彰所知論

Of those who transcend the three realms, there is only the Buddha. The Buddha, by reason of one great matter, appeared in the world to compassionately teach and transform all beings. From the beginning until now, this has never been otherwise.

Such is indeed a wholesome deed. The Imperial Preceptor of the Great Yuan thoroughly understood the Three Vehicles; his nature and conduct were radiant as springtime, and the breadth of his benevolent heart was beyond compare. The Emperor graciously assented, having long known the Master to be single-minded and upright.

He respectfully invited the Master to give instruction. The Master willingly bestowed the aspiration of purity, propagated entry into the truth, and restored the tradition of the school. Because his understanding was lucid, he composed this treatise.

Its writing is profound and its meaning clearly ordered; like the sun and moon, it pervades heaven and earth. It rests beneath the protection of the Tathagata. None but a sage could illuminate it.

Like a leader towering over the Snow Mountains, he was renowned throughout the world. Very many came to hear and receive his teaching. Having long attended closely upon the Master, I quietly translated this treatise and transmitted it to the world.

For the public benefit, I brought about this encounter, with goodwill and a heart of loving forbearance. For the common cause, I wrote this preface. To guard against the ocean of defilements, I at once took up the brush and prepared the inkstone—was this not to make the true teaching shine forth?

Laughing at myself, I said: “How could one be so humble?” There being nothing further to say, I therefore composed this preface.

Homage to the Vajra Master

Homage to all Buddhas and bodhisattvas

The Omniscient One knows that which is to be known

And compassionately instructs sentient beings

Homage to the Supreme Knower

I shall now expound the Obstructions to Knowledge

The vessel world, the realm of sentient beings

The Dharma of the Path and the dharmas of spirits

Together with the unconditioned dharmas

Are briefly said to be of five kinds

Chapter on the Vessel World

One

That which constitutes the formation of the world is the four great elements. All things arise from them. Earth is hard, water is moist, fire is hot, and wind is moving.

These are the great kinds. Being exceedingly subtle, they are called extremely minute particles. They are also called Particles Bordering on Emptiness.

They cannot be fully described. Seven Particles Bordering on Emptiness make one Ultimate Particle. Seven Ultimate Particles make one Fine Particle.

Seven Fine Particles make one Gold-Penetrating Particle. Seven Gold-Penetrating Particles make one Water-Penetrating Particle. Seven Water-Penetrating Particles make one Hare-Hair Particle.

Seven Hare-Hair Particles make one Sheep-Hair Particle. Seven Sheep-Hair Particles make one Ox-Hair Particle. Seven Ox-Hair Particles make one Dust-Mote-in-a-Sunbeam.

Seven Dust-Motes-in-a-Sunbeam make one louse measure. Seven louse measures make one nit measure. Seven nit measures make one barley-grain measure.

Seven barley-grain measures make one finger-joint. Three joints make one finger. Twenty-four fingers laid crosswise make one cubit.

Four cubits make one bow. Five hundred bow-lengths make one krosha. Eight kroshas make one yojana.

This is the method of measuring the world according to form and constitutes the cause of the world's formation. It is brought into being through the shared karma of all sentient beings.

From the ten directions, winds arise in space and operate together without alteration, forming an immensely vast, firm, subtle wind circle, blue-white in color. It is sixteen koti yojanas deep and immeasurable in breadth. Because of warmth, clouds arise, called the Golden Treasury.

Rain then pours down and remains supported by the wind. The ocean below is eleven koti and twenty thousand yojanas deep. Its breadth is twelve koti, thirty-four thousand, and one-half yojanas.

At first, the upper surface of the water congeals into gold, just as fresh milk forms a skin upon its surface. Thereupon, the golden earth circle and the water circle diminish until only eight koti yojanas remain. The gold is three koti and twenty thousand yojanas thick.

The Golden Circle is as broad as the Water Circle, and its circumference is three times as great. Together they measure thirty koti, ten thousand, three hundred and fifty yojanas. Before this, the wind circle beneath the Saha world, the two circles of earth and water beneath the four continents, and, above the earth circle, a great rainfall combined to form the great ocean.

Blown by the winds, it first formed Mount Sumeru; in the middle, it gathered to form the seven golden mountains; and finally it formed the Cakravada Mountain. Various winds formed the four continents and so forth.

The structure of Mount Sumeru is made of silver on the east, vaidurya on the south, crystal on the west, and gold on the north. The other seven mountains beyond it are made of gold. The four continents are formed of variegated earth. The Cakravada Mountain is made entirely of iron. Mount Sumeru extends eighty thousand yojanas into the water. Being the highest of all the mountains, it is called Sumeru, the Wondrously High Mountain. Beyond it, in sequence, are seven golden mountains.

The first is Mount Yugandhara, forty thousand yojanas high.

The second is Mount Isadhara, twenty thousand yojanas high.

The third is Mount Khadiraka, ten thousand yojanas high.

The fourth is Mount Sudarshana, five thousand yojanas high.

The fifth is Mount Ashvakarna, two thousand five hundred yojanas high.

The sixth is Mount Vinataka, one thousand two hundred fifty yojanas high.

The seventh is Mount Nimindhara, six hundred twenty-five yojanas high.

(The Treasury Treatise commentary states: The first is the Yoke-Bearing Mountain; the second, the Axle-Bearing Mountain; the third, the Acacia Mountain; the fourth, the Beautiful-to-Behold Mountain; the fifth, the Horse-Ear Mountain; the sixth, the Elephant-Tusk Mountain; and the seventh, the Fish-Rim Mountain.)

Beyond the four continents stands the Cakravada Mountain, three hundred twelve and one-half yojanas high. Each of these mountains has a breadth equal to its own height above the water. Between the seven golden mountains are the pleasure grounds of the Dragon Kings, called the Joyful Seas. There are eight mountains and seven seas surrounding Mount Sumeru.

The first is the Yugandhara Sea, eighty thousand yojanas wide.

The second is the Isadhara Sea, forty thousand yojanas wide.

The third is the Khadiraka Sea, twenty thousand yojanas wide.

The fourth is the Sudarshana Sea, ten thousand yojanas wide.

The fifth is the Ashvakarna Sea, five thousand yojanas wide.

