that south of the mountain was a śītavana, ^[133] where vultures fed [upon the corpses of the dead] and then gathered to perch upon this summit. Thus, the people of that time called it Vulture Mountain.

Another explanation states that all Buddhas of the past and present have dwelt upon this mountain. After a Buddha enters nirvana, arhats dwell there. When the True Dharma disappears, pratyekabuddhas dwell there. ^[134] When there are no pratyekabuddhas, ghosts and spirits dwell there.

Because it is a dwelling place of spiritually potent sages, and also because of the three reasons given above, people call it Sacred Vulture Peak.

[In this region] there are five tranquil places for cultivation. ^[135] [The first is] Bệ-bà-la-bạt-thứ, translated into Chinese as the Cave of the Lord of Heaven; the second is Tát-đa-bát-na-cầu-ha, translated into Chinese as the Cave of the Seven Leaves; the third is Nhân-đà-thế-la-cầu-ha, translated into Chinese as Serpent-Deity Mountain; the fourth is Tát-bá-thứ-hồn-trực-ca-bát-bà-la, translated into Chinese as the Mountain of Lesser Solitary Strength; and the fifth is Mount Gṛdhrakūṭa.

Someone asked: “During the conflagration at the end of a kalpa, when heaven and earth are empty and clear, how can it be said that Buddhas of the past and present have all dwelt upon this mountain?”

The answer is: “When the following kalpa is forming and is just about to appear, those endowed with spiritual powers know the former names and use them as the names of the present places. It is like a person who bore the surname Gautama in a previous kalpa [and, upon being born again,] uses that same surname as his present name.”

If [the name] Mount [Gṛdhrakūṭa] is explained according to doctrinal meaning, its significance is similar to the explanation of the city [of Rājagṛha]. Such is the account in brief.

If [the names of the city and the mountain] are explained according to the contemplation of mind, the word “king” [in “King’s Dwelling”] refers to the mind-king, while “dwelling” refers to the five skandhas. ^[136] The mind-king creates the dwelling [that is, the five skandhas]. According to the meaning of the trace, this dwelling of the five skandhas is entirely empty. That meaning of emptiness is the citadel of nirvana.

If one contemplates superficially, one sees only earth and trees. If one contemplates thoroughly the essential nature of that dwelling of the five skandhas, one sees that it is empty. That empty nature is the citadel of nirvana. This is the explanation according to the Shared Teaching.

If one contemplates that house of the five skandhas, when the causes [that produced them] have ceased, the form [skandha] will attain true permanence of form. The skandhas of feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness are likewise.

The four virtues [permanence, bliss, self, and purity] are originally the sphere in which all Buddhas roam. If one contemplates that the five skandhas are precisely Dharma-nature, then Dharma-nature is originally without feeling, perception, formations, or consciousness; all sentient beings are precisely nirvana, and there can be no further cessation. This is the ultimately empty and quiescent house. Nirvana such as this is precisely the reality of true suchness. This is the meaning in brief.

[Now] the name of the mountain is explained according to the contemplation of mind. If one contemplates the form skandha [which in itself has no awareness], that is the mountain; the consciousness skandha is “Spirit”; and the [remaining] three skandhas are “Vulture.” To contemplate this “Spirit Vulture” as impermanent is analytical contemplation. To contemplate this “Spirit Vulture” as originally empty is contemplation of its essential nature.

To contemplate “Spirit” is to contemplate the nature of wisdom, clearly knowing the causal basis of the adornment of wisdom. [To contemplate] “Vulture” is to contemplate the convergence of causes and conditions, the adornment of merit. [To contemplate] “mountain” is to contemplate the unmoving Dharma-nature that is the direct cause. These three dharmas are called the secret treasury; [the Buddhas] themselves abide within [these dharmas] and also employ them to liberate others.

The following passage states that “the Buddha himself abides in the Great Vehicle”; these are the two modes of contemplation belonging to the Distinct Teaching and the Perfect Teaching. This is the meaning in brief.

Explanation of the Word “Midst”

The word “midst” is zhong in Chinese, [meaning the interval between]. The Buddha favored the middle interval. [He] ascended into the midst of the heavens, was born at midday in a country situated in the middle [of the world], and entered nirvana at midnight. All these signify the middle interval, namely, the Middle Way. Now [the Buddha], dwelling [in Rajagriha] amid [Mount Gridhrakuta], expounds the teaching of the Middle Way.

EXPLANATION OF THE AUDIENCE

SCRIPTURE

Together with a great assembly of 12,000 bhikshus, all of whom were arhats. ^[137]

The great assembly that heard [this sutra being expounded] comprised three groups. First were the shravakas, next the bodhisattvas, and finally the mixed assembly [comprising all the other groups]. Most other sutras are likewise arranged in this way.

[The commentators] of old distinguished two aspects: phenomenal characteristics and meaning. Regarding phenomenal characteristics, they considered [the two factors of] outward appearance and proximity. The shravakas bore the outward appearance of those who had renounced worldly life, and their conduct brought them close to the Tathagata; in hearing the sutra, they were regarded as intimate, and therefore [they] were listed first.

The devas and human beings differed in bodily form and attire, and in conduct were not close enough to attend upon [the Tathagata]; therefore, in bearing witness to the sutra they were regarded as distant and were listed last. ^[138] The bodhisattvas had no fixed bodily form, and their conduct was not confined to any definite place. They were neither like worldly people nor the same as the Sangha; dwelling in the middle, neither high nor low, ^[139] they were therefore listed in the middle. ^[140]

Regarding meaning, the shravakas delighted in nirvana, while devas and human beings clung to samsara, each side thus inclining toward an extreme. The bodhisattvas neither delighted in [nirvana] nor clung to [samsara]; dwelling in the middle, they sought the essential purport [of the Buddha], and thus were placed between the two sides. The treatise also explains the matter according to this intent. This interpretation appears to belong to two modes. The explanation above in terms of phenomenal characteristics accords with the principle of causes and conditions, while the explanation above in terms of meaning accords with doctrinal teaching. This is the meaning in brief.

If explained according to the meaning of the original and the manifest, the shravakas inwardly concealed bodhisattva practices as their true basis while outwardly manifesting the appearance of shravakas; how could they ever [give rise to a mind that] delighted in nirvana? As for the devas and human beings [in this Dharma assembly], all were great bodhisattvas; how could they possibly cling to samsara? [Thus,] all these were merely manifest appearances [displayed] to guide [those who had fallen into] the two extremes, while in their fundamental reality they had never departed from the Middle Way.

If explained according to the contemplation of mind, contemplation that proceeds from provisional existence into emptiness is inclined toward eliminating samsara, while contemplation that proceeds from emptiness to discern provisional existence is inclined toward eliminating [attachment to] nirvana. True contemplation according to the Middle Way falls into neither of these. This is the meaning in brief.

I. The Assembly of Shravakas

n [The scripture] lists the assembly of shravakas in two groups: first the bhikshus, followed by the bhikshunis. The bhikshus are further divided into two groups: first those widely known, and then those less widely known. In former times, they were called “those of great renown” and “those of lesser renown,” but such designations have no basis. We now follow the scripture in distinguishing them as above.

A. The Assembly of Bhikshus—The Widely Known Bhikshus

The [shravakas] who were widely known will be presented here according to six factors. The first is category, the second number, the third status, the fourth praise, the fifth the names listed, and the sixth the conclusion.

1. Category

Regarding their category, all were great bhikshus of the same [extraordinary] caliber. Just as the noble and the lowly throughout the world each have their own rank, the bhikshus [in this Dharma assembly] were all renowned everywhere, great in virtue, and surpassingly venerable. The treatises clarify this by setting forth seven commonalities [shared by the bhikshus]: the same time, the same place, the same observance of precepts, the same state of mind, the same understanding and vision, the same path of practice, and the same liberation.

When considered according to the different teachings, each teaching has its own understanding of the seven commonalities [described above]. The Tripitaka Teaching has one understanding; the Shared Teaching has two; the Distinct Teaching has innumerable understandings of the seven commonalities; and the Perfect Teaching has only one. According to the understanding prior to the revelation of the manifest, these are the meanings of the seven commonalities according to the Tripitaka Teaching and the Shared Teaching. Differences between the explanations of the two teachings can be clearly seen. The points concerning time, place, observance of precepts, and liberation are the same, but the three points concerning state of mind, understanding and vision, and the path of practice differ.

When considered in terms of “discarding the three [vehicles] and revealing the One Vehicle” ^[141], one enters the Perfect Teaching’s explanation of the seven commonalities.

The Lotus Sutra Treatise ^[142] distinguishes four kinds of shravakas. Here, those who, after being opened and revealed, abide securely in the [shravaka] fruition ^[143] are divided into two groups: those who abide securely after attaining the Dharma are the shravakas of the Tripitaka Teaching, while those who abide securely after realizing the teaching ^[144] are the shravakas of the Shared Teaching.

The transformation-body shravakas who have just entered the path are divided into two kinds. Those who manifest transformation bodies upon ascending to the bhumis are the shravakas of the Distinct Teaching. Those who manifest transformation bodies upon ascending to the stages of abiding are the shravakas of the Perfect Teaching.

The class of śrāvakas who open the Buddha path [for sentient beings] is also divided into two kinds. Those who expound the Buddhadharma to others progressively, according to a sequential order, are the śrāvakas of the Separate Teaching. Those who expound the Buddhadharma to others without following a sequential order are the śrāvakas of the Perfect Teaching. The meaning of the term “śrāvaka” is thus vast and extensive; how could it be defined solely by the attainment of nirvana? Such is the general meaning.

Explanation of the Word “Great”

According to the treatise, “great” has two meanings: either numerous or excellent and surpassing. Because their character is worthy of reverence and they are honored by heavenly kings and eminent persons, they are called “great.” Because they rise above all ninety-five schools of non-Buddhist paths ^[145], they are said to be excellent and surpassing. Because their knowledge is extensive and encompasses the various scriptures of both the inner and outer canons, they are called numerous. Because [their number] reaches 12,000 ^[146], they are said to be numerous.

To clarify further, [the bhikṣus] comprehend a great teaching, possess great practice, and possess great wisdom; therefore, they are called “great.” Furthermore, in terms of excellence, [they possess] an excellent teaching, excellent practice, and excellent wisdom; therefore, they are said to be excellent. Furthermore, in terms of numerousness, [they possess] numerous teachings, numerous practices, and abundant wisdom; therefore, they are said to be numerous.

The teaching refers to the mindfulness establishment of intrinsic nature, ^[147] which is greater than all the knowledge of non-Buddhist practitioners. Practice refers to the shared mindfulness establishment, ^[148] which far surpasses the supernormal powers of non-Buddhist practitioners. Wisdom refers to the mindfulness establishment of conditions, ^[149] which is more extensive than all four Vedas ^[150] of the non-Buddhist practitioners.

[Next,] the meanings of greatness, numerousness, and excellence are explained according to the doctrinal teachings. Greatness means being revered by everyone; this is the explanation according to the Tripiṭaka Teaching.

According to the Shared Teaching, greatness means being revered by arhats who possess supernormal powers; numerousness means extensively understanding that all phenomena of arising and cessation are precisely non-arising and non-cessation; and excellence means surpassing the four gates of the Tripiṭaka Teaching. ^[151]

According to the Separate Teaching, greatness means being revered by arhats who have entered the nature of dharmas ^[152] and possess supernormal powers; numerousness means clearly understanding immeasurable ^[153] Buddha-dharmas; and excellence means surpassing those [who practice] the Two Vehicles. ^[154]

According to the Perfect Teaching, greatness means being revered by great bodhisattvas; numerousness means necessarily understanding all the inconceivable dharmas throughout the Dharma realm; and excellence means surpassing even the bodhisattvas.

According to the meaning of origin and trace, these greatly virtuous ones [among the assembly of bhikṣus] had long been praised and extolled by the Buddhas. From the beginning, in their origin, they had attained the Samādhi of the Banner of Victory, surpassing the non-Buddhist practitioners, and had already perfected the wisdom that comprehensively knows all things. Yet today, in their manifested traces, they appear [in bodily form within the assembly] to support and assist the Buddha’s work of teaching and transformation.

Amid the sphere of craving, defilement, views, and attachments, they manifest [the qualities of] greatness, numerousness, and excellence, like “heating milk into curds,” [thereby guiding deluded sentient beings onto the path of liberation]. [They] also manifest [the qualities of] greatness, numerousness, and excellence within the Tripiṭaka Teaching, like “transforming curds into raw butter,” [thereby guiding sentient beings along the path of practice].

