釋禪波羅蜜次第法門

Chapter 6

DISTINGUISHING THE PREPARATORY MEANS OF DHYANA PARAMITA

(A discourse on the preparatory means for meditation practice for those who wish to develop the inner mind and settle it securely in cultivation. First, the external means—that is, the twenty-five means—are discussed; next, the internal means are discussed.)

If practitioners can thoroughly comprehend the five kinds of Dhyana Paramita discussed in the preceding chapter and clearly understand the characteristics of the various dhyanas, faith will arise from within. If they wish to settle the mind securely in the study of meditation, they must skillfully understand the means. The means of cultivating meditation will now be explained in two parts.

– External means: methods of applying the mind before samadhi has been attained.

– Internal means: methods of applying the mind while in meditative concentration.

These two methods are collectively called means and are also called “skillful cultivation and study.” Because beginning practitioners of meditation skillfully employ methods of cultivation, these are called means. Speaking broadly, the external means may also be employed during meditative concentration, and the internal means may also be employed outside meditative concentration. Here, however, the discussion follows their predominant applications, and thus they are divided into the two categories of external and internal means.

EXTERNAL MEANS

There are five kinds:

D. Regulating five matters

E. Practicing the five dharmas

Each of these five kinds of means comprises five dharmas, making a total of twenty-five methods, all to be employed before meditative concentration has been attained. These are called the characteristics of the means used when one first begins to discipline the mind.

A. FULFILLING THE FIVE CONDITIONS

I. Pure observance of the precepts

II. Adequate food and clothing

III. Dwelling in a secluded and quiet place

IV. Severing entangling conditions

V. Drawing near to spiritual friends

I. PURE OBSERVANCE OF THE PRECEPTS

This is divided into three topics:

1. Possessing the precepts and not possessing the precepts

2. Upholding and violating the precepts

3. Methods of repentance

1. Possessing the precepts and not possessing the precepts

After one has gone forth and received the prohibitory precepts, one is said to possess the precepts. This is divided into three topics:

a) The conditions through which the precepts are obtained are not the same

There are ten kinds:

1. Naturally obtaining the precepts: This applies only to the Buddha. Although he had no teacher, the substance of the precepts arose spontaneously within him.

2. Obtaining the precepts through a personal vow: This was the case with Venerable Mahakasyapa, whose original spiritual capacity was that of a pratyekabuddha. He encountered the Buddha when the Buddha appeared in the world and consequently entered the ranks of the sravakas. He said to the Buddha, “The Buddha is my Teacher, and I am the Buddha’s disciple.” As soon as he finished speaking, he obtained the substance of the precepts.

3. Obtaining the precepts through seeing the truth: (obtaining the precepts by eliminating delusions of view) This was the case with the five brothers headed by Kaundinya. When the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel and taught the Four Noble Truths, they immediately realized the first fruit and thereby obtained the precepts.

4. Obtaining the precepts by taking refuge in the Three Jewels: Before the karman procedure(1) existed, one needed only to hear the Buddha pronounce the refuges three times to obtain the category of precepts. Such persons possessed pure spiritual faculties.

5. Obtaining the precepts by accepting the Eight Rules of Respect: The Buddha’s foster mother wished to go forth, but formerly the Buddha had not permitted women to do so. In response to his foster mother’s request, the Buddha instructed Ananda to tell the women to accept the Eight Rules of Respect(2), whereupon the full precepts arose in them.

6. Obtaining the precepts through discussing doctrine: This was the case with a novice named Sudana, who discussed doctrine and meaning with the Buddha. The Buddha questioned him about impermanence and other principles, and he was able to answer every question. Finally, the Buddha asked, “Where is your home?” He replied, “The three realms are all empty; why, Blessed One, do you ask where my home is?” The Buddha instructed Ananda to take Sudana back to the Sangha and confer the full precepts upon him.(3) At that time, he was only seven years old.

7. Obtaining the precepts through the words “Welcome, bhiksu”: When a person’s spiritual capacity had matured, the Buddha would say, “Welcome, bhiksu,” and that person would immediately obtain the precepts.

8. Obtaining the precepts through another person receiving them on one’s behalf: A woman named Bhiksuni Pinga was exceedingly beautiful and beloved by everyone. She wished to go forth and receive the precepts, but the people of the country feared that misfortune might befall her along the road. They therefore sent someone to the monks’ monastery to receive the precepts on her behalf, after which that person returned to the nuns’ monastery to perform the precept-receiving ceremony for her.

9. In a border region where there are few bhiksus who are nevertheless pure and in accord with the Dharma: The presence of only five Sangha bhiksus as witnesses is sufficient for the precept candidate to obtain the precepts.

10. In a region where the Buddhadharma flourishes: Ten Sangha bhiksus must serve as witnesses. Only then can the precept candidate obtain the precepts.

The foregoing are the ten circumstances in which the precepts may be obtained. In the present age, ten pure bhiksus must perform the karman procedure before a precept candidate can obtain the precepts. This is the discussion of the characteristic of possessing the precepts.

b) Explaining the substance of the precepts

There are two differing doctrinal teachings:

– The teachings of the Lesser Vehicle hold that the precepts are “uncreated wholesome dharmas.” Provided that the causes and conditions for receiving the precepts are complete, if the uncreated precepts arise, this wholesome dharma will thereafter naturally continue to develop even while one is sleeping or abiding in samadhi. It does not require any action by body, speech, or mind; hence, the “uncreated” is regarded as the substance of the precepts. According to the explanation of the Sarvastivada school, the uncreated precepts are unmanifest form—that is, invisible form that cannot be seen.

– According to the explanation of the Dharmaguptaka school, “the substance of the uncreated precepts” is a dharma that is neither form nor mind (because it has no shape, it is not form; because it does not engage in cognition, it is not mind). The theories of the various schools differ, and one should not rigidly cling to any one side. In general, the doctrinal traditions of the Lesser Vehicle all regard the “uncreated” as the substance of the precepts, and this meaning is not incorrect. According to the doctrinal tradition of the Great Vehicle, however, the precepts arise from the mind; thus, the wholesome mind is regarded as the substance of the precepts. This meaning is taught in the Yingluo Sutra. Another master said, “The Mahasanghika school holds that ‘the uncreated precepts are precisely a dharma of mind.’”

c) Explaining the characteristics of the precepts

There are two differing teachings:

– When the seven assemblies(5) of the Lesser Vehicle resolve to receive the precepts, because the procedures performed when receiving them differ, the precepts obtained also vary in superiority and inferiority. Male and female lay practitioners, upasakas and upasikas, have the characteristics of the five precepts. Before becoming disciples of the Buddha, if a man or woman has not committed any of the five heinous offenses—killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, killing an arhat, disrupting the harmony of the Sangha, or shedding the blood of a Buddha—and encounters a good teacher who instructs the person to take refuge in the Three Jewels and receive the five precepts, then, when the procedure has been successfully completed, the uncreated precepts arise. From that point onward, the person is called a pure lay believer.

Furthermore, novices possess the characteristics of the ten precepts. If their upadhyaya and acarya confer refuge in the Three Jewels purely and in accordance with the Dharma, they go forth in the Buddha’s teaching. If the procedure conducted by the two teachers is successfully completed, the substance of the uncreated precepts immediately arises; these are called the novice precepts.

The great Sangha possesses its characteristics of the precepts. If one did not commit a grave offense while a novice, and ten pure monastics—three upadhyayas and seven acaryas—successfully perform the karman procedure in accordance with the Dharma, these are called the full precepts of a great bhiksu. The characteristics of the precepts for novice nuns, siksamanas, and fully ordained bhiksunis are likewise.

If disciples among the seven assemblies of the Buddha have not previously violated a grave precept, and they encounter a good teacher and favorable conditions, perform the Great Vehicle Vaipulya repentance rite, and succeed in seeing auspicious signs, then, if they subsequently receive the precepts, they also obtain the substance of the uncreated precepts. Circumstances contrary to those described above are called failing to obtain the substance of the precepts and are also called being without precepts.

– Whether practitioners of the bodhisattva conduct have received the precepts cannot necessarily be known. Why is this? Because bodhisattvas have cultivated over many lifetimes; or, when they first gave rise to the aspiration, they may have immediately encountered favorable conditions, received the precepts, and obtained them.

2. Upholding and violating the precepts

There are three topics:

a) A brief explanation of upholding and violating

b) A detailed explanation of upholding and violating

c) An explanation of arising and not arising

a) A brief explanation of upholding and violating

There are two parts:

a.1. The characteristics of upholding the precepts

a.2. The characteristics of violating the precepts

a.1. The characteristics of upholding the precepts: Upholding means guarding and protecting. After the Buddha’s disciples receive the prohibitory precepts, they guard them and do not violate them because of ten benefits. The ten benefits are taught in the Vinaya:

1/ To gather the Sangha

2/ To embrace and accept good persons

3/ To enable the Sangha community to dwell in peace and happiness

4/ Subdues those whose minds are proud and arrogant

5/ Those who possess moral shame and moral dread attain peace and happiness

6/ Those without faith gain faith

7/ The faith of those who already possess faith increases

8/ Puts an end to the outflows of this life

9/ Cuts off evil in future lives

10/ Those who practice the holy life attain longevity

With regard to the precepts, the practitioner single-mindedly maintains reverence and vigilance, not daring to violate them, just as one clings to a float upon the water and does not dare carelessly to cast it aside; therefore, this is called guarding and upholding. Upholding the precepts is also like carrying a bowl filled with oil in both hands without spilling a single drop; therefore, this is called the characteristic of upholding the precepts.

a.2. The characteristic of violating the precepts: “Violation” means transgression. Although one has received the Buddha’s precepts, wishes to escape the cycle of birth and death, and aspires to liberation, when one now encounters adverse conditions and cannot restrain one’s own mind, one transgresses the precepts midway, whether minor or grave. Therefore, this is called the characteristic of violating the precepts.

