彰所知論

The first ancestor of kings was Sammata. At that time, after the land had been apportioned, people began to encroach upon it and steal it. This was the beginning of theft.

When pressed and questioned by the king, they would not admit it; thus false speech first arose. Punishment and execution were carried out according to royal law; thus killing and unwholesome dharmas arose. At that time, sentient beings committed unwholesome deeds.

After death, they were immediately born among animals. Next came hungry ghosts, and then, gradually, beings were born in the hells. Thereafter, sentient beings came to be born in the Avici Hell.

Thus the eon of formation came to an end. Because sentient beings had committed unwholesome deeds, their lifespans diminished day by day, and the things they enjoyed became fewer and fewer. When the lifespan of human beings in Jambudvipa was eighty thousand years, sentient beings were simultaneously born in the Avici Hell.

Thus these two increasingly constituted the world of sentient beings. The formation of the world takes nineteen intermediate eons, followed by one intermediate eon. Thus the eon of formation comprises twenty intermediate eons.

When the lifespan of human beings in Jambudvipa is eighty thousand years, the eon of abiding begins. The eon of abiding likewise lasts for twenty intermediate eons. When the lifespan declines to ten years, the calamity of warfare arises, although it lasts only seven days and nights.

The calamity of disease arises for seven months. Then the calamity of famine arises for seven years, seven months, and seven days, during which most people perish. The only exceptions are those who, seeing this, give rise to the aspiration to cherish one another and abandon killing; thereafter, wholesome conduct gradually arises.

Lifespans and enjoyments then gradually increase again until the lifespan reaches eighty thousand years. They continue to increase until a Wheel-Turning King appears in the world. Relying upon the law, he teaches and transforms the people.

Thereafter, lifespans gradually decline until the time when the Blessed One appears in the world and rescues sentient beings from suffering. During these periods of increase and decline, pratyekabuddhas appear in the world and cause sentient beings to perform meritorious deeds. The eon of abiding in the world lasts for twenty intermediate eons.

When the eon of dissolution begins, the world of sentient beings is the first to dissolve. No sentient beings are born in the Avici Hell. When the karma of those already there is exhausted, they are born elsewhere. If their karma is not yet exhausted, they are born in a hell above it or in a hell of another world. The Avici Hell then becomes empty. In this way, the hells above it also gradually become empty. The realms in which hungry ghosts and animals are born likewise become empty.

In the human realm, the people of Kuru are excepted. The others, together with the devas, have no teacher to instruct and transform them, yet they extensively cultivate meditative concentration and are born in the heaven of the First Dhyana.

The people of Northern Kuru are born in the heavens of the Desire Realm. By extensively cultivating tranquility, they are then born in the heaven of the First Dhyana. Having no teacher to instruct them, they extensively cultivate the Second Dhyana and are born in the heaven of the Second Dhyana. From the Avici Hell up to the Brahma World, all becomes empty. This process likewise lasts for nineteen intermediate eons.

Thereafter, seven suns appear over the four continents. When the first appears, no rain falls, and all grasses, trees, and dense forests wither. When the second sun appears, the waters of the lakes dry up without a single drop remaining.

When the third sun appears, the Ganges and all other rivers completely dry up. When the fourth sun appears, Lake Anavatapta dries up. When the fifth sun appears, the waters of the seas recede and dry up.

When the sixth sun appears, the Great Ocean also dries up. When the seventh sun appears, the outer ring of the world becomes a mass of fire, and from the Avici Hell up to the Brahma World, all is consumed by fire throughout one intermediate eon. The eon of dissolution lasts for a total of twenty intermediate eons, and the eon of emptiness is likewise.

Thus formation, abiding, dissolution, and emptiness together span eighty intermediate eons, and these eighty intermediate eons constitute one great eon. For the Brahma hosts, however, the number of such eons is vast and immeasurable.

When the vessel-world is destroyed, there are three kinds of calamity: fire, wind, and water. Its destruction occurs as described above. After the world has formed and been destroyed by fire seven times, it is then destroyed by water as far as the heaven of the Second Dhyana.

From the Abhasvara Heaven, great clouds arise and pour down heavy rain. This vessel-world dissolves like salt in water; water envelops it everywhere and then dries up of itself. After one water calamity, seven fire calamities occur in succession.

After seven fire calamities, another water calamity occurs. In this manner, when the water calamity has occurred seven times, there are another seven fire calamities. Thereafter, when the world has formed again, it is destroyed by the calamity of wind as far as the heaven of the Third Dhyana.

This wind blows with such force that it scatters Mount Sumeru, how much more everything else. Only the Fourth Dhyana is free from calamities. Thus sentient beings are born there; and when they die, they return in this manner to the vessel-world of sentient beings.

Its subsequent destruction and so forth are all as previously explained.

Furthermore, cause and effect are dharmas arising in a causal continuum, and they arise through the mutual dependence of causes and conditions. Therefore, this is called dependent arising. Dependent arising is of two kinds: first, external dependent arising; and second, internal dependent arising. External dependent arising means the formation of the world, like a sprout arising from a seed, as previously explained. Internal dependent arising means that when ignorance exists, formations exist; this is called dependent arising in forward order. When ignorance ceases, formations cease; this is called dependent arising in reverse order.

Dependent arising in forward order is explained in seven ways: in terms of stages, in terms of continuity over distant lives, in terms of continuous transition, in terms of a single instant, in terms of the three periods, in terms of the twofold cause and effect, and in terms of the three afflictions, and so forth.