They further manifest [the qualities of] greatness, numerousness, and excellence within the Vaipulya assembly, like “turning raw butter into clarified butter,” [thereby guiding sentient beings to the rank of the Two Vehicles]. They further manifest [the qualities of] greatness, numerousness, and excellence within the Dharma assembly in which prajnaparamita is taught, like “turning clarified butter into ghee,” [thereby guiding sentient beings from the Two Vehicles to the ultimate Mahayana].

[Thus,] in this Lotus Dharma assembly, they manifest the qualities of greatness, numerousness, and excellence; yet fundamentally, from the very beginning, they have always possessed these qualities of greatness, numerousness, and excellence in full. Such is the general meaning.

According to the contemplation of mind, contemplating [all dharmas as] empty is greatness; contemplating provisional existence is numerousness; and contemplating the Middle Way is excellence. Furthermore, when one directly enters contemplation of the Middle Way, the nature of mind opens wide and expansive like empty space; therefore, it is called great. It blocks both extremes of biased views and enters the ocean of quiescent cessation; therefore, it is called excellent. It illuminates both conventional truth and ultimate truth, harmoniously penetrating and containing a great multitude; one mind [contains] all minds, and therefore it is called numerous.

Explanation of the Word “Bhikṣu”

Master Sengzhao said that [the word bhikṣu], when rendered into Chinese, ^[155] has the meanings “one who begs for food and lives in purity,” “one who destroys the afflictions,” “one who constantly maintains the precepts,” and “one who subdues the hosts of māras.” In Sanskrit, the noun bhikṣu contains all four of these meanings. Since Chinese has no single term capable of fully translating them, it is merely transliterated [as biqiu], thereby preserving the original expression.

Master Kumārajīva ^[156] said: “At the beginning, [one who leaves the household life], wishing to abandon the worldly home—the life of family, wife, and children—uses the practice of alms-begging to sustain a pure life. Ultimately, [wishing] to leave the home of the three realms, one must destroy the afflictions and strictly uphold the precepts to guard oneself. When these two meanings are fulfilled, the heavenly māras are made afraid, and the work of leaving the household life is accomplished.”

The treatise states that [one who has left the household life] causes the heavenly māras to fear, destroys evil, and is an alms-beggar who sustains his own life. Māra delights in birth and death, whereas one who has left the household life teaches and transforms others so that all may together escape the three realms; this runs counter to Māra’s desire. Māra uses his power to bring such a person under control, but instead is [countered] when the bhikṣu binds him with the five dharmas ^[157]; thus, Māra must lament and depart. Therefore, a bhikṣu is said to cause Māra to fear.

One who has left the household life necessarily destroys the seven evils of body and speech; ^[158] therefore, he is called one who destroys evil. Lay householders have three proper means of sustaining their lives. The first is farming and agriculture; the second is commerce and trade; and the third is employing knowledge [to serve through one’s understanding]. These three means may be used by householders to sustain their lives. For those who have left the household life, the Buddha [established precepts] prohibiting such activities; they are permitted only to sustain themselves by begging for alms, dwell securely in the path, and generate merit and benefit for their donors. When all three meanings are fulfilled, they mutually constitute the meaning of bhikṣu.

In Master Baoliang’s ^[159] Collected Explanations of the Nirvana Sutra, [many passages] state only that one who destroys evil is called a bhikṣu; this explanation is incomplete. Here, all three meanings are clearly expounded as interconnected from beginning to end, [from the time one first leaves the household life until one accomplishes the work of the path].

As in the beginning, when one first leaves the household life, at the time of the formal motion and three proclamations, through the power of the unmanifest precepts [to guard and restrain] ^[160], all external conditions are transformed into an environment in which evil is not committed. When one begins to cultivate meditative concentration, the power of concentration that arises combines with [the restraining power of] the precepts, guarding against and subduing greed and anger so that they do not arise in the mind.

Again, when one begins to cultivate contemplative wisdom, the semblance of the Path ^[161] that arises combines with [the restraining power of] the precepts and is able to subdue the afflictions. Therefore, even the stages of the initial mind are called the destruction of evil; it is not only the later stages of attainment [that are called the destruction of evil].

Regarding the meaning of causing Mara to be terrified, as soon as one who has left the household life shaves his head and receives the precepts, Mara becomes anxious and afraid. [When one] cultivates concentration, one intends to subdue the afflictions; when one cultivates wisdom, one intends to eradicate the afflictions. These initially aroused minds likewise all terrify Mara; how could this apply only to the later minds of attainment?

Regarding the meaning of mendicant, [one who has left the household life] initially abandons livelihood through evil and improper means ^[162] and sustains himself solely through the practice of begging for alms. When cultivating meditative concentration, he passes through various states in quest of concentration; when cultivating wisdom, he relies upon principle in quest of freedom from outflows. [At all these stages,] he must likewise sustain himself as an alms-mendicant. How much more, then, could [the stages of cultivation] that correspond with realization fail to be those of an alms-mendicant?

Because one fully possesses these meanings, one is honored with the title bhiksu. Those who expound the sutras praise only the bhiksu’s later mind [of attainment]. All of this accords with the Tripitaka Teaching.

If one passes through myriad conditions solely to seek ultimate truth, one is called an alms-mendicant. Eradicating doubts and delusions that obstruct principle is called the destruction of evil. Cultivating practices in this manner causes all four kinds of Mara ^[163] to be terrified. This is the meaning according to the Shared Teaching.

If one passes through the Three Truths [emptiness, provisional existence, and the Middle Way] in quest of truth, one is called an alms-mendicant. Eliminating the shared delusions ^[164] and the distinct delusions ^[165] is called the destruction of evil. Subduing the eight kinds of Mara ^[166] and the ten kinds of Mara ^[167] is the meaning according to the Distinct Teaching.

If, within birth and death itself, one seeks to taste the flavor of true reality, this is called being an alms-mendicant. Realizing that the afflictions themselves are bodhi is called the destruction of evil. [For such a person,] the realm of Mara is itself the realm of the Buddha. This is the meaning according to the Perfect Teaching.

If the manifested traces have not yet been clarified, only the first two meanings are made evident. Once the origin has been fully revealed, all the subsequent meanings are complete.

Speaking in terms of origin and trace, in the origin they ascended to the summit of Mount Nirvana, jointly formed karma and received existence, took ignorance, delusion, and craving as father and mother, and then abandoned wife and children and departed from the house of [birth and death through] delimited and transformational existence ^[168]. Long ago they completely eliminated the afflictions of the five abiding stages ^[169], utterly destroyed every evil, and attained true Dharma joy, [delighting in it] as though eating milk porridge.

Ultimately, there remained not a single Dharma for them to cultivate. They upheld the path of the Middle Way together with sila-paramita ^[170], used moral conduct to gather in and transform sentient beings, and subdued the realm of Mara, which is itself the realm of the Buddha, as though bearing a burden and reverently following the teaching.

Considered from the perspective of the original teaching, their merit and virtue had long since been perfected. Yet, to train and subdue sentient beings, they manifested the traces of the five groups of bhiksus in order to transmit the teaching and guide sentient beings. The illustration is likewise the same as in the preceding explanation.

Speaking in terms of contemplation of the mind, to contemplate a single thought of mind as pure as empty space, unbound and unobstructed by the two extreme views ^[171], possessing vast wisdom of equality, without attachment or craving, is to leave the household life. Taking contemplation according to the Middle Way as one’s own refuge, while the Dharma body and wisdom-life remain alive, is called being an alms-mendicant. Again, contemplating the afflictions of the five abiding stages as themselves bodhi is called the destruction of evil. All erroneous and inverted views are nowhere apart from the Middle Way; this is to cause Mara to be terrified. Such is the meaning in brief.

Explanation of the Word “Assembly”

In Sanskrit it is Sangha ^[172], translated into Chinese as “harmonious assembly” (和合眾). A single person cannot be called a harmonious assembly; only four or more persons are called a harmonious assembly. In terms of matters, harmony means that they do not live separately.

In terms of the Dharma, harmony means that there is no separate principle. The Buddha regularly dwelt in harmony together with 1,250 bhiksus. [Among them, those brought by] the three Kasyapas [numbered] 1,000, while [those brought by] Sariputra and Maudgalyayana [numbered] 250. Some sources also say that Yasa [brought] fifty people.

Fascicle 45 of the Samyukta Agama states that among five hundred bhiksus, ninety had realized the Three Knowledges, ninety had attained liberation in both ways ^[173], and the remaining [320 bhiksus] had attained liberation through wisdom.

The treatises clearly explain four classes of Sangha members. Those who do not live the pure life are called the Sangha of precept-breakers. Sangha members who do not clearly understand the Dharma and Vinaya are called the ignorant Sangha. Those [cultivating] the five preparatory practices ^[174] are the Sangha possessed of shame and moral dread. Those who [contemplate] suffering and [attain] patience with respect to Dharma [knowledge] are the true Sangha. In the [Lotus Dharma assembly], the first three classes of Sangha members were absent; there was only the true Sangha.

Speaking in terms of the Four Teachings, those in this [Lotus Dharma assembly] had passed through the five flavors at both the relative and absolute levels. Now, as the assembly jointly hearing [the sutra in this Dharma assembly], they constitute the factor establishing the credibility [of this sutra] according to the Perfect Teaching.

Explained in terms of origin and trace, in the origin [this assembly] was originally in harmony with the principle of true reality and was also in harmony with the capacities and conditions of sentient beings throughout the Dharma realm. In the trace, they were a Sangha employing provisional matters and principles that were not yet ultimate, passing through the five flavors to guide sentient beings. Such is the meaning in brief.

In terms of contemplation of the mind, beginners in the study of contemplation of the Middle Way enter only a semblance of contemplation and have not yet developed the true nature. Feeling shame before the Buddhas ^[175] and moral dread before the noble ones, they are Sangha members [possessed of shame and moral dread] who engage in cultivation. If, through cultivating contemplation, they develop wisdom, they are called the true Sangha.

Those differing from these two classes [the Sangha possessed of shame and moral dread and the true Sangha] are the two kinds of Sangha members [precept-breakers and the ignorant] discussed above. Those who do not cultivate contemplation are called the Sangha of precept-breakers. Those who do not clearly understand the characteristics of the contemplative methods are called the ignorant Sangha.

2. Number

After setting forth the classes [within the Sangha], the text next clarifies their number, namely, 12,000 persons. ^[176]

Explained in terms of origin and trace, in their original ground they were 12,000 bodhisattvas, while in their manifested traces they appeared as 12,000 sravakas.

In terms of contemplation of the mind, contemplate the twelve ayatanas ^[177]. Each ayatana fully contains the ten Dharma realms; each Dharma realm in turn fully contains the ten Dharma realms; and each Dharma realm fully possesses the Ten Suchnesses, thus making a total of 1,000. Each ayatana contains 1,000; therefore, the twelve ayatanas comprise 12,000 Dharma gates.

3. Stages

Next, the stages [of the assembly] are explained clearly. [The scripture states that] they were all arhats. The A-ba Scripture ^[178] calls [the fruition of arhatship] “the Worthy and True,” ^[179] while the Scripture of Auspicious Response ^[180] calls them “True Persons.” ^[181] All are those who [have realized] non-arising; this explains the meaning of the [title] arhat. The earlier translators rendered it as Unattached, Non-arising, or Worthy of Offerings, while others left it untranslated [and merely used the transcription “arhat”].

This title encompasses three meanings. The husk of the [grain of] ignorance has been completely removed, and it [will not sprout] in the field of a future existence; ^[182] since one will no longer undergo the fruit of birth and death, one is called Non-arising. The ninety-eight afflictive tendencies ^[183] have been completely extinguished; therefore, one is called a Slayer of Thieves.

Having perfected the merits of wisdom and cessation, one can serve as a field of merit for gods and humans and is therefore called Worthy of Offerings. The inclusion of all three meanings constitutes the explanation of the [title] arhat.

It is also said that when one first undertakes the training in non-arising, one has not yet attained non-arising within the cycle of birth and death; one practices to subdue Mara, but Mara is not yet afraid; and one practices as a mendicant, but it is not yet clearly established that one is worthy of receiving offerings. Now, [having attained this fruition], one has gained the patience of non-arising, utterly destroyed the thieves of affliction, and become an excellent field [of merit for the two realms of gods and humans].

Thus, the three meanings of the title arhat are explained by relating the fruit [of realization] to the cause [of practice]. When discussing attainment, the three meanings are explained in terms of the fruit [of realization]; when the initial practice is also discussed, all three meanings in terms of the cause [of practice] must be employed.

The explanations above all express the meaning according to the Tripitaka Teaching and the Shared Teaching. According to the Distinct Teaching and the Perfect Teaching, however, the meaning differs. One not only destroys the thieves [of affliction] but must also eliminate non-affliction.