The sixth is the Vinataka Sea, two thousand five hundred yojanas wide.

The seventh is the Nimindhara Sea, one thousand two hundred fifty yojanas wide.

They consist entirely of water possessing the eight qualities. The eight mountains and seven seas form concentric rings. The water of the outer ocean is salty.

From Mount Nimindhara to the Cakravada Mountain, the distance between the two mountains is three laksha, twenty-two thousand yojanas. In the ocean beyond, the waters cannot be distinguished apart. Because of the colors of Mount Sumeru, the eastern sea is white, the southern sea is blue, the western sea is red, and the northern sea is yellow.

Since these colors appear in this way, they are called the four seas. Their circumference is thirty-six laksha and seven hundred fifty yojanas. The outer circumference of the Cakravada Mountain is thirty-six laksha, two thousand six hundred twenty-five yojanas.

In the outer ocean lies the southern continent of Jambudvipa, shaped like a narrow cart. The side facing the Iron-Rim Mountain is three and one-half yojanas long. Each of the other three sides is two thousand yojanas long.

Its circumference is six thousand and three yojanas. Within it are two subsidiary continents: Camara in the east, also called Cat-Ox, and Varacamara in the west, also called Superior Cat-Ox. At the center of Jambudvipa lies the kingdom of Magadha.

The Buddhas of the three times are all born in this land.

Next, proceeding northward beyond nine Black Mountains, there is a great snow mountain called Auspicious. To its north stands Mount Fragrant Intoxication. Between these two mountains dwells a Great Dragon King named Anavatapta. His lake is also called Anavatapta, meaning “Without Heat.” Each side of this lake measures fifty yojanas. Its total circumference is two hundred yojanas. The lake consists entirely of water possessing the eight qualities. From this lake flow four great rivers.

In the east is the Ganga River. From an opening shaped like an elephant's mouth, it flows forth over silver sand, joins five thousand tributaries, and enters the eastern sea.

The Sindhu River flows from an opening shaped like an ox's mouth, over vaidurya sand, and together with five hundred tributaries enters the southern sea.

In the west is the Vakshu River. From an opening shaped like a horse's mouth, it flows forth over crystal sand and together with five hundred tributaries enters the western sea.

In the north is the Sita River. From an opening shaped like a lion's mouth, it flows forth over golden sand and together with five hundred tributaries enters the northern sea.

These are the four great rivers issuing from Lake Anavatapta. They circle it to the left for seven days and then flow in their respective directions. Twenty yojanas north of this is Mount Gandhamadana.

In that region is a rocky crag named Nanda. Each face is fifty yojanas wide, its circumference is two hundred yojanas, and its height is three and a half yojanas. There are also eight thousand smaller hills.

Twenty yojanas north of this mountain stands a king of sala trees named Supratishtha. Its roots penetrate forty bows into the earth, and it is eighty bows tall. Seven rows of trees stand thickly around it.

Twenty yojanas to the east is a lake fed by warm springs. This lake is circular, about fifty yojanas wide, and one hundred and fifty yojanas in circumference. There are also eight thousand smaller lakes, all filled with water possessing the eight qualities.

Within them are lotuses whose leaves are as thick as oxhide. Their stalks are as large as axles, and their leaves are like wheels. Their flavor is exquisite and as sweet as honey.

This is also the place from which Shakra rode his elephant into battle. Hence it is named Supratishtha. During the four months of the rainy season, it dwells at the warm springs.

Near Lake Anavatapta is the jambu tree, whose fruits are delicious and as sweet as honey. When ripe, they fall into the water and make the sound “jambu.” Nagas transform themselves into fish to catch these fruits in their mouths. Those left over are touched by the flowing water and become jambu gold.

Because of this tree, the continent is named Jambudvipa.

In the northwest of the continent is the land of Uddiyana. The Great Vajra Palace is situated there, and from there the Dharma of the Vajrayana was transmitted.

By the southern sea is a mountain named Potala. Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara dwells upon its summit, while the Holy Mother Tara resides at its foot.

In the east are five peaks upon which Bodhisattva Manjushri dwells. There are sixteen great kingdoms and a thousand small kingdoms. There are also 360 kinds of human beings and 720 different languages. Beyond this sea, the eastern continent is called Purvavideha, “Superior Body.” It is shaped like a half-moon. The side facing Mount Sumeru is 350 yojanas long, while the other side is sixty yojanas. Its circumference is 6,350 yojanas. Beside this continent are two intermediate continents. To the north is Deha, meaning “Body,” and to the south is Videha, meaning “Superior Body.” Beyond these three continents stand seven tala trees. It is also said that because the inhabitants of this continent have well-formed features and beautiful bodies, it is called “Superior Body.”

Beyond this sea, the northern continent is called Kuru. Its four sides are equal, each measuring two thousand yojanas, and its circumference is eight thousand yojanas. On its two sides are two intermediate continents. One is called Kuru, meaning “Possessing Superiority,” and the other is called Kaurava, meaning “Possessing Pervasive Superiority.” The inhabitants of this continent enjoy the bounty of wish-fulfilling trees. During the first seven days, a wish-fulfilling tree emits no pleasant sound, signifying that death will occur within seven days. It is also said that when the inhabitants of this continent speak words of resentment, sound-demons immediately cut their flesh. Therefore it is called Kuru, meaning “without pleasant sound.”

Beyond this sea, the western continent is called Godaniya, “Cattle Trade.” It is shaped like a full moon. Its diameter is 2,500 yojanas, and its circumference is 7,500 yojanas. It has two intermediate continents. The southern one is called Shatha, meaning “Deceitful,” and the northern one is called Uttaramantrina, which has the meaning given above. The inhabitants of this continent use precious cattle in trade. Therefore it is called the Continent of Cattle Trade. The seas and mountains each extend for eighty thousand yojanas, near the Land of Gold, and near Jambudvipa are the Star-Divided Eastern Continent, the Golden Continent, the Moon Continent, and so forth.

In connection with Jambudvipa, outside the great continents there are likewise smaller continents. Successively, there is an expanse of space measuring forty thousand yojanas. It is utterly pure and unobstructed.