Explanation in terms of stages means that, in a previous life, the five skandhas in their state of affliction are called ignorance. They are spoken of in this way because ignorance predominates. Hereafter, the predominant factor is used in naming each stage. Formations and the other dharmas each comprise all five skandhas. Formations mean the five skandhas in the previous life when wholesome and unwholesome karma was created. Consciousness means the five skandhas at the instant when conception has just occurred in the womb.

Name-and-form means the stage after consciousness has formed but before the six ayatanas have arisen within the five skandhas. “Name” means the four skandhas of feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.

Name-and-form refers to the developmental stages of the embryo: kalala (here called “the mingled state,” and also said to mean “the gelatinous state”); arbuda (here called “the congealed sac”); pesi (here called “the lump of flesh”); ghana (here called “the firm mass”); and prasakha (here called “the stage in which the limbs and their subsidiary parts arise”). These are the five stages of name-and-form.

The six ayatanas refer to the five skandhas during the period in the mother’s womb from the arising of the eyes and the other faculties until the threefold conjunction occurs, before objects are distinctly cognized.

Contact means the threefold conjunction of faculty, object, and consciousness. It refers to the five skandhas at the stage when there is the capacity to distinguish the causes of suffering and pleasure.

Feeling means the stage when the causes and distinctive characteristics of the three kinds of feeling have been understood. It refers to the five skandhas from infancy until sexual desire has not yet arisen.

Craving refers to the five skandhas at the stage when one has grown up and desires sexual activity but has not yet gone everywhere in pursuit of it.

Clinging means the five skandhas at the stage when, in order to obtain all kinds of excellent and exquisite things, one goes everywhere in pursuit of them.

Existence means the five skandhas at the stage when, through running about in pursuit, one accumulates karma capable of producing a future result. Through the power of this karma, when one relinquishes this life, one is immediately conceived and comes to dwell within the five skandhas.

Aging-and-death refers to the five skandhas of the future life, from the arising of name-and-form through feeling. The Sarvastivada school says that dependent arising explained in terms of stages is also an account of continuity over distant lives, and continuous transition is likewise explained in this way. Other schools maintain that there is no explanation in terms of stages. Explanation in terms of continuity over distant lives is as follows: ignorance reveals its distinctive characteristic. It is the initial cause of mental factors and gives rise to karma—meritorious karma, non-meritorious karma, and imperturbable karma.

Consciousness is the arising of consciousness induced by karma. Name-and-form is the five skandhas of the embryo. The six ayatanas are the arising of the eye and the other faculties. Contact is the threefold conjunction of faculty, object, and consciousness, clearly understood as a mental factor. Feeling means that, due to

the places in which suffering, pleasure, equanimity, and so forth arise. Craving is attachment to pleasurable objects. Grasping means seeking those objects. Becoming is the karma formed after arising through that. Birth means formation through the continuity of karma. Birth, aging, and death cause that birth to develop into full birth and then death. Thus the cycle continues.

From the Standpoint of a Single Moment means that, within one moment, all twelve links of dependent arising are complete. Because greed performs the act of killing and delusion is present, there is ignorance; taking life is formations. Discernment of an object is called consciousness.

The complete five skandhas are called name-and-form. Their bases are called the material faculties; these are called the six ayatanas. When the three kinds—faculty, object, and consciousness—come together, there is contact.

Because of contact, there is feeling. Greed gives rise to craving; association with this and the resulting bondage are called grasping. The two karmas of body and speech that arise are called becoming.

The arising together of such dharmas is called birth. Their maturation and alteration are called aging; their destruction and cessation are called death.

From the Standpoint of the Three Periods means that ignorance and formations, together with contact, are included in the past and are called the causal links. Consciousness and the five links included in present contact are called the resultant links. Craving, grasping, and becoming, the three kinds included in the present, are called the causal links of the future. Birth, aging, and death, the two links included in future contact, are called the resultant links. There are two links in the past, eight links in the present, and two links in the future, making twelve links in all.

From the Standpoint of the Twofold Cause and Effect, there are two: the former period and the latter period. Regarding the former period, ignorance is that which impels, while formations are karma. These two causal links give rise to consciousness and the five links, which are the resultant links. This is one distinct cycle of cause and effect. In the present, the two links of craving and grasping are that which impels, while becoming is karma. These three belong to the causes of the future; because of what they produce, birth, aging, and death will arise, and these are the resultant links. This is one cycle of cause and effect. Thus, the twelve links of existence constitute a twofold cause and effect.

From the Standpoint of the Three Defilements, ignorance, craving, and grasping, these three, are the defilements. Formations and becoming, these two, are karma. This is the truth of the origin of suffering.

Consciousness and the seven links are suffering. This is the truth of suffering. That is dependent arising in forward order.

Dependent arising in reverse order is: with the cessation of ignorance, formations cease. The cessation of ignorance means clearly knowing non-self. This is the truth of the path.

If ignorance ceases, the cause giving rise to formations ceases, and the karma that leads onward also ceases; therefore, consciousness and the five links cease. Through this cessation, the craving and grasping that subsequently initiate karma also cease. Because of their cessation, birth, aging, and death all cease.

This is the truth of cessation. These are called the Four Truths. Conditioned arising and the Four Truths are all included within five categories of dharmas: first, material dharmas; second, mental dharmas; third, mental-factor dharmas; fourth, dharmas dissociated from mind; and fifth, unconditioned dharmas.