Non-affliction is nirvana, and [that nirvana] must also be cultivated and relinquished. This is the meaning of “slaying thieves” [according to the Distinct and Perfect Teachings]. [One is] not only non-arising with regard to arising [in birth and death], but also non-arising with regard to non-arising. The uncontaminated is non-arising.

One is not only worthy of receiving offerings but also gives and provides for others. All sentient beings receive such giving and praise the virtues of [bodhisattvas at] the First Ground and the First Abode.

According to the meaning of the original and the manifested, in the original state they had already attained the Samadhi of Non-reception. Having no attachment to either of the two extremes, they are called non-arising. Having eliminated the afflictions of the five abiding grounds, ^[184] they are called slayers of thieves.

Constantly creating merit throughout the nine realms of existence ^[185] and benefiting sentient beings, they possess the virtue of being worthy of offerings. This is the meaning of the original state. Employing skillful means to liberate sentient beings, they pass through the five stages in uninterrupted succession and accomplish the virtue of non-arising.

This is the meaning revealed by their manifested traces. It is also explained that the original state is the Dharma body, while the manifested traces reveal benefiting oneself; the original state is prajna, while the manifested traces reveal non-arising; the original state is liberation, while the manifested traces reveal the destruction of the thieves of affliction. Such is the explanation in brief.

According to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, contemplating [the myriad dharmas as] empty is prajna; contemplating [dharmas as] provisionally existent is liberation; and contemplating the Middle Way is the Dharma body.

Again, according to the meaning of contemplation of the mind, entering the contemplation of emptiness from the contemplation of provisional existence also possesses three meanings, and so on through the contemplation of the Middle Way. [Slaying thieves means] slaying the thief of ignorance; [Non-arising means] not giving rise to the mind of the Two Vehicles; and [Worthy of Offerings means that] making offerings to such a person is the same as making offerings to the World-Honored One.

The Vaipulya Scripture ^[186] states: “Making offerings to the Buddha and Manjusri does not equal giving a single meal to sustain a practitioner of the Vaipulya Scripture.” ^[187]

A later section of the [Lotus] Sutra ^[188] states: One who slanders the Buddha incurs an offense, while one who praises the Buddha gains merit; yet neither that offense nor that merit is as great as that of one who slanders or praises a person who upholds the sutra. This is because the Buddha gives no thought to food and drink, has long since transcended the eight worldly winds, ^[189] and is no longer affected [by either offerings or slander].

Giving [food] to one who upholds the sutra, however, [helps that person] sustain the body, prolong life, bring forth the Dharma body, and increase the life of wisdom; therefore, it brings great benefit. [Conversely,] slandering [one who upholds the sutra] causes that person anxiety and sorrow, to regress in resolve, and to experience remorse. If this excellent opportunity [for practice] is lost, it cannot be recovered; therefore, such harm is said to be great.

Such is the explanation in brief.

4. Praising the Virtues

SCRIPTURE TEXT

Their outflows had been exhausted, and they were no longer subject to affliction. They had attained benefit for themselves, had severed all bonds within the realms of existence, and their minds had attained mastery.

[The scripture text] contains five statements praising the three sacred virtues [of the arhats] described above. The Treatise on the Lotus Sutra states: “The first statement speaks in general, while the following statements set forth the particulars.” It should therefore be understood that all these statements praise the arhats.

“Their outflows had been exhausted, and they were no longer subject to affliction.” These two statements praise the sacred virtue of slaying thieves—that is, slaying the thieves of affliction, as just explained above. “Outflows” refers to the three kinds of outflows. ^[190] The Satyasiddhi Treatise ^[191] states: “Because they cause the Way to be lost, they are called outflows.” The Vinaya states: “When deluded people create karma, they open the gates of the outflows.” The Abhidharma Treatise ^[192] states: “Because of the outflows, beings fall into birth and death.” Although the Treatise and the Vinaya employ different words, they both clarify the meaning of outflows.

When deceived by thieves, one loses one’s treasures and becomes poor and alone. Likewise, those who create evil karma must fall into the suffering of birth and death, lose the Dharma body, lose the life of wisdom, and lose all their treasures. All of this conveys the meaning of the comparison with wicked thieves.

It should not be regarded as praise of the virtue of non-arising.

As for afflictions, they are the ninety-eight kinds of afflictions that command, drive, obstruct, bind, conceal, and so forth, constantly oppressing and tormenting practitioners. Afflictions are the factors capable of permeating, while outflow-producing karma is what is permeated. When both that which permeates (the afflictions) and that which is permeated (outflow-producing karma) have been completely exhausted, this is precisely the meaning of slaying thieves, [the thieves of affliction]. How could it be said that this praises the meaning of Non-arising?

The statement “they had attained benefit for themselves” praises the virtue of being worthy of offerings. The causes and fruits within the three realms are all called “external”; [qualities such as] wisdom, cessation, and merit are all called “benefit for oneself.” Because they have perfected benefit for themselves, they have become worthy of offerings, [worthy of receiving offerings].

“They had severed all bonds within the realms of existence, and their minds had attained mastery.” These two statements praise the sacred virtue of non-arising. “The realms of existence” are the twenty-five realms, ^[193] while “bonds” refers to the karmic causes that produce birth within those twenty-five realms of existence. When the causes have been severed, the fruits no longer remain. This clearly praises the virtue of non-arising and should not be regarded as praising the virtue of slaying thieves.

[Those at the stage of] arhatship have ordinarily severed all bonds but have not yet completely exhausted existence. To say that existence has been exhausted is to speak of the fruit while referring to the cause; moreover, even when it is exhausted, not much time remains. The words “their minds had attained mastery” mean that because the power of samadhi is complete, this is called mastery of mind.

The perfection of wisdom is called mastery of wisdom. Mastery of wisdom does not necessarily mean that the mind has attained mastery, but when the mind has attained mastery, wisdom is certainly mastered as well. [Therefore,] when the text says here that the mind has attained mastery, it means that both the power of samadhi and wisdom are complete; such a person has attained liberation in both respects. One who has attained liberation in both respects has certainly brought rebirth to an end.

From this, it can be understood that [this statement] praises the virtue of non-arising.

According to the Lotus Sutra treatise, this is called the “supreme-to-supreme approach to exposition,” meaning that the statements that follow are used to explain the preceding statement. The treatise says that because they had exhausted all outflows, they were called arhats; because their minds had attained mastery, they were said to have severed all bonds. In this way, each successive statement explains the one before it.

Explained according to the meaning of the origin and the trace, not being born in the realm of non-arising is called Great Nirvana. The source of the stream of afflictions and outflows had long since dried up, and they would never again fall back among the Two Vehicles or ordinary beings. This is non-arising according to the original meaning.

Fully possessing the Dharma-body, the wisdom that severs [afflictions], true reality, and merit and virtue is called benefiting oneself according to the original meaning. They attained the King Samadhi, ^[194] destroyed [the possibility of rebirth within] the twenty-five realms of existence, revealed the true nature of the self, and fully possessed the eight virtues of mastery. ^[195] This is called slaying the thieves according to the original meaning.

Yet in their manifested traces, they displayed the merit and virtue of those of the Two Vehicles.

According to the contemplation of the mind, one rightly contemplates in accordance with the Middle Way, free of outflows and without falling into either extreme of contemplating emptiness or contemplating provisional existence; therefore, all afflictions [arising from] these two extreme views are exhausted. Constantly contemplating the nature of the mind is called the highest concentration. The hidden treasure, like the precious jewel concealed in the fold of one’s robe, is one’s own possession; this is the meaning of “having attained one’s own benefit.”

Right contemplation according to the Middle Way immediately eliminates the thieves of affliction and fetters. When there are no more fetters, existence itself is also ended. Since the two extreme views cannot bind the mind, this is called mastery; although afflictions are present, they are as though absent. Entering Nirvana without severing the afflictions is precisely the meaning intended here.

SUTRA TEXT

Their names were: Ajnata Kaundinya, Mahakasyapa, Uruvilva Kasyapa, Gaya Kasyapa, Nadi Kasyapa, Sariputra, Mahamaudgalyayana, Mahakatyayana, Aniruddha, Kapphina, Gavampati, Revata, Pilindavatsa, Bakkula, Mahakausthila, Nanda, Sundarananda, Purna Maitrayaniputra, Subhuti, Ananda, and Rahula.

5. Names and Titles

The [sutra text] here briefly names only twenty-one venerable ones. All the Buddha’s disciples fully possessed meritorious practices, yet concealed their complete capacities. Each was named according to his particular virtue and conduct in order to guide [sentient beings] toward more wholesome inclinations.

The Ekottarika Agama says: “The bhiksus of Kaundinya’s group were all honored as Elders and were accompanied by great persons of virtuous conduct. Sariputra was accompanied by those of profound and keen wisdom. Maudgalyayana was accompanied by those who had attained great powers of spiritual penetration.... [In this way,] each upheld a particular Dharma and guided those with corresponding wholesome inclinations to accompany him. [Therefore,] to name each one, one must clearly understand his meritorious practices. Each was given a name and title according to his virtue and conduct, and so it was with all of them.” For each arhat, four aspects of explanation are presented by way of illustration. Such is the general outline.

Ajnata Kaundinya

[For example,] Kaundinya ^[196] was his family name. It is translated as “fire vessel” (an implement for preserving fire), and he belonged to the brahmin caste. The ancestors of this lineage originally worshiped fire, and the practice was handed down through many generations of the family. Fire has two meanings: illumination and burning. Where there is illumination, darkness does not arise; where there is burning, the myriad things do not arise. Thus “non-arising” is the nature [of fire].

Ajnata was his personal name. In Chinese it is translated as “already knowing” or “not knowing.” Here, “not knowing” does not mean knowing nothing; rather, it means clearly knowing the nature of emptiness. According to the two truths ^[197]—[the realization of the nature of emptiness and provisional existence]—this is right knowledge.

Therefore, he was named after the wisdom of non-arising. The Sutra of Infinite Life, ^[198] the Sutra of Manjusri’s Questions, ^[199] and the Abhidharma Mahavibhasa Treatise ^[200] all say that [Ajnata] means clearly knowing the ultimate truth. ^[201] In terms of the Four Noble Truths, it means clearly knowing the truth of cessation. Yet in most scriptures his name is given as “Not Knowing,” and it is also translated as “Attainment of the Way.” In the Ekottarika Agama, [the Buddha] said: “My Buddhadharma is filled entirely with people who are gentle, benevolent, and broadly learned.

The first to taste the flavor of the true Dharma was the bhiksu Kaundinya; ^[202] therefore, he was named Ajnata.”

Named Through a Vow

At one time, [in a former life,] the Buddha was born during a famine. He transformed himself into an enormous red-eyed fish and held his breath until he died [so that people might have food]. [At that time,] five carpenters arrived first and used the blades of their axes to cut flesh from the fish. The Buddha then made this vow: “In a future life, [when I attain Buddhahood,] I shall first liberate these [carpenters].” Because the Buddha had previously vowed to enable [Kaundinya] to realize non-arising, he was named Ajnata.

Furthermore, during the time of Kasyapa Buddha, there were nine people studying the Way. Five of them had not yet attained fruition and made this vow: [when they practiced] within the teaching of Sakyamuni Buddha, they would be the first to awaken. Guided by that original vow, they were the first to realize the Dharma of non-arising, and so he was named Ajnata.

Named Through Practice

The arising of wisdom and the cessation of delusion constitute the meritorious practice of wisdom that severs [afflictions]. During the long, dark night, when all are sunk in deep sleep and no one has awakened, before the sun has risen, a star appears first. Bhiksu Kaundinya’s realization of the wisdom of non-arising was likewise like the first bright light among all the shining stars. Among all those who attained luminous wisdom, none preceded Kaundinya; therefore, he was called Ajnata. Nothing dispels the long, dark night before a bright star appears. Kaundinya was likewise: among all those who eliminated the darkness of ignorance and delusion, none preceded him; therefore, he was called Ajnata.

Named Through a Previous Event

When the prince renounced the throne, left his kingdom, and entered the mountains and forests to cultivate the Way, his royal father, longing for him, sent five men to find and attend upon him. They were Kaundinya and Asvajit, the latter also called Asvaka, ^[203] together with Asvajit, Bhadrika, Mahanama, and Dasabala Kasyapa, who followed and assisted the prince. [Among these five,] two were maternal relatives and three were paternal relatives.

The group of two held that enjoying sensual pleasures was a practice of purity, whereas the group of three held that asceticism was a practice of purity. When the prince diligently practiced austerities, the group of two, [disagreeing with him,] immediately departed, while the remaining three continued attending him. When the prince abandoned ascetic practice and resumed taking milk porridge and drinking warm water, those three also departed.