A powerful wind rises from the left, and the sun, moon, celestial realms within space, and so forth rest upon it. The solar disc is formed of fiery radiance. Its diameter is fifty-one yojanas, its circumference is 153 yojanas, and its thickness is sixty yojanas and eighteen parts.

Above it is a covering of gold. Above that, gold, silver, vaidurya, crystal, and other substances form four beautiful corners. The Son of the Sun God dwells in the palace there.

Propelled by the wind, it circles the four continents in the course of one day and one night. When the sun moves northward, the days are long. When it moves southward, they are short.

When it is midway between north and south, day and night are equal. Because its light proceeds in this way, there are winter and summer. Because of the seasons of winter and summer,

it moves northward for six months and southward for six months. Upon reaching the midpoint of its course, the sun and moon turn back toward the constellations. The passage through these changes is called one year.

The lunar disc is formed of water. Its diameter is fifty yojanas, its circumference is one hundred and fifty yojanas, and its thickness is six yojanas and eighteen parts. Upon it, gold, silver, vaidurya, crystal, and other substances are gathered into beautiful formations at the four corners.

The Son of the Moon God dwells in the palace there. As the sun and moon come and go, drawing near and moving far apart, they illuminate one another, causing the moon to wax or wane. As it increases by one part, the upper half appears, and on the fifteenth day it is full.

As it decreases by one part, the lower half appears while its light is obscured. After another fifteen days, it is no longer full. Because of this waxing and waning, it is called the lunar mansion of space.

One day and one night are called an earthly lunar mansion. Thirty such days constitute one month.

The stars in the celestial palaces within space are made of precious substances. All are round. The smallest measures one ox-aperture, the medium-sized three ox-apertures, and the largest six ox-apertures. Their circumferences are three times those measures. Mount Sumeru has four terraces. The first rises ten thousand yojanas above the water. Extending sixteen thousand yojanas from one side of Mount Sumeru and rising ten thousand yojanas above it is the second terrace. The next extends eight thousand yojanas outward and rises ten thousand yojanas above it; this is the third terrace. The next projects four thousand yojanas and rises ten thousand yojanas above it; this is the fourth terrace. From its side it projects two thousand yojanas.

The summit of Mount Sumeru has four corners. Each is beautiful and has a peak four and a half yojanas high, 125 yojanas wide, and five hundred yojanas in circumference. Yaksha spirits dwell there.

Directly at the center atop the mountain stands Sudarshana, the city of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. It is made entirely of gold and is one and a half yojanas high. Each of its sides measures 2,500 yojanas, and its circumference is ten thousand yojanas.

The substance of this city is gold, and the whole is adorned with 101 kinds of assorted precious substances. Its ground is as soft as silk. The city has four sides and is constructed with sixteen thousand precious pillars, precious beams, and precious rafters.

There is one gate on each of its four sides, as well as thousands of smaller gates. Along the walls on all four sides run narrow paths. At each of the four gates are five hundred sons of the gods, all clad in armor to guard the city gates.

Within the city is Shakra’s palace, called the Most Excellent Place and also the Supremely Excellent Palace. It too faces the four directions. It is four hundred and a half yojanas high.

Each side measures 250 yojanas, and its circumference is one thousand yojanas. There are 101 kinds of halls, all equal in size. Each kind of hall has seven towers.

Each excellent tower has seven smaller towers. Each smaller tower has seven ponds. Each pond contains seven lotuses.

Upon each lotus stand seven boys and seven girls, performing various kinds of music and joyfully singing and dancing.

East of the city of Sudarshana is a place for chariot races called Chaitraratha Garden, which is one thousand yojanas in extent. To the south is the place of forest combat, called Parushaka Garden. To the west is a place for strolling, called Mishraka Garden. To the north is a place for recreation, called Nandana Garden. Each is as extensive as the first. Twenty yojanas beyond these gardens are the excellent grounds called Chaitraratha, Parushaka, Mishraka, and Nandana, corresponding to the four gardens.

To the northeast of Sudarshana is the Wish-Fulfilling Tree. It is called Parijata and is also known as the Perfectly Born Tree. Its roots extend fifty yojanas deep. It is one hundred yojanas high, and its branches and foliage spread fifty yojanas. It is able to bring forth joy. Beneath it is a stone called A Phien Ma Le Ca. Its color is white like a bushel measure. Each side is fifty yojanas, and its circumference is two hundred yojanas.

To the southwest of Sudarshana is the place where the devas assemble, called the Hall of Excellent Dharma. Its circumference is nine hundred yojanas. It is circular in shape.

At the center of the Hall of Excellent Dharma is the seat of Shakra, made entirely of gold. This seat has a circumference of thirty-two Bo Cu and is arranged for all the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Eighty thousand yojanas above, abiding in space supported by the wind and composed of various precious substances, is the celestial palace of Freedom from Strife.

It is twice as large as the summit of Mount Sumeru. Above that, at one hundred and sixty thousand yojanas, abiding in the realm of space supported by the wind and fashioned entirely from precious substances, is the Tushita celestial palace, which is altogether twice as extensive as the palace of Freedom from Strife. Above that, at three lakshas and twenty thousand yojanas, abiding in the realm of space supported by the wind and composed entirely of precious substances, is the Nirmanarati celestial palace, which is altogether twice as extensive as Tushita.

Above that, at six lakshas and forty thousand yojanas, abiding in space supported by the wind and fashioned from precious substances, is the Paranirmita-vashavartin

celestial palace, which is likewise altogether twice as extensive as Nirmanarati. This constitutes the Desire Realm. Above it is the First Dhyana.

Thus, the four continents and the seven mountains surrounding Mount Sumeru, together with the six heavens of the Desire Realm and the First Dhyana, constitute the domain of the four continents. From one such domain up to a thousand forms a small chiliocosm. Each is encircled by a small Iron-Enclosing Mountain.

One thousand such small chiliocosms form a medium chiliocosm, which is encircled by an Iron-Enclosing Mountain. A thousand groups of these thousand worlds form a three-thousand-great-thousand world system. It is encircled by one great Iron-Enclosing Mountain.

Thus there are tens of billions of world systems of four continents, all encircled by Iron-Enclosing Mountains. Between the mountains and the continents are places of darkness, where there is neither day nor night and where one cannot see even when raising one’s hand. The Heaven of the First Dhyana corresponds in extent to a domain of four continents.