First, material dharmas comprise the form skandha, the five faculties, the five objects, and non-informative form, making eleven dharmas. The five faculties are as follows: the true, extremely subtle eye faculty, like the fragrance of a flower, is located in the pupil of the eye; the extremely subtle ear faculty, like a rolled flower petal, is located within the ear canal; the extremely subtle nose faculty, shaped like two fingernail tips, is located inside the nose; the extremely subtle tongue faculty, shaped like a half-moon, is located upon the tip of the tongue; the extremely subtle body faculty extends throughout the body, from the crown of the head down to the feet. Because the faculties are material, they cannot themselves cognize objects.

The five objects are as follows. Visible form is the object cognized by the eye. It is of two kinds: manifest color and shape. There are four kinds of manifest color: blue, yellow, red, and white. There are sixteen kinds of shape: long, short, crooked, round, high, low, straight, not straight, light, darkness, clouds, smoke, dust, mist, and so forth.

The twenty kinds of sound are the objects cognized by the ear. They are of two kinds: sounds appropriated by sentient beings, such as speech, and sounds not appropriated by sentient beings, such as the sound of a drum. There are also determinate and indeterminate sounds, each divided into four kinds. These are further distinguished as agreeable and disagreeable, making six distinctions.

Odor is the object cognized by the nose. There are four kinds: fragrant odor, non-fragrant odor, balanced odor, and unbalanced odor, making four distinctions.

Taste is the object cognized by the tongue. There are six kinds: sweet, sour, bitter, astringent, salty, and bland.

Tangible objects are those cognized by the body. There are four kinds of primary tangible causes and their resultant tangible qualities: smoothness and roughness, heaviness and lightness, cold and heat, hunger and thirst, and so forth.

Non-informative form means disciplines of restraint and non-restraint alike, which differ from other forms. These constitute the form skandha.

Second, there are six mental dharmas: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness. These six consciousnesses constitute the consciousness skandha.

Third, there are forty-six mental-factor dharmas. First are the universal mental factors, of which there are sixteen kinds. Feeling means receiving. Perception causes the mind to apprehend an object. Volition causes the mind to move. Attention causes the mind to engage an object. Resolution enables the mind to ascertain an object; that is, it makes the mind unhesitating with regard to its object. Desire means wishing and hoping. Contact means discerning through the coming together of conditions. Wisdom means discernment, making things clear. Mindfulness causes the mind to recollect its object clearly without forgetting it. Concentration causes the mind to focus single-pointedly upon one object. These ten kinds pervade all states of mind and are called the universal mental factors.

Second are the universal wholesome mental factors, of which there are ten. Faith causes the mind to become pure toward its object. Diligence means continually cultivating wholesome dharmas and guarding the nature of the mind.

Pliancy means that the mind possesses adaptability. Equanimity causes the mind to remain balanced. Moral shame means respectfully regarding virtues and those who possess virtue.

Moral dread means seeing an offense and fearing it. Non-greed means not clinging to conditioned things. Non-hatred means not delighting in harming sentient beings.

Non-harming means compassionately caring for sentient beings so that they are not injured or afflicted. Diligent effort causes the mind to be courageous in wholesome deeds. These ten kinds pervade all wholesome states of mind and are called the universal wholesome mental factors.

Third are the universal afflicted mental factors. There are six kinds: delusion means ignorance, lack of knowledge, and lack of clarity. Heedlessness means negligence and failure to cultivate wholesome deeds. Laziness means indolence and lack of courage. Lack of faith means that the mind is not clear and serene. Torpor means that the continuity of body and mind lacks vigor; that is, it is weighed down. Restlessness means that the mind is not calm. These six kinds pervade afflicted states of mind and are called the universal afflicted mental factors.

Fourth are the universal unwholesome mental factors. There are two kinds. The first is shamelessness, which causes the mind to show no respect toward virtues or those who possess virtue. The second is lack of moral dread, which means having no fear whatsoever of offenses. These two kinds pervade unwholesome states of mind and are called the universal unwholesome mental factors.

Fifth are the minor afflicted mental factors. There are ten kinds: wrath causes the mind to become angry. Resentment means repeatedly harboring enmity in the mind toward the condition that aroused anger and refusing to relinquish it.

Deceit means crookedness of mind. Fraudulence means misleading others. Jealousy means being unable to tolerate the virtues of others.

Vexation means obstinately clinging to one's faults and consequently refusing to accept proper admonition and repent. Concealment means hiding one's own offenses. Avarice causes the mind to be miserly regarding Dharma and wealth.

Arrogance means being defiledly attached to one's own physical beauty, strength, lineage, and so forth, causing the mind to become unrestrained. Harmfulness means being capable of oppressing others. Although these ten kinds are abandoned through cultivation, they pervade the sphere of mind-consciousness.

They are called the minor afflicted mental factors.

The six indeterminate dharmas are of eight kinds. Initial thought means causing the mind to turn toward an object as its characteristic. Sustained thought means causing the mind to turn toward a subtle object as its characteristic. Regret means an evil deed that has been done, with the sense of seeking to hold it back. Sloth and torpor mean being unable to maintain the continuity of body and mind, causing the mind to become indolent. Anger means causing the mind to intend harm to the happiness of sentient beings. Greed means attachment to the conditioned. Pride means causing the mind to rely arrogantly upon something. Doubt means causing the mind to be hesitant. Thus, these eight kinds are not invariably present throughout the preceding stages. Therefore, they are called indeterminate.

The Treatise on the Collection of Dharmas and the Treatise on the Five Skandhas state that there are eleven wholesome factors. Clearly understanding the Four Noble Truths within is called non-delusion. Among the subsidiary afflictions, grasping what is impure as pure, together with defiled attention and resolute conviction, is called improper attention.

