解脫道論

Chapter 11.1: The Five Skillful Means

For one who has newly begun seated meditation, who delights in liberation from birth and death, delights in eliminating the root cause of birth and death, delights in dispelling the dark veil of ignorance, delights in severing the bonds of craving and affection, and delights in realizing the wisdom of the noble ones, skillful means arise with respect to five domains. These are skillful means concerning the skandhas, skillful means concerning the ayatanas, skillful means concerning the dhatus, skillful means concerning causes and conditions, and skillful means concerning the Noble Truths.

Question: What is called skillful means concerning the skandhas?

Answer: It concerns the five skandhas: the form skandha, feeling skandha, perception skandha, formations skandha, and consciousness skandha.

Question: What is called the form skandha?

Answer: The four great elements and the forms produced by the four great elements.

What are the four great elements?

They are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the wind element.

What is called earth?

That whose nature and characteristic are both hardness is called earth.

What is called water?

Water is moisture that holds form together. This is called water.

What is called fire?

Fire has the quality of warmth. This is called fire.

What is called wind?

Wind conveys breath. This is called wind.

One newly practicing seated meditation apprehends these by two methods: briefly, to encompass them, and extensively, as explained in the contemplation of the four great elements. Thus should they be understood.

What are the forms produced by the four great elements?

The eye ayatana, ear ayatana, nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, and body ayatana; the form ayatana, sound ayatana, odor ayatana, and taste ayatana; the femininity faculty, masculinity faculty, life faculty, bodily intimation, and verbal intimation; the form of the space element, lightness of form, softness of form, adaptability of form, growth of form, aggregation of form, continuity of form, arising of form, death of form, impermanence, nutriment-born form, and eye-visible form.

What is called the eye ayatana?

It has visible forms as its object and serves as the support upon which eye-consciousness arises. This is called the eye ayatana. Furthermore, it is situated in dependence upon the black and white flesh of the eyeball, which comprises flesh, blood, wind, phlegm, and saliva. There, arranged in five layers, it abides, as small as half a mustard seed and as large as the head of an ant. Initially produced by karma, it is formed from the four great elements, with fire predominating, causing visible forms to become manifest. This is the meaning of the eye ayatana, as the Venerable Sariputra often taught. Through purified eye-consciousness, visible forms, whether small or subtle, are seen as though through a window.

What is called the ear ayatana?

It hears sounds, takes sound as its object, and serves as the support upon which ear-consciousness arises. This is called the ear ayatana. Furthermore, there are two openings with hair outside; it abides in dependence upon the tissues and is shaped like a mung bean. Initially produced by karma, with space predominating, it is a clear form produced by the four great elements. This is called the ear ayatana.

What is called the nose ayatana?

It smells odors and takes these odors as its object. It serves as the support upon which consciousness arises at the nose. This is called the nose ayatana. Furthermore, within the nostril, where three passages converge, it abides in dependence upon a small opening, shaped like a Câu Tỳ Đà La (giao long). Initially produced by karma, with wind predominating, it is a clear form produced by the four great elements. This is called the nose ayatana.

What is called the tongue ayatana?

Through it, tastes are known, and it takes taste as its object. It serves as the support upon which consciousness arises at the tongue. This is called the consciousness ayatana. Furthermore, upon the flesh of the tongue, its two sides join together in the shape of an Utpala flower. Initially produced by karma, with water predominating to the greatest degree, it is a clear form produced by the four great elements. This is called the tongue ayatana.

Why is it called the body ayatana?

Through it, contact is felt, and it takes tangibles as its object. It serves as the support upon which consciousness arises at the body. This is called the body ayatana. Furthermore, except for the hair of the body, hair of the head, nails, and teeth, which do not experience sensation, it pervades everything that receives and retains sensation. Initially produced by karma, with earth predominating, it is a clear form produced by the four great elements. This is called the body ayatana.

That by which visible forms may be seen is called the form ayatana. With respect to sound, there is the sound ayatana. With respect to odor, there is the odor ayatana.

With respect to taste, there is the taste ayatana. With respect to the female nature, there is the femininity faculty; with respect to the male nature, there is the masculinity faculty. That which preserves the form produced by karma is called the life faculty.

The manifestation of actions through the body is called action. This is called bodily action. The manifestation of actions through the mouth is called verbal action.