The Heaven of the Second Dhyana corresponds to a small chiliocosm. The Heaven of the Third Dhyana corresponds to a thousandfold world system. The Heaven of the Fourth Dhyana corresponds to a three-thousand-great-thousand world system.

In each successive comparison, the extent is doubled. As for the Form Realm and the Formless Realm, there is no distinction of place. Wherever beings die, they are reborn elsewhere.

Because they are born within formless meditative attainments, it is called the Formless Realm.

Chapter on the World of Sentient Beings

Two

The world of sentient beings comprises six classes in all: first, hell beings; second, hungry ghosts; third, animals; fourth, human beings; fifth, nonhuman beings; and sixth, devas. What is the meaning of these six classes?

A place where bodies are destroyed is called hell. Those tormented by hunger and thirst are called hungry ghosts. Because they go about concealed, they are called animals. Because their minds are capable of discrimination, they are called human beings. That is to say, manusha—human beings—are capable of experiencing and using the body. Although they resemble the devas, because their abodes are lowly and inferior and because they have no wine, they are called non-devas, namely asuras. Because they are born from the body of King Brahma, sport and delight in pleasure, or are worthy of offerings, they are called devas.

According to the meaning of deva, it should be understood that the hells are situated more than twenty thousand yojanas beneath Jambudvipa. They measure twenty thousand yojanas in each of the four directions, are made entirely of iron, and are consumed by fire. There are eight hot hells: first, Reviving; second, Black Rope; third, Crushing; fourth, Wailing; fifth, Great Wailing; sixth, Blazing Heat; seventh, Great Blazing Heat; and eighth, Uninterrupted.

In the Reviving Hell, beings who in previous lives were born among sentient creatures and, driven by karma, took up knives and clubs, gave rise to hatred, and cut and injured one another limb by limb subsequently fall there, become insensible, and die. At that place there is no sound. Those sentient beings then revive amid commotion and again hack and kill one another. Their lifespan is measured in relation to the Heaven of the Four Great Kings: one lifetime there constitutes one day and one night in this hell. They endure such suffering for five hundred years.

In the Black Rope Hell, the bodies of sentient beings are bound from head to foot with black cords by the hell wardens and are then burned with fire and torn apart. Through the power of karma from previous lives, they are dragged down and born there. Their lifespan is measured such that one day and one night there equal one day and one night in the Trayastrimsha Heaven. Thus they undergo suffering for one thousand years.

In the Crushing Hell, sentient beings born there are beaten with iron implements. Or two iron mountains resembling the heads of two rams close together and crush their bodies. When the two mountains part, the beings spontaneously revive, only to be crushed again. Their lifespan is measured such that one day and one night there equal one day and one night in the Heaven Free from Strife. Thus they must remain there for two thousand years, undergoing suffering.

In the Wailing Hell, sentient beings born there, fearing a pool of boiling water, enter a forest where fierce fire burns them for thousands of years. Through the power of their former karma, their tongues are drawn out for thousands of yojanas. Then a great ox made entirely of iron draws a fiercely burning plow across their tongues. Their lifespan is measured such that one lifetime in the Tushita Heaven constitutes one day and one night there. Thus they undergo the painful retribution for four thousand years.

The Great Wailing Hell is likewise as described above, but the suffering is doubled. The lifespan there is measured such that one lifetime in the Nirmanarati Heaven constitutes one day and one night. Thus beings undergo torment there for eight thousand years.

The Blazing Heat Hell has three tiers of iron walls. Within them, beings are burned by fire and undergo suffering. The lifespan there is measured such that one lifetime in the Paranirmita-vashavartin Heaven constitutes one day and one night. Thus beings endure torment and suffering for sixteen thousand years.

The Great Blazing Heat Hell is likewise as described above, but the suffering is doubled. The lifespan there is half a kalpa, throughout which beings must undergo tribulation and suffering.

In the Uninterrupted Hell, beings’ bodies are entirely encased in iron and then burned, undergoing the most extreme torment and suffering. The lifespan there is one intermediate kalpa.

There are also sixteen additional hells. Beside each of the eight hot hells are four.

The first is the Hell of Burning Embers. It reaches to the knees. When sentient beings arrive there and lower their feet, their skin, flesh, and blood are completely burned away, leaving only bone. When they raise their feet, they are restored to their former state.

The second is the Filth of Corpses. Most sentient beings who die and are born there have within their bellies many worms with points sharp as needles. These pierce through their skin to the bones and consume their marrow.

The third is Knife Mountain, which in turn has three kinds. The first is the Road of Knives. This great road is laid entirely with knives.

When sentient beings set foot upon it, their skin, flesh, and blood are all severed. When they raise their feet, they are restored as before. The second is the Forest of Sword-Leaves.

The leaves of the trees in this forest are all swords. When sentient beings enter it, the wind blows and the swords rain down, cutting their bodies apart. Their bones, skin, and flesh fall away, and birds and dogs devour their flesh.

The third is an iron-tree forest called Shalmali. These trees have iron blades sixteen finger-breadths long. When sentient beings are driven beneath the trees, the iron blades slash them from above and below, and their flesh and blood fall away, leaving only their bones.

Iron birds peck out their eyes and pull out the sentient beings’ marrow, fighting with one another to eat it. These are the three distinct kinds of the Road of Knives, where punishment with iron clubs is intensified.

The Four-Raging River, also called the Impassable, is filled entirely with boiling, charcoal-colored water. Sentient beings rise and sink within it, moving against or with the current, horizontally or vertically; their bones, flesh, and skin are burned and boiled to a pulp, as though rice had been cast into a great cauldron filled with charcoal-colored water and then cooked over a fierce fire. The rice is stirred about within it and then scooped up; the sentient beings are likewise. If they attempt to escape, prison guards already stand on both banks, holding knives and clubs in their hands and forcing them back. There is no way out through this. This river is like a moat, resembling the three gardens described above.

These are called the Neighboring Hells. There are eight cold hells. The first is the Blister Hell; the second, the Bursting Blister Hell; the third, A Tra Tra; the fourth, A Ba Ba; the fifth, Khu Hầu Hầu; the sixth, Splitting Like an Utpala Flower (this resembles a blue lotus); the seventh, Like a Lotus; and the eighth, Like a Great Lotus.