Within the fundamental affliction of wrong resolute conviction, there is excessive inversion concerning the principles of the truths. The defiled aspect of wisdom is called incorrect knowing. Among the subsidiary afflictions, the inability to recognize clearly the defiled discriminations regarding objects of cognition is called loss of mindfulness.

Causing the mind to wander among its objects is the defiled aspect of concentration, called distraction. The Abhidharma treatises do not explain it in this way. Among the mental factors above, apart from feeling and perception, all the rest are included within the skandha of formations.

Among the dharmas that are objects of mind, there are fourteen formations dissociated from mind. That which exists as a distinct entity in the continuity of a sentient being and corresponds to moral restraint is called acquisition. That which exists as a distinct entity and does not correspond to that moral restraint is called non-acquisition.

The commonality by which sentient beings engage together in activities is called the common character of beings. If one is born among the non-percipient beings in the heaven of non-perception, there is a dharma capable of causing mind and mental factors to cease. This truly existent entity is the state of non-perception.

There is also a distinct dharma capable of causing mind and mental factors to cease, called the concentration of non-perception. “Non-perception” is the name of the concentration, or a concentration devoid of perception is called the concentration of non-perception, as explained below. In the continuity of a noble one, the cessation of perception and feeling is a truly existent entity called the concentration of complete cessation.

From the first arising of a sentient being, through its abiding, until the interval before death, there is what is called the life faculty. At first, what did not exist is caused to arise; it is then caused gradually to continue and is therefore called abiding. It subsequently changes and is therefore called aging.

It deteriorates and is therefore called impermanence. These are the four characteristics. That which can establish its own essence is called a word-body.

That which possesses a complete and final meaning is called a phrase-body. These two depend upon what is called the syllable-body. The fourteenth dharma means gathering inwardly; that which disrupts the harmony of the assembly is called disharmony.

The result of an action comes to ripen by itself. Just as when a responsibility has been fulfilled, it is not impaired. An entity again bound together with these belongs to the formations dissociated from mind.

The Sarvastivada holds that matter and mental factors comprise three distinct entities. The Sautrantika masters say: These three dharmas are provisionally designated and separately established. Apart from feeling and perception, the remaining forty-six existent mental factors and the dissociated factors are called the skandha of formations.

The unconditioned dharmas should be understood according to what is explained below. Thus, material dharmas are precisely the ten dhatus, excluding unmanifest matter. These are the eye and the other ten.

Mental dharmas comprise seven dhatus, namely the six consciousnesses and the dhatu of the mental faculty. If spoken of in terms of ayatanas, those seven dharmas are included in the single mental ayatana. Existent mental factors, dissociated dharmas, unconditioned dharmas, unmanifest matter, and so forth are collectively called the dharma-dhatu.

It is also called the dharma-ayatana. Thus has it been explained: one should understand the five dharmas, the five skandhas, the twelve ayatanas, and the eighteen dhatus.

Chapter on the Dharma of the Path

Third

Furthermore, the Path means knowing “few desires and contentment,” being endowed with the qualities of the community, keeping body and mind apart from many kinds of complexity, dwelling close to moral discipline, and being diligent in listening to the teachings.

Chapter on the Dharma of the Fruition

Fourth

Next is the contemplation of the Truth of the Path. Its four characteristics are these: penetrating understanding is the path; accord with true principle is appropriateness; cultivating the wisdom free from thought is practice; and direct realization is the threefold knowledge.

These fifteen kinds are called the approach to the first fruition.

The sixteenth is permanent emergence through that Truth of the Path and the direct realization of a single knowledge. This is the sixteenth, after which one abides in the first fruition. Having realized the Four Noble Truths, one can cultivate the sixteen practices to maturity.

To eliminate the nine grades of afflictions to be abandoned through cultivation in the desire realm, one must first eliminate five grades; this is the approach to once-returning. Eliminating the sixth grade is the fruition of once-returning. That once-returner returns once more to the desire realm and undergoes one birth among the three lower grades.

After undergoing one birth in the desire realm, one directly realizes and fully matures the modes of practice. Eliminating the seventh and eighth grades is called the approach to non-returning. Eliminating the ninth grade is called the fruition of non-returning.

That non-returner has completely eliminated all afflictions of the desire realm and will never again be born in the desire realm. One directly realizes the higher realms and their modes of practice. Cultivating them to maturity, one passes through the four dhyanas and the four formless attainments, each of which has nine grades of afflictions to eliminate.

Beginning with the first grade of the first dhyana and continuing until the elimination of the eighth grade of the summit of existence, this is called the approach to arhatship. Eliminating the ninth grade is called the fruition of arhatship. That arhat has eliminated the afflictions without remainder throughout the three realms and is therefore called an arhat.

The scripture states: The Parched Wisdom Ground is the eighth ground, the path of provisions of the sravaka; this is the Parched Wisdom Ground. Desire and craving have dried up, and faculty and object no longer remain. The wholesome qualities cultivated here are called the Parched Wisdom Ground.

The Lineage Ground is the path of preparatory practice. Those who will certainly not become Buddhas but are destined to attain the lineages of sravakas or pratyekabuddhas are therefore said to be on the Lineage Ground.

The Ground of the Eight Persons comprises the approach to the first fruition through the fruition of arhatship and is called the Ground of the Eight Persons.