Furthermore, “violation” is also called defiling contact. It is like a sick person who takes medicine and is advised by the physician to abstain from harmful and poisonous foods and drinks. Yet, because the patient does not heed the physician’s words and continues consuming poisonous foods, the illness grows increasingly severe day by day and may even lead to death. The characteristic of violating the precepts is likewise; therefore, it is called violation.

b) A detailed explanation of upholding and violating the precepts

From the initial resolve through attainment of Buddhahood, there are ten kinds of upholding and violating the precepts:

1. Upholding the precepts without deficiency: Guarding the four grave precepts without violating them.

2. Upholding the unbroken precepts: Not committing any of the thirteen Sanghavasesa offenses.

3. Upholding the unperforated precepts: Not committing any of the three thousand Payattika offenses.

4. Upholding the unmixed precepts: Not giving rise to wrong thoughts, miscellaneous afflictive thoughts, or discursive examination and reflection. This is also called the morality associated with concentration.

5. Upholding the precepts that accord with the Path: Mentally practicing the sixteen contemplations, thereby giving rise to wisdom, patience, and the contemplation of suffering.(6) This is also called the morality associated with the Path.

6. Upholding the precepts of nonattachment: If one who has attained the fruit of an anagamin can eliminate the nine grades of cognitive delusions in the Desire Realm, this is called the morality of restraint through abandonment. This extends to completely ending all afflictions and fetters and all craving for the Form Realm and Formless Realm; all these are called the precepts of nonattachment.

7. Upholding the precepts praised by the wise: A bodhisattva gives rise to the aspiration for bodhi and upholds the precepts so that all sentient beings may attain nirvana. Upholding the precepts in this way is praised by the wise, as in maintaining the bodhisattvas’ ten grave precepts and forty-eight minor precepts. Because upholding these precepts has the power to lead to the fruit of Buddhahood, it is praised by the wise.

8. Upholding the precepts with mastery: Bodhisattvas uphold the precepts and remain masterful even amid conditions that could lead to their violation. It may also be said that, because bodhisattvas clearly understand that neither guilt nor the absence of guilt can ultimately be apprehended, they uphold the precepts solely according to what benefits sentient beings, without attachment in their minds. Therefore, these are called the precepts of mastery.

9. Upholding the complete precepts: Bodhisattvas can fully uphold all the precepts of every class of sentient being, as well as the superior precepts of bodhisattvas.

10. Upholding the precepts in accordance with concentration: Without entering the concentration of the cessation of perception and feeling, they manifest the deportment and observances prescribed by the precepts in order to guide sentient beings to liberation.

The first four kinds of upholding the precepts constitute the pure precepts of the mundane world, yet they can also give rise to supramundane precepts. Their meaning was fully explained above and should be carefully distinguished. The two kinds of upholding the precepts in the middle constitute supramundane pure precepts. The final four kinds constitute pure precepts that transcend even the supramundane. If one can receive, uphold, and guard the characteristics of the precepts described above, this is called the characteristic of upholding the precepts. Acting contrary to what was explained above is called the characteristic of violating the precepts.

This is called an analysis, from shallow to profound and in successive order, of the characteristics of upholding and violating the precepts, from the initial resolve through attainment of Buddhahood. Thus, a sutra says: “Only a Buddha fully possesses the pure precepts; all others are said to violate the precepts.”

Furthermore, the present explanation of upholding the precepts means cultivating according to one’s abilities so that one gradually advances and attains purity. Without this, the various kinds of meditative concentration cannot arise.

Bodhisattvas who cultivate the perfect and sudden Dharma can employ wisdom and skillful means so that, in the very first thought in which they give rise to the aspiration and begin cultivating, they immediately receive and fully uphold the ten kinds of precepts. Therefore, a sutra states: “The initial aspiration and the ultimate attainment are neither two nor different.”

c) Explanation of the “arising and non-arising” of the precepts.

There are two points:

c.1. Why they are called arising and non-arising

c.2. Analysis of the indeterminacy of arising and non-arising

c.1. Why they are called arising and non-arising: If practitioners uphold the precepts, meditative concentration arises; if they violate the precepts, meditative concentration does not arise. If practitioners uphold mundane precepts, mundane meditative concentration unfolds. If they do not uphold the precepts purely, mundane meditative concentration is obstructed.

If practitioners uphold the supramundane precepts and the supremely superior precepts that transcend even the supramundane, meditative concentration will unfold. If they violate the precepts, meditative concentration will be obstructed.

c.2. Analysis of the indeterminacy of arising and non-arising: Because sentient beings who cultivate meditation possess many different and indeterminate capacities, the matter is analyzed through four propositions:

– Some people give rise to meditative concentration despite violating the precepts. Some people uphold the precepts, yet meditative concentration does not arise.

– Some people do not give rise to meditative concentration because they violate the precepts. Some people uphold the precepts and attain meditative concentration.

– For some people, meditative concentration arises whether they uphold or violate the precepts.

– For some people, meditative concentration does not arise whether they uphold or violate the precepts.

1/ Those who violate the precepts while cultivating meditative concentration, yet still give rise to meditative concentration, do so because in previous lives they possessed profound causes, conditions, and wholesome roots and had cultivated meditative concentration. Although they commit offenses in the present, because the power of their wholesome roots from previous lives is exceedingly strong, because in this life they also diligently cultivate meditative concentration, or because they feel shame and remorse for the offenses they have committed, as though repaying a debt, meditative concentration still arises even though they have violated the precepts.

2/ Those who uphold the precepts and cultivate meditation, yet do not give rise to meditative concentration, fail to do so because they did not plant the causes of meditative concentration in the past. Thus, although in this life they uphold the precepts and cultivate meditative concentration, meditative concentration does not arise.

3/ For some who uphold or violate the precepts, meditative concentration arises in either case.

4/ For some who uphold or violate the precepts, meditative concentration does not arise in either case. These may be explained in general as above; therefore, there are four different cases.

When their origins are investigated to the utmost, meditative concentration must arise from the cause of upholding the precepts. Violating the precepts does not invariably obstruct meditative concentration. Why is this? If one attained meditative concentration in the past, it is thereby known that one formerly upheld the precepts and gave rise to meditative concentration, which then became a cause of cultivation in this life. Because in this life the mind of shame, remorse, and repentance that brings purity serves as a condition, wholesome roots from previous lives are activated, causing meditative concentration to be attained in the present.

3. The method of repentance

There are two points:

a) Giving rise to the mind of repentance

b) The method of repentance

a) Giving rise to the mind of repentance

If people have never committed evil, they have no offenses for which to repent. If practitioners are not determined to uphold the precepts, or if, upon encountering adverse conditions, they violate the precepts, whether the offenses are minor or grave, this is in every case a violation of the precepts. Because the precepts are not pure, samadhi does not arise. It is like a soiled garment that cannot be dyed; therefore, repentance is necessary. Through repentance, the precepts become pure and samadhi can then arise. It is like a soiled garment that, once thoroughly washed and cleansed, can absorb the dye.

When practitioners reflect in this way, if their precepts are not pure, they must resolve to repent. A sutra records: “Within the Buddha-Dharma, there are two kinds of courageous people: those whose nature is such that they do no evil, and those who, having committed evil, know remorse and repent.” Those who have committed offenses yet know to repent are called true persons of courage.

Repentance means: “Repenting” is to acknowledge and apologize for one’s offenses before the Three Jewels and all sentient beings. “Reforming” is to feel ashamed of one’s faults, seek to correct them and never transgress again, and make this vow: “If the offenses I have committed in this life are eradicated, then in the future, even at the cost of my life, I shall never dare to repeat such faults or create such karma of suffering again.” A bhiksu said to the Buddha: “I would rather leap into a great fire and be burned than ever dare to violate the pure precepts established by the Tathagata.” To arouse such a mind of repentance and pray that the Three Jewels bear witness and accept one is called repentance.

Furthermore, “repenting” means not concealing outwardly, while “reforming”

means reproaching and restraining the mind within; “repenting” means knowing that the offenses

one has committed are evil, while “reforming” means fearing the retribution one will undergo. Repentance has many meanings, which will not be discussed extensively here.

In brief, only by clearly knowing that all dharmas are false and illusory can one completely eliminate evil karma and cultivate wholesome karma; this is called repentance.

b) Methods of Repentance

This is divided into three parts:

b.1. Explanation of Repentance According to Prescribed Procedures
b.2. Explanation of the Stages of Eradicating Offenses

b.3. Explanation of Restoration and Non-Restoration

b.1. Explanation of Repentance According to Prescribed Procedures

The eradication of offenses always requires an appropriate method. For example, if clothing is stained with grease, water alone cannot cleanse the grease; ashes, soap-pods, or a cleansing agent must be used before it can be completely removed. The methods for eradicating offenses are likewise.

The methods of repentance explained in the teachings are numerous, but in general they do not go beyond three kinds:

– Repentance through prescribed procedures: repentance explained on the basis of the Vinaya.

– Repentance through contemplation of signs: repentance explained on the basis of meditative concentration.

– Repentance through contemplation of non-arising: repentance explained on the basis of wisdom.

The meaning of these three methods of repentance encompasses both the Tripitaka and the Mahayana. Generally speaking, however, the first method mostly belongs to the practices of repentance in the Lesser Vehicle, while the latter two methods are mostly practices of repentance employed in the Mahayana.

b.1.a) Explanation of Repentance Through Prescribed Procedures

Performing wholesome deeds to counteract evil deeds already committed is called repentance. In the Vinaya, this method is commonly used to eradicate offenses. Why is this so? According to the method of repentance prescribed for the second category in the Vinaya, twenty bhiksus perform the karman procedure, prescribing separate residence, absolution from the offense, and so forth. When the prescribed procedure has been successfully completed, this is called the eradication of the offense.

