彰所知論

Of those who transcend the three realms, there is only the Buddha. The Buddha had one great causal condition; therefore, he appeared in the world. Out of compassion, he taught and transformed the multitude of beings.

From ancient times until now, this has never been otherwise. This indeed is a wholesome deed. The Imperial Preceptor of the Great Yuan thoroughly comprehended the three vehicles; his nature and conduct were radiant as springtime, and his benevolent heart was so vast and broad that none could equal it.

The Emperor graciously assented. Having long known the Preceptor to be single-minded and upright, he respectfully invited him to give instruction. The Preceptor consented to bestow his pure intention, propagate entry into the truth, and restore the tradition of the school.

Because his understanding was clear, he composed this treatise. Its prose is profound and its meaning lucid; like the sun and moon, it extends throughout heaven and earth. It was composed under the protection of the Tathagata.

None but a sage could elucidate it. Like a leader presiding over the Snow Mountains, renowned and illustrious throughout the world, the Preceptor attracted many who came to hear and receive instruction. Having long attended upon the Preceptor, I quietly translated this treatise and transmitted it throughout the world.

For the common good, circumstances brought us together, and we formed a fine friendship imbued with loving-kindness and tolerance. For the sake of the public, I wrote this preface. To guard against the ocean of defilements, I at once took up my brush and prepared the inkstone—was this not to cause the true teaching to shine brightly?

Laughing at myself, I said: “How could a person be so modest?” What more remains to be said? Therefore, I have written this preface.

Homage to the Vajra Guru

Homage to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas

The Omniscient One knows all that may be known,

And compassionately guides sentient beings.

Homage to the One of Supreme Knowledge;

I shall now expound the Obstructions to Knowledge.

The material world and the realm of sentient beings,

The Dharma of the path and the dharmas of non-Buddhists,

Together with unconditioned dharmas—

In brief, these are of five kinds.

Chapter on the Material World

The First

That which serves as the basis for the formation of the world consists of the four great elements. All things arise from them. Earth is solid, water is moist, fire is hot, and wind is mobile.

These are called the great elements. They are exceedingly subtle and are therefore called extremely minute particles. They are also called particles bordering on emptiness.

They cannot be fully described. Seven particles bordering on emptiness make one atom. Seven atoms make one minute particle.

Seven minute particles make one particle that penetrates metal. Seven particles that penetrate metal make one particle that penetrates water. Seven particles that penetrate water make one hare-tip particle.

Seven hare-tip particles make one sheep-wool particle. Seven sheep-wool particles make one ox-hair particle. Seven ox-hair particles make one mote seen in a sunbeam.

Seven motes seen in a sunbeam make one louse-measure. Seven louse-measures make one nit-measure. Seven nit-measures make one barleycorn-measure.

Seven barleycorn-measures make one finger-joint. Three joints make one finger. Twenty-four fingers laid crosswise make one cubit.

Four cubits make one bow-length. Five hundred bow-lengths make one krośa. Eight krośas make one yojana.

This is the method of measuring the world through forms and constitutes the cause for the formation of the world. It is brought into being by the collective karma of all sentient beings.

From the ten directions, winds arise in empty space and move together without changing, forming an immense, subtle wind-circle, blue-white in color and exceedingly firm. It is sixteen lakṣas of yojanas deep and immeasurably broad. Through warmth, a cloud called the Golden Treasury arises; rain then pours down and is sustained upon the wind.

The ocean above is eleven lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas deep and twelve lakṣas, thirty-four thousand five hundred yojanas broad. At first, the upper surface of the water congeals into gold, just as fresh milk forms a skin upon its surface. Thereupon, the golden earth-circle is formed, while the water-circle diminishes until only eight lakṣas remain and no longer congeal.

The gold is three lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas thick. The Golden Circle is as broad as the Water Circle, and its circumference is three times its breadth, totaling thirty lakṣas, thirteen thousand five hundred yojanas. Before this, the wind-circle beneath the Sahā world had formed; the two circles of earth and water beneath the four continents arose, and great rain again fell upon the earth-circle, immediately forming a vast ocean.

Blown by the wind, it first formed Mount Sumeru; in the middle, it gathered to form the seven golden mountains; and finally, it formed the Cakravāḍa Mountains. Various winds then formed the four continents and so forth.

The eastern face of Mount Sumeru is made of silver; the southern face, of lapis lazuli; the western face, of crystal; and the northern face, of gold. The seven mountains beyond it are made of gold. The four continents are formed of various kinds of earth. The Cakravāḍa Mountains are made entirely of iron. Mount Sumeru extends eighty thousand yojanas into the water. It is the highest of all the mountains and is therefore called Sumeru, the Wondrously High Mountain. Beyond it, in successive order, are the seven golden mountains.

The first is Mount Yugaṃdhara, forty thousand yojanas high.

The second is Mount Īṣādhara, twenty thousand yojanas high.

The third is Mount Khadiraka, ten thousand yojanas high.

The fourth is Mount Sudarśana, five thousand yojanas high.

The fifth is Mount Aśvakarṇa, two thousand five hundred yojanas high.

The sixth is Mount Vinataka, one thousand two hundred fifty yojanas high.

The seventh is Mount Nimiṃdhara, six hundred twenty-five yojanas high.

(The Treasury Treatise commentary states: The first is Mount Holder of the Yoke; the second, Mount Holder of the Axle; the third, Mount Khadira Wood; the fourth, Mount Beautiful to Behold; the fifth, Mount Horse’s Ear; the sixth, Mount Elephant’s Tusk; and the seventh, Mount Fish’s Snout.)

Beyond the four continents are also the Cakravāḍa Mountains, three hundred twelve and one-half yojanas high. The breadth of each of these mountains is equal to its height above the water. Between the seven golden mountains are the places where the nāga kings sport, called the Delightful Seas. There are eight mountains and seven seas surrounding Mount Sumeru.

The first is the Yugaṃdhara Sea, eighty thousand yojanas wide.

The second is the Īṣādhara Sea, forty thousand yojanas wide.

The third is the Khadiraka Sea, twenty thousand yojanas wide.

The fourth is the Sudarśana Sea, ten thousand yojanas wide.