That which delimits form is called the domain of space. A form whose mode is light is called light form. Because its mode is light, it is called soft.

Because form has the nature of being adaptable and maintainable, it is called adaptable form.

These are three kinds associated with the body, whose nature is free from sluggishness. There are aggregated ayatanas, meaning an aggregation of form. An aggregation of form means the continuity of form.

That which causes form to arise means the birth of form. That which brings form to maturity means the aging of form. The deterioration of form means that form is impermanent.

It is obtained through the nutritive essence of living beings. This is precisely the nutritive essence of food and drink. Form arises in dependence upon the dhatu and the mind-consciousness dhatu.

This is called form belonging to the domain of the dhatus. Sluggish states are such conditions as the appearance of sleep and repose. These are the twenty-six forms produced; together with the four great elements, they constitute thirty forms.

Question: What distinction is there between the four great elements and the forms produced by the four great elements?

Answer: The four great elements depend upon one another for their subsistence. The forces produced by those four great elements depend upon the four great elements in order to subsist. Forms produced by the four great elements are not the support of the four great elements, nor are the forms produced by the four great elements themselves a support.

It is like three trees that lean upon one another; the four great elements should likewise be understood. The shadows of those three trees may be understood as analogous to the forms produced by the four great elements. This is precisely the distinction.

For one practicing seated meditation, these are the thirty forms. They may be more clearly understood through five activities: how they arise, how they aggregate, and how they are produced as many kinds or as one kind.

Question: How are they caused to arise?

Answer: Nine forms arise from karma as their cause and condition. These are called the eye ayatana, ear ayatana, nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, body ayatana, femininity faculty, masculinity faculty, life faculty, and domain-form. Two forms of the body arise from causes and conditions: bodily action and verbal action.

One form arises from the mind under seasonal conditions; this is called the sound ayatana. At one time, four forms arise from mind, food, and drink as causes and conditions: lightness of form, softness of form, adaptability of form, and eye-visible form. Twelve forms arise from four causes and conditions.

These are therefore called the form ayatana, tongue ayatana, and taste ayatana; the form of the space element, aggregated form, and continuous form. Form born of food remains in the four elements. Two forms have no source of arising: the aging of form and the impermanence of form.

Furthermore, arising conditions aging, and aging conditions impermanence. Thus should their mode of arising be clearly understood.

Question: Why is it called aggregation?

Answer: There are nine kinds of aggregates whose arising is produced by karma; nine kinds of aggregates arise from the mind; six kinds of aggregates arise according to seasonal conditions; and three kinds of aggregates arise from food and drink.

Question: What are the nine kinds of aggregates that arise from karma?

Answer: They comprise the eye-decad, ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, body-decad, femininity-decad, masculinity-decad, domain-decad, and life-nonad.

Question: What is called the eye-decad?

Answer: The eye consists of the four purified elements; this is called the base. Furthermore, dependent upon the four elements are color, odor, taste, tangibility, the life faculty, and purified eye-sensitivity. These ten dhammas arise together and are inseparable.

This is called a collection, and therefore it is called the eye-decad. Its arising is birth; when it matures, it is called aging; when it breaks up, this is due to impermanence. That which delimits it is the space element.

These four dhammas arise together with that collection. This eye-decad, dependent upon the first decad as it ages, produces a second eye-decad, and these two kinds, each comprising a collection of ten, are therefore called a cluster. Because the latter follows closely upon the former, this is called continuity.

These six dhammas arise together with it. Then, dependent upon the two eye-decads as they age, a third eye-decad arises. These are the second and third eye-decads.

This is what is meant by a collection. Because each dhamma merely follows upon the preceding one, it is called continuity. First, the initial ten break up; then the second twenty age, and the third thirty arise.

Each of these lasts for a single moment. In this way the eye-decad arises. This is difficult to discern because a moment is exceedingly minute and swift.

Because it is not manifest, it is difficult for worldly people to know. Yet some meditators see with the eye that continuity resembles the flowing of a river or the continuous light of a lamp. This is called the eye-decad.

In the same way, one should understand in detail the ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, body-decad, femininity-decad, masculinity-decad, and life-nonad.

Question: Why are there nine clusters originated by mind?