The Ground Endowed with Vision is abiding in the first fruition. Because the modes of practice of the Four Noble Truths are directly realized and seen, it is called the Ground Endowed with Vision.

The Ground of Attenuation is the fruition of once-returning. Because most of the afflictions of the desire realm have been eliminated, it is called the Ground of Attenuation.

The Ground Free from Desire is the fruition of non-returning. Because one has departed from the desire realm and from sensual craving and the like, it is called the Ground Free from Desire.

The Ground of Having Completed the Task is the state of an arhat. Because one has understood suffering, eliminated its origin, realized cessation, and cultivated the Path, it is called the Ground of Having Completed the Task.

The Sravaka Ground comprises non-returners and arhats. These three are called the Sravaka Ground.

The Pratyekabuddha Ground is based upon the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment explained above. Desiring to realize bodhi entirely by oneself, one thus arouses the aspiration and cultivates for one hundred great kalpas. One’s final body is born into a world without a Buddha. Without needing instruction from a teacher, one realizes the state of a pratyekabuddha. There are two kinds: first, the rhinoceros-like solitary one—whose twofold practice is likened to the rhinoceros horn, unique in perfecting the practices of noble virtue—and those who practice in groups together with others.

Ultimate Perfect Enlightenment, as explained above, employs the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment to enable sentient beings to attain Buddhahood. One arouses great compassion and the bodhi-mind, serves the Buddhas and brings them joy, benefits others, and practices the six paramitas. After three incalculable kalpas, one ultimately attains Buddhahood.

In the past, when Shakyamuni Tathagata was a teacher guiding and transforming beings, he was named Great Radiant Light. In the presence of the Great Shakyamuni Tathagata, he first aroused the aspiration for enlightenment. Until the end of the first incalculable kalpa, he served seventy-five thousand Buddhas, the last of whom was named Jeweled Topknot.

During the second incalculable kalpa, he served seventy-six thousand Buddhas, the last of whom was called Dipankara. During the third incalculable kalpa, he served seventy-seven thousand Buddhas, the last of whom was named Victorious Contemplation.

Regarding these six paramitas: with a mind of great compassion toward sentient beings, he bestowed upon them all the necessities of life. To liberate all beings universally, while still a prince he brought the perfection of giving to ultimate fulfillment. Before he had abandoned sensual desire, even when his hands and feet were severed, his mind felt not the slightest anger or grief. When he was the Patient Sage, he brought the two practices of patience and moral discipline to ultimate fulfillment. When he was a brahmin youth, he saw the Buddha Tishya abiding in meditative concentration amid fire and, forgetting his own legs, stood for seven days and nights. He therefore praised him, saying:

In heaven and earth, this is the home of the Learned One;

The heavenly realms and palaces of the ten directions cannot compare.

Great Man, Bull-King, Great Shramana

Seeking mountain and forest lands, none could compare.

Having praised in this way, he then transcended nine kalpas and reached the ultimate, perfect fulfillment of the paramitas. The perfect place was the Vajra Seat. During the first watch of the night, he subdued all the armies of Mara.

During the last watch, he entered the Vajra Samadhi. The two practices of concentration and wisdom were ultimately perfected. Thus, at the Vajra Seat where he subdued Mara, he had previously, throughout three incalculable kalpas, fully cultivated merit and wisdom and served all the Buddhas.

Although the six paramitas had been perfected, he immediately took birth in another body. Apart from the Vajra Seat, he realized the path of seeing and the path of cultivation and attained perfect, complete enlightenment. In the Sravaka Vehicle, with regard to the causes, there is no clear explanation of knowing the selflessness of all dharmas, emptiness, compassion, generosity, the practice of the emptiness of the three spheres, or the modes of practice of the ten bhumis.

With regard to the fruit, there is no explanation of the reward body or the Four Wisdoms.

The Dharma of Perfect Enlightenment comprises six categories: cessation, body, wisdom, benefiting others, great compassion, and virtue, all of which are complete. There are two bodies. The first is the Form Body; the second is the Dharma Body. The Form Body possesses the thirty-two excellent marks and the eighty minor characteristics; this is the body of intrinsic nature, which liberates the Gandharvas and the Pilucas. It manifests as the King of the Gandharvas and as a Wheel-Turning Sage King. This is the transformation body. Furthermore, the bodily dimensions, lifespans, lands, and faculties of the Buddhas and sentient beings, and so forth, are of many different kinds. Second, the Dharma Body possesses the ten qualities beyond training that are shared by all Buddhas.

Wisdom is also of two kinds. The first is Universal Wisdom; the second is Right Wisdom. Universal Wisdom means clearly knowing the intrinsic nature of the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, causes, and effects. Therefore, it is called Universal Wisdom. Second, Right Wisdom means clearly knowing the Four Noble Truths and the impermanence of dharmas. Therefore, it is called Right Wisdom.

Cessation is also of two kinds. The first is the realization of the cessation of afflictions; the second is the realization of the cessation of the knowable. The realization of the cessation of afflictions consists in applying antidotes to greed, the root affliction, and to the subsidiary afflictions, causing them to cease. Second is the realization of the cessation of the knowable. This means applying antidotes when objects become obstructions, causing the intrinsic failure to know all dharmas to cease.

Benefiting others is of two kinds. The first is establishing sentient beings in liberation, relinquishing notions of right and wrong, and causing them to abide in the path. The second is establishing sentient beings in wholesome objects, inducing them to abandon evil deeds and causing them to abide in goodness. Great compassion and virtue will each be explained later.