The fifth is the Aśvakarṇa Sea, five thousand yojanas wide.

The sixth is the Vinataka Sea, two thousand five hundred yojanas wide.

The seventh is the Nimiṃdhara Sea, one thousand two hundred fifty yojanas wide.

All are filled with water possessing the eight virtues. The eight mountains and seven seas form concentric rings. The water of the outer ocean is salty.

From Mount Nimiṃdhara to the Cakravāḍa Mountains, the distance between the two mountains is three lakṣas, twenty-two thousand yojanas. The water in this outer ocean is otherwise undifferentiated. Because of the colors of Mount Sumeru, however, the eastern sea appears white, the southern sea blue, the western sea red, and the northern sea yellow.

Since these colors appear in this manner, they are called the four seas. Their circumference is thirty-six lakṣas and seven hundred fifty yojanas. The outer circumference of the Cakravāḍa Mountains is thirty-six lakṣas, two thousand six hundred twenty-five yojanas.

In the outer sea lies the southern continent of Jambudvīpa, shaped like a narrow cart. The side facing the Iron Cakravāḍa Mountains is three and one-half yojanas wide. Each of the other three sides is two thousand yojanas long.

Its circumference is six thousand three yojanas. It contains two subsidiary continents: Cāmara in the east (also called Cat-Ox) and Varacāmara in the west (also called Superior Cat-Ox). At the center of Jambudvīpa is the kingdom of Magadha.

The Buddhas of the three times are all born in this land.

Next, traveling north beyond nine Black Mountains, there is a great snow mountain called Auspicious. To its north is Mount Fragrant Intoxication. Between these two mountains dwells a great nāga king named Anavatapta. The lake there is likewise called Anavatapta, meaning “Without Heat.” Each of its four sides is fifty yojanas long, and its total circumference is two hundred yojanas. The lake is filled entirely with water possessing the eight virtues. From this lake flow four great rivers.

In the east is the Gaṅgā River. Flowing from an opening shaped like an elephant’s mouth, it carries silver sand and, together with five hundred tributaries, enters the eastern sea.

The Sindhu River flows from an ox-mouth opening, carrying lapis lazuli sand and, together with five hundred tributaries, returns to the southern sea.

In the west is the Vakṣu River. Flowing from a horse-mouth opening, it carries crystal sand and, together with five hundred tributaries, enters the western sea.

In the north is the Sītā River. Flowing from a lion-mouth opening, it carries golden sand and, together with five hundred tributaries, enters the northern sea.

These are the four great rivers that flow from Lake Anavatapta, circle it to the left for seven days, and then flow in their respective directions. About twenty yojanas north of it is Mount Gandhamadana. In that region is a rock named Nanda.

Each of its faces is fifty yojanas wide. Its circumference is two hundred yojanas, and its height is three and a half yojanas. There are also eight thousand small hills.

About twenty yojanas north of this mountain stands a king of sala trees named Supratishtha. Its roots penetrate forty bows into the earth, and it is eighty bows high. Seven rows of trees densely surround it.

About twenty yojanas to the east is a lake fed by warm springs. This lake is circular, about fifty yojanas across, and one hundred and fifty yojanas in circumference. There are also eight thousand small lakes, all filled with water possessing the eight qualities.

Within them are lotuses whose leaves are as thick as oxhide, whose stalks are as large as axles, and whose leaves resemble wheels. Their flavor is exquisite and as sweet as honey. This is also the place from which Shakra once rode forth upon his elephant into battle.

Therefore, it is called Supratishtha. During the four months of the rainy season, it remains by the warm springs. Beside Lake Anavatapta grows the jambu tree, whose fruits are delicious and as sweet as honey.

When they ripen and fall into the water, they produce the sound “jambu.” Nagas transform themselves into fish to catch these fruits in their mouths. Those that remain are carried away by the water and become jambu gold. Because of this tree, the continent is called Jambudvipa.

In the northwest of the continent lies the land of Uddiyana. The Great Vajra Palace is situated there, and from that place the Dharma of the Vajrayana was transmitted.

In the southern sea is a mountain named Potala. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara dwells upon its summit, while the holy mother Tara resides at the foot of the mountain.w

In the east are five peaks upon which Bodhisattva Manjushri dwells. There are sixteen great kingdoms and a thousand small kingdoms. There are also 360 kinds of people and 720 different languages. Beyond this sea, the eastern continent is called Purvavideha, Victorious Body. It is shaped like a half-moon. The side facing Mount Sumeru is 350 yojanas, while the other side is sixty yojanas. Its circumference is 6,350 yojanas. Beside this continent are two intermediate continents. To the north is Deha, meaning “Body,” and to the south is Videha, here meaning “Victorious Body.” Beyond these three continents are seven tala trees. It is also said that because the people of this continent possess upright and handsome features and beautiful bodies, it is called Victorious Body.

Beyond this sea, the northern continent is called Kuru. Its four sides are equal, each measuring two thousand yojanas, and its circumference is eight thousand yojanas. On either side of this continent are two intermediate continents. One is called Kuru, meaning “Possessing Excellence”; the other is Kaurava, meaning “Possessing Pervasive Excellence.” The people of this continent enjoy the wish-fulfilling tree. During the first seven days, when the wish-fulfilling tree no longer emits melodious sounds, it signifies that they will die within seven days. It is also said that when the people of this continent speak words of resentment, sound-producing spirits immediately cut their flesh. Therefore, it is called Kuru, meaning “without melodious sound.”

Beyond this sea, the western continent is called Godaniya, Cattle Exchange; it is shaped like the full moon. Its diameter is 2,500 yojanas, and its circumference is 7,500 yojanas. It has two intermediate continents. The southern one is called Shatha, meaning “Deceitful,” and the northern one is called Uttaramantrina, which has the meaning given above. The people of this continent use precious cattle in trade. Therefore, it is called the Continent of Cattle Exchange. The seas and mountains each measure eighty thousand yojanas. Nearby are the Land of Gold, Jambudvipa, the Star-Cut Eastern Continent, the Golden Continent, the Moon Continent, and so forth.