Answer: The pure octad is one. The bodily-intimation nonad is one. The verbal-intimation decad is one. The buoyancy nonad is one. The bodily-intimation-and-buoyancy decad is one; and the verbal-intimation-and-buoyancy hendecad is one. The purified-eye nonad is one. The eye-and-bodily-intimation decad is one. The eye-and-verbal-intimation hendecad is one.

Question: What is called the mind-originated pure octad?

Answer: Dependent upon the four elements are color, odor, taste, and tangibility. These eight dhammas arise together and are inseparable. Among the ten, these eight are called the pure octad.

Its arising means birth. Its maturation is called aging, and its dissolution is called impermanence. That which delimits it is the space element.

These four dhammas arise in dependence upon it. When that pure octad breaks up, a second mind-originated pure octad arises. When the first pure octad breaks up, the second pure octad arises, occurring in only a single moment.

Without alteration, these combine into a cluster, together with the three modes of origination, and thus constitute a collection. The buoyancy nonad and the purified-eye nonad should be understood in the same way. The six kinds that form collections do not break up at the outset.

They do not arise a second time, nor do they occur within a single moment. Why is this? It is because one mind does not produce two occurrences.

The remainder is as stated at the beginning.

Question: Why are there six clusters originated by temperature?

Answer: There are the pure octad, the sound nonad, the buoyancy nonad, the sound-and-buoyancy decad, the purified-eye nonad, and the eye-and-sound decad. Externally, they form two collections: the pure octad and the sound nonad.

Question: What are the three clusters originated by nutriment?

Answer: They are the pure octad, the buoyancy nonad, and the purified-eye nonad. Clusters originated by temperature and nutriment continue in succession by virtue of karma. They may be understood in the same way. The remainder is as stated at the beginning. The life-nonad does not combine into a cluster. In the desire realm, eight clusters are produced by karma and function through the life faculty. The nose, tongue, body, femininity faculty, and masculinity faculty are likewise. These three associated with the eye possess buoyancy. This pertains to the form realm. The life-nonad does not combine into a cluster among the non-percipient Brahmas. In this body, all these enter and thereby become operative. Such is their aggregation.

Question: How do they arise?

Answer: When a male or female enters the womb, thirty material phenomena arise in a single moment in three groups of ten: the base-decad, the body-decad, and either the femininity-decad or the masculinity-decad. For one who is neither male nor female, twenty material phenomena arise: the base-decad and the body-decad. For beings spontaneously born in the desire realm with complete faculties, whether male or female, seventy material phenomena arise in a single moment: the base-decad, body-decad, eye-decad, ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, and either the femininity-decad or the masculinity-decad.

If one is spontaneously born in an evil destiny as a blind male or female, sixty material phenomena arise in a single moment, excluding the eye-decad. Likewise, for one born deaf, sixty material phenomena arise, excluding the ear-decad. For one born blind and deaf, fifty material phenomena arise, excluding the eye-decad and the ear-decad.

For one spontaneously born in an evil destiny with complete faculties who is neither male nor female, or for a human being at the beginning of a world-cycle, sixty material phenomena arise in a single moment, excluding the male and female faculties. For one who is blind and neither male nor female, fifty material phenomena arise, excluding the eye-decad and the faculty of sexual distinction. For one who is deaf and neither male nor female, fifty material phenomena likewise arise, excluding the ear-decad and the faculty of sexual distinction. For one who is blind, deaf, and neither male nor female, forty material phenomena arise.

These are the base-decad, body-decad, nose-decad, and tongue-decad. For a Brahma, forty-nine material phenomena arise here in a single moment: the base-decad, eye-decad, ear-decad, body-decad, and life-nonad. For beings in the Heaven of Non-Perception, nine material phenomena arise in a single moment at rebirth: the life-nonad. Thus should arising be understood.

Question: What are the various kinds?

Answer: All material form is of two kinds: gross and subtle. The twelve gross forms are the internal and external form-entrances; they are understood as having resistance. The remaining eighteen subtle forms are understood as being without resistance.

Again, material form is of two kinds: internal and external. Of these, the five forms—eye and so forth—are internal. The five entrances also have the meaning of objective fields; the remaining twenty-five kinds of form are understood as being without an objective field.