The noble ones commonly teach that there are eleven kinds of meritorious qualities: freedom from conflict, knowledge born of aspiration, the four unobstructed understandings, the six superknowledges, the four dhyanas, the four formless attainments, the four immeasurables, the eight liberations, the ten totalities, the eight spheres of mastery, the three samadhis, and so forth.

Freedom from Conflict means relying upon the mind of the fourth dhyana and aspiring that sentient beings not take this body as an object and thereby give rise to afflictions, while cultivating samadhi. Therefore, it is called Freedom from Conflict.

Knowledge Born of Aspiration means relying upon the mind of the fourth dhyana, taking aspiration as the starting point, and, as knowledge arises, clearly knowing in accordance with one’s aspiration. Therefore, it is called Knowledge Born of Aspiration.

The Four Unobstructed Understandings comprise: unobstructed understanding of Dharma, which knows the names of all dharmas; unobstructed understanding of meaning, which knows their precise meanings; third, unobstructed understanding of expression, which clearly knows speech and language; and fourth, unobstructed eloquence, which clearly knows the teachings in accordance with the true Dharma. These are called the Four Unobstructed Understandings.

The Six Superknowledges comprise: first, the superknowledge of miraculous powers, by which one passes unobstructed through walls and rocks; second, the superknowledge of the divine ear, by which all sounds, whether near or far or of other kinds, are clearly heard and known; third, the superknowledge of the divine eye, which can, as appropriate, apprehend forms that are exceedingly minute, distant, or obstructed, together with all their colors; fourth, the superknowledge of others’ minds, which can know whether or not another person’s mind possesses desire; fifth, the superknowledge of recollecting former abodes, by which one knows one’s own past lives and the past lives of others;

sixth, the superknowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows, by which one knows all paths, mundane and supramundane.

The first five still possess outflows and therefore rely upon the four dhyanas. The sixth is free of outflows and therefore relies upon the ninth stage.

The Four Dhyanas comprise: The first dhyana is complete with five factors. The first is initial application; the second is sustained application; the third is rapture; the fourth is bliss; the fifth is samadhi.

The second dhyana is complete with four factors. The first is inner serenity; the second is rapture; the third is bliss; the fourth is samadhi.

The third dhyana is complete with five factors. The first is equanimity toward formations; the second is right mindfulness; the third is right wisdom; the fourth is the experience of bliss; the fifth is samadhi.

The fifth dhyana is complete with four factors. The first is purity of equanimity toward formations; the second is purity of mindfulness; the third is feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant; the fourth is samadhi.

The Four Formless Attainments are cultivated by preparatory practice in which one contemplates boundless space, boundless consciousness, and nothingness. At the time of right concentration, form is excluded, and one relies upon the four skandhas. The fourth arises because perception is weak. Because there is no stronger perception, it is called neither-perception; because there is a subtle, inferior perception, it is called nor-non-perception. Thus, in sequence, the sphere of boundless space, the sphere of boundless consciousness, the sphere of nothingness, and the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception are called the Four Formless Attainments. If the attainment of cessation is added, they are called the Nine Successive Attainments.

The Four Immeasurables comprise loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. Of these four, the first two take non-hatred as their essence. Joy is the feeling of joy, while equanimity is non-greed. Their objects are sentient beings in the desire realm who are harmed by hatred, or who rejoice and desire with greed and hatred. In this way, they counteract them in sequence.

The Eight Liberations are as follows. Relying upon the first two dhyanas: first, while inwardly possessing the perception of form, one contemplates external forms and is liberated. The perception of impurity is transformed into the perception of purity; form is used to contemplate form.

Second, while inwardly free from the perception of form, one contemplates external forms and is liberated. Inwardly, one contemplates the formless. Third, relying upon the subsequent dhyana and the liberation of purity, one personally realizes it and abides in its complete fulfillment.

One contemplates all forms as becoming pure radiance. These three kinds, together with the four formless concentrations and, in sequence, their four liberations, and the concentration of the cessation of perception and feeling, constitute the eight liberations. Relying upon the mind at the summit of existence, the noble ones suppress coarse feelings and perceptions.

Through the concentration of purity upon purity, they extinguish the mind and mental factors; this is called the Attainment of Cessation.

The Ten Totalities mean universally knowing and contemplating earth, water, fire, wind, blue, yellow, red, white, and the two totalities of space and consciousness. Relying upon the four dhyanas and taking visible forms of the desire realm as objects, one universally contemplates the element and its sphere without any gaps. Of the ten, the first eight take non-greed as their essence. The final two respectively take formless space and formless consciousness as their intrinsic nature.

The Eight Spheres of Mastery comprise: first, while inwardly possessing the perception of form, one contemplates a small amount of external form; second, while inwardly possessing the perception of form, one contemplates a large amount of external form; third, while inwardly free from the perception of form, one contemplates a small amount of external form; fourth, while inwardly free from the perception of form, one contemplates a large amount of external form.

While inwardly free from the perception of form, one contemplates external forms that are blue, yellow, red, and white; these are four more. Together with the preceding four, they make eight. Among these eight, the first two are like the first liberation; the next two, in sequence, are like the second liberation; the final four are like the third liberation.

What, then, is the relation between the Eight Spheres of Mastery and the three liberations?

The answer is: Although one who first cultivates liberation can relinquish even body and life, one who cultivates these spheres of mastery can master the objects of cognition. According to one’s wish, those objects may be brought to an end and prevented from arising again. The cultivation of liberation, first, transforms beings through instruction and then severs and removes them far away.