This does not necessarily require seeing any signs, nor does it involve the wisdom that contemplates emptiness. One should therefore understand that this is solely repentance through prescribed procedures.

Karman is translated as “prescribed procedure.” Of the five categories in the bhiksu Vinaya, the latter three all concern repentance through prescribed procedures. This is also readily understood. The foregoing principles are discussed extensively in the Vinaya, but it does not clearly explain how the four grave offenses are to be repented.

The Sutra of the Most Sublime Initial Teaching alone states: “Twenty pure members of the bhiksu Sangha should be invited into the great assembly. Before the assembly, the offending bhiksu must personally disclose the offense he has committed. The Sangha then performs the karman procedure on his behalf until it is successfully completed.

Before the Three Jewels, the offending bhiksu practices in accordance with the Dharma and, at the same time, recites the precepts (a thousand sections) one thousand times; he will then attain purity.”

It is also said that auspicious signs must be seen as confirmation that the offense has been eradicated and the precepts restored to purity. One should therefore understand that the Vinaya contains no method of repentance for the four grave offenses, but the sutras clearly record this karman procedure. The features of this prescribed procedure are extensively explained in the Sutra of the Most Sublime Initial Teaching.

b.1.b) Explanation of Repentance Through Contemplation of Signs

Practitioners follow the methods of repentance taught in the sutras, focusing the mind intently and, when the mind within is tranquil, seeing the signs of various states. As recorded in the Bodhisattva Precepts: “When repenting of the ten grave offenses, one must see auspicious signs; the offenses will then be eradicated.” Such signs include seeing a Buddha come and stroke one’s head, seeing a Buddha emit various kinds of light, or seeing lotus flowers; the offenses are then eradicated. If one does not see auspicious signs, repentance, though performed, is of no benefit.

Among the dharani practices taught in the Mahayana Vaipulya Sutras are many methods of repentance of this kind. Within the Tripitaka, the Samyukta Agama Sutra also teaches methods of repentance. For example, when the contemplation is accomplished, one may see signs of hell, venomous snakes, the white urna, and so forth; these indicate that the offenses have been eradicated. Because all these occur while the mind is settled in concentration, repentance through contemplation of signs is accomplished. Thus, it is explained chiefly on the basis of the practice of meditative concentration.

QUESTION: When one sees the signs of various states, how can one know that one’s offenses have been eradicated?

ANSWER: The sutras give differing accounts, and offenses arising from breaches of the precepts vary in gravity; therefore, there is no fixed standard. Here they are presented only in general terms, and they do not go beyond four kinds of signs:

– Signs seen in dreams.

– While practicing the Way, hearing a voice from empty space or seeing extraordinary signs, auspicious portents, or numinous wonders.

– While sitting in meditation, seeing various wholesome and unwholesome signs, signs of breaking or upholding the precepts, and so forth.

– Seeing signs that the mind of the Way has opened and arisen, and inwardly realizing various Dharma gates. These are judged according to the gravity or lightness of the offense and cannot be definitively described. They will be discussed later in the section on verifying wholesome and unwholesome faculties and dispositions.

QUESTION: Celestial demons can also manifest these signs. How, then, can they be distinguished?

ANSWER: Indeed, the false and the true are extremely difficult to distinguish, and one cannot cling to any fixed criterion. When such signs manifest, a good spiritual friend will immediately recognize them. Therefore, a determination can be made only by directly confronting the actual circumstances; it cannot be set forth in writing.

Thus, when practitioners begin repentance, they must draw near to a good spiritual friend who can determine whether the signs are false or true. Furthermore, when a sign or phenomenon is seen, it appears suddenly; even the person concerned finds it difficult to distinguish whether it is false or true, much less can it be sought in written words. If one arouses a mind that longs to see such signs, one will, for the most part, become attached and fall into demonic disturbances.

QUESTION: If so, should this not be called repentance through contemplation of
signs?

ANSWER: It is called repentance through contemplation of signs because, while applying
the mind to the cultivation of meditative concentration, when the practice is accomplished, signs appear. By judging them accordingly, one knows whether or not the offenses have been eradicated. It does not mean that, while practicing the Way, the mind remains fixed upon phenomenal signs and gives rise to attachment. If the mind is applied in that manner, one will certainly fall into demonic disturbances.

QUESTION: What is the method of repentance through contemplation of signs?

ANSWER: The methods are found in the Mahayana Vaipulya Sutras. Practitioners should study the scriptures themselves and practice according to their words.

b.1.c. Explanation of Repentance Through Contemplation of Non-Arising:

As the verse in the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states:

Sit upright and contemplate the true nature.
Offenses are like frost and dew;

Whenever a practitioner wishes to undertake Great Repentance, one must arouse the mind of great compassion, have pity for all sentient beings, and thoroughly understand the source of transgressions. Since all dharmas have fundamentally always been empty and quiescent, even meritorious recompense does not exist—how much less the recompense of transgression? It is only because sentient beings do not contemplate skillfully and falsely cling to the existence of arising, ceasing, and so forth that they give rise to the three poisons—ignorance, craving, and anger—and commit immeasurable and boundless grave transgressions. These also arise because, in a single thought, they have not yet awakened to the true mind.

If one wishes to eliminate them, one need only turn the light around and contemplate: From where does this mind of ignorance arise? If it comes from the past, the past has already ceased. Dharmas that have ceased exist nowhere; since such dharmas exist nowhere, they cannot be called mind. If the mind belongs to the future, the future has not yet arrived. A dharma that has not yet arrived does not exist; since the dharma does not exist, neither does this mind. If it arises in the present, then in the present it arises and ceases from moment to moment without abiding. Within this mark of non-abiding, the mind also cannot be apprehended.

Furthermore, if it is said that the mind is in the present, is this present within or without, in the interval between, or on either side? If the mind is said to be within the body, it should not depend upon conditions created outside, for it would already exist within of itself. If it is said to be outside the body, what relation would it have to me?

External objects of form are insentient and without awareness; how could they possess mind? Since it is absent both within and without, how could it be in between? If it is not in between, then the mind has no place in which to abide.

When the practitioner contemplates in this manner, one sees neither the form of the mind nor any place where the mind abides. One should know that this mind is fundamentally empty and quiescent. Since the mind is not seen, neither is the absence of mind seen.

Even the contemplating mind does not exist—how much less could an object of contemplation exist? Since neither the contemplator nor the contemplated exists, deluded and inverted thinking ceases of itself. Once inversion has ceased, there is neither ignorance nor craving nor anger.

If these three poisons do not exist, from where could transgression arise?

Furthermore, the myriad dharmas all arise from the mind. Even the nature of mind does not exist—how much less the myriad dharmas? If the myriad dharmas do not exist, what could constitute the karma of transgression? If transgression cannot be apprehended, then there is no transgression. Contemplating that transgression is fundamentally unborn can destroy all transgressive karma, because the source of all transgressions has no intrinsic nature and is eternally pure. Therefore, Vimalakirti told Upali: “These two bhiksus are fundamentally without transgression. Do not add further transgression to them. You should directly eliminate their transgressions; do not disturb their minds.”

Likewise, the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra records: “Contemplate that the mind is fundamentally no-mind, and dharmas have no place in which to abide. Since my mind is fundamentally empty of itself, transgression and merit likewise have no master; therefore, all dharmas are also thus. If one performs repentance in this manner, it is called Great Repentance, Adorned Repentance, Repentance That Destroys Consciousness, and Repentance Free from the Mark of Transgression.

One who practices this method of repentance has a mind like flowing water and, in each and every thought, beholds Bodhisattva Samantabhadra and the Buddhas of the ten directions.” Therefore, one should know that contemplating the unborn nature of dharmas is called Great Repentance. Among methods of repentance, this is the most honored and most profound. Thus, when the Mahayana scriptures explain repentance, they all take this contemplation as primary.

If this method of repentance is abandoned, it cannot be called Mahayana repentance.

QUESTION: When cultivating the contemplation of repentance through the unborn nature of dharmas, how does one know the sign that transgressions have been eliminated?

ANSWER: Using the contemplating mind in accordance with the preceding method of repentance, in every thought one’s transgressive karma ceases of itself, thought after thought. If one wishes to know whether the transgressions obstructing cultivation have been transformed, one must strive diligently and single-mindedly without interruption. Signs will naturally appear, and by observing them one will clearly know. As explained previously in the method of contemplating signs, auspicious dreams and favorable portents will appear, meditative concentration will manifest directly, wisdom will unfold, and so forth; all these signs will be fully manifested therein.

Furthermore, if the practitioner’s contemplation of mind accords with the principle, this itself is the sign that transgressions have been eliminated; there is no need to labor in seeking elsewhere. Thus, the Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra records: “When the wisdom of emptiness accords with this mind, one will know that in every thought one can eliminate the grave transgressions of birth and death accumulated throughout hundreds of myriads of kotis of asamkhya kalpas.” As demonstrated by the scripture above, if one realizes the wisdom of patient acceptance of the unborn nature of dharmas, one clearly knows the ultimate source of transgressive karma. Through purity of the precepts, one can cultivate meditative concentration.

b.2. Explanation of the Stages in Eliminating Transgressions

Because methods of repentance differ, the ways in which transgressions are eliminated also differ. Why is this so? Transgressions are of three classes:

– Transgressions involving action and non-action

– Essential nature

– Ignorance and afflictions

Transgression means destruction. In the present, it destroys and diminishes the practitioner’s merit and wisdom; in future lives, one must undergo retribution in the three evil destinies. Because it can destroy both the practitioner’s physical body and discerning mind, it is called transgression.