In relation to Jambudvipa, beyond the great continents there are likewise small continents. In successive order, there is a space measuring forty thousand yojanas. It is entirely pure and unobstructed.

A powerful wind rises from the left, and the sun, the moon, the heavens within space, and so forth rest upon it. The solar disk is formed from fiery radiance. Its diameter is fifty-one yojanas, its circumference is 153 yojanas, and its thickness is sixty yojanas and eighteen parts.

It is encased in gold above. Upon it, gold, silver, vaidurya, crystal, and other substances form four beautiful corners. The Divine Son of the Sun dwells within this palace.

Propelled by the wind, it circles the four continents in one day and one night. When the sun moves toward the north, the days are long. When it moves toward the south, they are short.

When it is midway between north and south, day and night are equal. Because its radiance travels, there are winter and summer. Because there are the seasons of winter and summer,

it moves northward for six months and southward for six months. Upon reaching the midpoint of its course, the sun and moon turn back toward the stars. One complete cycle of such changes is called a year.

The lunar disk is formed from water. Its diameter is fifty yojanas, its circumference is one hundred and fifty yojanas, and its thickness is six yojanas and eighteen parts. Upon it, gold, silver, vaidurya, crystal, and other substances gather to form four beautiful corners.

The Divine Son of the Moon dwells within this palace. As the sun and moon come and go, drawing near to and moving far from one another, they illuminate one another, causing waxing and waning. With an increase of one part, the upper half appears, and on the fifteenth day the moon is full.

With a decrease of one part, the lower half appears and its radiance is obscured. After another fifteen days, it is no longer full. Because of this waxing and waning, it is called Lunar Vacuity.

One day and night are called a Lunar Day. Thirty such days constitute one month.

The stars in the celestial palaces within space are made of precious substances. All are round. The smallest measure one Ox Aperture, the medium-sized measure three Ox Apertures, and the largest measure six Ox Apertures.

Their circumference is three times that of the Heaven of the Four Great Kings. Mount Sumeru has four terraces. The first rises ten thousand yojanas above the water.

From one side of Mount Sumeru it extends outward sixteen thousand yojanas and rises ten thousand yojanas farther upward. This is the second terrace. The next extends outward eight thousand yojanas and rises ten thousand yojanas farther upward.

This is the third terrace. The next projects outward four thousand yojanas and rises ten thousand yojanas farther upward. This is the fourth terrace.

Its sides project outward two thousand yojanas.

The summit of Mount Sumeru has four corners. Each is beautiful and bears a peak four and a half yojanas high, 125 yojanas wide, and five hundred yojanas in circumference. Yaksha spirits dwell there.

Directly in the center atop the mountain stands Sudarshana, the city of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. It is made entirely of gold and is one and a half yojanas high. Each side measures 2,500 yojanas, and its circumference is ten thousand yojanas.

The substance of this city is gold, and it is adorned throughout with 101 kinds of assorted precious substances. Its ground is as soft as fine silk. The city has four sides and is constructed with sixteen thousand precious pillars, precious beams, and precious rafters.

Its four sides have four gates, as well as thousands of smaller gates. Along the walls on all four sides are narrow pathways. At each of these four gates are five hundred divine sons, all clad in sturdy armor to guard the city gates.

Within the city is Shakra’s palace, called the Most Excellent Abode and also known as the Palace of Supreme Excellence. It likewise faces the four directions. It is four hundred and a half yojanas high.

Each side measures 250 yojanas, and its circumference is one thousand yojanas. There are 101 kinds of dwellings arranged side by side. Each kind of dwelling has seven towers.

Each fine tower has seven smaller towers. Each small tower has seven ponds. Each pond has seven lotus flowers.

Upon each lotus stand seven boys and seven girls, playing various kinds of music, singing, and dancing joyfully.

To the east of Sudarshana City is a place for chariots called Chaitraratha Garden, one thousand yojanas high. To the south is the forest of battle, and thus it is called Parushaka, the Rough Garden. To the west is a place for walking, and thus it is called Mishraka, the Mixed Garden. To the north is a place for amusement, and thus it is called Nandana, the Garden of Joy. Each is as extensive as the one described before. About twenty yojanas beyond these gardens are excellent grounds called the Chariot Assembly, the Rough, the Mixed, and the Joyful Grounds, corresponding to the four gardens.

To the northeast of Sudarshana is the Wish-Fulfilling Tree. It is called Pārijāta and is also known as the Perfectly Born Tree. Its roots extend fifty yojanas deep. It is one hundred yojanas high, and its branches and foliage spread fifty yojanas. It is able to bring forth joy. Beneath it is a stone called A Phiên Ma Lệ Ca. Its color is white as a bushel. Each side measures fifty yojanas, and its circumference is two hundred yojanas.

To the southwest of Sudarshana is the place where the devas assemble, called the Hall of Excellent Dharma. Its circumference is nine hundred yojanas. It is circular in shape.

At the center of the Hall of Excellent Dharma is the seat of Śakra, made entirely of gold. This seat has a circumference of thirty-two Bổ Cự and is arranged for all the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Eighty thousand yojanas above, abiding in the sky supported by the wind and composed of various precious substances, is the Celestial Palace Free from Strife.

It is twice as large as the summit of Mount Sumeru. One hundred and sixty thousand yojanas above that, abiding in the realm of space supported by the wind and fashioned entirely from precious substances, is the Tuṣita Celestial Palace. Compared with the abode Free from Strife, its total breadth is twice as great.

Three lakṣas and twenty thousand yojanas above that, abiding in the realm of space supported by the wind and composed entirely of precious substances, is the Nirmāṇarati Celestial Palace. Compared with Tuṣita, its total breadth is twice as great. Six lakṣas and forty thousand yojanas above that, abiding in the sky supported by the wind and fashioned from precious substances, is the Paranirmitavaśavartin

Celestial Palace. It is likewise twice as broad as Nirmāṇarati. This constitutes the desire realm.

Above it is the First Dhyāna. Thus there are four continents, seven mountains, and Mount Sumeru encircled by them. The desire realm has six heavens together with the First Dhyāna.