After the prince attained the Way, he first taught the Four Noble Truths to all five of them.

In the first teaching of the Dharma, he instructed two of the men, while the other three went out to seek alms so that the Buddha and all five men could eat together. On that occasion, Kauṇḍinya ^[204] attained the pure Dharma-eye, while the other four had not yet attained it. On the next occasion, he taught the Dharma to three of them, while the other two went out to seek alms so that the Buddha and the five men could eat together.

This time, all three attained the pure Dharma-eye. At the third teaching of the Dharma, the entire group of five led by Kauṇḍinya, together with 80,000 devas, became free from the dust and defilements. The group of five realized the Unproduced.

Three times the Buddha asked, “Have you clearly understood the Dharma?” and three times they replied, “We have clearly understood.” At that moment, the earth spirits proclaimed it, the spirits of space spread the proclamation far and wide, and throughout the Brahmā worlds they all declared, “It has been understood.”

Kauṇḍinya was the first to attain the Dharma. He was the first to perceive the characteristics of the Buddha-path, the first to hear the Dharma drum, the first to smell the fragrance of the true Dharma, the first to taste the flavor of ambrosia, the first to enter the stream of the Dharma, and the first to realize the ultimate truth. Among those who attained the path in Jambudvīpa, he was foremost among all human beings, devas, and arhats.

Therefore, the Scripture of the Twelve Years of the Buddha’s Travels ^[205] states: “After the Buddha attained the path, in the first year he delivered the group of five led by Kauṇḍinya; in the second year he delivered the three Kāśyapa brothers and their disciples; and in the fifth year he delivered Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana together with their disciples.” Thus it should be known why the name Ājñāta is placed first, as explained above.

This is the explanation according to causes and conditions.

If this is explained according to the Tripiṭaka Teaching, the blind man’s not producing sight is analogous to the wisdom of the unproduced; the mirror is analogous to the realm of the unproduced, namely the skandhas, āyatanas, and dhātus. The six parts—the head, trunk, and four limbs—are analogous to causes in the present, while the image in the mirror is analogous to the future result. If one opens one’s clear eyes, holds a mirror in hand, and faces one’s form toward it, an image immediately appears in the mirror.

If one closes one’s eyes like a blind man, one sees nothing at all. Not seeing the six parts means that present causes are not produced; not seeing the image in the mirror means that the future result is not produced. Therefore, the Āgama says: “With regard to the five skandhas, if one says that form exists and that form is pure, such purity is produced, not unproduced.

If one says that feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness exist and that consciousness is pure, such purity is produced, not unproduced. If one says that feeling exists and that feeling is pleasant, such pleasure is produced, not unproduced. Likewise, if one says that form exists and that form is pleasant, such pleasure is produced, not unproduced.

Again, if one holds that perception and formations exist and that formations are the self, such a self is produced, not unproduced. Likewise, if one holds that form exists and that form is the self, such a self is produced, not unproduced. If one holds that consciousness exists and that consciousness is permanent, such permanence is produced, not unproduced.

Likewise, if one holds that form exists and that form is permanent, such permanence is produced, not unproduced. It is like holding up a mirror, looking into it, and seeing one’s face: that face is produced, not unproduced. If one says that the five skandhas exist, then all of them are produced, not unproduced.

“If one can know that form is not pure..., up to knowing that consciousness is not permanent, and can further know that form is impermanent, suffering, empty, and impure, up to knowing that consciousness is impermanent, suffering, without self, and impure, then this is the unproduced, not the produced. It is like a blind man holding a mirror in his hand but seeing no image arise in it: this is the unproduced, not the produced.

Once one clearly understands the unproduced, how could one suppose within that unproduced state that the self is form, that the self is distinct from form, that the self is within form, or that form is within the self? The same applies to feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. Contemplating in this manner, both present causes and future results are entirely unproduced.

It is like a blind man looking into a mirror and seeing no image. This is called the contemplation of the five skandhas, a contemplation with the wisdom of the unproduced.

“Next is the contemplation of the twelve āyatanas and the eighteen dhātus. Ordinarily, when speaking of the ocean, although it is deep and vast, it is still bounded by this shore and the farther shore and is therefore regarded as small. But when the eye sees forms, and thoughts of attachment and defilement, craving, and desire for sensual pleasures arise, giving rise to all three kinds of karma—bodily, verbal, and mental—without limit, that is truly the great ocean, which submerges all beings in the world, including devas, human beings, and asuras.

Therefore, one should know that the eye itself is the great ocean, while forms are its towering waves and violent winds. Because of attachment to those forms, one must revolve and return again and again in saṃsāra. Evil perceptions arising in this great ocean are fierce fish and poisonous dragons; thoughts of jealousy, scheming, and harm are male rākṣasas; and defiled thoughts of craving and attachment are female rākṣasas.

The arising of bodily, verbal, and mental karma is like drinking the salty water of the ocean and drowning oneself. Thus, although the eye and forms are themselves without perception, their conjunction produces the craving and defilement of ignorance.

“When attachment arises, formations arise; when formations arise, karma arises. Karma binds consciousness and draws it into the intermediate-state body. This is the arising of consciousness.

Although the embryo has formed, before its five bodily parts are complete, this is the arising of name-and-form; when the five bodily parts are complete, this is the arising of the six āyatanas. While the six āyatanas cannot yet distinguish suffering from pleasure, this is called the arising of contact; when they can distinguish suffering from pleasure, this is called the arising of feeling. Attachment arising toward sense objects is the arising of craving; rushing everywhere in search of desired things is the arising of grasping.

The formation of bodily, verbal, and mental karma is the arising of existence.

“Receiving the five skandhas in a future life according to karma constitutes the arising of birth. The gradual alteration of the five future skandhas constitutes the arising of aging and decline. The decay and disappearance of the five future skandhas constitute the arising of death.

Agitation within the mind constitutes the arising of sorrow; grieving, lamenting, and weeping constitute the arising of lamentation. The wasting and trembling of body and mind constitute the arising of suffering and distress. This is called the great mass of suffering associated with the twelve links of dependent origination throughout the three periods, which arises as soon as the eye sees forms; it is not unproduced.

The same applies to the remaining āyatanas—the ear with sounds, the nose with odors, the tongue with tastes, the body with tangible objects, and the mind with thoughts—as well as to the eighteen dhātus, from the eye-dhātu through the Dharma-dhātu. Thus, the twelve āyatanas and eighteen dhātus are all produced, not unproduced.

“What is the unproduced? It is to contemplate that when the eye sees forms, it does not plant the seed of suffering, and therefore the sprout of suffering does not emerge. If no foul odor seeps forth, flies will not be attracted and gather. When the seed does not arise, the sprout does not arise; when the foul odor does not arise, the flies do not arise. Therefore, this is called the unproduced.

“What is meant by planting suffering and distress? When the eye sees forms and perceptions of greed and anger arise, these are the seeds of suffering. Thoughts of the five sensual pleasures are the sprouts that produce suffering. When the six faculties cling to the six sense objects, this is called the seepage of foul water. When wholesome and unwholesome thoughts contend to arise amid the six sense objects, these are called the flies.”

If one clearly understands that both the eye and forms are impermanent, suffering, empty, and without self, then greed and anger do not arise, thoughts of craving do not arise, attachment to sense objects does not arise, and wholesome and unwholesome actions do not arise. This is non-arising.

[The other ayatanas, such as] the ear [and sounds], the nose [and fragrances], the tongue [and tastes], the body [and objects of touch], and the mind [and thoughts], are all likewise. [And among the eighteen dhatus,] from the eye-dhatu through the Dharma-dhatu, all are likewise.

The Venerable Ajnata was the first to attain this wisdom of non-arising according to the Tripitaka Teaching; therefore, he was named Ajnata Kaundinya.

According to the Shared Teaching, contemplation with the wisdom of non-arising is like an illusory person holding an illusory mirror and using an illusory body ^[206] to look into that illusory mirror, seeing an illusory image within it. That image is not produced by the mirror, nor is it produced by the face; it is not produced by the conjunction of the mirror and the face, nor is it produced apart from the mirror and the face.

Since it is not produced from any of these four causes ^[207], [the image] is neither within nor without nor in between. It cannot exist by itself, has no place where it perishes, and cannot depart toward any of the four directions—east, west, south, or north. Its nature is originally unarisen; it does not become unarisen through the cessation of the place of its arising.

Its nature is originally unceasing; it does not become unceasing through the cessation of the place of its cessation. Because it neither arises nor ceases, it is called non-arising. [The other skandhas—] feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness—are all likewise.

Furthermore, contemplate illusory form as being like an illusory image in a mirror. Contemplate feeling as bubbles floating on water, perception as a shimmering mirage [seen from afar], formations as the trunk of a banana tree, and consciousness as an illusion.

That illusion is not produced from the illusory object, nor is it produced from the illusionist; it is not produced through the conjunction of the illusory object and the illusionist, nor is it produced apart from the illusory object and the illusionist. When sought by these four methods ^[208], the illusion is found to have truly arisen from nowhere. Moreover, when the place where that illusion ceases is sought throughout the four directions, it is found to cease nowhere. [Therefore,] its nature is originally unarisen; it does not become unarisen only through the cessation of arising. Its nature is originally unceasing; it does not become unceasing only through the cessation of cessation. Since it neither arises nor ceases, it is called non-arising.

Contemplate the faculties and their objects as a village where the afflictions and fetters gather together. From time immemorial, none of them has possessed anything real; they arise solely from deluded thought. The operations and activities of karmic forces are provisional combinations within emptiness.

The essential nature of ignorance does not originally exist by itself; it comes to exist only through the conjunction of the causes and conditions of deluded thought. What exists is itself originally empty, yet comes to exist through causes and conditions. The suffering of karma and the afflictions [is unreal and is only] like a circle of fire made by a whirling torch. ^[209] Contemplating and seeing that the roots [of these things] are all originally empty, as explained above, is the interpretation according to the Shared Teaching. ^[210]

According to the Distinct Teaching, in contemplating the wisdom of non-arising, the mirror represents the Dharma-realm; the eye looking [into the mirror] represents contemplative wisdom; [the colors] blue, yellow, red, and white, and [the shapes] small, large, short, and long represent the Ten Dharma-realms. Blue represents the causes and effects of the hell realm; yellow represents the causes and effects of the realm of hungry ghosts; red represents the causes and effects of the animal realm; white represents the causes and effects of the heavenly and human realms.

A small shape represents the causes and effects of those of the Two Vehicles; a large shape represents the causes and effects of the bodhisattvas of the Shared Teaching; a short shape represents the causes and effects of the bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching; and a long shape represents the causes and effects of the Buddha Dharma-realm. All are clearly present within the mirror, distinctly differentiated without confusion.

If one wishes to correct oneself properly, one must cause the nine kinds of causes and effects not to arise and cause only the single cause and effect [of the Buddha Dharma-realm] to arise. If one wishes to help others correct their cultivation properly, one must cause their nine kinds of causes and effects not to arise and cause only the single cause and effect [of the Buddha Dharma-realm] to arise. Relying on the Dharma-realm, one practices the bodhi conduct, progressively employing contemplative wisdom to analyze one’s own essential nature and eradicate the arising of the four abodes ^[211], rendering them unable to arise.

Next, one employs the innumerable Buddha-Dharmas to eradicate all adventitious afflictions, so that delusion and lack of wisdom no longer arise. Thereafter, one employs the wisdom of true reality to eradicate ignorance, so that fundamental ignorance ^[212] no longer arises. When the four abodes are eliminated, fragmentary [birth and death] does not arise.

When there is no delusion or lack of wisdom, the Land of Skillful Means ^[213] does not arise. When ignorance no longer remains, the Land of True Reward ^[214] also does not arise. Since arising does not arise, and even non-arising does not arise, it is called non-arising. ^[215] This is called the wisdom of non-arising according to the Distinct Teaching.

To speak briefly of contemplating the wisdom of non-arising according to the Perfect Teaching: it is like contemplating a perfectly round mirror, paying no heed to front or back and no heed to images. Its reverse side is not dark, nor is its front side bright. One does not grasp at the various forms, nor does one grasp at the appearance of the mirror, but contemplates only its complete and perfect roundness, without boundary or limit, without beginning or end, neither bright nor dark, neither identical nor different.

It is like perfect and complete vision that does not grasp the characteristics of the Ten Dharma-realms: neither wholesome nor unwholesome, neither deviant nor correct, neither large nor small, and so forth—all are completely brought to an end. One relies solely upon the true aspect of all dharmas, the Dharma-nature of the Buddha-Dharma. Whether form or fragrance, nothing lies outside true reality.