The meaning of the Blister Hell is that those born there are subjected to exceedingly cold water, and blisters arise all over their bodies; hence it is called the Blister Hell. The lifespan there is illustrated by the lifespan of a person in the land of Ma Già Đà: suppose there were a great measure containing eighty catties of sesame seeds, and one catty were removed every hundred years; only when all the seeds had been exhausted would the lifespan come to an end. The lifespan here is likewise.

In the Bursting Blister Hell, because it is exceedingly cold, blisters erupt everywhere, split open, and ooze. The lifespan here is twenty times that of the preceding hell.

In the A Tra Tra Hell, because it is so cold, beings must clench their teeth and endure it. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

In the A Ba Ba Hell, beings endure the cold and can utter only that sound. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

In the Khu Hầu Hầu Hell, because it is so cold, beings cry out for help and weep. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like an Utpala Flower, the extreme cold causes the body to resemble the petals and leaves of an utpala flower. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like a Lotus Flower, it is exceedingly cold, and the body splits open like a lotus in bloom. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

In the Hell of Splitting Like a Great Lotus Flower, the body is torn apart even more severely than before, like a great lotus in bloom with many petals. The lifespan here is twenty times twice that of the preceding hell.

The Solitary Hell is situated amid the mountains and forests of Jambudvipa. Within a single day and night, beings there experience both suffering and happiness, receiving them in alternation.

Together with the eight hot hells and the eight cold hells, these are collectively called the eighteen hells.

Five hundred yojanas from the city of Vương Xá is a city of hungry ghosts named Hoàng Bạch, also called Thảm Đạm. Their ghost king is King Yama, the King of Dharma, who dwells there together with thirty-six kinds of attendants. These beings are of four kinds: first, those obstructed externally; second, those obstructed internally; third, those obstructed from food and drink; and fourth, those whose food and drink are obstructed.

First, external obstruction—they cannot even hear the sounds of food and drink.

Second, internal obstruction means that they can consume only minute quantities of food and drink. Their mouths are as small as the eye of a needle, so even food can scarcely enter. Even if food is placed in the mouth, the throat is as narrow as a horsehair and it cannot pass through. Even if it passes through, the belly is as vast as a mountain and cannot be filled. Although the belly is full, the legs are as frail as tender grass and cannot move. Thus they undergo this great suffering.

Third is obstruction from food and drink, meaning that when they see abundant food and drink, numerous prison guards wielding clubs guard it and deny them freedom to approach.

Fourth is the obstruction of food and drink, meaning that when they eat or drink, through the force of karma, red-hot iron pellets and boiling molten copper are poured into their mouths and then flow out below.

These four kinds belong to the hungry ghosts. One month among human beings is a single day and night for them. Calculated in this way, five hundred of their years equal fifteen thousand human years. Some dwell among humans in cold forests and consume blood and flesh; all of these also belong to the class of hungry ghosts.

Third are animals. Most dwell in rivers and seas, crowded there in confusion like the dregs of wine. The large devour the small, and the small devour the large, and they continually terrify one another. Because they dwell amid the waves of the sea, their abodes are not fixed; some also dwell among humans and devas. Their lifespans vary: those as long-lived as dragon kings live for half a kalpa, while the shortest-lived survive for only a single kshana. Their bodily forms are likewise of no fixed size.

Fourth are human beings, who dwell upon the four great continents, the eight intermediate continents, and the minor continents. Consider the lifespan of people in Jambudvipa: when the kalpa first came into being, their lifespan was very long; afterward it gradually declined to sixty years, then declined further to ten years, and thereafter continued to increase and decrease without fixed duration.

The people of Uttarakuru have a lifespan of one thousand years. The people of Purvavideha have a lifespan of five hundred years. The people of Aparagodaniya have a lifespan of two hundred and fifty years.

Apart from the people of Uttarakuru, none are free from premature death. The inhabitants of that continent live on naturally occurring food, while their clothing and ornaments all come from wish-fulfilling trees. The inhabitants of the other three continents eat meat, grain, and sesame, and enjoy precious goods.

In stature, the people of Jambudvipa are eight cubits tall. The people of Aparagodaniya are sixteen cubits tall. The people of Uttarakuru are thirty-two cubits tall.

Their human features and appearances are also like those of the people on this continent. The people of the minor continents resemble those of the great continents, but their bodies are each half the size. Thus it is said.

Fifth are the non-devas. At the foot of Mount Sumeru, eleven thousand yojanas below, amid vast mountains, there is a radiant city in which dwells an asura king named La Hầu La, also called Nhiếp Não, together with his retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas beyond lies the city of Tinh Kế, within which the asura king named Đảnh Kế dwells with his retinue.

Another eleven thousand yojanas beyond lies the city of Kiên Lao, within which the asura king named Diệu Trấn, also called Đại Lực, dwells with his retinue. Another eleven thousand yojanas farther, deep within a city, dwells the asura king named Tỳ Ma Chất Đa La together with his retinue; he frequently contends with Lord Śakra of the devas. This city is called Cụ Kim, and its palace is named Tấu Lạc.

Its wish-fulfilling tree is called Hằng Bát Lật. Its assembly hall is named Hiền Tài; its stone is named Thiện Hiền; and its gardens are named Phổ Hỷ, Diệu Hỷ, Tối Hỷ, and Thậm Hỷ Hỷ. Its grounds are named Phổ Hỷ, Diệu Hỷ, Tối Hỷ, and Thậm Hỷ.

When battle is imminent, the place where they mount their elephants is called Vô Năng Địch. The elephant on which they ride for pleasure is called Lũy Tuyết. The horse is called Tiểu Bột.

Thus, because the non-devas and the devas of the Thirty-Three contend over the flavor of Tu Đà and the asura maidens, they wage war. Emerging from this mountain, their bodies are clad in armor made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and crystal. Holding swords, bows, and arrows in their hands, they command the four divisions of the army.

The asura kings La Hầu La, Hạng Kế, Diệu Trấn, Tỳ Ma Chất Đa La, and others may come as the first three, or all four may come.