This is called the realm of the four continents. From one such realm up to a thousand constitutes a small chiliocosm. Each is surrounded by a small Iron-Enclosing Mountain.

A thousand such small chiliocosms constitute a medium chiliocosm, which is surrounded by an Iron-Enclosing Mountain. A thousand of these thousandfold worlds constitute a great trichiliocosm, surrounded by a great Iron-Enclosing Mountain. Thus there are tens of billions of worlds of four continents, all surrounded by Iron-Enclosing Mountains.

Between the mountains and the continents are regions of darkness where there is neither day nor night; even if one raises a hand, it cannot be seen. The Heaven of the First Dhyāna corresponds in extent to a realm of four continents. The Heaven of the Second Dhyāna corresponds to a small chiliocosm.

The Heaven of the Third Dhyāna corresponds to a thousandfold world. The Heaven of the Fourth Dhyāna corresponds to a great trichiliocosm. With each comparison, the extent doubles.

This is called the form realm. In the formless realm there are no distinct locations. When beings die in one place, they are reborn elsewhere.

Because they abide in formless meditative concentration, it is called the formless realm.

Chapter on the World of Sentient Beings

Part Two

The world of sentient beings comprises altogether six classes. The first is hell beings; the second, hungry ghosts; the third, animals; the fourth, human beings; the fifth, nonhuman beings; and the sixth, devas. What is the meaning of these six classes?

A place where bodies are destroyed is called hell. Those oppressed by hunger and thirst are called hungry ghosts. Because they conceal themselves when moving, they are called animals. Because their minds are capable of discrimination, they are called human beings. That is, Manuṣya means one who can experience and employ the body. Although they resemble the devas, they inhabit lowly and inferior places, and because they have no wine, they are called non-devas—that is, asuras. Those born from the body of Brahmā, who sport and delight themselves, or who are worthy of offerings, are called devas.

According to the meaning of Deva, the hells are understood to be situated more than twenty thousand yojanas beneath Jambudvīpa. They measure twenty thousand yojanas on each of their four sides, are made entirely of iron, and are consumed by fire. There are eight hot hells. The first is Reviving; the second, Black Rope; the third, Crushing; the fourth, Wailing; the fifth, Great Wailing; the sixth, Blazing Heat; the seventh, Great Blazing Heat; and the eighth, Avīci.

In the Reviving Hell, beings who in previous lives were born among sentient beings and, driven by karma, took up knives and clubs, gave rise to hatred, and hacked one another to pieces, fall into this hell, become despondent, and die. No sound is heard there. Those sentient beings then revive amid tumult and once again slaughter one another. Their lifespan is measured according to the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, where an entire human lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, they undergo suffering for five hundred years.

The Black Rope Hell means that there the wardens of hell bind the bodies of sentient beings from head to foot with black cords, then burn them with fire and shatter their bodies. Through the force of karma from previous lives, they are dragged down and born there. Their lifespan is measured according to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, where one lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, they undergo affliction for one thousand years.

In the Crushing Hell, sentient beings born there are beaten with iron implements. Alternatively, two iron mountains resembling the heads of two rams close together and crush their bodies. When the two mountains separate, the beings naturally revive, only to be destroyed once again. Their lifespan is measured according to the Heaven Free from Strife, where one lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, they must remain there for two thousand years, undergoing suffering.

In the Wailing Hell, sentient beings born there are terrified by pools of boiling water. When they enter the forest, raging fire burns them continuously for thousands of years. Through the force of their former karma, their tongues are pulled out for thousands of yojanas. Then a great ox made entirely of iron draws a fiercely burning plow across their tongues. Their lifespan is measured according to the Tuṣita Heaven, where one lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, they undergo the painful results of karma for as long as four thousand years.

The Great Wailing Hell is likewise similar to the preceding hell, but the suffering is doubled. The lifespan there is measured according to the Nirmāṇarati Heaven, where one lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, beings undergo torment there for eight thousand years.

The Blazing Heat Hell has three layers of iron walls. Inside, beings undergo suffering as fire consumes them. The lifespan there is measured according to the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven, where one lifetime constitutes one day and one night. In this way, their lifespan extends to sixteen thousand years of torment and suffering.

The Great Blazing Heat Hell is likewise similar to the preceding hell, but the suffering is doubled. The lifespan there is half a kalpa, during which beings must undergo tribulation and suffering.

In the Avīci Hell, beings’ entire bodies are encircled by iron and then burned, and they undergo the most grievous torment. The lifespan there is one intermediate kalpa.

There are an additional sixteen hells. Beside each of the eight hot hells are four.

The first is the Hell of Burning Embers. It reaches up to the knees. When sentient beings arrive there and set their feet down, their skin, flesh, and blood are burned away until only the bones remain. When they lift their feet, they are restored to their former condition.

The second is the Filth of Corpses. Most sentient beings who die and are born there have in their bellies many worms with points as sharp as needles. These pierce through their skin to the bones and devour their marrow.

The third is the Mountain of Blades. This, in turn, has three kinds. The first is the Road of Blades.

That is, this great road is entirely covered with blades. When sentient beings set foot upon it, their skin, flesh, and blood are severed. When they lift their feet, they are restored as before.

The second is the Forest of Sword Leaves. That is, all the leaves on the trees in this forest are swords. When sentient beings enter it, the wind blows, causing the swords to fall and cut their bodies apart.

Their bones, skin, and flesh fall away, and birds and dogs devour their flesh. The third is the forest of iron trees called Śālmalī. That is, these trees have iron spikes sixteen finger-widths long.

When sentient beings are driven beneath the trees, these iron spikes strike them from above and below, causing their blood and flesh to fall away until only their bones remain. Iron birds peck out their eyes and tear out the marrow of these sentient beings, contending with one another as they devour it. Such are the three distinct kinds of the Road of Blades, where iron clubs are employed in addition.

The Tứ Liệt River, also called the Impassable, is filled entirely with boiling, charcoal-colored water. Sentient beings rise and sink there, moving against or with the current, horizontally or vertically; their bones, flesh, and skin are burned and boiled to a pulp, like rice cast into a great cauldron filled with charcoal-colored water and heated over a blazing fire. The rice is churned about in the midst of it and then drawn up; sentient beings are likewise. If they attempt to escape, prison guards stand on both banks, holding knives and clubs and driving them back. Thus, there is no escape by this way. This river is like a moat, resembling the three gardens described above.