Contemplate that the arising of karma and afflictions is itself non-arising. Since that non-arising does not arise, it is called non-arising. The sufferings within the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus are themselves the Dharma-body; because it is not manifested, it is called the Dharma-body. Obstructions and coverings are the Dharma-body; greed, anger, and delusion are prajna. It is not because prajna possesses the capacity to illuminate clearly that it is called prajna. Since there is nowhere that can be illuminated, its nature is originally luminous in itself. All binding karmic activities are liberation. Liberation is not attained by severing bondage, for there is no essential nature that can be bound and nothing capable of binding; therefore, it is called liberation.

Liberation means that karma does not arise. Prajna means that afflictions do not arise. The Dharma-body means that suffering does not arise. The non-arising of these three is the non-arising of one, and the non-arising of one is the non-arising of three. Since it is neither three nor one, it is called non-arising. How much more, then, are transformational birth and death, afflictions, karma, and suffering themselves also non-arising. This is the contemplation of the wisdom of non-arising according to the Perfect Teaching. Such is its general meaning.

According to the meaning of the Origin and the Trace, Kauṇḍinya was inherently unborn in himself, not merely unborn at the beginning. This is intended to guide by means of the analogy of milk becoming curdled milk. Therefore, according to the meaning of the Trace Gate, the Initial Teaching is inherently unborn; this guides by means of the analogy of curdled milk becoming raw ghee.

Also according to the meaning of the Trace Gate, the Shared Teaching is inherently unborn; this guides by means of the analogy of raw ghee becoming clarified ghee. Also according to the meaning of the Trace Gate, the Distinct Teaching is inherently unborn; this guides by means of the analogy of clarified ghee becoming the finest ghee. Also according to the meaning of the Trace Gate, the Perfect Teaching is inherently unborn, while the Origin Gate abides in the gateway of the letter A, ^[216] meaning that all dharmas have originally been unborn from the very beginning. [Therefore,] if one hears of the gateway of the letter A, one understands that all things are neither born nor unborn.

Because manifestation according to the Trace Gate is employed to guide and teach, it may carry the [meaning] of birth or of non-birth. Any sentient being capable of understanding non-birth according to the Perfect Teaching is identical to Ājñāta [Kauṇḍinya].

Neither the Origin Gate nor the Trace Gate, neither birth nor non-birth—right at this very point, the great causal condition [for which the Buddhas appear] is fulfilled. Therefore, a later passage [in fascicle four] states: “Pūrṇa possesses all the means of transformation. If I were to explain them fully, sentient beings hearing this would surely give rise to doubt.” ^[217] This is precisely the meaning intended.

The Ekottarika Āgama says: “Ānanda held a parasol and carried a lamp as he followed the Buddha, while Great Brahmā King held a parasol and carried a lamp as he followed Kauṇḍinya.” This was a manifestation of the Trace Gate intended to reveal the Origin Gate.

The three forms of contemplation briefly explained above suffice to clarify [the meaning of] non-birth [in the name Kauṇḍinya]; there is no need for an elaborate, exhaustive explanation.

Mahākāśyapa

Mahākāśyapa is translated into Chinese as “Clan of the Great Tortoise” (大龜氏), [meaning a great tortoise], because when an ancestor in a former generation was studying the Way, a divine tortoise appeared, carrying on its back scriptures for the study of the immortals. In accordance with this auspicious virtue of the family line, they took Tortoise as their clan name. Tripiṭaka Master Paramārtha translated it as Light-Wave (光波), meaning “a wave of light.” The bodies of ancient seers emitted a brilliant radiance that [outshone] all other kinds of light, rendering them invisible; hence they were called Light-Wave, also known as Drink-Light. The light from Kāśyapa’s body could likewise illuminate and [outshine the light of] other objects.

[He was also named] Pippala, Pippalāyana, or Śthavira. Pippala was the name of a tree. ^[218] Because his parents prayed to the deity of this tree and thereby obtained a son, they named their child after the tree. [As for the designation] Son of Vṛji, it was because he was born in the village of Vṛji that [the village’s name] was adopted as his title. This family was exceedingly wealthy. The Ekottarika Āgama says: “In the land of Rājagṛha ^[219] there was an exceedingly wealthy elder named Kapila. His wife was named Dhanā, his son was named Pippala, and his daughter-in-law was named Bhaddā. Their wealth exceeded that of King Bimbisāra ^[220] a thousandfold, and no one throughout the sixteen great kingdoms could equal them.”

The Transmission of the Dharma Treasury ^[221] states: “After the Buddha Vipaśyin entered nirvana, the golden Buddha image within a stupa became discolored and deteriorated. At that time, a poor young woman found a precious golden jewel and [used it to] hire a goldsmith and silversmith to restore the Buddha image. [The artisan] joyfully repaired and adorned it, making the Buddha image radiant and beautiful. [Afterward,] the two vowed to become husband and wife.

Throughout the following ninety-one kalpas, whether born in the human realm or in a heavenly realm, this person’s body was always radiant like pure gold, and the mind was always joyful. In the final life, he was born into the brahmin family of Nyagrodha in the kingdom of Magadha. [The king of Magadha used one thousand golden plowshares to till his fields, but this family,] fearing that surpassing the king would bring punishment upon them, reduced the number by one and used only 999 pairs of oxen to pull golden plowshares in tilling their fields.” ^[222]

The sutra also says that in this household, even the poorest-quality silk fabric was worth as much as a hundred thousand taels of gold. Even if [the silk were spread upon the ground and] a nail were driven seven cubits ^[223] deep through it, [the fabric] could not be pierced; when the nail was withdrawn, the silk remained exactly as before, entirely unchanged. The house contained sixty treasuries filled with gold, each holding 340 hu. ^[224] Their granaries were likewise filled to the same extent.

The sutra further states that because they offered grain and rice to a pratyekabuddha, [both of them] were repeatedly born in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven a thousand times, where they enjoyed celestial pleasures.

Kāśyapa’s body possessed thirty excellent marks. Speaking only of the mark of his golden complexion: if jāmbūnada gold is placed at the bottom of muddy water, its radiance can shine upward beyond the water’s surface; if placed in darkness, it dispels the darkness. Yet the radiance emitted from Kāśyapa’s body was brighter even than this gold and shone to a distance of one yojana. [Compared with the Buddha,] he lacked two marks: the ūrṇā, the white hair between the eyebrows, and the uṣṇīṣa, the fleshy protuberance upon the crown of the head. ^[225]

Therefore, when he was invited to preside over the compilation of the scriptures, the devas recited verses in praise:

The elder has eliminated greed, anger, and pride;

His majestic body resembles a pillar of purple-gold. ^[226]

His sublime and wondrous dignity is beyond compare;

His luminous, pure eyes resemble lotus blossoms.

Kāśyapa renounced such a family estate. Furthermore, his parents arranged for him to marry a wife whose body was golden in color. ^[227] The husband and wife took turns, one remaining awake while the other slept, and never indulged in sensual desire. ^[228] Later they renounced the household life and went forth. [When he went forth,] he was wearing a priceless robe. He immediately cut it into four pieces and offered them to the Buddha as a seat, while he himself received a saṅghāṭī robe.

He thus renounced three times—[renouncing his estate, renouncing his family, and renouncing his precious robe.] Since no one in the world could equal him in this, he was called the great renunciant. He encountered the Buddha in the village of Vṛji and immediately offered his precious robe. The Buddha [accepted it and then] bestowed upon him the great robe made of discarded rags.

This robe was the robe of a great sage, yet it was not coarse or heavy. Therefore Kāśyapa said: “Having received the Buddha’s robe, I have always revered it as I revere my teacher and a stupa. I have never dared to rest my head upon it, much less spread it out and lie upon it.

This great robe has enabled me always to practice with the utmost diligence; therefore, it is said that I obtained something great.”

Among the Buddha’s disciples were many others also named Kasyapa, such as Dasabala Kasyapa, ^[229] the three Kasyapa brothers, ^[230] and others. They were all great men, but among those bearing the same name, he was the eldest and was therefore called Mahakasyapa. When he first encountered the Buddha in the village of Vajji, as soon as he heard the Buddha teach about the development of morality, concentration, and wisdom, he attained the undefiled fruit. ^[231] He undertook the practice of almsround and observed the twelve dhutanga practices, never abandoning them even in old age.

Later, the Buddha said to him: “You are now advanced in years. You may cease going on almsround and take your meals with the great assembly. ^[232] You may also give up your coarse and heavy robe made from discarded rags and wear the light, subdued-colored robes [offered] by householders.” Kasyapa said to the Buddha: “If no Buddha had appeared in the world, I would have become a pratyekabuddha and practiced the dhutanga austerities throughout my life.

Now I dare not abandon what I have long practiced in order to follow another discipline. I also wish to provide a shining example for future generations. People in later ages will say: ‘The elder Kasyapa [practiced austerities] and was praised by the Buddha; we too should learn to practice these difficult austerities.’” The Buddha said: “Excellent!

This is truly a great practice.”

According to the Ekottarika Agama Sutra, within the Buddha-Dharma it is exceedingly difficult to practice the twelve dhutanga austerities, and in such arduous practice Mahakasyapa was foremost. After he had long practiced the dhutanga austerities, his hair and beard grew long and his robes became shabby and torn. When he came before the Buddha, the other bhiksus who saw him conceived contempt for him.

The Buddha summoned him, yielded half of his seat, and invited him to sit beside him, but Kasyapa did not dare accept. The Buddha said: “[Why do you not dare sit beside me?] I possess the four dhyanas; when I enter meditative concentration, my mind comes to rest, and from beginning to end it suffers no diminution. You have attained the same as I.

I possess great loving-kindness, lovingly embracing and protecting all [sentient beings]; you are likewise the same as I and are also endowed with loving-kindness. I possess great compassion and deliver sentient beings; you are likewise the same. I possess the four kinds of wondrous samadhi: first, the formless samadhi; second, the samadhi of immeasurable mind; third, the samadhi of accumulated purity; and fourth, the irreversible samadhi.

You are likewise the same. I possess the six superknowledges; you are likewise the same. I possess four kinds of concentration: first, dhyana concentration; second, concentration of knowledge; third, concentration of wisdom; and fourth, concentration of morality.

You are likewise the same.”

The sutra continues: “A brahmin said to the Buddha: ‘Yesterday a brahmin came to my house. Who was he?’ The Buddha pointed to Kasyapa. The man then asked: ‘Is this sramana not a brahmin?’ The Buddha said: ‘I clearly understand both the teachings and disciplines of the sramanas and the teachings and disciplines of the brahmins; Kasyapa also clearly understands them.’”

[The Buddha said:] “Kasyapa’s merit and virtue are no different from mine; why, then, does he not [dare] sit [beside me]?”

When the bhiksus heard the Buddha praise [Kasyapa] in this way, they were inwardly awestruck, and the hairs on their bodies stood on end. The Buddha then recounted the causes and conditions of former times: “Long ago there was a noble king named Mandhatr, ^[233] whose abilities were unsurpassed. Sakra, revering his virtue, arranged one thousand horse-drawn carriages to form a ceremonial gateway with which to welcome the king.

Sakra came out of his palace to receive him and then sat together with the king upon the same seat. Only after they had shared their enjoyment did he escort the king back to his palace. In the past, Kasyapa [as Sakra] invited me [as the noble king Mandhatr] to share his seat within samsara.

Now that I have become a Buddha, I offer him a seat in the True Dharma in return for his kindness in former times.” Kasyapa sat down facing the Buddha, and the devas and humans who saw this all thought that he was the Buddha’s teacher. ^[234]

Furthermore, [on one occasion] Kasyapa went together with Ananda to teach the Dharma to the bhiksunis. One bhiksuni was displeased and said: “The little needle-seller dares to come before the master acupuncturist to sell needles.” Kasyapa then said to Ananda: “This bhiksuni has compared you to the master acupuncturist and me to the child who sells needles.” Kasyapa then said to that bhiksuni: “In the Moon Simile Sutra, the Buddha taught that Mahakasyapa alone increases his learning every day as though he were a beginner.

Have you heard of this? In the midst of the great assembly, [the Buddha] yielded half his seat [so that I might sit beside him]. Have you heard of this?

In the midst of the great assembly, [Kasyapa was praised by the Buddha as possessing] merit and virtue as vast as the Buddha’s own. Have you heard of this? How could such a person [be compared by you] to a child who sells needles?” ^[235]

Because of such deeds, the Buddha confirmed [his designation] as “Maha” [Kasyapa].

Regarding his status [as one called] “Maha,” [Kasyapa] was called great within the great assembly; he was called great among the 1,250 [bhiksus]; he was called great among the five hundred [arhats]; he was called great among the four great disciples; he was the overseer of the monasteries on the five mountains and the chief elder responsible for affairs throughout Jambudvipa. Therefore, in terms of status, he was called “Maha,” or “Great.”