Second, one gains supreme mastery in concentration. This can lead to freedom from conflict and its virtue, as well as to supreme superknowledges. Through this, one can further transform various phenomena, initiating the causes and activities of retaining or relinquishing them.

The Three Samadhis are: emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness.

The Samadhi of Emptiness means samadhi corresponding to the two modes of contemplation: emptiness and non-self.

The Samadhi of Signlessness means samadhi corresponding to the four modes of contemplation that take the truth of cessation as their object. Nirvana is signless and free from the ten signs; therefore, it is called signless. The concentration capable of taking it as its object is called signless.

The Wishless Samadhi means taking the Truths and ten kinds of aspects as its objects, in conjunction with conventional knowledge. Impermanence and suffering are causes capable of concealing conflict. The Path is like a boat and should be relinquished. Because it can take samadhi as its object, it is called wishless. All transcend the objects before them. These virtues are all liberations. Arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and Tathagatas all possess what are called virtues.

Liberation through Wisdom means being without the three samadhis and the four immeasurables.

The Tathagata has eighteen unique virtues: the ten powers, the four fearlessnesses, the three foundations of mindfulness, and great compassion.

The Ten Powers are: First, the power of knowing what is possible and what is impossible. Second, the power of knowing the maturation of karma. Third, the power of knowing meditative absorptions, liberations, samadhis, and so forth. Fourth, the power of knowing the higher and lower faculties. Fifth, the power of knowing the various inclinations. Sixth, the power of knowing the various elements. Seventh, the power of knowing the paths leading everywhere. Eighth, the power of knowing the recollection of former abodes. Ninth, the power of knowing death and rebirth. Tenth, the power of knowing the exhaustion of the defilements.

The Four Fearlessnesses are: First, fearlessness concerning perfect enlightenment. Second, fearlessness concerning the exhaustion of the defilements. Third, fearlessness in teaching the obstructions. Fourth, fearlessness in teaching the Path. Because the Tathagata possesses powers of knowledge and is therefore fearless regarding these matters, they are called the Fearlessnesses.

The Three Foundations of Mindfulness mean that when the Tathagata teaches the Dharma to his disciples, and they single-mindedly turn toward him with reverence and are able to practice correctly and accept the teaching, the Tathagata, taking this as his object, neither gives rise to delight nor attachment, but abides in equanimity, right mindfulness, and right comprehension. This is the Tathagata’s first foundation of mindfulness.

Although the disciples are irreverent and neither practice correctly nor accept the teaching, the Tathagata, taking this as his object, does not give rise to sorrow or distress, but relinquishes everything and abides in right mindfulness and right comprehension. This is the Tathagata’s second foundation of mindfulness.

One group of disciples is reverent and is able to practice correctly and accept the teaching; another group is irreverent and neither practices correctly nor accepts the teaching. The Tathagata, taking this as his object, gives rise neither to joy nor reproach, but relinquishes everything and abides in right mindfulness and right comprehension. This is the Tathagata’s third foundation of mindfulness.

These three have mindfulness and wisdom as their essence. Therefore, they are called Foundations of Mindfulness.

Great Compassion means that, throughout the six periods of day and night, the Tathagata observes the world—who truly suffers, who is truly happy, and who truly should be tamed—and accordingly brings them benefit and happiness. Therefore, it is called Great Compassion. The Mahayana teaches the Tathagata’s eighteen unique qualities and three things requiring no guarding, of which the Shravaka Vehicle has never heard.

Chapter on Unconditioned Dharmas

Five

Furthermore, there are three kinds of unconditioned dharmas: First, space. Second, cessation through discernment. Third, cessation not through discernment. Space is without substance; space is perpetually existent and does not again take anything as its nature. Because it offers no obstruction, it pervades all places. It is called space, which is formless in relation to conditioned phenomena. Apart from this, there are also openings and apertures; therefore, light, darkness, and such things as A-gia form are all not unconditioned.

Second is the unconditioned cessation through discernment, meaning that which can prevent future dharmas from arising and attains a cessation different from what existed before. What is called cessation not through discernment is attained for reasons other than discernment, invariably through the absence of conditions. Therefore, it is called cessation not through discernment.

These are the three unconditioned things. The Sarvastivada holds that they are real entities. The Sautrantika masters say that they have no activity. It is asked: Is suchness not also unconditioned?

The answer is: That is precisely selflessness, but the Shravaka Vehicle does not teach the selflessness of dharmas. The selflessness of persons is itself impermanence and the twenty-six aspects. The aspects of the Three Truths are conditioned.

Of the aspects of the Truth of Cessation, only cessation through discernment is a dharma; it is not the elimination of a dharma. Thus, the vessel-world, sentient beings, the Path, the fruit, and the unconditioned should be understood as five categories that together encompass all dharmas everywhere. The dharmas of the vessel-world and sentient beings are the Truth of Suffering; that which becomes their cause is the Truth of Origination.

The two dharmas of the Path and its fruit belong to the Truth of the Path. The unconditioned cessation through discernment is the Truth of Cessation. Space and cessation not through discernment, the two kinds of unconditioned, are not included among the Four Truths.

The two Truths of Suffering and Origination comprise conditioned dharmas with defilements. The two Truths of the Path and Cessation comprise undefiled dharmas. Thus are taught the worldly and supramundane, the conditioned and unconditioned; these dharmas should be understood accordingly.