Again, material form is of two kinds: life-faculty and not life-faculty. Of these, eight forms are called faculties: the five, together with the female faculty, the male faculty, and the life-faculty; these have the meaning of being supports. The remaining twenty-two are not life-faculties and are understood as not being supports.

All material form is of three kinds: appropriated form, unappropriated form, and mutable form. Of these, nine forms are appropriated: the eight faculties and the heart-base form. They are understood as being produced by karmic result.

Nine forms are unappropriated: sound, bodily intimation, verbal intimation, lightness of form, malleability of form, adaptability of form, the continuity of form, and the aging of form. Impermanence and the eye are understood as not being produced by karmic result. The remaining twelve forms are mutable.

That, again, has two meanings. Material form is also of three kinds: visible and resistant; invisible and resistant; and invisible and non-resistant. Of these, one form is visible and resistant, namely the form-entrance.

It is so called because it is seen and because it is touched. Eleven forms are invisible and resistant, namely the gross forms other than the form-entrance. They are invisible in the sense that they are not seen, and the ten are resistant in the sense that they are touched.

Eighteen forms are invisible and non-resistant, namely the remaining subtle forms. They are invisible and cannot be touched. All material form is of four kinds: intrinsic form, derived form, characteristic form, and delimiting form.

Of these, nineteen are intrinsic forms: the remaining twelve gross forms, the female faculty, the male faculty, the life-faculty, the heart-base, the water element, nutriment, and visible form. They are understood as ultimate realities. Seven are derived forms: bodily intimation, verbal intimation, lightness of form, malleability of form, adaptability of form, continuity of form, and intrinsic form.

Three are characteristic forms: the arising of form, the aging of form, and the impermanence of form. They are understood as characteristics of the conditioned. One form is delimiting form, namely the space element.

It is understood as delimiting material aggregates. This is intrinsic form. That which is delimited constitutes differentiation; what lies outside is not differentiated.

Thus it may be distinguished in many ways.

Question: Why is it distinguished as one kind?

Answer: All material form is without a root, yet it is not causeless; it is dissociated from roots, conditioned, and conditionedly produced. It is included in the world, tainted, and bound. It is fettered, involved in the round of existence, turning, and obstructed.

It is encountered in the various realms. It is defiled, indeterminate, and without an object. It is not a mental factor and is not conjoined with mind.

It is bound to the realm of limited desire, is not fixed, does not lead onward, and does not arise together with pleasure. It does not arise together with pain. It does not arise together with neither-pain-nor-pleasure.

It does not cause accumulation, nor does it fail to cause accumulation; it is neither training nor beyond training. It is not abandoned through seeing. It is not abandoned through cultivation.

Thus, by treating it as one kind, the other distinctions may be known. This is called the material-form skandha.

Question: What, then, is the feeling skandha?

Answer: Feeling has the single characteristic of experiencing; through the mind's experiencing it is one. According to its bases, feeling is of two kinds: bodily feeling and mental feeling. According to its intrinsic nature, feeling is of three kinds: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

According to the Dharma, feeling is of four kinds: wholesome feeling, unwholesome feeling, resultant feeling, and functional feeling. According to the faculties, feeling is of five kinds: the pleasure faculty, the pain faculty, the joy faculty, the grief faculty, and the equanimity faculty. According to the dark and the bright, feeling is of six kinds: tainted pleasant feeling, untainted pleasant feeling, tainted painful feeling, untainted painful feeling, tainted neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, and untainted neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

According to the doors, feeling is of seven kinds: feeling born of eye-contact; feeling born of ear-contact; feeling born of nose-contact; feeling born of tongue-contact; feeling born of body-contact; feeling born of mind-contact; and feeling received through the mind-consciousness element. From these, it is further expounded as 108 kinds of feeling: six kinds of feeling arising in dependence upon craving; six kinds of feeling arising in dependence upon renunciation; six kinds of sorrow arising in dependence upon craving; six kinds of sorrow arising in dependence upon freedom from craving; six kinds of equanimity arising in dependence upon craving; and six kinds of equanimity arising in dependence upon emancipation.

These six groups of six make thirty-six kinds. Multiplying these thirty-six by the three times—past, present, and future—makes the 108 kinds of the feeling skandha.

Question: What is the perception skandha?