– Repentance performed according to prescribed procedures: It has the capacity to destroy the transgressions of “action and non-action” that obstruct the path.

– Repentance through contemplating signs: It has the capacity to destroy the “essential nature” of the evil karma of transgression.

The Mahayana Treatise records: “If a bhiksu violates the precept against killing, although he practices repentance and regains purity of the precepts, and although the transgression obstructing the path has been eliminated, the karmic retribution for killing is not lost.” This serves as evidence for the preceding method of repentance and also explains the great efficacy of repentance through contemplating signs, which is capable of destroying the essential nature of transgression.

– Elimination of transgressions through repentance by contemplating the unborn: It has the capacity to destroy ignorance, habitual tendencies of the afflictions, and the causes of transgression. This is the ultimate method, eliminating transgression to its very source.

b.3. Explanation of Whether the Precepts Are Restored or Not Restored

QUESTION: After one practices repentance and attains purity, are the precepts restored?

ANSWER: Views differ among people. Some say they are not restored, just as when a torn garment is patched: although it no longer has a hole, it is still not equal to when it was intact. Some say they are restored, just as a soiled garment, after being washed clean, is once again as fresh and beautiful as before. Some say they may or may not be restored. As clearly stated in the Five-Part Vinaya, violations belonging to the first two divisions cannot be restored, whereas violations belonging to the latter three divisions can be restored.

The Sutra of the Initial Teaching states: “By performing the karma procedure of repentance, all four grave transgressions can be restored.” The statements above are not definitive. They should now be examined in relation to the three preceding methods of repentance, according to three meanings:

– The meaning of restoration.

– The meaning of surpassing one’s former state.

– The meaning of increasingly surpassing one’s former state.

We should now use analogies to elucidate these three meanings:

– Repentance performed according to prescribed procedures: After performing repentance, some people regain their former state, while others do not. This is like a person who catches a cold and then takes ginger medicine. Although the illness is cured, one’s health may either return to its former condition or remain weaker than before.

– Repentance through contemplating signs: Not only are transgressions eliminated, but meditative concentration may also unfold. This is the meaning of surpassing one’s former state. Why? Because previously one had not yet attained skill in meditative concentration. It is like a person who catches a cold and takes medicinal mineral powder and the like: not only is the illness cured, but the person becomes healthier and stronger than before.

– Contemplation of non-arising as repentance: Not only are offenses extinguished, but the various dhyanas and samadhis are also brought forth, and even attainment of the fruits of the Path becomes possible. This is superior in meaning to the preceding methods. It is like a sick person who takes an elixir: not only is the illness cured, but the person also acquires the powers of an immortal and can perform transformations freely. From this analogy, it may be inferred that the result is not confined to any single kind.

QUESTION: This may be so for one who has obtained the precepts, but what of one who has not obtained them?

ANSWER: One who has not obtained the precepts must receive them again. Alternatively, some people bring forth the precepts through repentance. The Sutra on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra states: “Consider the case of the bodhisattva precepts.

In many former lives, sentient beings may have encountered a good spiritual friend, brought forth the bodhicitta, and received the bodhisattva precepts. Yet, because they revolved confusedly through birth and death and created the karma of offenses, they forgot and consequently violated the prohibitory precepts. In this life, they once again take refuge in the Three Jewels; by resuming cultivation and practicing repentance, their observance of the precepts becomes pure.

With this foundation of precepts, they can also bring forth dhyana and samadhi. Although they do not receive the precepts anew, the bodhisattva precepts are already inherently present within them.”

Furthermore, the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise states: “Sila was translated during the Qin dynasty as ‘delighting in goodness,’ meaning delighting in the practice of wholesome deeds. Refraining personally from negligence is called sila. Whether one receives the precepts and practices goodness or practices goodness without receiving the precepts, both are called sila.”

If one who practices goodness without receiving the precepts is said to possess sila, how could such a person be unable to bring forth dhyana and samadhi?

QUESTION: If that is so, what need is there to receive the precepts?

ANSWER: One should not speak in this way, for receiving the precepts has two purposes: assisting the Path and preserving the Buddhadharma. How, then, could one dispense with receiving the precepts?

QUESTION: It was stated above that a beginner in seated meditation needs to repent. Is this invariably so?

ANSWER: Of course it is not invariable. As the Sutra of Wondrous and Supreme Samadhi states: “Simply applying the mind correctly in seated meditation is the finest repentance.” If, during seated meditation, difficulties and obstacles arise so that one cannot apply the mind, then one must cultivate a method of repentance.

II. SUFFICIENCY OF CLOTHING AND FOOD

1. The Practice Concerning Clothing

There are three kinds:

1/ Like the great beings who study the Path in the Snow Mountains, one keeps only a single robe, which is sufficient because one does not travel among human settlements and has perfected the ability to endure hunger and cold. This is the practice of those of superior capacity.

2/ Like the Venerable Kasyapa and others, who constantly practiced the dhutanga austerities, one keeps only three robes made from discarded cloth and stores nothing in excess. This is the clothing practice of those of middling capacity.

3/ In regions where the climate is very cold, those of lesser capacity cannot endure it. The Tathagata therefore permitted them, in addition to the three robes, to acquire the 101 necessary articles. They must, however, perform the prescribed declaration of purity and know what constitutes a sufficient amount. Excessive craving and seeking obstruct the mind intent upon the Path.

2. Sufficient Food and Drink

There are four kinds:

1/ Like great beings of superior capacity dwelling deep in the mountains, entirely removed from worldly people, one sustains the body merely with vegetables and fruits according to the season.

2/ Like those who constantly practice the dhutanga austerities, one begs for alms according to the Dharma, thereby eliminating the four kinds of wrong livelihood and living by right livelihood. Because this can give rise to the noble Path, it is called the Noble Lineage. The four kinds of wrong livelihood by which one supports oneself are: livelihood with the mouth directed downward, livelihood with the mouth directed upward, livelihood with the mouth directed vertically, and livelihood with the mouth directed toward the four quarters. These four forms of wrong livelihood were explained by the Venerable Sariputra for the woman Sucimukhi.

3/ While dwelling in a secluded place, one receives food brought by donors.

4/ While dwelling within the Sangha, one takes meals together with the Sangha in accordance with the Dharma.

Possessing the conditions of food and clothing described above is called having sufficient supporting conditions, or sufficiency of clothing and food. Without these causes and conditions for sustaining the body, the mind will not be at ease, and one’s practice of the Path will be impeded.

III. DWELLING IN A SECLUDED AND QUIET PLACE

Not engaging in various activities is called “seclusion.” The absence of clamor is called “quietude.” There are three kinds of places where dhyana and samadhi may be cultivated:

a) Deep in the mountains, where all traces of human passage are cut off.

b) In an aranya where the dhutanga austerities are practiced. An “aranya” is a secluded place far removed from villages, at least three or four miles away, where children tending buffaloes and cattle do not go and where all clamorous sounds have entirely ceased.

c) In a pure and quiet sangharama—a monastery or place of practice—far removed from the dwellings of worldly people. All such places are called secluded and quiet.

IV. PUTTING AN END TO INVOLVEMENTS AND ACTIVITIES

There are many kinds of involvements and activities; in brief, there are four:

– Putting an end to activities for making a living: This means not engaging in worldly enterprises involving conditioned activity.

– Putting an end to social dealings with worldly people: This means not forming friendships or intimate associations and completely discontinuing social intercourse.

– Putting an end to worldly arts and skills: This means not practicing medicine, incantations, divination, physiognomy, or other worldly occupations.

– Putting an end to scholarly pursuits: This means relinquishing all such activities as reading books, debating treatises, and pursuing studies.

Why must all involvements and activities be ended? If one remains bound by many affairs, one will neglect the cultivation of dhyana and samadhi. It will be difficult to gather in and subdue the distracted mind, and dhyana and samadhi will not manifest before one.

V. DRAWING NEAR TO GOOD SPIRITUAL FRIENDS

There are three kinds:

– A good spiritual friend who provides external protection: One who manages affairs, makes offerings, and supports practitioners without troubling or disturbing them.

– A good spiritual friend who practices alongside oneself: One who cultivates together with oneself, offering mutual reminders without causing disturbance.

– A good spiritual friend who instructs: A teacher who explains skillful Dharma methods for regulating and subduing the inner and outer aspects, enabling the student to gain the benefit, joy, and peace of the Dharma.

The complete five supporting conditions have now been briefly explained.

B. REBUKING THE FIVE DESIRES

The sutra states: “Desire and unwholesome states are accompanied by initial application and sustained attention.” Separation from desire means distancing oneself from the five desires, while abandoning unwholesome states means casting off the five hindrances.

The five desires are forms, sounds, fragrances, flavors, and tangible objects. In the world, these things constantly delude ordinary beings and destroy wholesome deeds. Unless one clearly understands their faults and keeps far away from them, one cannot attain the dhyanas and samadhis.

I. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR FORMS

The charming and beautiful appearances of men and women—such as clear eyes, lovely eyebrows, red lips, and white teeth—as well as the precious objects of the world and exquisite colors such as blue, yellow, red, white, pink, purple, light blue, dark blue, and so forth, frequently cause foolish people, upon seeing them, to give rise to craving and create various kinds of evil karma. King Bimbisara, because he craved sensual beauty, ventured personally into an enemy kingdom and entered the chamber of the courtesan Amrapali.

King Udayana, because he was defiled by desire for forms, severed the hands and feet of five hundred sages. From causes such as these, one should understand how many offenses and misfortunes arise from desire for forms. They are explained in great detail in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

II. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR SOUNDS

This refers to such sounds as those of zithers, flutes, vertical flutes, bamboo instruments, stone chimes sounding in musical performance, and so forth, as well as the singing, chanting, poetry, praises, and recitations of men and women. Upon hearing them, ordinary beings may become intoxicated and create many kinds of evil karma. For example, five hundred sages in the Snow Mountains heard the singing of a kinnari woman and immediately lost their dhyana and samadhi, their minds becoming infatuated, frenzied, and confused. From such causes and conditions, one should understand that “sounds give rise to offenses.”