After the Buddha’s physical body was cremated, four tala trees ^[236] grew at the place where the ashes remained, symbolizing Kasyapa’s compilation of the Buddha’s teachings from throughout three asamkhyeya kalpas into the Tripitaka and the four Agamas.

The preface by Sengzhao states: “At the highest point of the essential teaching, all praise and exposition cease. The sages regard this as merging into quiescence. [Yet] the essential teaching is profound, subtle, and mysterious; without the use of words, it could not be transmitted [to later generations]. Sakyamuni established the teachings: to restrain conduct and speech and guard against [evil], he employed the Vinaya with its prohibitory precepts; to clearly distinguish good and evil and provide a model to guide [sentient beings], he employed the sutras;

and to expound the profound, recondite, and subtle points, he employed [the wondrous treatises] that clearly differentiate the characteristics of the dharmas.” ^[237] This elucidates morality, concentration, and wisdom within the Tripitaka.

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra elucidates the principle of cause and effect in the two realms of devas and humans. The Dirgha Agama Sutra refutes wrong views. The Madhyama Agama Sutra elucidates profound meanings. The Samyukta Agama Sutra clearly teaches meditative concentration. [The transmission of these collections of sutras] was entirely due to the efforts of Mahakasyapa. Speaking specifically of the compilation, Ananda recited the Sutra Pitaka (Sutra), Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka (Vinaya), and Kasyapa recited the Abhidharma Pitaka (Abhidharma). Therefore, the work of compilation is said to have been great.

After the Tathagata entered parinirvana, the True Dharma was entrusted to Kasyapa. [The Buddha taught: “Kasyapa] can serve as a refuge and model for all [sentient beings], just as the Tathagata [does while still in the world]. Why is this? If there remain people who practice the arduous dhutanga austerities [as Kasyapa does], then my True Dharma will continue to exist. If there are no such people, the True Dharma will not remain. Kasyapa can shoulder the Buddha-Dharma and cause it to abide in the world for a long time, until the future Buddha appears, whereupon he will entrust the True Dharma to him and hand over [the Buddha’s] robe. Only when this task is complete will he enter extinction.” Therefore, his preservation of the True Dharma is said to have been great.

When Venerable Kasyapa was about to conceal himself [within the mountain], he ascended to the heavenly realm, bowed in reverence before the Buddha’s hair [enshrined there], and then taught the Dharma to the devas, saying:

Those who do good are born in heaven;

Those who do evil fall into deep misery.

The five desires do not endure,

Like dew gathered upon a flower,

Which vanishes as soon as the sun rises.

Having taught in this way, he took his leave. The devas wept sorrowfully and lamented:

Afflicted, sorrowful, anxious, and distressed,

In pain, sickly, weak, and emaciated,

Impoverished, solitary, and forlorn,

We were compassionately sheltered by the Venerable One.

Now that you relinquish your body and enter nirvana,

Who will remain to shelter and protect us?”

The meaning of the designation “Mahakasyapa” is, in brief, as explained above.

Explanation of the Dhutanga Practices

To explain the dhutanga practices briefly according to the doctrinal teaching, ^[238] they comprise twelve exceptional disciplines. ^[239] It is said that those who crave and seek fine robes suffer. Upon obtaining a robe, they have many anxieties and fears; upon losing it, they become sorrowful and distressed. Those who wear robes made from discarded rags ^[240] are free from the five fears [of losing their robes]: that they may be swept away by water, burned by fire, stolen by thieves, seized by robbers, or confiscated by rulers and officials.

If one accumulates many robes, one also incurs much labor in washing, sewing, cutting, and altering them. Therefore, [a practitioner] possesses only the three robes. If one eats [the Sangha’s food] while dwelling among the assembly, one must assist in communal duties; therefore, one lives solely by going on almsround.

If, after eating, one eats again, ^[241] taking many snacks and additional meals, one becomes restless and distracted and wastes much time. Therefore, one eats only one meal each day and, once the meal is finished, does not sit down to eat again. Eating to excess makes digestion difficult and gives rise to drowsiness and indolence; eating too little causes hunger, emaciation, and loss of strength.

Therefore, food and drink must be taken with moderation, in an adequate amount. Using many bowls and dishes requires much labor to clean them, further obstructing [cultivation]; therefore, one eats only from a single alms bowl. Craving various beverages makes the mind restless and disturbed; therefore, [after the meal] one does not drink. ^[242] [Sleeping and resting in] rooms gives rise to attachment; therefore, one [sleeps and rests] beneath a tree.

Attachment can also arise beneath a tree; therefore, one sleeps and rests in a charnel ground. In a charnel ground, however, grief and sorrow may obstruct [cultivation]; therefore, one [sleeps and rests] in the open. Lying down diminishes merit and increases indolence; therefore, one always remains seated.

[Among the twelve dhutanga practices described above,] two concern the proper use of robes, six concern the proper consumption of food and drink, and four concern sleeping and resting places. ^[243]

Let us briefly discuss almsround to clarify the dhutanga practices. While going on almsround, [one may still fall into error]: if food is easily obtained, one becomes delighted; if it is obtained only with difficulty, one becomes irritated and angry. If one receives delicious food, one is pleased; if the food is poor, one becomes dejected.

The sorrow or delight arising in the mind because of external forms is the form skandha. Experiencing that sorrow or delight is the feeling skandha. Clinging to the characteristics of that sorrow or delight is the perception skandha.

That sorrow or delight itself is the formations skandha. Discriminating between such sorrow and delight is the consciousness skandha. Sorrow and delight encompass both mind and dharmas; these two constitute two ayatanas [among the six ayatanas and, together with consciousness between them,] three dhatus [among the eighteen dhatus].

The skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus constitute the Truth of Suffering.

Seeing oneself as capable of going on almsround, one immediately gives rise to attachment to oneself as a self, [distinguishing it from] what is not self. One regards almsround as the Path and as truth. Reasoning in this way, one praises delight and detests anger; when frequently reproached, one gives rise to doubt; failure to understand [the matter] is delusion.... [Such views, greed, anger, delusion, pride, and so forth] are precisely the ten fetters. Considered through the Four Truths within the three realms, they comprise all eighty-eight fetters of affliction, ^[244] called the Truth of the Origin of Suffering.

If one clearly understands that within the practice of almsround there are four inversions—because things resemble one another, continue without interruption, and are concealed, one regards them as permanent; when one obtains what pleases the mind, one regards it as pleasurable; because the motions of coming and going are concealed [by delusion], one regards them as a self;

and because [the impure body] is covered by a thin layer of skin, one regards it as pure—then one penetrates these four concealments and is no longer subject to the four inversions. ^[245] One diligently strives to prevent two kinds of evil and produce two kinds of good, ^[246] cultivating the four concentrations, the [five] faculties, the [five] powers, and the factors of awakening and the Path. ^[247] This is precisely the Truth of the Path.

When, during almsround, one does not perceive a self, delusion ceases. Because delusion ceases, craving ceases. Because craving ceases, anger ceases.

Because anger ceases, one no longer exalts oneself, and therefore pride ceases. Once pride has ceased, one does not give rise to doubt when reproached. Because one does not perceive a self, the view of self is extinguished.

When the view of self is extinguished, extreme views are extinguished. Because one does not cling to [almsround] as the Path, attachment to precepts and observances is extinguished. Because one does not regard [almsround] as truth, attachment to views is extinguished.

Because one does not cling to what is deviant, wrong views are extinguished. [Greed, anger, delusion, pride, and so forth, through attachment to precepts and observances and attachment to views—] when all ten fetters are extinguished, all eighty-eight fetters of affliction [within the three realms] are extinguished. Because the eighty-eight fetters have been extinguished, bondage to death is also extinguished. Because bondage to death has been extinguished, bondage to [karmic] results is also extinguished.

Because bondage to karmic results has been extinguished, the twenty-five realms of existence ^[248] are all extinguished. This is precisely the Truth of Cessation.

If, within the practice of almsround, one does not perceive and understand the Four Noble Truths, ^[249] one must continue for a long time to revolve within the vast ocean of suffering, birth, and death. If one can perceive and understand the Four Truths, one can eliminate birth and death. Once birth and death have ended, one will no longer undergo [birth] within the realms of existence. This is the use of wisdom to contemplate the dhutanga practice of almsround. The dhutanga practices concerning robes and dwelling places are also [contemplated] in the same manner. This is the explanation of the dhutanga practices according to the Tripitaka Teaching.

According to the Shared Teaching, the dhutanga practices are explained as follows: taking the truth as the condition for realizing quiescence is the [dhutanga practice of] dwelling place; the wisdom that clearly understands the nature of emptiness is the [dhutanga practice of] almsround; and maintaining an empty mind throughout every action is the [dhutanga practice of] robes. By constantly perceiving the nature of emptiness, and perceiving nothing that is not of the nature of emptiness, this dhutanga wisdom of Emptiness sees everything as an illusion.

All deluded thoughts and unwholesome mental states become quiescent and no longer arise; therefore, all mental dharmas and associated mental factors cease to function. Because nothing can be apprehended, among all corresponding dharmas, correspondence with Emptiness is supreme; among all ascetic practices, the practice of Emptiness is supreme; and among all dhutanga practices, the dhutanga wisdom of Emptiness is supreme.

This is a brief explanation of the dhutanga practices [according to the Shared Teaching].

According to the Distinct Teaching, the dhutanga practices are explained as follows: relying upon the Dharma body is the [dhutanga practice of] dwelling place; prajnaparamita wisdom is the [dhutanga practice of] almsround; and the adornment of every action is the [dhutanga practice of robes that] provide covering. The dhutanga [practice of robes as] covering conceals the ugliness of evil karma; the prajnaparamita dhutanga [practice of almsround] conceals the ugliness of afflictions; and the Dharma-body dhutanga [practice of dwelling place] conceals the ugliness of the suffering of birth and death.

The former dhutanga practice [accepts] the karma, suffering, and afflictions of fragmentary birth and death; the subsequent dhutanga practice [accepts] the karma, suffering, and afflictions of transformational birth and death. ^[250] This is the contemplation of the true dhutanga practice according to the Middle Way, surpassing all ascetic practices of the practitioners of the Two Vehicles. Such is the explanation in brief.

In explaining the dhutanga practices according to the Perfect Teaching, the dhutanga practice concerning one’s dwelling place is itself the dhutanga practice concerning robes and is also itself the dhutanga practice of alms-begging. Fundamentally, there is only one Dharma, but it is differentiated and spoken of as three. One dhutanga practice is all dhutanga practices, and all dhutanga practices are one dhutanga practice—neither one nor all. Among all the dhutanga practices, there is nothing that is not the true aspect. All the deeds of the Buddhas are the practices of the Tathagata, surpassing the pure practices cultivated by the bodhisattvas. Such is the general meaning.

In explaining the dhutanga practices according to the original and the manifest, from the beginning they originally sat together with the Tathagata, ultimately abiding in emptiness; together they attained the vast Dharma-body, together they attained unobstructed wisdom, and together they attained immeasurable merit. Inwardly, they relinquished all attachment and craving for dharmas; outwardly, they were free from defiling impurities.

The dhutanga dharmas were originally pure of themselves both inwardly and outwardly. In order to guide beings of the most elementary capacity, as though introducing them to the flavor of milk, they manifested the dhutanga practices in conduct. Next, in order to guide beings farther, as though introducing them to the flavor of curds, they manifested the dhutanga practices of contemplating emptiness.

Next again, in order to guide beings farther, as though introducing them to the flavor of raw ghee, they manifested the dhutanga practices according to the Separate Teaching. Still later, in order to guide beings farther, as though introducing them to the flavor of clarified ghee, they manifested the dhutanga practices according to the Perfect Teaching.

In explaining the dhutanga practices according to contemplation of the mind, through contemplation of emptiness one sees the dhutanga practices as grasping at characteristics; through contemplation of provisional existence one sees the dhutanga practices as unreal, like dust and sand; through contemplation of the Middle Way one sees the dhutanga practices as ignorance; through contemplation of the single mind one sees the five abiding afflictions... Such is the general meaning.

The Three Kāśyapas

The designation Kāśyapa has already been explained above. The three Kāśyapa brothers were Venerable Uruvilvā-kāśyapa, whose name is also pronounced 優樓毘 or 優為 and is translated as Papaya Grove; ^[251] Venerable Nadī-kāśyapa, whose name is translated as River or Great River; ^[252] and Venerable Gayā-kāśyapa, whose name is also pronounced Kiệt-di and is translated as Elephant (象), or alternatively as City (城), because his home was seven yojanas south of Rājagṛha.