Answer: Perception has the single characteristic of recognizing through the mind. According to the two characteristics of dark and bright, it is distorted perception and undistorted perception. There are three unwholesome perceptions: perception of sensual desire, perception of ill will, and perception of harming.

There are three wholesome perceptions: perception of renunciation, perception free from ill will, and perception of non-harming. There are four kinds of perception that fail to know the nature and meaning of their objects: perceiving the impure as pure; perceiving suffering as happiness; perceiving the impermanent as permanent; and perceiving the non-self as self. There are also four perceptions that know the nature and meaning of their objects: perception of impurity, perception of suffering, perception of impermanence, and perception of non-self.

According to the Vinaya, there are five perceptions: perceiving the impure as pure; perceiving the impure as impure; perceiving the pure as impure; perceiving the pure as pure; and doubtful perception. According to objects, there are six perceptions: perception of form, perception of sound, perception of fragrance, perception of taste, perception of touch, and perception of dharmas. Again, according to the seven doors, there are: perception born of eye-contact; perception born of ear-contact; perception born of nose-contact; perception born of tongue-contact; perception born of body-contact; perception born of mind-contact; and perception born of contact with mind-consciousness.

Thus the various kinds of perception may be known. This is called the perception skandha.

Question: What is called the formations skandha?

Answer: They are contact, volition, initial application, sustained application, mind, joy, energy, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, the life faculty, and tranquility; non-greed, non-hatred, moral shame, and moral dread; desire, resolve, liberation, equanimity, and attention; greed, hatred, ignorance, conceit, views, agitation, remorse, doubt, indolence, shamelessness, and fearlessness of wrongdoing. Apart from feeling and perception, all mental factors constitute the aggregate of formations.

Regarding contact, this mind encounters an object, just as sunlight meets a wall; this is its basis. Volition means that this mind acts, as when a house is built by employing all the requisite factors. This is its basis.

Initial application means that the mind forms an intention, as when one applies the mind to reciting a scripture. This is its basis. Sustained application means that this mind examines an object, considering its meaning in accordance with reflection.

Initial application is its basis. Joy means that this mind rejoices, as does a person who has obtained something. Rapture is its basis.

Mind here is the mental disposition, like a mantra that makes water clear. Its basis is the four fruits of stream-entry. Energy means that this mind is vigorous, like a strong ox.

Its basis is the eight grounds of endeavor. Mindfulness means that this mind guards, as one guards an oil lamp. Its basis is the Four Foundations of Mindfulness.

Concentration means that this mind is one-pointed, like a lamp in a palace. Its basis is the four jhanas. Wisdom means that this mind sees, like a person endowed with sight.

Its basis is the Four Noble Truths. The life faculty means that the immaterial dhammas possess life, like the water of an utpala lotus. Its basis is name-and-form.

Tranquility means that the unwholesome mind ceases and is abandoned, like a person who rejoices because his life has been freed from poison. Its basis is the four practices of jhana. Non-greed means that this mind relinquishes attachment, like one released from a burden.

Renunciation is its basis. Non-hatred means that this mind is without anger, like a cat’s skin. Its basis is the Four Immeasurables.

Moral shame means that this mind is ashamed: when one commits evil, one is repelled by that evil and regards it as contemptible. Reliance upon oneself is its basis. Moral dread means that this mind fears committing evil, as one fears a high official.

This is called reliance upon the world as its basis. Tranquility means that the agitation of the mind has ceased, like a person greatly relieved by bathing in cool water. Joyful intention is its basis.

Desire means delight in doing good, like the faith of a donor. Its basis is the Four Bases of Spiritual Power. Liberation means that this mind is freed from obstruction, like water flowing into a deep place.

Initial and sustained application are its basis. Equanimity means that this mind neither comes nor goes, like a person who remains unaffected by forms of address. Balanced energy is its basis.

Attention means that this mind causes a method to arise, like a person holding the rudder of a boat. Wholesome and unwholesome states are its basis. Greed means that this mind clings, as one holds a goose.

Its basis is agreeable, delightful form. Hatred means that the mind is fierce, like a venomous snake. Its basis is the ten grounds of hatred.

Ignorance means that this mind has no vision, like a blind person. Its basis is the Four Inversions. Conceit means that this mind is haughty and assumes a proud bearing.