III. REBUKING THE DESIRE FOR FRAGRANCES

The fragrances of the bodies of men and women, the aromas of food and drink, and the various perfumes and incenses of the world—all these are not contemplated and understood in their true characteristics by foolish people. As soon as they smell them, they give rise to infatuation and open the gates to the afflictions and fetters. For example, a bhiksu beside a lotus pond smelled the fragrance of the lotus blossoms and became fond of it. The deity guarding the lotus pond rebuked him, saying, “Why are you stealing my fragrance?” Because delight in fragrances causes the afflictions to arise, one should understand from such causes that intoxication with fragrances brings harms and offenses of this kind. This is explained extensively in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

IV—REPROVING THE DESIRE FOR FLAVORS

These are flavors such as bitter, pungent, sour, sweet, salty, and bland. Such delicacies can cause the minds of ordinary beings to become attached and defiled, leading them to create evil karma. For example, because a novice monk delighted in the taste of curds and cream, after death he was reborn as a maggot in the curds and cream. One should therefore understand that infatuation with the desire for flavors causes such harm and wrongdoing. This is discussed extensively in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

V—REPROVING THE DESIRE FOR TOUCH

The soft, smooth skin and flesh of men and women, feeling warmth when touched in the cold and coolness when touched in the heat—these are pleasurable tactile sensations. Foolish people lacking wisdom become immersed in them, thereby obstructing their cultivation of the Way. For example, the One-Horned Seer lost his spiritual powers because of the desire for touch and was ridden upon the neck by a lustful woman. The desire for touch brings many such harms, as discussed extensively in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise.

QUESTION: Why must the five desires be reproved?

ANSWER: Concerning the method of reproving the five desires, the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise states: “Alas! Sentient beings are tormented and disturbed by the five desires, yet they continually pursue them without cease. When these five desires are obtained, craving grows still more intense, just as a fire burns more fiercely when more fuel is added.

The five desires afford no true pleasure, like a dog gnawing a dry bone. The five desires provoke conflict, like a flock of crows fighting over rotten meat. The five desires burn people, like carrying a torch against the wind.

The five desires injure people, like stepping upon a venomous snake. The five desires are unreal, like discovering treasure in a dream. The five desires are fleeting and do not last, like sparks struck from stones.

Deluded worldly people greedily cling to the five desires and do not relinquish them even at death; in future lives, they must undergo immeasurable suffering and affliction.” All sentient beings share these five desires and are constantly driven by them, as though they were servants of the five desires. Because of excessive attachment to the five desires, they sink into the three evil realms. Now that I cultivate meditative concentration, these desires again obstruct me.

They are a band of vicious thieves and must quickly be abandoned.

As a verse in the Dhyana Sutra(7) states:

Birth and death continue unbroken,
Because one delights in desire and savors its flavors;

Neither clinging nor craving—
This is called true nirvana.

This is called the practice of dhutanga.

C. ABANDONING THE FIVE HINDRANCES

This means abandoning the five kinds of obstruction: sensual desire, anger, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.

I—ABANDONING SENSUAL DESIRE

Previously, the arising of desire in relation to the five external objects was discussed. Here, the arising of desire specifically within the faculty of mind is explained. That is, when a practitioner sits upright and cultivates meditative concentration, thoughts of desire arise in the mind, continuing from moment to moment and covering the wholesome mind so that it cannot develop. Upon recognizing them, one must immediately abandon them. Why is this so? When the thought of sensual desire arose in the mind of the woman Shubha, even her entire body was set ablaze; how much more, then, will the fire of sensual desire arising in the mind burn away wholesome dharmas?

A person of sensual desire is very far from the Way, for sensual desire is the source of all afflictions and mental disturbance. If the mind harbors sensual desire, it is difficult to draw near the Way. As the Verse on Removing the Hindrances states:

And become immersed in the five sense objects?
Having already abandoned the five desires,

Attain the profound bliss of meditative concentration,
And you will no longer be deceived by them.

II—ABANDONING ANGER

Anger is the root from which all unwholesome dharmas arise, the cause of falling into the three evil realms, the enemy of the Dharma of peace and happiness, a band of vicious thieves assailing the wholesome mind, and a storehouse of all manner of harsh and evil speech. Therefore, when a practitioner sitting in meditation thinks, “This person has harmed me and those dear to me, and has praised my enemy,” and similarly reflects upon the past and the future, these constitute the nine kinds of vexation. Because of anger, enmity arises; because of an inimical mind, the thought of killing others arises. Thus, the afflictions of anger and enmity cover the mind and are therefore called a hindrance. One must swiftly abandon them and not allow them to grow.

Shakradevanam Indra once asked the Buddha in verse:

What must be slain to attain happiness?
What must be slain to be free from sorrow?

What is the root of poison?
What devours all goodness?

The Buddha replied:

Having understood the danger of anger in this way, one should cultivate loving-kindness, compassion, patience, and forbearance to eradicate it and thereby purify the mind.

III—ABANDONING SLOTH AND TORPOR

Inner darkness of mind is called torpor; relaxing and letting the limbs go slack, lying down and sinking into sleep, is called sloth. The obscuring of mental consciousness is called torpor; the darkening and stupefaction of the five sense faculties is called sloth. For these reasons, they are called the hindrance of sloth and torpor.

The Abhidharma Treatise states that sloth and torpor belong to the associated mental factors (the fifty-one mental concomitants). They can destroy the mind’s true happiness in this life and the next, and they also destroy the merit that leads to rebirth in the heavens in a future life. They are evil and truly unwholesome dharmas. Why is this so? Other kinds of hindrances that obscure the mind are easy to detect and can therefore be counteracted. But when one is sunk in sleep, one is like a dead person and can understand nothing; because one is unaware, it is difficult to eliminate.

A bodhisattva once reproved disciples who were sunk in sleep:

Rise! Do not embrace a putrid corpse and lie asleep;
A mass of impurities is what is called a person.
Like one gravely ill with an arrow lodged in the body,
Filled with pain, how can you peacefully sleep?
Like a bound man about to be taken away and killed,

With danger close at hand, how can you sleep?

The thieves of affliction have neither been destroyed nor removed;
It is like dwelling in the same house as a venomous snake.
It is like charging into battle amid flashing blades—
At such a time, how can you peacefully sleep?

Sleep is dark delusion in which nothing can be seen;
Day after day, it steals away our wisdom.

When sleep obscures the mind so that it cannot see,
With such great harm, how can you peacefully sleep?

With such admonitions against sloth and torpor, one should use impermanence as a warning, reduce sleep and rest, and prevent the nature of the mind from becoming obscured. If sloth and torpor weigh too heavily upon the mind, one should use the meditation staff to drive them away.

IV—ABANDONING RESTLESSNESS AND REMORSE

a) Restlessness: This means mental agitation.

There are three kinds: bodily, verbal, and mental.

– Bodily restlessness: The body delights in roaming about, playing, and fidgeting, and rarely sits still.

– Verbal restlessness: The mouth delights in singing, arguing over right and wrong, discussing useless matters, and speaking about worldly affairs.

– Mental restlessness: The mind is unrestrained, thoughts flit about, and one reflects upon literature, worldly arts and crafts, evil matters, and so forth. This is called mental restlessness. Mental restlessness can destroy the mind of a monastic. Even one who strives to collect the mind cannot attain concentration, much less one whose mind is scattered. A person with a scattered mind is like a drunken elephant without an iron hook or a camel without a nose-rope, impossible to restrain.

As a verse states:

You have shaved your head and donned the dyed robe,
Carrying your alms bowl into the village to beg for food;
Why, then, do you delight in restless activity,

Indulging your mind and losing wholesome benefit?

Having lost the benefit of the Dharma within the Buddha-Dharma, one also loses worldly happiness. Knowing restlessness to be harmful, one must swiftly abandon it.
b) Remorse: If restlessness is not accompanied by remorse, it does not yet constitute a hindrance. Why is this so? Restlessness occurs while one is still

engaged with external things; only upon entering concentration does one regret what one previously did, thereby allowing sorrow and distress to obscure the nature of the mind.

There are two kinds of remorse: doing what should not have been done, and failing to do what should have been done.

Only after restlessness does remorse arise. It is like a person who has committed a grave offense and constantly harbors fear; the arrow of remorse is deeply embedded in the heart and is difficult to pull out. A verse states:

What should be done is left undone;
What should not be done is done instead.

These are the marks of a fool.

Through such causes and conditions, one admonishes and subdues the hindrance of restlessness and remorse. The mind and spirit become pure, without obstruction or concealment; abiding constantly in wholesome states of mind, one attains peace, joy, and tranquility. Consequently, the inner mind becomes filled with joyful ease.

V. CASTING ASIDE DOUBT

Because doubt obscures the mind, one has no faith in the true Dharma. Without faith, one gains no benefit whatsoever from the Buddha-Dharma. It is like a person entering a mountain filled with treasures but, having no hands, being unable to take anything. There are many kinds of doubt; they do not merely obstruct meditative concentration alone.

Here we shall discuss the doubts that obstruct meditative concentration. There are three kinds:

1. Doubt about oneself: A person may think, “I am foolish and burdened by grave karmic obstructions; I am not like those noble persons.” If one gives rise to such self-doubt, meditative concentration cannot arise. Practitioners who wish to cultivate meditative concentration must not disparage themselves, for who can fathom the wholesome roots planted in previous lives?