These are called the Bordering Hells. There are eight cold hells. The first is Thủy Bào; the second, Bào Liệt; the third, A Tra Tra; the fourth, A Ba Ba; the fifth, Khu Hầu Hầu; the sixth, Splitting Like an Utpala Flower, which resembles a blue lotus; the seventh, Like a Lotus; and the eighth, Like a Great Lotus.

The Thủy Bào Hell is so called because those born there are afflicted by exceedingly cold water, causing blisters to arise all over their bodies. The lifespan there is illustrated by the lifespan of a person in the land of Magadha: suppose a great measure held eighty catties of sesame seeds, and one catty were removed every hundred years; only when all the seeds had been exhausted would the lifespan end. The lifespan here is likewise.

In the Bào Liệt Hell, the intense cold causes the blisters to split everywhere and fluid to seep from them. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the A Tra Tra Hell, beings must endure such extreme cold that their teeth chatter. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the A Ba Ba Hell, beings endure the cold and can utter only this sound. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the Khu Hầu Hầu Hell, beings cry out and weep for help because of the extreme cold. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like an Utpala Flower, the extreme cold causes the body to split open like the petals and leaves of an utpala flower. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like a Lotus Flower, the extreme cold causes the body to crack open like a blooming lotus. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like a Great Lotus Flower, the body is torn apart even more severely than before, like a great lotus blooming with many petals. The lifespan here is twenty times that in the preceding hell.

The Solitary Hell lies amid the mountains and forests of Jambudvipa. In the course of a single day and night, beings there experience both suffering and pleasure, receiving them in alternation.

Together with the eight hot hells and the eight cold hells, these are fully known as the eighteen hells.

As for hungry ghosts, about five hundred yojanas from the city of Rajagriha is a city of hungry ghosts named Hoàng Bạch, also called Thảm Đạm. Their ghost king is Yama, the Dharma King, who dwells there together with thirty-six kinds of attendants. Hungry ghosts are of four kinds: first, those obstructed externally; second, those obstructed internally; third, those obstructed from food and drink; and fourth, those whose food and drink are obstructed.

First, external obstruction: they cannot even hear the sounds of food and drink.

Second, internal obstruction means that they can consume only minute quantities of food and drink. Their mouths are as tiny as the eye of a needle, so that food can scarcely enter. Even if food is placed in their mouths, their throats are as narrow as a horsehair and it cannot pass through. Even if it does pass through, their bellies are as vast as mountains and can never be filled. Though their bellies are full, their legs are as frail as tender grass and cannot move. Thus they undergo this great suffering.

Third, obstruction from food and drink means that when they see abundant food and drink, numerous prison guards wielding clubs guard it and deny them access.

Fourth, obstruction of food and drink means that when they eat or drink, through the force of karma, red-hot iron pellets and boiling molten copper are poured into their mouths and flow out from below.

These four kinds belong to the realm of hungry ghosts. One month among human beings is a single day and night there. Reckoned in this way, five hundred years there are equivalent to fifteen thousand human years. Some dwell among human beings in cold forests and feed upon blood and flesh; these also belong to the class of hungry ghosts.

Third are animals. Most dwell in rivers and seas, crowded together in confusion like the dregs of wine. The large devour the small, and the small devour the large, each terrifying the others. Because they live amid the waves of the sea, their abodes are not fixed; some dwell among humans or devas. Their lifespan may be as long as that of a Dragon King, who lives for half a kalpa, or as short as a single kshana. Their bodily forms likewise have no fixed dimensions.

Fourth are human beings, who dwell upon the four great continents, the eight intermediate continents, and the smaller islands. Regarding the lifespan of the people of Jambudvipa: when the kalpa first came into being, their lifespan was exceedingly long; afterward it gradually declined to sixty years, then declined further to ten years, and thereafter continued to increase and decrease without a fixed measure.

The people of Uttarakuru live for one thousand years. The people of Purvavideha live for five hundred years. The people of Aparagodaniya live for two hundred and fifty years.

Except for the people of Uttarakuru, all may die prematurely. The people of that continent live upon naturally produced food; their clothing and ornaments all come from wish-fulfilling trees. The people of the other three continents eat meat, grains, and sesame and enjoy precious goods.

In lifespan and bodily stature, the people of Jambudvipa are eight cubits tall. The people of Aparagodaniya are sixteen cubits tall. The people of Uttarakuru are thirty-two cubits tall.

Their human features and appearance are otherwise like those of the people of this continent. The inhabitants of the smaller islands resemble those of the great continents, but their bodies are each half the corresponding size. Thus it is taught.

Fifth are the Non-Devas. At the edge of Mount Sumeru, eleven thousand yojanas below, amid broad mountains and within a radiant city, dwells the asura king Rahula, also called Nhiếp Não, together with his retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas beyond is the city of Tinh Kế, within which the asura king named Đảnh Kế dwells together with his retinue.

Another eleven thousand yojanas beyond is the city of Kiên Lao, within which the asura king Diệu Trấn, also called Đại Lực, dwells together with his retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas farther, deep within a city, the asura king Vemacitrin dwells together with his retinue and frequently contends with the deva Shakra. This city is called Cụ Kim, and its palace is named Tấu Lạc.

Its wish-fulfilling tree is called Hằng Bát Lật. Its assembly hall is named Hiền Tài; its stone, Thiện Hiền; and its gardens, Universal Joy, Wondrous Joy, Supreme Joy, and Most Profound Joy. Its grounds are named Universal Joy, Wondrous Joy, Supreme Joy, and Profound Joy.

When battle approaches, the place where they mount their elephants is called Invincible. The elephant on which they ride for pleasure is called Lũy Tuyết. The horse is called Tiểu Bột.

Thus, because the Non-Devas contend with the devas of the Thirty-Three over the flavor of Tu Đà and the asura maidens, they wage war. Emerging from this mountain, their bodies are clad in armor made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Holding swords, bows, and arrows in their hands, they command the four divisions of the army.