Its basis is the three kinds. Views mean that this mind grasps, like blind men feeling an elephant. Their basis is the incorrect recollection of teachings different from those of the sravakas.

Agitation means that this mind is not tranquil, like dripping water. Its basis is energy directed afar. Remorse means that this mind recoils, as when one is fond of an impure act.

Its basis is retreat from deeds, whether wholesome or unwholesome. Doubt means that this mind does not settle upon one alternative, like a traveler far from home who finds two roads before him. Improper attention is its basis.

Indolence means that this mind declines, like a snake shedding its skin. Its basis is the eight grounds of indolence. Shamelessness means that this mind commits evil without shame, like a chandala.

Disrespect is its basis. Fearlessness of wrongdoing means that this mind commits evil without fear, like a wicked king. Its basis is the six kinds of disrespect.

This is the meaning of the aggregate of formations.

Question: What is the aggregate of consciousness?

Answer: Eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, the mind-element, and mind-consciousness. Eye-consciousness means the consciousness that arises with the eye as condition and form as its object. This is called eye-consciousness.

Ear-consciousness means the consciousness that arises dependent upon the ear and sound. This is called ear-consciousness. Nose-consciousness means the consciousness that arises dependent upon the nose and fragrance.

This is called nose-consciousness. Tongue-consciousness means the consciousness that arises dependent upon the tongue and taste. This is called tongue-consciousness.

Body-consciousness means the consciousness that arises dependent upon the body and tangible contact. This is called body-consciousness. The mind-element means that, dependent upon the five objects and dependent upon two functions, consciousness arises successively before and after the first five consciousnesses.

This is called the mind-element. The mind-consciousness-element means all consciousness apart from these six consciousnesses. This is called the mind-consciousness-element.

These seven consciousnesses should be understood as having three predominant modes of activity. Thus they are understood by way of basis and function, by way of function, and by way of dhammas.

Question: What is meant by basis and function?

Answer: The five consciousnesses have many bases and many functions. The mind-element has one basis, while the mind-consciousness-element has five functions. The six functions of the five consciousnesses are as follows: for the mind-element, the internal dhamma is the internal basis and the external object; for the mind-consciousness-element, the internal dhamma has an external basis and an external object.

The internal dhamma has an external basis and may have either an internal or an external object. The six consciousnesses constitute the first basis of arising and the first function of arising for the mind-consciousness-element. At the moment of entering the body, they arise together with their basis, taking the basis of birth first.

In the immaterial realm there is no physical basis, though all functions remain. Thus they may be understood by way of basis and function.

Question: What is meant by function?

Answer: Each of the five consciousnesses receives only its own sphere as object. They do not arise one after another within the same occurrence; they neither arise before nor after one another, nor do they disperse and arise again. Through the five consciousnesses one does not know the dhammas that are present, apart from the initial arising of their respective objects.

Through the mind-element one does not know the dhammas that are present, apart from the turning of the mind toward them. When the six consciousnesses do not maintain the bodily postures, the mind-consciousness-element causes them to be maintained. When the six consciousnesses do not undertake bodily or verbal karma, it causes such karma to be undertaken.

When the six consciousnesses do not receive either wholesome or unwholesome dhammas, it causes them quickly to be received. When the six consciousnesses neither enter concentration nor emerge from it peacefully, it causes them quickly to enter concentration and afterward to emerge peacefully. When, through the six consciousnesses, a state neither ceases nor fails to arise, then either through the subsequent phase or through the exhaustion of that function, resultant mind-consciousness arises.

Through the six consciousnesses one neither sees nor knows a dream; afterward, when the eye has turned and the mind awakens, the mind-consciousness-element causes the dream quickly to be seen. Thus its functions may be understood.

Question: What are its dhammas?

Answer: The five consciousnesses possess initial and sustained application. The mind-element possesses initial and sustained application. The mind-consciousness-element also possesses initial and sustained application; or it may be without initial application but with only slight sustained application; or it may be without either initial or sustained application.

The five consciousnesses are accompanied by equanimity. Body-consciousness may be accompanied by pleasure or accompanied by pain. The mind-consciousness-element may be accompanied by joy, accompanied by sorrow, or accompanied by equanimity.

The five consciousnesses are resultant. The mind-element may be resultant or functional. The mind-consciousness-element may be wholesome or unwholesome, resultant or functional.