In the time of Buddha Vipaśyin, the three together erected a pillar for a stupa dedicated to the Buddha, ^[253] and through that cause and condition they were born as brothers in one family. The eldest brother was the teacher of King Bimbisāra ^[254] and had five hundred disciples. Each of the two younger brothers had two hundred and fifty disciples, and they all practiced according to the eldest brother’s teaching.

Wishing to convert them, the Buddha manifested ten miraculous transformations, such as remaining unharmed by the dragon’s poison; remaining unburned when the dragon emitted fire; remaining unsubmerged when the waters rose; gathering fruit from the three directions of east, west, and south while rice was being harvested in the north; obtaining amṛta from the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven; clearly knowing concealed events of the past; clearly knowing the thoughts of others in the present and future; causing fire to go out so that it could not burn; causing one who raised an axe to be unable to lower it; and manifesting a great many auspicious signs.

Although Uruvilvā-kāśyapa witnessed all these miraculous transformations, he still clung to his wrong views and refused to repent, saying, “Although Gautama possesses supernormal powers, he cannot equal my true path.” The Buddha then told him, “You are not an arhat, nor have you attained the path.” On hearing this, Uruvilvā-kāśyapa suddenly awakened, and both teachers and disciples submitted themselves to the Buddha. When the two younger brothers saw this, they immediately led their disciples to take refuge in the Buddha, making a total of one thousand bhikṣus.

According to the doctrinal teaching, the Ekottarika Āgama states: “Venerable Uruvilvā ^[255] was foremost in assisting and protecting the fourfold assembly, ^[256] providing the four requisites ^[257] and allowing no deficiency. Bhikṣu Nadī was foremost in diligent effort; his mind was tranquil and serene, and he subdued all afflictions and fetters. Bhikṣu Gayā was foremost in clearly contemplating all dharmas, remaining unattached to any of them and always skillfully teaching and transforming others.”

The explanation above concerns the guiding teaching, which resembles the flavor of curds. Advancing one step further resembles the flavor of raw ghee. From the customary analogy, one knows that they must then have regarded the Lesser Vehicle lightly and aspired to the Great Vehicle. Advancing yet another step resembles the flavor of clarified ghee; they must then have relied upon karmic conditions to understand the teaching. Advancing to a still higher stage resembles the flavor of ghee’s finest essence, ^[258] namely, the level described in this Lotus Sutra, where they received predictions of future Buddhahood.

In explaining the original and the manifest, they abided in the three virtues. Uruvilvā’s “grove” is prajñā; Gayā’s “city” is the Dharma-body; and Nadī’s “river” is liberation. These constitute the fundamental secret treasury, while their manifest traces relied upon the three elements of “grove, city, and river” described above in order to teach and transform sentient beings.

In explaining contemplation of the mind, one correctly contemplates the nature of mind: following the Middle Way, it is unmoving, like a city that bars enemy armies; unmoving yet moving, it is like water that cleanses the shores of delusion; illumining through the two seasons of rain and sunshine, it is like a luxuriant forest. ^[259] These three characteristics of the Dharma mutually support one another and are therefore joined as brothers in a single family.

Śāriputra

Śāriputra, stated in full as Xá-lợi-phất-la, is translated into Chinese as Son of Śāri; śāri is also translated as pearl or jewel. His mother was already intelligent in her youth, and the sign of that intelligence appeared in her beautiful eyes, which were like precious pearls. Therefore, when she bore a son, he was called Son of the Pearl-Eyed One.

His name is also translated as Son of the Beautiful-Bodied One, because his mother possessed a beautiful figure; hence, when she bore a son, he was called Son of the Beautiful-Bodied One. ^[260] People at that time used the son’s name to designate the mother, and thus called her accordingly. He also had the name given by his father, Upatiṣya, alternatively pronounced Ưu-ba-thế, which is translated into Chinese as Discourse on Meaning.

His father won his wife through a discourse on meaning, and therefore named his son “Discourse” in order to extol the father’s virtue.

A commentary states: “My name is Tiṣya, so following my name I named my son Upatiṣya.” Upa means “following,” while Tiṣya is the name of a star.

Furthermore, in the name Śāriputra, “Śā” indicates the father’s name, while “ri” indicates the mother’s name. Because the name was intended to indicate both father and mother, he was called Śāriputra, for putra means “son.” His family name was Kolita, and he belonged to the brāhmaṇa caste.

In the Ekottarika Āgama, the Buddha said: “Within my Buddha-Dharma, in vast and boundless wisdom that puts an end to every doubt, Śāriputra is foremost.”

Long ago, according to the Jātaka Sutra, ^[261] there were an uncle and his nephew, both weavers, who knew the king’s treasury well. Taking advantage of this knowledge, they dug an underground tunnel and secretly entered it, stealing a great many precious jewels. When the keeper of the treasury discovered that the jewels were missing, he immediately reported it to the king. The king said, “Do not disclose this matter. The thief will surely return. Secretly keep watch and capture him.”

[The uncle and nephew did not know that their deed had been exposed, so they returned to steal again.] The nephew told his uncle to crawl backward into the tunnel, [feet first], and he was immediately seized by the guards. Fearing that the king’s men would recognize him, the nephew [from behind] cut off his uncle’s head and fled with it, [leaving the guards with only the headless corpse].

The king ordered that the dead man’s [headless] body be placed at a crossroads to lure his relatives there, [whereupon they would be arrested]. The nephew waited until the place was crowded with throngs of merchants, then drove two carts of dry firewood into their midst. As he passed, he overturned the firewood, covering the corpse.

The king again posted men to keep watch all around, [waiting to arrest anyone who came to set fire to and cremate the corpse]. [The nephew hired] a group of children to carry torches, play, and dance around the place, and then throw the torches upon the wood, thereby burning the corpse.

[The king again ordered the guards to maintain strict watch, waiting to arrest anyone who came to collect the ashes and bones.] Disguised as a traveler, the nephew brought fine wine and placed it nearby. After the guards became drunk, he slipped over and used a wine jar to gather up the ashes and bones, then departed.

Unable [to capture the thief], who was exceedingly cunning, the king devised a plan. He had a beautiful young woman stay in a room by the river and instructed her beforehand that if anyone came to her, she must seize him firmly and cry out, [while guards were stationed all around to await his capture]. [The nephew then concealed himself beneath] a piece of deadwood and let it drift close to the place. Suspecting that someone might be there, the guards came to inspect it, but saw only a piece of deadwood floating on the water.

The same thing happened repeatedly for many days, so they grew careless and paid it no further attention. Taking advantage of this, the nephew [left the deadwood and] entered the beautiful woman’s room. [While they were together, the woman remembered the king’s instructions and tightly seized the nephew’s sleeve. [The nephew had anticipated this and had brought] a dead man’s arm with him. He substituted it for his own arm, leaving it in the woman’s grasp, and escaped.

Only then did the woman cry loudly for others to come and seize him, but it turned out that she was holding nothing more than a dead man’s arm.

[After that encounter, the woman became pregnant] and gave birth to a handsome and comely boy. The king immediately ordered a nurse to carry the child outside, instructing that anyone who showed concern for him was to be arrested. After traveling for several days [without encountering anyone], hungry and thirsty, they came to a bakery. The [nephew himself was the] baker; he gave cakes to the child and fondled him affectionately. [The next day], the king ordered that the child be taken there again. The nephew plied the guards with fine wine until they were completely drunk, then took the child in his arms and fled the kingdom.

The [king] of a neighboring country esteemed men of great resourcefulness, so he appointed the nephew as a chief minister and also wished to give him his daughter in marriage. The nephew declined, asking instead that the king help him seek the hand of the daughter of the king of his own country. The neighboring king then adopted the nephew as his son and went to request the daughter of the other king in marriage.

The king consented to give her to him. [When the betrothal gifts were presented, the king recognized the jewels that had previously been stolen] and suspected that this was the former thief. The nephew arranged for five hundred horsemen, all dressed identically, to escort the bride. When they met, the king questioned him closely and discovered that he was indeed the thief from before.

Admiring his abundant resourcefulness and wisdom, the king [still consented to] give him his daughter in marriage. That nephew was Shariputra in his present life, while the uncle was Devadatta ^[262] ... Such is the story in outline.

Next is the account of the period when he entered the womb. His father, Upatishya, was thoroughly versed in scriptures and literary works. He wrapped thin iron sheets around his belly and wore upon his head a cap topped with a lamp. ^[263] He entered Rajagriha alone, beat the drum, and challenged others to debate. The royal preceptor Dhara knew that one who presented himself in such a manner was not to be debated. When he saw Upatishya defeat everyone in debate, he gave him his daughter in marriage, [and she became the mother of Shariputra].

One day, his mother dreamed of a man clad in armor, holding a vajra mace in his hand and smashing all the mountains to pieces. In the end, only one mountain remained, and the man went and stood beside it. When she awoke, she felt her body grow heavy and asked Shariputra’s father about the dream. He said, “You have conceived a child. [This child will later] defeat all the masters of debate. There will be only one person whom he cannot defeat, and he will become that person’s disciple.”

His maternal uncle, his mother’s younger brother, was named Kaushthila. In debate, he had always defeated his elder sister, but after she became pregnant, she invariably defeated him. He thought to himself, “This is not my sister’s own ability.

She must be carrying a person of great wisdom, whose influence enables his mother to debate in this way. If he is already like this while still in the womb, how could I possibly defeat him after he is born?” [Having thought this,] he put his household affairs in order and traveled everywhere in pursuit of learning. He exerted himself so diligently that he had no leisure even to cut his fingernails.

For this reason, the people of that time called him the Long-Clawed Brahmin, [meaning the Brahmin with long fingernails]... [Such is the story of Shariputra’s time in the womb] in outline.

[At that time], two naga kings, Nanda and Upananda, constantly protected the city of Rajagriha, ensuring timely rain and favorable winds so that the kingdom suffered no famine or want. Every year the king and his subjects held a great [celebratory] assembly. Three high seats were erected: one for the king, one for the crown prince, and one for the master of debate.

Shariputra was only eight years old that year. When he attended the great assembly and saw the three elevated seats, he asked what they were for, and someone explained them to him. He then passed through the entire crowd, climbed onto the master of debate’s seat, and sat down.

All the masters of debate attending the assembly were ashamed and unwilling to come forward to debate him, for there would be no honor in defeating a child, while losing to him would be an immense disgrace. Therefore, each of them formulated a question and sent a servant to present it as a challenge. [Shariputra] answered every question and expounded upon each answer with even greater profundity and breadth. Eventually, all the masters of debate at the assembly lowered their banners in submission, and no one dared challenge him again.

The king and all the people rejoiced greatly and praised him, believing that such a wise and worthy person had appeared because the kingdom had entered an era of peace and prosperity.

By the age of sixteen, Shariputra had studied all the scriptures and literary works throughout Jambudvipa. There was nothing with which he was not thoroughly familiar. His knowledge encompassed both the present and the past, and all his discourses were profound and abstruse. Throughout the sixteen great kingdoms, no one remained who could equal him in debate, and he became the foremost [master of debate] in all five regions of India. ^[264]

He studied under the Brahmin teacher Sanjaya ^[265] and mastered all doctrines, principles, arts, and methods. His teacher had two hundred and fifty disciples, all of whom relied upon Shariputra to complete their training. When Sanjaya was about to die, he suddenly smiled with delight. Shariputra asked him why, and he replied, “Worldly people have no eyes and regard sensual affection as true intimacy. I see that the king of the Golden Land has just died, and his queen has cast herself into the flames to die with him, vowing that they might be reborn together in the same place.” Having spoken these words, the Brahmin Sanjaya immediately passed away.

Later, [Venerable Sariputra] met a merchant from the country of Kim and, upon questioning him, found that [the matter] was indeed as described. He then regretted that he had not learned all of his teacher’s methods, thinking that perhaps, because he was not a suitable person, his teacher had still kept some things hidden from him. Knowing that he had not yet attained complete understanding, he continued to aspire to the supreme Dharma, but there was no longer anyone under whom he could study. Although he did not attain such a teaching, he thoroughly mastered all other teachings and was the foremost among the non-Buddhist practitioners [at that time].

[One day], while traveling along the road, he encountered the bhiksu Asvajit ^[266], whose bearing was dignified and composed. He therefore asked [Venerable Asvajit] what teaching he had learned from his teacher. Asvajit replied [in verse]:

All dharmas arise from conditions;

Therefore, their causes and conditions are taught.

Dharmas also cease through conditions;

Thus has my teacher taught.

As soon as Venerable Sariputra heard this, he attained the fruit of stream-entry. [Afterward], he went to the Buddha and, within seven days, completely penetrated the Buddhadharma, profound as the great ocean. It is also said that after fifteen days he attained the fruit of arhatship. [The Buddha appointed him] preceptor and guide to Rahula, and teacher to Gavampati. Among the sravakas, he was the disciple who always attended at the Buddha’s right side.