At that time, Lord Śakra maintains five defensive hosts. The first, delighting in the sea, joins with the White Dharma Dragon King in rejoicing and then fights the army of the non-devas, ordering it to retreat. If the dragons cannot prevail, they flee ahead. Together with the second defensive host, they again fight the asuras; if they still cannot prevail, they flee to the place called Tri Kế. Together with the third defensive host, they fight again. If they cannot prevail, they flee to the place called Hằng Kiêu.

They then fight together with the fourth defensive host; if they still cannot prevail, they flee to the place of the Son King. Together with the fifth defensive host they fight, and the Four Great Kings dispatch the four divisions of their army, dressed in fine armor and bearing swords and clubs. In battle, the Four Great Kings are usually victorious. If they cannot prevail, they flee to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and report to Lord Śakra: “We defenders are unable to withstand those asuras.”

The king then goes forth to confront the enemy. After they have reported in this manner, Śakra, lord of the devas, mounts the elephant Thiện Trụ and proclaims to the devas of the Thirty-Three:

You should know! Now the army of the asuras has reached the summit of Mount Sumeru. Don your armor securely, mount your chariots, and fight against the asuras.

After these words were spoken, the devas donned their armor securely, took knives and staves in their hands, and went to the chariot grounds outside the garden to obtain their chariots. They entered the Garden of Harshness, transformed their bodies and minds into a fierce state, and then departed from the City of Sudarshana to contend and fight with those asuras. If the asuras prevailed, they entered the city.

If the devas prevailed, they drove the asura army back to the first sea. During the battle, when the devas and asuras had their legs or waists severed, they died; but when their hands or feet were cut off, they afterward returned to their former state. If at that time a Blessed One, a pratyekabuddha, or a Wheel-Turning Sage King dwelt in the world, the asuras would not give rise to thoughts of contention.

Even if they did fight one another, the devas would always prevail. When wholesome deeds increase in the world, the hosts of devas likewise flourish. When wholesome deeds do not increase in the world, the asuras prevail.

Therefore, the heavenly realms protect wholesome deeds.

“Heaven” here means the six heavenly realms of the Desire Realm. The Form Realm has seventeen, and the Formless Realm has four.

The Desire Realm has six heavenly realms. On the first terrace of Mount Sumeru dwell the Host of Firm Hands. On the second terrace dwell the Host of Garland Bearers. On the third terrace dwell the Host of Ever-Proud Ones. On the northern side of Mount Yugandhara is a city named Anakavadi, where the Heavenly King Vaishravana and the hosts of yakshas dwell.

Likewise, the city in the east is named Noble Eminence. There dwells the Great Heavenly King Dhritarashtra together with the hosts of gandharvas.

In the west is a city named Many-Colored, where the Great Heavenly King Virupaksha dwells together with the naga spirits.

In the south is a city named Increasing Growth, where the Great Heavenly King Virudhaka dwells together with the Host of Wondrous Crests.

In addition, on the four terraces of the Seven Golden Mountains are the sun, moon, and constellations, surrounded by the Iron Encircling Mountain. There are also the mountains of Jambudvipa and the places where tala trees grow. The retinues of the Four Heavenly Kings also dwell there, or else belong to the Four Heavenly Kings. This constitutes one division. Fifty human years equal one day and one night for them. Their lifespan is five hundred such years. Their bodies measure one-quarter of a krosha.

Above, in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three on the summit of Mount Sumeru, the Lord of the Devas, Shakra, dwells in the highest place, together also with the asuras, at a place named Wondrous Peace. Together with the heavenly maidens, he enjoys sensual pleasures without ever knowing satiety. There is also a battlefield, where the king mounts an elephant named Supratishthita.

In the pleasure garden, the elephant ridden by the king is named Airavata, also called Son of the Earth-Bearer. These two enormous elephants are seven yojanas in circumference, and each is accompanied by eight thousand smaller elephants. There is also a king of horses named Swift Wind, accompanied by eight thousand horses, who serves as an auxiliary minister to the lord of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

Hence it is called the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. The devas are intoxicated by the pleasures of the five desires. When they become heedless, a great drum sounds, and the sound issuing from it startles the devas:

When they fight against the asura army, it constantly emits a distressing sound of warning: “May the devas be victorious; may the asuras be defeated.” Palaces, fortified cities, trees, stones, and so forth universally undergo transformations as before. The lifespan of these devas is long. One hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is calculated as one thousand such years. The devas there are half a yojana tall.

The Yama Heaven is so called because, when the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three fight with the asuras, the devas of this heaven do not fight; hence it is named the Heaven Free from Strife. Two hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is calculated as two thousand such years. The devas there have bodies measuring two yojanas.

The Tushita Heaven is where the Venerable Maitreya dwells, preparing to appear in the world and assume the position of Dharma King, enjoying the great bliss of the Dharma. The name Tushita bears the meaning of complete joy. Four hundred human years equal only one day and one night in this heaven. Its inhabitants live for four thousand such years. Their bodies measure four yojanas.

The Heaven of Delight in Emanations is so called because its devas themselves emanate the objects they enjoy. Eight hundred human years equal one day and one night in that heaven. Their lifespan extends to eight thousand such years. Their bodies measure eight yojanas.

The Heaven of Mastery over the Emanations of Others enjoys what others emanate; hence it is called Mastery over the Emanations of Others. In that heaven, the heavenly lord who possesses sovereign majesty and power is the Lord Mara. One thousand six hundred human years equal one day and one night there. Their lifespan is sixteen thousand such years. Their bodies measure sixteen yojanas.

From the Avici hell below up to the Heaven of Mastery over the Emanations of Others above constitutes the Desire Realm, whose beings are immersed and intoxicated by sensual pleasures and by food and drink. Hence it is described in this way.

The Form Realm has seventeen heavenly realms, encompassed within the four dhyanas.

The First Dhyana has three heavenly realms: the Host of Brahma, the Ministers of Brahma, and Great Brahma. Their respective lifespans are half a kalpa for the Host of Brahma, one kalpa for the Ministers of Brahma, and one and a half kalpas for Great Brahma. Their bodies respectively measure half a yojana, one yojana, and one and a half yojanas.