The asura kings Rahula, Hạng Kế, Diệu Trấn, Vemacitrin, and others may advance as the first three, or all four may come together.

At that time, Shakra maintains five lines of defense. The first is in the pleasure grounds of the sea, where he vows to share delight with the White Dharma Dragon King. They fight against the army of the Non-Devas and are ordered to drive it back. If the dragons cannot prevail, they retreat first. The asuras then fight against the second line of guardians; if these cannot prevail, they withdraw to Tri Kế. They then fight against the third line of guardians; if these cannot prevail, they withdraw to Hằng Kiêu.

They next fight against the fourth line of guardians; if these again cannot prevail, they withdraw to the place of the Four Kings. They fight together with the fifth line of guardians, and the devas of the Four Heavenly Kings deploy their four divisions of troops, clad in splendid garments and holding blades and staves. In battle, the Four Heavenly Kings usually prevail. If they do not, they withdraw to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and report to Shakra: “We guardians are unable to repel those asuras.”

The king then goes forth to meet the enemy. After this report has been made, Shakra, lord of the devas, mounts the elephant Thiện Trụ and proclaims to the devas of the Thirty-Three:

You should know! Now the army of the asuras has reached the summit of Mount Sumeru. Don your armor securely, mount your chariots, and do battle with the asuras.

After this was said, the devas donned their armor securely, took knives and staves in their hands, and went to the chariot grounds outside the garden to obtain their chariots. They entered the Noxious Garden, turned their bodies and minds toward hostility, and then departed from the city of Sudarshana to contend and do battle with those asuras. If the asuras prevailed, they entered the city.

If the devas prevailed, they drove the asura army back to the first sea. When the devas and non-devas fought, if their legs or waists were severed, they immediately died; but if their hands or feet were severed, they afterward returned to their former state. If at that time a Bhagavat, a pratyekabuddha, or a wheel-turning sage king dwelt in the world, the asuras would not give rise to thoughts of conflict.

Even if they fought one another, the devas would invariably prevail. When wholesome deeds increase in the world, the hosts of devas likewise grow in strength. When wholesome deeds do not increase in the world, the asuras prevail.

Therefore, the heavenly realms safeguard wholesome deeds.

“Heaven” refers to the six heavens of the desire realm. The form realm has seventeen. The formless realm has four.

The desire realm has six heavens. On the first terrace of Mount Sumeru dwell the Host of Firm Hands. On the second terrace dwell the Host of Garland Bearers. On the third terrace dwell the Host of Perpetual Arrogance. On Mount Yugandhara to the north is a city called Anakapavati, where the Heavenly King Vaishravana and the hosts of yakshas dwell.

Likewise, the city in the east is called Noble Eminence. There dwells the Great Heavenly King Dhritarashtra together with the hosts of gandharvas.

In the west is a city called Multicolored, where the Great Heavenly King Virupaksha dwells together with the naga spirits.

In the south is a city called Growth. There dwells the Great Heavenly King Virudhaka together with the Host of Wondrous Crests.

In addition, the remaining four terraces of the Seven Golden Mountains contain the sun, moon, and constellations and are encircled by the Iron Ring Mountains. There are also the mountains of Jambudvipa and places where tala trees grow. The retinues of the Four Kings also dwell in those places, or else belong to the Four Kings. This constitutes one division. Fifty human years equal one day and one night for them. Their lifespan is thus five hundred years. Their bodies measure one quarter of a krosha.

Above, in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three at the summit of Mount Sumeru, the Lord of Devas, Shakra, dwells in the highest place together with the non-devas. That place is called Wondrous Peace. There, together with heavenly maidens, they enjoy sensual pleasures without ever knowing satiety.

There is also a place where battles are waged. The elephant mounted by the king is called Supratishthita. When roaming in the garden, the elephant ridden by the king is called Kalavarnaka, also known as Dharaniputra.

These two great elephants measure seven yojanas in circumference, and each is accompanied by eight thousand smaller elephants. There is also a king of horses named Swift Wind, accompanied by eight thousand horses, who serves as a minister to the lord of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Hence it is called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

The devas become intoxicated by the pleasures of the five desires. When they grow heedless, a great drum sounds, and the sound issuing from it startles the devas: “All conditioned phenomena are impermanent; whatever is permeated by conditioning is suffering. All dharmas are without self.

Only quiescence is bliss.” When they do battle with the asura army, it constantly emits a distressing sound of warning: “May the devas prevail! May the asuras be defeated!” Palaces, citadels, trees, stones, and so forth transform everywhere as before. The devas have long lifespans.

One hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is thus reckoned as one thousand years. The devas there are half a yojana tall.

The Yama Heaven is so called because, when the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three contend with the non-devas, the devas of this heaven do not engage in conflict. It is therefore called the Heaven Free from Conflict. Two hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is thus reckoned as two thousand years. The bodies of the devas there measure two yojanas.

The Tushita Heaven is where the Venerable Maitreya dwells, preparing to appear in the world in the station of Dharma King and enjoying the great bliss of the Dharma. Thus, “Tushita” signifies complete joy. Four hundred human years equal only one day and one night in this heaven. Its inhabitants live for four thousand years. Their bodies measure four yojanas.

In the Heaven of Delight in Emanations, beings themselves emanate what they enjoy. Therefore, it is called Delight in Emanations. Eight hundred human years equal one day and one night in that heaven. Their lifespan extends to eight thousand years. Their bodies measure eight yojanas.

In the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Emanations, beings enjoy what others emanate. Thus it is called Mastery over Others’ Emanations. In that heaven, the majestic and sovereign Lord of Devas is the Lord Mara. Sixteen hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is sixteen thousand years. Their bodies measure sixteen yojanas.

From the Avici hell below up to the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Emanations above constitutes the desire realm, where beings are submerged in and intoxicated by sensual pleasures connected with food and drink. Therefore, it is spoken of in this way.

The form realm has seventeen heavens, encompassed within the four dhyanas.