Endowed with the wealth of noble characteristics,

The discerning Crown Prince,

After many people had made supplication,

Requested Wisdom Banner, Auspicious and Virtuous,

Author of the Treatise on the Sun Treasury of the Foundations of Mindfulness,

Who transcends the world and knows the Abhidharma,

To compose this treatise for that reason.

The places understood by sentient beings through this treatise,

And their capacities and dispositions, are boundless;

In brief, there are five:

The vessel-world, sentient beings, the Path, the fruit,

Together with unconditioned dharmas.

Thus, they have been clearly presented,

And explained lucidly in every place,

Solely so they may be clearly understood.

Having explained them, I again indicate them.

Should this treatise and its phrases

Fail to encompass the vast meaning of the explanations,

I beseech the wise

Only to deign to accept them with forbearance.

May the roots of virtue thus produced

Pervade the entirety of space.

May I and all sentient beings

Realize the unsurpassed fruit.

This Treatise on Clear Understanding was composed at the request of the bodhisattva, Crown Prince Chan Kim. Thus, in the latter part of Mid-Autumn in the Renyin year, when the three lunar mansions were on duty, the Dharma King and Supreme Master Sa-tu-ca Dai-bang-di-dat-tuc-tran-dinh-tho, the bhikshu Phat-tu-ba, Wisdom Banner, Auspicious and Virtuous, completed it at the Dharma seat of Great Auspicious Sa-tu-ca. The Master’s disciple, who upheld the sutras and Vinaya and possessed both learning and wisdom, received, retained, and committed it to writing.

End of the Lower Fascicle of the Treatise on Clear Understanding

The Great Scripture says: “The myriad phenomena, dense and manifold, are formed by the seal of a single Dharma. Their many kinds interpenetrate, manifesting brilliantly.” Were it not for the direct realization of the Dharma-realm, how could this Treatise on Clear Understanding have been composed?

Emperor Nãi Tiên Hoàng Duệ Tông of the imperial lineage, whose sacred discernment illumined all and whose divine wisdom shone brightly, was moved by the delusions of wrong views and by the profound decline of the true Dharma. He therefore respectfully invited the Imperial Preceptor, the Dharma King, for the benefit and welfare of sentient beings, to expound the conditions for awakening to the ultimate truth. Its beginning and end have now been made clear. Gradual cultivation is indeed essential. It is extensive yet precise, profound yet grounded in its source. Like ancient cloth of pure gold, it may be used according to one’s needs. Its meaning encompasses all five and ultimately returns to the One.

Thus it speaks of the world of sentient beings and the material world. There are none among the ignorant multitude who, failing to understand, do not cling to divergent views: some speak of a single vital energy; some speak of spontaneous nature; others point directly to the Way of Mind. It clearly begins with the first kalpa, encompasses the eight extremities without, and reaches down to the smallest particle within. It is like the elephant and the ant, or like the fingers upon the palm.

In speaking of the Dharma of the Path, it takes few desires and contentment, together with hearing, reflection, cultivation, wisdom, and the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, as causes. In speaking of the Dharma of the Fruit, it takes the stages of accumulation, preparation, seeing, cultivation, and no-more-learning as the fruit. In speaking of the unconditioned, the Four Noble Truths together with the Truth of Cessation are ultimate truth. Through these five, all knowable dharmas are encompassed. Therefore, it is called the Treatise on Clear Understanding.

True wisdom and numinous knowing—could their meaning be confined to seeing, hearing, discernment, and cognition? By deeply entering dependent origination and the true characteristic of all dharmas, relying upon and taking refuge in the foundations of mindfulness, containing the radiance of the sun, and giving rise to the meaning of the corresponding dharmas, one then upholds their essential principles. Thereafter, by means of the supernormal power of the Heaven of Controlling Others’ Emanations, one surveys worlds as numerous as dust particles, showering them with rain and dew.

The eye sees the objects it experiences; the ear hears the wondrous manifestations that arise. The three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system is seen and heard as plainly as an āmalaka fruit held firmly in the palm. How much more so the wondrous functioning of the Perfectly and Completely Enlightened One!

This can clearly be said concerning the present work. Why, then, should one be anxious for the age?

Heaven has already opened a new era for the world, and the teaching of images is now flourishing. At this time, the golden wheel is turning. Reverently following the sacred decree, it is said: “Between Heaven and Earth, there is one person who stands above all.” A disciple from the Western Regions, bearing the jade seal of the Great Yuan emperor, Lũng Ác Nhĩ Long honored his teacher and esteemed the Way, serving as an exemplar for emperors throughout the ages. He became an official of the Institute for the Promotion of Governance, yet remained mindful of humility and respectfully received and upheld the record. He took profound delight in the Buddha Vehicle.

One day, when the Great Master Sa La Ba, President of Jiangzhe, was translating the Treatise on Clear Understanding, it was transmitted to the prefecture of Songjiang, where there were eight Great Masters serving as administrators of the Sangha Registry. The Master was continuing the engraving of the sacred teachings of the Great Canon. Upon encountering this treatise, he regarded it as a precious treasure and rejoiced with delight.

Wooden blocks were prepared according to its extent, and the engraving of the preface and the text that followed was expedited. Words are insufficient to relate fully the teachings that inspired this undertaking. That the sacred teachings might be propagated and flourish is indeed an excellent thing; to contribute further to this meritorious work is the fundamental intent of this preface.

Respectfully written at the full moon of the tenth month of the Bính Ngọ year of the Dade era.

Formerly of Khiết Prefecture in Jiangxi, now a Circuit Official, residing at Báo Ân Monastery; he lectured on the scripture, supplied annotations, and had this preface engraved.