2. Doubt about the teacher: One doubts the teacher, thinking, “With such an appearance and demeanor, the teacher has not even attained virtue and the Way; how could he teach me?” Giving rise to such doubt and arrogance obstructs meditative concentration. The method for treating this illness is taught in the Mahayana treatises: “It is like gold contained in a foul-smelling leather bag. Because we desire the gold, we cannot discard the foul-smelling bag.” Practitioners are likewise: although the teacher may not yet be completely pure, they must still regard the teacher as they would the Buddha.

3. Doubt about the Dharma: Most people in the world cling to their own thoughts as correct. Therefore, after receiving a teaching, they cannot immediately place their trust in it or respectfully accept and practice it. If the mind hesitates, it cannot comprehend the wondrous Dharma. Why is this so? As the verse reproaching doubt says:

Through faith, one can enter the Buddha-Dharma. If a person has no faith, then even while abiding within the Buddha-Dharma, that person gains no benefit whatsoever. From such matters, it is abundantly clear that doubt is exceedingly harmful and must be cast aside at once.

QUESTION: Evil deeds are as numerous as particles of dust and cannot all be counted. Why, then, does this teaching instruct us to cast aside only five things?

ANSWER: These five encompass the three poisons and the equally apportioned afflictions. These four categories form the basis and include all eighty-four thousand (84,000) defilements. Namely:

– Sensual desire belongs to the poison of greed.

– Anger belongs to the poison of hatred.

– Drowsiness and doubt belong to the poison of delusion.

– Restlessness and remorse belong to the equally apportioned afflictions. Together they constitute the four divisions of afflictions. Each division contains twenty-one thousand (21,000), and the four divisions together make eighty-four thousand (84,000). Therefore, eliminating the Five Hindrances is to eliminate all unwholesome dharmas. Practitioners should employ such methods to cast aside the Five Hindrances. Once the Five Hindrances have been cast aside, it is like a person being relieved of a heavy burden, like recovering from an illness, like a poor and hungry person arriving in a wealthy country, or like one who has been surrounded by bandits being rescued and becoming secure and free from fear. Practitioners are likewise: once they have eliminated the Five Hindrances, their inner minds become peaceful, cool, and joyful. It is like the sun and moon being obscured by five things—smoke, dust, clouds, fog, and the hand of an asura—so that they cannot shine. The mind of a person obstructed by these five things is just the same.

D. REGULATING FIVE THINGS

I. Regulating Food and Drink

II. Regulating Sleep and Rest

III. Regulating the Body

IV. Regulating the Breath

V. Regulating the Mind

Why is this so? We shall now use a concrete analogy to make this method of regulation easier to understand. When a potter wishes to make various vessels, he must first knead the clay until it is thoroughly pliable, skillfully ensuring that it is neither too hard nor too soft; only afterward does he place it on the mold and shape it.

Or when one wishes to play a lute, one must first tune its strings so that they are neither too taut nor too slack; only then can one play melodies of wondrous sound. Practitioners cultivating the mind are likewise: if they skillfully regulate these five things so that each is properly balanced and suitable, right concentration will easily arise. If even one of the five is not properly regulated, many obstacles and difficulties will arise, and wholesome roots will be difficult to develop.

I. REGULATING FOOD AND DRINK

The essential purpose of food and drink is to nourish the body so that one may advance in cultivating the Way. If one eats too much, the stomach becomes full, the breath grows labored, the hundred vessels become obstructed, the mind becomes stifled, and one cannot sit in mindfulness peacefully. If one eats and drinks too little, the body becomes emaciated, the stomach becomes weak and empty, and the mind grows anxious, strained, and unsettled.

Neither of these conditions permits the attainment of concentration. If one eats impure and defiling foods, the mind-consciousness becomes dull and confused. If one eats unsuitable foods, old illnesses are aggravated, causing the four great elements to conflict with one another.

Those newly cultivating meditative concentration must exercise care and avoid these conditions. Therefore, a sutra states:

II. REGULATING SLEEP AND REST

Sleep is an obscuration caused by ignorance and should not be excessive. If a person sleeps too much, not only does that person neglect cultivation but also loses all the merit of prior effort, causing the mind to become darkened and wholesome roots to dissipate. One must awaken to the principle of impermanence and discipline sleep and rest so that the spirit remains lucid and one’s thoughts are clear and pure.

Only then can one anchor the mind in the noble realm and bring right concentration directly before oneself. Therefore, a sutra records: “At the beginning of the night and near dawn, do not be negligent. Do not allow the causes and conditions of sleep and rest to make an entire lifetime pass in vain, without gaining anything at all.

One should reflect that the fire of impermanence consumes the whole world; swiftly seek one’s own liberation and do not indulge in sleep.”

III. REGULATING THE BODY

Practitioners who wish to enter samadhi must apply the method of regulating the body. Before entering concentration, whether walking, standing, lying down, sitting, or engaging in any activity, all movements should be gentle and unhurried. If one’s movements are coarse and abrupt, the breath becomes coarse; when the breath is coarse, the mind becomes scattered and difficult to restrain, and upon sitting, the mind becomes agitated and ill at ease.

Therefore, even before entering concentration, practitioners must remain mindful and promptly seek skillful means to restrain this condition gradually. When entering concentration, they must skillfully position the body so that it is stable. Upon reaching the place of meditation, one should first sit quietly, ensuring that every part of the body feels settled.

Only after some time has passed without any discomfort should one begin arranging the legs.

If sitting in the half-lotus posture(8), place the left foot upon the right thigh and draw it close to the body, with the sole of the left foot level with the right thigh and the sole of the right foot level with the left thigh.

If sitting in the full-lotus posture(9), draw the left foot up onto the right thigh. Loosen the belt and collar, adjust them properly, and do not allow them to come undone while sitting. Place the left hand upon the palm of the right hand, with the fingers facing upward and the hands resting one upon the other; bring the two thumbs together, then place the hands upon the feet, draw them close to the body, and position them evenly at the center.

Next, straighten the body, moving the body and its limbs seven times, as in the method of massage, without allowing the hands to shift position. Then keep the spine from bending or twisting. Next, straighten the neck and incline the head slightly forward, keeping the tip of the nose aligned directly with the navel, neither leaning nor crooked, neither raised nor lowered. Let the facial expression be serene and the seated body remain still and unmoving.

Next, exhale the turbid breath through the mouth. When exhaling, open the mouth to let the breath out; it should be neither forceful nor hurried, but even and gentle. When inhaling, visualize pure air filling the entire body, so that every obstructed place becomes open and unobstructed with the breath; then open the mouth and exhale until all of it has been expelled. Breathe in this manner three times. If the body and breath are already harmonized, one breath will suffice. After exhaling, close the mouth, bring the lips and teeth lightly together, and place the tongue against the palate. Slowly close the eyes, leaving them just sufficiently closed to shut out the external light.

Sit with the body upright like a stone wall; the body, arms, and legs must not move. This is the method of regulating the body when first entering meditative concentration. In brief, being neither too relaxed nor too tense is the sign that the body is harmonized.

IV. REGULATING THE BREATH

The method of regulating the breath when first entering meditative concentration comprises four characteristics:

– Wind

– Panting

– Air

– Subtle breath

The first three characteristics indicate disharmony; the last indicates harmony.

– What is the characteristic of Wind? When one sits in meditation and the breath entering and leaving through the nose can be heard, this is the characteristic of Wind.

– What is the characteristic of Panting? When one sits and the inhalation and exhalation make no sound, yet are impeded and do not flow freely, this is the characteristic of Panting.

– What is the characteristic of Air? When one sits and the inhalation and exhalation make no sound and are not impeded, yet are not gentle, this is the characteristic of Air.

– What is the characteristic of Subtle Breath? When one sits in meditation and the breath makes no sound, is neither impeded nor coarse, and enters and leaves so gently that it seems to be there and yet not there, while the mind is peaceful and at ease, this is the characteristic of Subtle Breath.

If the breath has the characteristic of Wind, the mind becomes scattered; if one breathes with Panting, it becomes obstructed; if the breath has the characteristic of Air, it becomes labored. Only by breathing with the characteristic of Subtle Breath can one attain calm concentration.

Furthermore, when the three characteristics of Wind, Panting, and Air are present while sitting, the breath is said to be unharmonized. If one applies the mind under such conditions, illness may readily arise, and the inner mind will also be difficult to stabilize.

If one wishes to harmonize the breath, one should follow three methods:

1. Concentrate the visualization and settle the mind below the navel, at the cinnabar-field point.

2. Relax the body.

3. Visualize the breath entering and leaving unobstructedly through all the pores of the body.

When the mind becomes subtle, the breath becomes gentle. When the breath is harmonized, illnesses do not arise and the mind readily attains concentration. This is the method of regulating the Subtle Breath when first entering meditative concentration. In brief, gentle and prolonged breathing is the sign of harmonization.

V. REGULATING THE MIND

There are three aspects to regulating the mind: Entering, Abiding, and Emerging.

a) Entering: This has two meanings:

1. Subduing discursive thoughts and not allowing them to run unchecked.

2. Harmonizing the characteristics of Sinking, Floating, Laxity, and Tension.

What is the characteristic of Sinking?

If, while sitting, the mind is dull and obscure, mindfulness is absent, and the head tends to droop, this is the characteristic of Sinking. At that time, one should focus the mind on the tip of the nose, causing the mind to rest upon a single object and not allowing the attention to become scattered. This is the method for remedying the ailment of Sinking.

What is the characteristic of Floating?

If, while sitting, the mind tends to become unrestrained, agitated, and distracted, the body is also unsettled, and one recalls all manner of unrelated matters, this is the characteristic of Floating. At that time, one should visualize the mind as residing at the navel and restrain all distracted thoughts. The mind will then come to rest and readily attain calm concentration. In brief, neither Sinking nor Floating is the sign of harmonization.

QUESTION: Does a concentrated mind also have the characteristics of Laxity and Tension?