When Devadatta caused a schism in the Sangha and led five hundred bhiksus away, it was Venerable Sariputra who went to teach them and brought all five hundred back... Such is the account in brief.

Regarding his contest of spiritual powers with Lao Du Sai, ^[267] [a disciple of a non-Buddhist teacher]: when Du Sai conjured a lake filled with every kind of flower, Sariputra conjured a great elephant that uprooted the flowers and destroyed the lake. Du Sai then transformed himself into a yaksa demon, whereupon Sariputra transformed himself into the Heavenly King Vaisravana, [terrifying the yaksa]... In every kind of transformation, Sariputra proved superior, and Du Sai submitted in defeat.

The Madhyama Agama states that Sariputra was the mother who gave birth to the four assemblies, while Maudgalyayana was the mother who nurtured them... Such is the account in brief.

Fascicle 2 of the Madhyama Agama ^[268] relates: The bhiksus who had spent the rains retreat at the Birthplace ^[269], [when they came to pay homage to the Buddha], all praised and extolled Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra ^[270] as one who [himself possessed all the qualities of] few desires, contentment, diligence, dwelling in secluded places, one-pointedness, right mindfulness, wisdom, and freedom from outflows, and who also encouraged others in and expounded these qualities.

At that time, upon hearing this, Venerable Sariputra thought to himself, “When shall I be able to meet this venerable one? When will he come to the Buddha?”

[Venerable Sariputra then asked the bhiksus about Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra,] and one bhiksu told him: “That teacher has a fair complexion and a high nose like the beak of a parrot.” ^[271] [Venerable Sariputra kept this description in mind.]

Later, in the Andha Grove (Jeta), translated into Chinese as the Grove of Victory, ^[272] the two had occasion to meet [but had not yet asked each other’s names]. Venerable Sariputra asked: “Worthy sir! Is it under the Venerable Gotama that you practice the holy life?” ^[273] He replied: “Yes.”

Sariputra further asked: “Is it for the sake of attaining purity of moral discipline that you practice the holy life?” He replied: “No.”

[He further asked:] “Then is it for the sake of purifying the mind, or purifying knowledge and vision, or purifying the overcoming of doubt, or purifying the knowledge of what is the path and what is not the path, or purifying knowledge and vision of the way, or purifying knowledge and vision through its cessation—is it for [these seven things] that you practice the holy life?” ^[274] He replied: “No, it is not.”

Sariputra further asked: “Worthy sir! I have asked [about the seven things] above, and you have said that it is not for any of them. What, then, does this mean?”

[Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra] replied: “I practice the holy life in order to advance toward nirvana without remainder.”

[Venerable Sariputra asked further: “Then was nirvana without remainder established [by the Blessed One] for the sake of purity of moral discipline?” He replied: “No.”

[He further asked:] “Then was nirvana without remainder established for the sake of [purity of mind...] and so forth, up to the purity of knowledge and vision through its cessation?” He replied: “No, it was not.”

[Venerable Sariputra] asked again: [“Worthy sir! I have asked [about the seven things] above, and you have said that it is not for any of them. What, then, does this mean?”

[Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra replied: “If nirvana without remainder were established for the sake of purity of moral discipline, that would be to explain the remainderless by means of what still has a remainder... Likewise, if nirvana without remainder were established for the sake of the purity of knowledge and vision through its cessation, that too would be to explain the remainderless by means of what still has a remainder.

If [the Blessed One] established nirvana without remainder apart from these seven qualities, then even ordinary beings would attain nirvana, because ordinary beings are originally apart from these seven qualities. [Worthy sir!] Through purity of moral discipline, the mind is purified; [through purity of mind, knowledge and vision are purified...] and so forth, up to the purity of knowledge and vision through its cessation.

“Worthy sir, please listen as I offer an analogy. Suppose King Prasenajit [had an urgent matter and] wished to travel from [the city of Sravasti in the country of] Kosala to Saketa [in a single day], and therefore arranged seven chariots along the entire route. The king rode the first chariot to the place of the second, abandoned the first and mounted the second... [proceeding successively in this manner] until he abandoned the sixth chariot and mounted the seventh. [In this way,

he could travel swiftly and reach Saketa within a single day.] ^[275] The people of Saketa asked the king: ‘Did Your Majesty arrive here in the first chariot?’ He replied: ‘No.’ They continued asking until they said: ‘Did Your Majesty arrive here in the seventh chariot?’ The king again replied: ‘No.’ They further asked: ‘Did Your Majesty arrive here [after abandoning] all seven chariots?’ [The king] replied: ‘No, neither is that so.’ This analogy can clarify [your] question.” ^[276]

Venerable Sariputra then asked: “Worthy sir, what is your name? By what name do your fellow practitioners of the holy life call you?”

He replied: “My name is Purna, ^[277] and my mother’s name is Maitrayani; therefore, my fellow practitioners of the holy life call me Purnamaitrayaniputra.”

Venerable Sariputra then praised him: “Excellent! Worthy Purnamaitrayaniputra, disciple of the Tathagata, you possess wisdom and eloquence, keen and decisive intelligence, serenity and fearlessness, and great powers of exposition. You raise the banner of the true Dharma and have personally realized the true Dharma. Meeting you is truly of immense benefit. Practitioners of the holy life should revere you, wrap their robes around their heads, and bow in homage to you.” ^[278]

Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra then asked: “Worthy sir, what is your name? By what name do your fellow practitioners of the holy life call you?”

Venerable Sariputra replied: “My name is Upatissa, ^[279] and my mother’s name is Sari; therefore, everyone calls me Sariputra.”

Venerable Purnamaitrayaniputra praised him, saying: “Oh! Today, without knowing it, I have been discussing the Dharma with a disciple of the Blessed One; without knowing it, I have been discussing the Dharma with the one whose wisdom is second only to that of the Blessed One; without knowing it, I have been discussing the Dharma with the general of the true Dharma; without knowing it, I have been discussing the Dharma with the disciple who, on behalf of the Buddha, turns the Dharma wheel anew.

Had I known that this was the Venerable [Sariputra], I would not have dared reply with even a single sentence, much less engage in such a profound discussion! Excellent, excellent! You are a disciple of the Tathagata.

Practitioners of the holy life should revere you, wrap their robes around their heads, and bow in homage to you.” ^[280] Such is the account in brief.

When the Buddha expounded the Dharma and uttered a single sentence, Venerable Sariputra could take that sentence as his basis and preach eloquently, like a lion’s roar, for seven days and seven nights, unfolding it into many other sentences and many other meanings, without ever reaching an end. How much more so when the Buddha taught at great length; thus, the eloquence and wisdom of Venerable Sariputra were truly inexhaustible.

In fascicle 29 of the Ekottarika Agama ^[281], it is recorded: “When the Buddha was at Lake Anavatapta, the Dragon King said: ‘Venerable Sariputra is not present in the assembly. I beseech the Buddha to summon him.’ The Buddha then sent Venerable Maudgalyayana to Jetavana Monastery to invite Venerable Sariputra. Venerable Sariputra was sewing a robe made of five pieces of discarded cloth ^[282] and replied: ‘You may go ahead; I shall come afterward.’ Venerable Maudgalyayana said: ‘The Buddha sent me to invite you; how could I return ahead of you?’ Having said this, Venerable Maudgalyayana touched the robe with his hand, and the sewing was immediately completed.

Venerable Sariputra thought: ‘Maudgalyayana is jesting in order to test me, so I shall test him in return.’ He then threw the robe-cord onto the ground and said: ‘Can you pick up this cord?’ Maudgalyayana thought: ‘Sariputra is jesting in order to test me.’ He therefore exerted all his strength to pick up the cord, but could not lift it.

Venerable Sariputra then tied the cord to the jambu tree, and [Maudgalyayana used his supernatural power to lift the jambu tree,] causing an entire world-system to quake. [Venerable Sariputra] then tied the cord to two, three, and afterward four world-systems; [Venerable Maudgalyayana likewise used his supernatural power to lift them all and make them quake,] yet he still could not lift the robe-cord. [Venerable Sariputra] then tied it to an entire minor-thousandfold world-system, a medium-thousandfold world-system, and finally a great-thousandfold world-system; [Venerable Maudgalyayana caused all of them to quake,] yet still could not lift the robe-cord. [At that time, all the worlds quaked;

only the Tathagata’s seat at Lake Anavatapta remained serene and unmoved.] ^[283] Venerable Maudgalyayana thought to himself: ‘I am foremost in supernatural powers, yet now I cannot lift this robe-cord.

Could I have lost my supernatural powers?’ He therefore urged Venerable Sariputra once more to accompany him. Venerable Sariputra said: ‘You may go ahead.’ Venerable Maudgalyayana [then departed first,] but when he reached the Buddha, he saw that Venerable Sariputra was already seated before the Buddha.

Seeing the earth quake, the Dragon King asked the Buddha about it. The Buddha said: ‘It was caused by the supernatural powers of Sariputra and Maudgalyayana.’ At that time, the Dragon King and the five hundred bhiksus all gave rise to contempt for Venerable Maudgalyayana, [thinking that he was inferior to Sariputra]. The Buddha taught: ‘Sariputra has mastery over all four kinds of supernatural power. ^[284] Maudgalyayana likewise has such mastery, but neither can surpass the Buddha’s power.’ The Buddha then told Venerable Maudgalyayana: ‘Display your supernatural powers [for the assembly to see].’ Venerable Maudgalyayana immediately placed all five hundred bhiksus inside his alms bowl and raised it to the Brahma heaven.

He then planted one foot upon Mount Sumeru and stepped with the other into the Brahma heaven. Afterward, he manifested his body in another direction and recited a verse, causing it to be heard throughout all the lands of the great-thousandfold world-system. At that time, all five hundred bhiksus were fully convinced.

Such is the account in brief.

According to the doctrinal teaching, [Venerable Sariputra possessed] the wisdom of the Tripitaka Teaching; that is, he was endowed with the ten knowledges of one beyond training, had completely severed the afflictions and fetters, realized the true Dharma, and assisted the Buddha in proclaiming and spreading the teaching. Fascicle 40 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise calls [Venerable Sariputra] the disciple at the Buddha’s right hand, ^[285] which conveys precisely this meaning.

According to the Shared Teaching, [Venerable Sariputra’s] wisdom is like that described in the Prajnaparamita scriptures when explaining why it is called great [wisdom]: all views concerning a self, views concerning sentient beings, views concerning the Buddha, views concerning bodhi, and views concerning the turning of the Dharma wheel are completely destroyed; therefore, it is called great wisdom. The sages and noble ones expound the Dharma that they themselves have realized.

Without such realization, one would merely be like people of the present age who falsely claim that they have something to teach. It should therefore be known that Venerable Sariputra not only destroyed views concerning birth and death, but also destroyed views concerning the Buddha, bodhi, the turning of the Dharma wheel, and nirvana. This wisdom differs from the wisdom taught in the elementary teaching.

As for wisdom according to the Distinct Teaching, it may be briefly illustrated by the five distinct flavors [of milk]. ^[286] If one follows only the initial and fundamental teachings, it is [like] knowing only the flavors of fresh milk and curd, without knowing the other flavors. Practitioners who, after giving rise to the aspiration for cultivation, practice only [teachings resembling] milk and curd are said to possess the wisdom of the fundamental teaching.

If it is said that one tastes the flavor of curd, yet that curd did not come from milk, this signifies the teaching that the intrinsic nature of both good and evil is originally empty. The meaning of emptiness is not attained by cultivating good, eliminating evil, and extinguishing form; rather, that very cultivation itself is empty.

According to the Shared Teaching, one who possesses wisdom tastes the flavor of ghee from the very beginning and knows that it is ghee.

If one passes through the successive tasks of raising a cow to obtain milk, cooking the milk into curd, making raw butter from the curd, making clarified butter from the raw butter, and only afterward obtaining ghee, a practitioner who [progresses sequentially through these stages] possesses the wisdom of the Distinct Teaching.

If, from the very beginning, one tastes the single flavor of milk from a cow that feeds exclusively on the grass of patience, that milk itself is ghee. It can cure every illness, and all kinds of medicinal remedies are contained within that milk. A practitioner such as this possesses the wisdom of the Perfect Teaching.

To explain [his name, Son of Sari] in terms of the original and the manifest: in his original state, he abides in true reality. Prajnaparamita is the mother, and wisdom arises in dependence upon its object. The object is ‘Sari,’ and wisdom is the ‘son’; therefore, he gives rise to loving-kindness and compassion for sentient beings.