The First Dhyana has three heavens: the Host of Brahma, the Ministers of Brahma, and Great Brahma. The lifespans in those heavens are half a kalpa for the Host of Brahma, one kalpa for the Ministers of Brahma, and one and a half kalpas for Great Brahma. The bodies of the devas in those heavens respectively measure half a yojana, one yojana, and one and a half yojanas.

The Second Dhyana has three heavens: Lesser Light, Immeasurable Light, and Ultimate Light. As for the lifespans in these heavens, beings in Lesser Light live for two kalpas. Above the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, forty intermediate kalpas constitute one great kalpa, while in the heavens below, eighty intermediate kalpas constitute one great kalpa. Beings in Immeasurable Light live for four kalpas, and those in Ultimate Light live for eight kalpas. Regarding their bodily stature, those in Lesser Light are two yojanas tall, those in Immeasurable Light are four yojanas tall, and those in Ultimate Light are eight yojanas tall.

The Third Dhyana has three heavens: Lesser Virtue, Immeasurable Virtue, and Expansive Virtue. The lifespans in these heavens are sixteen kalpas in Lesser Virtue, thirty-two kalpas in Immeasurable Virtue, and sixty-four kalpas in Expansive Virtue. The bodies of the devas in these heavens are fifteen yojanas tall in Lesser Virtue, thirty-two yojanas tall in Immeasurable Virtue, and sixty-four yojanas tall in Expansive Virtue.

The Fourth Dhyana has eight heavens: Cloudless, Birth of Merit, and Great Fruit. These three are abodes of ordinary beings. The remaining five—Free from Affliction, Free from Heat, Excellent Manifestation, Excellent Vision, and Ultimate Form—are inhabited only by noble ones.

They are also called the Five Pure Abodes. The lifespan in Cloudless is 125 kalpas; in Birth of Merit, 250 kalpas; in Great Fruit, 500 kalpas; in Free from Affliction, 1,000 kalpas; in Free from Heat, 2,000 kalpas; in Excellent Manifestation, 4,000 kalpas; in Excellent Vision, 8,000 kalpas; and in Ultimate Form, 16,000 kalpas. As for the bodies of the devas there, those in Cloudless are 125 yojanas tall; those in Birth of Merit, 250 yojanas; those in Great Fruit, 500 yojanas; those in Free from Affliction, 1,000 yojanas; those in Free from Heat, 2,000 yojanas; those in Excellent Manifestation, 4,000 yojanas; those in Excellent Vision, 8,000 yojanas; and those in Ultimate Form, 16,000 yojanas.

From the Host of Brahma above through Ultimate Form belongs to the form realm. Beings there are separated from the desire realm but have not transcended form; therefore, it is called the form realm.

The Form Realm Has Four Heavens

The formless realm has four heavens. Beings there have no material bodies, nor do they have any fixed location; they are divided into four according to meditative concentration. They are the Sphere of Infinite Space, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, the Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

Regarding the lifespans in these heavens, beings in the Sphere of Infinite Space live for twenty thousand great kalpas; those in the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness live for forty thousand great kalpas; those in the Sphere of Nothingness live for sixty thousand great kalpas; and those in the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception live for eighty thousand great kalpas. These four spheres are called the formless realm.

Beings there have not transcended the subtle form associated with meditative concentration, but they have gone beyond coarse form; therefore, it is not called the form realm. The duration of life there is measured in year-kalpas. How is it calculated there?

The smallest unit of time is called a kshana. One hundred and twenty kshanas make one tatkshana. Sixty tatkshanas make one lava. Thirty lavas make one muhurta (here called a xudou); thirty muhurtas make one day and night; thirty days and nights make one month; twelve such months make one year.

There are six kinds of kalpas: first, the Intermediate Kalpa (also called the Separate Kalpa); second, the Kalpa of Formation; third, the Kalpa of Abiding; fourth, the Kalpa of Destruction; fifth, the Empty Kalpa; and sixth, the Great Kalpa.

During such an Intermediate Kalpa, the lifespan of the people in Jambudvipa is incalculable; it gradually decreases until it reaches eighty thousand years, thus constituting the kalpa's initial phase. From eighty thousand years, it decreases to ten years; this is the beginning of an Intermediate Kalpa. It then increases to eighty thousand years and decreases again to ten years, constituting one cycle. In this way, it increases and decreases eighteen times, making eighteen Intermediate Kalpas. Thereafter, it rises from ten years to eighty thousand years. Including the periods before and after, the eighteen cycles in the middle make twenty Intermediate Kalpas.

The Kalpa of Formation means that, beginning with the first wind and extending down to the Avici hell, the vessel-world and the world of sentient beings arise over the course of one Intermediate Kalpa, as described above. That world of sentient beings comprises three thousand worlds, which form after having been destroyed by fire. When devas in the Abhasvara Heaven reach the end of their lives, they are born in the realm of Great Brahma.

Being born alone, one suffers distress and laments. If there are beings sharing the same karmic lot, they are born in this world. If something is lacking, one forms this thought: solely because the power of mindfulness is absent, upon dying in the Abhasvara Heaven, they are immediately born in that place.

The first being born thinks: “Because I desired them to live, people of the world call me the Progenitor, Great Brahma.” Thereafter, the Brahma Ministers, the Brahma Multitude, the Paranirmitavashavartin devas, and so forth down to the Four Heavenly Kings are successively born in the same manner. The inhabitants of Northern Kuru, Western Godaniya, Eastern Videha, and Southern Jambudvipa are then successively born.

At that time, the inhabitants of Jambudvipa have immeasurable lifespans and joyfully consume food formed by thought; their bodies and lives radiate brilliant light, and they freely roam through the sky like beings in the Form Realm. For such people, the savor of the earth gradually produces delicious sweetness, white like honey and fragrant. At that time, one person, whose nature delighted in flavors, smelled this fragrance and became attached to it. He immediately took some and ate it, then told others, who followed him and also took and ate it. After they had eaten, their radiance gradually disappeared. Because this occurred through the influence of karma, the sun and moon then successively appeared and illuminated the four continents.

In due course, the savor of the earth disappeared, and earth-cakes arose. They were sweet in taste, beautiful in color, and red like honey, and the people competed with one another in their attachment to eating them. The earth-cakes then disappeared, and forest trees successively arose.