The Second Dhyana has three heavenly realms: Lesser Light, Immeasurable Light, and Utmost Light. The lifespans in these heavenly realms are as follows: those in Lesser Light live for two kalpas. From the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings upward, forty intermediate kalpas constitute one great kalpa; among the lower heavenly realms, eighty intermediate kalpas constitute one great kalpa. Those in Immeasurable Light live for four kalpas, and those in Utmost Light live for eight kalpas. The bodies of the devas in Lesser Light measure two yojanas; those in Immeasurable Light are four yojanas tall; and those in Utmost Light are eight yojanas tall.

The Third Dhyana has three heavenly realms: Lesser Virtue, Immeasurable Virtue, and Extensive Virtue. The lifespans in these heavenly realms are sixteen kalpas in Lesser Virtue, thirty-two kalpas in Immeasurable Virtue, and sixty-four kalpas in Extensive Virtue. The bodies of the devas in Lesser Virtue are fifteen yojanas tall; those in Immeasurable Virtue are thirty-two yojanas tall; and those in Extensive Virtue are sixty-four yojanas tall.

The Fourth Dhyana has eight heavenly realms: Cloudless, Birth of Merit, and Extensive Fruition. These three are abodes of ordinary beings. The remaining five—Free from Affliction, Free from Heat, Good Manifestation, Good Vision, and Ultimate Form—are inhabited only by noble beings and are also called the Five Pure Abodes.

The lifespan in Cloudless is 125 kalpas; in Birth of Merit, 250 kalpas; in Extensive Fruition, 500 kalpas; in Free from Affliction, 1,000 kalpas; in Free from Heat, 2,000 kalpas; in Good Manifestation, 4,000 kalpas; in Good Vision, 8,000 kalpas; and in Ultimate Form, 16,000 kalpas. The bodies of the devas in Cloudless are 125 yojanas tall; those in Birth of Merit, 250 yojanas; those in Extensive Fruition, 500 yojanas; those in Free from Affliction, 1,000 yojanas; those in Free from Heat, 2,000 yojanas; those in Good Manifestation, 4,000 yojanas; those in Good Vision, 8,000 yojanas; and those in Ultimate Form, 16,000 yojanas.

From the Host of Brahma above through Ultimate Form belongs to the Form Realm. Its beings are free from the Desire Realm but are not free from form; hence it is called the Form Realm.

The Form Realm has four heavenly realms.

The Formless Realm has four heavenly realms. Their beings have no material bodies, nor do these realms have spatial locations; they are divided into four according to meditative absorption. They are the Sphere of Infinite Space, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, the Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

The lifespans in these heavenly realms are as follows: those in the Sphere of Infinite Space live for twenty thousand great kalpas; those in the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness live for forty thousand great kalpas; those in the Sphere of Nothingness live for sixty thousand great kalpas; and those in the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception live for eighty thousand great kalpas. These four spheres are called the Formless Realm.

Their beings are not free from the subtle form of meditative absorption, but they have transcended coarse form; therefore, it is not called the Form Realm. Their lifespan is measured in year-kalpas. How is it calculated there?

The smallest unit of time is called a kshana. One hundred and twenty kshanas make one tatkshana. Sixty tatkshanas make one lava. Thirty lavas make one muhurta (here called a tu-dau); thirty muhurtas make one day and night; thirty days and nights make one month; and twelve such months make one year.

There are six kinds of kalpas: first, the Intermediate Kalpa (also called the Separate Kalpa); second, the Kalpa of Formation; third, the Kalpa of Abiding; fourth, the Kalpa of Destruction; fifth, the Kalpa of Emptiness; and sixth, the Great Kalpa.

During one such Intermediate Kalpa, the lifespan of the people of Jambudvipa is initially incalculable and gradually decreases until it reaches eighty thousand years; this constitutes the encompassing phase of the kalpa. From eighty thousand years it decreases to ten years; this is called the beginning of an Intermediate Kalpa. It then increases to eighty thousand years and decreases again to ten years, constituting one cycle. In this way, eighteen cycles of increase and decrease constitute eighteen Intermediate Kalpas. Thereafter, the lifespan increases from ten years to eighty thousand years. Including the Intermediate Kalpas at the beginning and the end, the eighteen intervening cycles make twenty in all.

The Kalpa of Formation means that, beginning with the first wind and extending down to the Avici hell, the vessel-world and the world of sentient beings arise over the course of one Intermediate Kalpa, as previously explained. This world of sentient beings consists of three thousand worlds and takes form after having been destroyed by fire. When a celestial being from the Abhasvara Heaven dies, he is born in the realm of Great Brahma.

Born there alone, he becomes distressed and laments. If beings sharing the same karmic lot exist, they are born in this world. If his wish is not fulfilled, he forms this thought: merely through the power of this aspiration, after dying in the Abhasvara Heaven, they will immediately be born there.

The first being then conceives this thought: “Because I desired beings to arise, the people of the world call me the progenitor, Great Brahma.” Thereafter, in succession, the ministers of Brahma, the multitude of Brahma, the devas of Paranirmita-vashavartin, and so forth, down to the Four Heavenly Kings, are likewise born in sequence. The beings of Northern Uttarakuru, Western Godaniya, Eastern Purvavideha, and Southern Jambudvipa are then born successively.

At that time, the people of Jambudvipa possessed immeasurable lifespans. Their food and drink consisted of delightful substances formed by thought; their bodies emitted radiant light, and they traveled freely through the sky, just like the devas of the Form Realm. Then flavors gradually arose from the earth, producing sweet and delicious substances, white like honey and fragrant in scent. At that time, one person, being naturally attached to flavors, smelled this fragrance and gave rise to craving and defilement. He immediately took some and ate it, then told the others, who followed him and also took and ate it. After they had eaten, their radiance gradually disappeared. Through the force of karma, the sun and moon then appeared in succession and illuminated the four continents.

Thereafter, the flavor of the earth disappeared, and cakes arose from the earth. They were sweet in taste, beautiful in color, and red like honey. The people competed with one another, becoming attached to and consuming them.

The cakes produced by the earth then disappeared, and various trees gradually arose in the forests. Again the people competed with one another, becoming infatuated with their fruit and eating it. Consequently, the forest trees gradually disappeared, and a kind of rice arose naturally without cultivation.