ANSWER: It does.

– The characteristic of Tension arises when, during sitting, one uses mindfulness to gather the mind and thereby enters concentration. Consequently, the breath surges upward into the chest, causing stabbing pain. One must release that state of mind and visualize the breath descending; the ailment will then be cured.

– If the mind suffers from the ailment of Laxity, the mental faculties become scattered, the body tends to lean or bend, saliva may flow from the mouth, or the mind may then become dull and obscure. At that time, one must gather and restrain the body, focus the mind in mindfulness, cause the mind to abide in one place, and keep the body firmly composed; this remedies the ailment. Whether the mind is coarsely floating or torpid and sunken can be known by examining these signs. This is the method of regulating the mind when first entering concentration.

When first entering concentration, one must proceed from the coarse to the subtle. The body is coarse, the breath is intermediate, and the mind is subtle. Therefore, one regulates them from the coarse to the subtle, causing the mind to become peaceful and still. This is the initial skillful means employed before entering concentration.

b) Abiding: During seated regulation there are three matters. Throughout a single period of sitting, whether long or short, the practitioner applies the mind to gather mindfulness. During this time, one must clearly discern whether the body, breath, and mind are harmonized or unharmonized. Although one may have regulated the body at the beginning of the sitting, the body may later become too relaxed or too constrained, or may lean, bend, bow forward, tilt backward, or otherwise cease to be upright. Upon recognizing this, one should immediately straighten it and make it stable and at ease. Neither lax nor tense, the body should remain naturally upright, abiding in the middle.

Furthermore, during the sitting, although the body may be harmonized, the breath may not be. The characteristics of unharmonized breathing are as described above: it may be Wind, Panting, or Air, or the body may be filled with air. One should apply the previously described methods according to the ailment, causing the breath to become gentle, light, and prolonged, as though present and yet absent.

Next, during seated meditation, although the body and breath may be harmonized, the mind may become Floating and agitated, or Sinking, or Lax, or Tense and unsettled. At that time, one should apply the methods described above to regulate it and bring it to the proper balance.

These three matters have no fixed order of precedence. Whichever is unharmonized should simply be adjusted until it is harmonized, so that throughout the sitting the body, mind, and breath are suitably harmonized, do not conflict with one another, and blend into a nondual unity. This method can eliminate the aforementioned ailments. If obstructions do not arise, the Dharma of meditative concentration will certainly be accomplished.

c) Emerging: When the practitioner is about to conclude seated meditation and wishes to emerge from concentration, one should first release the mind to engage with another object, recite a verse of dedication of merit, and slowly open the mouth to exhale. At the same time, visualize the hundred vessels within the body flowing outward in accord with the intention and the breath, and visualize all afflictions and illnesses being completely expelled.

Afterward, move the body, the shoulders, the upper arms, and then successively the hands, head, and neck. Next, move both legs. Every movement must be gentle. Then use the hands to rub over all the pores of the body, rub the palms together until warm, and place them gently over the eyes. Only then open the eyes. Wait until the internal warmth has completely dissipated before departing at will.

If this is not done properly—if the mind was made to abide during sitting but, upon emerging, one releases it too quickly—the subtle elements will not yet have dispersed and will remain within the body, causing headaches and making the hundred joints stiff as though afflicted by a wasting wind disorder. Thereafter, whenever one sits in meditation, one will feel restless and uneasy. Therefore, when first emerging from concentration, one must attend carefully to every step. This is the method of regulating the body, breath, and mind from the subtle to the coarse. It is called skillfulness in Entering, Abiding, and Emerging, as the verse says:

E. PRACTICING THE FIVE DHARMAS

I. Aspiration

II. Diligence

III. Mindfulness

IV. Skillful Wisdom

V. One-Pointedness of Mind

I. ASPIRATION

When a practitioner first cultivates meditation, emerging from the concentration of the desire realm, one aspires to realize the first dhyana. Therefore, this is also called Resolve, Vow, Delight, and Joy, because inwardly such a person has the resolve and aspiration to delight in and rejoice in the meditative concentrations.

QUESTION: When the mind of expectation arises, it becomes an obstacle to meditative concentration. How, then, can aspiration be employed as a skillful means?

ANSWER: Desire here refers to the resolve that delights in and aspires to fulfill a great purpose; therefore, it is called Desire. It does not mean that, while applying the mind, one gives rise to thoughts and ideas of longing and seeking. If such longing arises, the mind cannot become serene. If the mind is not serene, right concentration cannot unfold.

II. DILIGENCE

There are two kinds: bodily diligence and mental diligence. If a practitioner is able to cultivate the twelve dhutanga practices, then both bodily and mental diligence are complete. As the Buddha taught Mahakasyapa: “Dwelling in an aranya, a bhiksu abandons the two kinds of attachment pertaining to body and mind and purely practices the dhutanga disciplines.” The dhutanga disciplines comprise twelve practices:

1. Dwelling in an aranya, far removed from crowded villages.

2. Always practicing the alms round.

3. Begging for alms in sequence, without choosing between rich and poor households.

4. Observing the practice of one meal a day.

5. Moderating the quantity of food consumed.

6. Not drinking fruit juice after noon.

7. Wearing old, ragged robes.

8. Possessing only the three robes.

9. Dwelling in a charnel ground or cemetery.

10. Dwelling at the foot of a tree.

11. Dwelling in the open air.

12. Sitting only and never lying down.

These twelve dhutanga practices are explained very extensively in the Dhutanga Sutra.

“Dhutanga” is also rendered as “shaking off”; it means cultivating ascetic practices through which body and mind cast off unwholesome dharmas. When these practices are carried out during the cultivation of meditation, this is called the practice of heedfulness, in which bodily and mental diligence are complete. One should know that such a person can attain the noble fruits of the Three Vehicles, to say nothing of worldly meditative concentrations. Furthermore, the practitioner steadfastly observes the precepts, relinquishes the Five Hindrances, and practices with single-minded diligence in the early and late watches of the night, never becoming lax. This is like one kindling fire: until the fire has fully ignited, one does not stop. This is called the Dharma of Diligence.

As the Buddha taught Ananda: “Through single-minded diligence, all Buddhas attain bodhi; how much more so other wholesome dharmas.”

III. MINDFULNESS

As stated in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise: “Contemplate the Realm of Desire as impure, false, and inferior, and recollect the First Dhyana as a noble and precious dharma.” The meaning of this teaching is the same as the “Contemplation of the Six Practices”; only the terminology differs.

The Contemplation of the Six Practices consists of six methods of contemplation through which the delusions of thought are successively eliminated.

They are aversion toward the three qualities of the lower realm—Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction—which means contemplating the Realm of Desire as impure, false, and inferior; and delighted contemplation of the three qualities of the higher realm—Superiority, Subtlety, and Emergence—which means contemplating the First Dhyana as most noble and precious.

– EXPLANATION OF THE CONTEMPLATION OF THE SIX PRACTICES

This is divided into two aspects:

1. An explanation of the results in the Contemplation of the Six Practices

2. An explanation of the causes in the Contemplation of the Six Practices

1. An explanation of the results in the Contemplation of the Six Practices

a) The result of the Realm of Desire: Aversion toward the three qualities of Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction means becoming disenchanted with the heaviness and afflictions of body and mind in the Realm of Desire.

– Suffering: The practitioner reflects: “This present retributive body in the Realm of Desire is oppressed by hunger, thirst, heat, cold, illness, weapons, warfare, and so forth; therefore, it is called Suffering.”

– Coarseness: This body is composed of thirty-six impure substances, such as feces, urine, blood, pus, and so forth; therefore, it is called Coarse. Coarse means ugly and unsightly.

– Obstruction: The material form of this body creates impediments and prevents freedom; it may also be blocked by mountains, rivers, cliffs, and walls. Therefore, it is called Obstruction.

b) The result of the Form Realm means delighting in the higher state’s qualities of Superiority, Subtlety, and Emergence:

– Superiority: The practitioner reflects: “Knowing that the happiness of the Form Realm is supreme, while the happiness of the Realm of Desire is suffering, and that the happiness of the Form Realm is excellent and sublime, one therefore delights in happiness rather than suffering.” Thus it is called Superiority.

– Subtlety: One obtains a form-body of the Form Realm that is like an image in a mirror: although it possesses visible form, it has no substantial obstruction. Therefore, it is called Subtlety.

– Emergence: Upon attaining the Five Superknowledges, one can see clearly through all manner of external obstructions; even mountain walls cannot impede one. Therefore, it is called Emergence.

2. An explanation of the causes in the Contemplation of the Six Practices

a) The cause of the Realm of Desire means the reasons for becoming disenchanted with the qualities of Suffering, Coarseness, and Obstruction in the Realm of Desire.

– Suffering: The practitioner reflects: “When thoughts arise within this retributive body, they pursue sensual desire and cannot become free from it.” As recorded in the sutras: “All sentient beings are servants of craving.” Therefore, it is called Suffering.

– Coarseness: This means that the mind pursues the five sense objects of the Realm of Desire, causing it to become agitated and scattered and to create evil karma. Therefore, it is called Coarseness.

– Obstruction: Because one is covered by afflictions, it is called Obstruction.

b) The cause of the Form Realm means delighting in

the Form Realm’s qualities of Superiority, Subtlety, and Emergence.

– Superiority: The practitioner reflects: “The happiness of the First Dhyana is supreme because this joy unfolds from within the mind.” Therefore, it is called Superiority. In comparison, the happiness of sensual craving, arising from the five external sense objects, consists of afflictions and enmity and is inferior and unequal to it.

– Subtlety: By attaining the peaceful and joyful state of meditative concentration, the mind becomes tranquil and unmoving, and the bliss of Dharma is perfected. This is called Subtlety. The pleasure of sensual craving causes the mind within to become scattered and agitated; therefore, it is called Coarse.