The people again competed with one another, becoming infatuated with eating their produce; therefore, the forest trees gradually disappeared. Then a kind of grain arose naturally without cultivation, and everyone gathered it for food. Because this food was coarse, turbid impurities accumulated, and the excretory organs came into being.

At that time, people gathered an amount of rice grain according to what they would eat in the morning and evening. Later, human nature became indolent, and people continually gathered rice to eat; consequently, there was no longer enough, and that rice disappeared. They then divided the fields among themselves to prevent the grain from being exhausted.

After the land had been divided, people respectfully guarded their own portions, yet they formed intentions to encroach upon and seize the portions of others; thus disputes arose. At that time, everyone proposed appointing a virtuous person as lord of the fields, and all agreed to obey him. He was also called King Mahasammata, meaning “the one agreed upon by the multitude.” The king had many sons who continued to reign.

One descendant was named Radiant; his son was Good Emperor, followed by Most Good, Pure Observance, and so forth, constituting five generations of kings. The sons in this royal succession were Crown-Born, Wondrous Emperor, Near-Wondrous, Endowed with Wonder, and Majestic Wonder; all five were wheel-turning kings. Prince Majestic Wonder was also called King Renunciation.

His descendants were Renunciation Pair, Renunciation Guni, Gushi, Good Vision, Great Good Vision, Dispeller of Outsiders, Golden-Hued, Fully Endowed, Free from Evil, Wondrous Height, Steadfast Conduct, Most Hollow Sound, Great Most Hollow Sound, Able to Pacify, Lord of the Regions, Worthy Dust, Able to Expand, and Great Heaven. The lineage of this king continued in succession for five thousand generations. The final son had seven thousand successors, called the Asmaka kings; the last of these had eight thousand successors, called the Kuru kings.

The last had a son named Jutou, whose line comprised nine thousand kings. The last had a son named Dragon Sound, whose line comprised ten thousand kings. The last had a son named Hengmiluheng, whose line comprised fifteen thousand.

The last had a son of the Gautama clan; this was the lineage of the Sugarcane Sage, whose descendants succeeded him. The lineage of the Sugarcane Kings comprised as many as one thousand one hundred persons.

The last of the lineage of the Sugarcane Kings was named Increase (that is, King Simasima), and he had four sons. The first was named Wondrous Light; the second, Elephant Eater; the third, Elephant Tamer; and the fourth, Majestic Branch, who was called Shakya. Majestic Branch had a son named Majestic Branch Foot. His son went to dwell in the land of cattle. His descendant of the Lion lineage had four sons. The first was named Shuddhodana; the second, Shuklodana; the third, Dronodana; and the fourth, Amritodana.

The princes of King Shuddhodana were the Bhagavan and, after him, Nanda.

King Shuklodana had two sons: the first was named Tishya Devadatta, and the second Nandika.

Dronodana had two princes: the first was named Aniruddha, and the second Bhadrika.

King Amritodana had two princes, named Ananda and Devadatta.

The son of the Bhagavan was Rahula, the last of the Shakya clan.

There were also other royal lineages that relied upon the Dharma in their governance and instruction. Two hundred years after the Tathagata's nirvana, there was a king in Central India named Ashoka, a Dharma king in Jambudvipa. The king served as patron of the council and caused Buddhism to flourish three hundred years afterward. In northwestern Jambudvipa, a king named Kanishka served as patron at the time of the Third Council and widely propagated Buddhism. In the country of Brahmadeva, Kashmir, Leke, Kucha, Huangbabang, China, Dali, Western Xia, and so forth, the kings of each country promoted Buddhism.

One thousand years after the Tathagata's nirvana, in Tibet there was first a king named Nyatri Tsenpo. In the twenty-sixth generation there was one named Thothori Nyantsen, during whose time Buddhism first arrived. Five generations later, there was a king named Songtsen Gampo.

At that time, the pandita was named Adatta, and the chief translator was named Thonmi Sambhota. They translated the teachings, built and restored monasteries, and transmitted the Dharma. Five generations later, there was a king named Trisong Detsen.

This king invited the Great Master Shantarakshita, the guru Padmasambhava, Kumarajiva, and the pandita, who, together with Vairochana, Lekhang, Khanglong Tsunhu, and others—seven persons in all—translated the teachings. Besides the panditas and the other chief translators, they also widely propagated the Dharma, and the three classes of precepts circulated throughout the country.

Three generations later, there was a king named Tri Ralpachen, the king who expanded the Vinaya. There were also Jinamitra, Shilendrabodhi, the panditas, and others, together with Kawa Paltsek, Chokro Lui Gyaltsen, and others, who translated and revised the texts; whatever had not yet been translated, they translated, thereby spreading the Dharma widely. The lineage of the Tibetan kings continues to the present day. The panditas translated, and the chief translators rendered the texts. The spiritual teachers were exceedingly numerous. Thus, the Dharma flourished.

In the land of Northern Mongolia, King Tiên Phước Quả Thục Sanh was named Thành Cát Tư. At first, Thành Cát Tư came from this region and became king of the land of Đa Âm, like an Iron Wheel-Turning King. His son was named Cán Quả Tải. When he assumed the title of Khả Hãn and occupied the royal throne, the realm became mightier and greater than before. He had a son named Kiết Vĩ, who ascended the throne and became Emperor Thành Cát Tư. Next came his son, Đóa La.

Đóa La’s successor was named Mông Kha, who in turn ascended the throne. The king’s younger brother, named Hốt Tất Liệt, then ascended the throne and commanded all the people within the country and throughout every frontier region to take refuge in Buddhism and to rely upon its teachings in instructing and transforming the populace. Buddhism flourished even more than before, its radiance continuing from one generation to the next.

The king had three sons. The eldest was named Chơn Kim Phòng Túc, handsome and majestic as a celestial realm. The second was named Mang Cát Thứ. The third was named Nạp Ma Hạ. Each was fully endowed with virtues befitting his station.

This account begins with the royal lineage of the Shakyas and extends to the royal lineages of the present day.

Treatise on Clear Understanding

End of the First Fascicle