Everyone gathered it for food. Because this food was coarse, impure waste was produced, and the organs of excretion developed. At that time, people gathered as much rice as they needed for their morning and evening meals.

Later, human beings became indolent and repeatedly took rice in advance for their consumption. Consequently, the rice became insufficient and ceased to grow abundantly. They then divided the fields in order to guard against its exhaustion.

After the land had been divided, people respectfully guarded their own portions, yet they formed intentions to encroach upon and seize the portions of others; thus disputes arose. At that time, the people nominated a virtuous person, appointed him lord of the fields, and all submitted to him. He was also called King Mahasammata, meaning “the one agreed upon by the multitude.” The king had many sons who succeeded one another as kings.

A descendant named Quang Dieu had sons named Thien De, Toi Thien, Tinh Trai, and others; thus the royal lineage was divided into five eras. The sons born into this royal succession were Danh Sanh, Dieu De, Can Dieu, Cu Dieu, and Nghiem Dieu; all five were wheel-turning monarchs. Prince Nghiem Dieu was also called King Xa.

His descendants were Xa Song, Xa Co Ni, Co That, Thien Kien, Dai Thien Kien, Tru Ngoai, Kim Sac, Cu Phan, Ly Ac, Dieu Cao, Dinh Hanh, Tham Khong Am, Dai Tham Khong Am, Nang An, Phuong Chu, Hien Tran, Nang Quang, and Dai Thien. The royal lineages descending from this king continued in succession for five thousand generations. From the last son, seven thousand successors arose, known as the Asmaka kings.

At the end of that line came a son named Cu Dau, whose lineage comprised nine thousand kings. At the end of that line came a son named Long Am, whose lineage comprised ten thousand kings. At the end of that line came a son named Hang Di Luu Hang, whose lineage comprised fifteen thousand kings.

At the end of that line came the Gautama clan, namely the descendants of Cam Giac, whose sons continued the succession. The lineage of the Sugarcane Kings numbered as many as one thousand one hundred persons.

The last member of the lineage of the Sugarcane Kings was named Tang Truong, namely King Tu Su Ma, who had four sons. The first was named Dieu Quang; the second, Tuong Thuc; the third, Dieu Phuc Tuong; and the fourth, Nghiem Chac, who was called Shakya. Nghiem Chac had a son named Nghiem Chac Tuc. His son went to dwell in the land of cattle. That son, belonging to the Lion lineage, had four sons. The first was named Shuddhodana; the second, Bach Phan; the third, Hoc Phan; and the fourth, Cam Lo Phan.

The princes of King Shuddhodana were the Bhagavan and, after him, Nanda.

King Bach Phan had two sons: the first was named De Sa Dieu Dat, and the second was named Nan De Ca.

Hoc Phan had two princes: the first was named Aniruddha, and the second was named Bhaddiya.

King Cam Lo Phan had two princes, named Ananda and Devadatta.

The son of the Bhagavan was Rahula, the last of the Shakya lineage.

There were also other royal houses that relied upon the Dharma to instruct their realms. Two hundred years after the Tathagata’s parinirvana, there was in Central India a king named Ashoka, who was the Dharma King of Jambudvipa. The king served as patron of the council and caused Buddhism to flourish three hundred years later. In northwestern Jambudvipa there was a king named Cat Ni Ho Cat, who served as patron at the time of the third council and propagated Buddhism widely. In the land of Pham Thien, in Kashmir, Lac Quoc, Kucha, Hoang Ba Bang, China, Dali, Western Xia, and other countries, the kings of each land caused Buddhism to flourish.

One thousand years after the Tathagata’s parinirvana, the first king in the land of Western Tibet was named Nha Ngat Lit Pho. In the twenty-sixth generation there was a king named Cap Da Doa Lit Tu Nhan Tan; at that time Buddhism first arrived. Five generations later, there was a king named Song Tan Tu Cam Pho.

At that time, a pandita named A Dat Da and a chief translator named Doan My Tam Ba La translated the teachings, built and restored monasteries, and transmitted the Dharma. Five generations later, there was a king named Ngat Lit Song De Tan. This king invited the Great Master Thien Hai, the guru Padmasambhava, Kumarajiva, and the pandita La Bang, who, together with Vairocana La Khu Hang, Khang Long Ton Ho, and others, formed a group of seven who translated the teachings.

In addition to the pandita and the others who served as chief translators, they also propagated the Dharma widely, and the three classes of precepts circulated throughout the country.

Three royal generations later came King Ngat Lit Lai Ba Chiem, also known as King Gioi Quang. Again, Tich Na Di Da, Thap Lien Hang La Bo De, the pandita, and others, together with Tu Cat Can Kiet Tuong, Tich Chuoc La Long Trang, and others, translated and revised the texts. They translated those that had not yet been translated and caused the Dharma to spread widely. The lineage of the kings of Western Tibet has continued to the present day. The panditas translated the texts and served as chief translators. The spiritual teachers were exceedingly numerous, and through them the Dharma flourished.

In the land of Northern Mongolia, King Tiên Phước Quả Thục Sanh had a son named Genghis. At first, Genghis came from this region and ruled the kingdom of Đa Âm, like an Iron Wheel-Turning King. His son was named Cán Quả Tải. When he assumed the title of Khagan and occupied the royal throne, the realm grew stronger and greater than before. He had a son named Kiết Vĩ, who ascended the throne and became Emperor Genghis. Next came his son Đóa La.

Đóa La's heir, named Möngke, then ascended the throne. The king's younger brother, named Kublai, subsequently ascended the throne and commanded that throughout the realm and in all border regions, everyone must take refuge in Buddhism and rely upon its teachings to instruct and transform the people. Buddhism flourished even more than before, its radiance continuing without interruption.

The king had three sons. The eldest, named Chơn Kim Phòng Túc, was handsome and majestic, like a celestial being. The second was named Mang Cát Thứ. The third was named Nạp Ma Hạ. Each was fully endowed with virtues befitting his station.

This account begins with the royal lineage of the Shakyas and continues down to the royal lineages of the present day.

Treatise on Clear Understanding

End of the First Fascicle