– Emergence: This means that the mind within is freed from obstruction and attains the First Dhyana; therefore, it is called Emergence. It is like water in a subterranean vein within rock: the water does not come from outside but gushes forth from within the fissures of the rock itself.

Here, the Contemplation of the Six Practices is used to explain the meaning of Mindfulness; its implication can be discerned from the foregoing.

QUESTION: Since this discusses disciples of the Buddha cultivating meditative concentration, why is it necessary to explain the ordinary person’s method of the Contemplation of the Six Practices?

ANSWER: The preceding section explained the meditative concentrations within the Three Realms, so here one must also understand the causes of their practice. As for disciples of the Buddha, they use the method of the Noble Eightfold Path and cultivate the sixteen contemplations to abandon the Five Desires, intending thereby to enter the First Dhyana. What fault could there be in this? This will be explained extensively in the section concerning undefiled dhyana.

IV. SKILLFUL WISDOM

This means assessing the pleasurable states of the Realm of Desire and the peaceful bliss of the First Dhyana, determining what constitutes gain or loss and what is light or weighty. This will now be explained in two parts:

1. Assessment: This means using wisdom to reflect and make comparisons.

2. Gain and loss: This means that pleasurable sensation in the Realm of Desire is loss, while the peaceful bliss of the First Dhyana is gain. That is, the peaceful bliss of the First Dhyana is free from faults and is therefore called gain, whereas pleasurable sensation in the Realm of Desire is erroneous and is therefore called loss.

It may also be said that the peaceful bliss of the First Dhyana is loss, while the pleasure of the Realm of Desire is gain.

– The Realm of Desire as gain: This means that the practitioner clings to the coarse pleasurable sensations of the Realm of Desire as real and consequently gives rise to the notion of attainment.

– The First Dhyana as loss: This means that the practitioner realizes this body to be empty and quiescent. Its very subtle sensation of bliss seems to exist and yet not to exist; it is indeterminate, and every characteristic of pleasure has vanished. Therefore, it is called loss.

Light and Weighty: This means that the Realm of Desire is light, while the First Dhyana is weighty.

Why is the Realm of Desire called light? Because the pleasurable sensations of the Realm of Desire associated with the five consciousnesses are quickly and easily lost; therefore, they are called Light.

Why is the First Dhyana called weighty? Because the peaceful bliss of the First Dhyana is associated with mental consciousness and remains for a long time upon its object; therefore, it is called Weighty. Weighty means esteemed and precious.

The Desire Realm may also be called heavy, and the First Dhyana light. Because the pleasures of the Desire Realm are conjoined with afflictions, the inner mind is heavily bound; therefore, it is called Heavy. The blissful state of the First Dhyana is not bound by thoughts; therefore, it is called Light.

Another master explains Skillful Wisdom as follows: “When practitioners first begin the cultivation of meditation, they must understand both internal and external expedient means and employ them skillfully without losing what is appropriate. They will then swiftly attain meditative concentration; therefore, it is called Skillful Wisdom.”

V- ONE-POINTED MIND

Practitioners skillfully employ the method of Skillful Wisdom to examine and compare, and skillfully apply the mind without allowing errors to arise. They resolve only to cultivate with one-pointed mind; therefore, this is called One-Pointed Mind. It is like travelers who must first know whether the road is open or blocked and only afterward resolve to proceed along the path they have chosen. Thus, the saying, “One who is not wise cannot cultivate meditation; without meditation, there is no wisdom,” expresses precisely this meaning.

Notes to Chapter 6:

(1) Karman (formal act): acts connected with the Vinaya, such as receiving the precepts, repentance, and establishing a boundary; that is, formal procedures that give rise to wholesome qualities and eliminate evil. When receiving the precepts, through the karman the ordinand accomplishes the essence of the precepts.

(2) The Eight Garudhammas: eight rules under which bhikkhunis must show respect to the Bhikkhu Sangha:

1/ Even if a bhikkhuni has been ordained for one hundred years, upon seeing a newly ordained bhikkhu, she must rise to welcome him, pay homage, and prepare a clean seat for him.

2/ A bhikkhuni must not disparage or revile a

bhikkhu.

3/ A bhikkhuni must not accuse a bhikkhu of an offense or speak of his faults; conversely, a bhikkhu has the authority to speak of a bhikkhuni’s faults.

4/ After a siksamana (female probationer) has completed her training in the precepts, she should seek full ordination from the Sangha.

5/ A bhikkhuni who commits a sanghavasesa offense must undergo the manatta procedure for half a month before both Sanghas.

6/ Every half-month, bhikkhunis should approach the bhikkhus to request instruction.

7/ A bhikkhuni must not undertake the rains retreat in a place where there are no

bhikkhus.

8/ After completing the rains retreat, bhikkhunis should request from the Bhikkhu Sangha the threefold invitation for self-disclosure and repentance.

(3) Full Ordination Precepts (the Great Precepts): the complete precepts that bhikkhus and bhikkhunis must receive and uphold. According to the prescribed precept procedures, one who receives and upholds the Full Ordination Precepts formally acquires the status of a bhikkhu or bhikkhuni.

There are 250 precepts for bhikkhus and 348 for bhikkhunis. The Four-Part Vinaya records that the precepts may generally be divided into

eight categories: Parajika: 4 for bhikkhus; 8 for bhikkhunis. Sanghavasesa: 13 for bhikkhus; 17 for bhikkhunis. Aniyata: 2 for bhikkhus. Nihsargika-pacittiya: 30 for bhikkhus; 30 for bhikkhunis. Pacittiya: 90 for bhikkhus;

178 for bhikkhunis. Patidesaniya: 4 for bhikkhus;

8 for bhikkhunis. Saiksa: 100 for bhikkhus; 100 for bhikkhunis. Adhikarana-samatha: 7 for bhikkhus; 7 for bhikkhunis.

In addition, concerning the Full Ordination Precepts, the Ten-Recitation Vinaya, Five-Part Vinaya, Samantapasadika Vinaya Commentary, Pali Patimokkha, and Tibetan Pratimoksa contain differing records. When receiving these precepts, the ordination procedure must fulfill all the required conditions: three preceptors and seven witnesses, and the formal act consisting of one motion and three proclamations. A person receiving the Full Ordination Precepts must be free from the thirteen disqualifications and ten impediments. The preparatory means for full ordination consist of drawing, according to each person’s capacities, the Five Precepts, Eight Precepts, and so forth from within the Full Ordination Precepts and teaching them in sequence.

In China, from the Sui and Tang dynasties onward, monks and nuns received ordination in accordance with the Four-Part Vinaya. In particular, besides receiving the Full Ordination Precepts, monks and nuns also received the Bodhisattva Precepts, comprising ten major precepts and forty-eight minor precepts. Moreover, those who wish to receive the Full Ordination Precepts must be physically healthy, possess unimpaired faculties, and be free from disabilities such as blindness and deafness.

Body and mind must be pure, and they must be free from such faults as a grave offense, violating a bhikkhuni, or dwelling among the Sangha as an impostor. They must shave off their hair and beard, wear the kasaya robe, have received the novice precepts as a sramanera or sramaneri, be at least twenty years old, and not more than seventy years old.

The Full Ordination Precepts merely set forth the principal rules of discipline, enabling those who uphold them to remain far removed from wrongdoing and to perfect the virtue of wisdom. If considered in terms of their number, however, the precepts are truly immeasurable and boundless. They must be diligently cultivated and upheld under all circumstances, doing what is wholesome and abandoning what is evil.

(3) The Seven Assemblies: the seven classes of monastic and lay disciples who constitute the community established by the World-Honored One: bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, sramaneras, sramaneris, siksamanas, upasakas, and upasikas.

(4) The Mahayana Vaipulya repentance procedure: bodily paying homage with reverence, verbally invoking the Buddha’s name and chanting praises, and mentally contemplating the Buddha’s wondrous marks. With diligent application of the three karmas, each in accordance with the prescribed procedure, one repents of the unwholesome karma committed in the past and present.

(5) Wisdom and Patience: at the stage of the Path of Seeing, contemplation of the Four Noble Truths gives rise to undefiled patience and undefiled wisdom. Patience is the cause of Wisdom, and Wisdom is the fruit of Patience. Patience with Respect to Suffering is one of the Eight Patiences. The first four patiences can confirm the Four Noble Truths of the Desire Realm; namely, the

four Dharma-patiences: Dharma-patience with respect to suffering, Dharma-patience with respect to its origin, Dharma-patience with respect to its cessation, and Dharma-patience with respect to the path. The latter four Patiences can confirm the Four Noble Truths of the Form Realm and Formless Realm; namely, the four subsequent patiences: subsequent patience with respect to suffering, subsequent patience with respect to its origin, subsequent patience with respect to its cessation, and subsequent patience with respect to the path. Because these four kinds of patience directly eliminate the delusions of views in the three realms, they are called the Uninterrupted Path.

(6) The Meditation Sutra (Samadhi of Seated Meditation)

(7) Half-lotus posture: a sitting posture in which only one foot rests upon the opposite thigh. There are two forms: 1/ Auspicious half-lotus posture: placing the right foot upon the left thigh. 2/ Demon-subduing half-lotus posture: placing the left foot upon the right thigh. In later periods, carved or painted images of bodhisattvas appearing in female form were most often depicted in the half-lotus sitting posture.

(8) Full-lotus posture (cross-legged lotus posture, lotus posture): this is the posture in which the Tathagata sat when he attained perfect enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree.

There are two forms: 1/ Demon-subduing posture: first place the right foot upon the left thigh, then place the left foot upon the right thigh, with both soles facing upward and the left hand resting upon the right hand. 2/ Auspicious posture: the posture opposite to the Demon-subduing posture.