The six consciousnesses do not arise without a cause. As worldly dhammas, they are tainted, fettered, bound, subject to wandering on, perilous, and obscured. Their contact is accompanied by clinging and affliction.

They are not abandoned through seeing, nor are they eliminated through cultivation. They neither produce accumulation nor fail to produce accumulation. They are neither of one in training nor of one beyond training.

They are confined to the limited sense realm, are unconcentrated, and do not serve as a vehicle. All mind-consciousness-elements are subject to dissolution. Thus they are more fully understood by way of dhammas.

This is called the aggregate of consciousness. This is the meaning of the five aggregates.

Furthermore, these five skandhas should be understood by means of Four Practices. Here, their meaning in terms of phrases is taken as their characteristic, while analysis is used to encompass them.

Question: What is their meaning in terms of phrases?

Answer: Form means that which is manifestly present. Feeling means that which can be experienced. Perception means recognition. Formations mean activities. Consciousness means discernment. Skandha means an aggregation of various kinds. Thus should their meaning in terms of phrases be understood.

Question: What are their characteristics?

Answer: Form means precisely the characteristic of form, as when one sees stabbing and cutting; the four great elements are its full basis. Feeling means the characteristic of experiencing, like a leper being touched; contact is its full basis. Perception means having the apprehension of a sign as its characteristic, as when one forms an image of an elephant; contact is its full basis. Formations mean having coordination as their characteristic, like a wheel-turning monarch; contact is their full basis. Consciousness means having cognition as its characteristic, as when one knows a taste; name-and-form is its full basis. Thus they can be discerned by means of their characteristics.

Question: How are they analyzed?

Answer: They are analyzed as three kinds of skandhas: the five skandhas, the five aggregates subject to clinging, and the five Dharma aggregates. The five skandhas mean all conditioned dharmas. The five aggregates subject to clinging mean all contaminated dharmas. The five Dharma aggregates are the aggregate of virtue, the aggregate of concentration, the aggregate of wisdom, the aggregate of liberation, and the aggregate of the knowledge and vision of liberation. Among them, the five aggregates subject to clinging can be delighted in. Thus they may be understood through analysis.

Question: How are they encompassed?

Answer: There are three kinds of inclusion: inclusion within the ayatanas, inclusion within the dhatus, and inclusion within the truths. The form skandha is included within eleven ayatanas. Three skandhas are included within the dharma ayatana.

The consciousness skandha is included within the mind ayatana. The form skandha is included within eleven dhatus; three skandhas are included within the dharma dhatu. The consciousness skandha is included within seven dhatus.

The aggregate of virtue, the aggregate of concentration, the aggregate of wisdom, and the aggregate of the knowledge and vision of liberation are included within the dharma ayatana and the dharma dhatu. The aggregate of liberation is included within the dharma ayatana and the mind ayatana, as well as within the dharma dhatu and the mind-consciousness dhatu. The five skandhas are either included within the truths or not included within the truths.

The five aggregates subject to clinging are included within the truths of suffering and its origin. The aggregates of virtue, concentration, and wisdom are included within the truth of the path. The aggregate of liberation is not included within the truths.

The aggregate of the knowledge and vision of liberation is included within the truth of suffering. Some dharmas are included within the skandhas but not within the truths. Some dharmas are included within the truths but not within the skandhas.

Some dharmas are included within both the skandhas and the truths. Some dharmas are included neither within the skandhas nor within the truths. With regard to existence and nonexistence, the roots and bonds of form, together with those associated with the path and the fruits of the śramana, are included within the skandhas but not within the truths.

Nirvana is included within the truths but not within the skandhas. Three truths are included within both the skandhas and the truths. Designations are included neither within the skandhas nor within the truths.

Such are the formations. With respect to the skandhas, one thereby understands the analytical method. This is called the method concerning the skandhas.

Question: What is the method concerning the ayatanas?

Answer: There are twelve: the eye ayatana, form ayatana, ear ayatana, sound ayatana, nose ayatana, odor ayatana, tongue ayatana, taste ayatana, body ayatana, tangible ayatana, mind ayatana, and dharma ayatana. The eye ayatana means that this faculty is purified and, by means of the eye, sees forms. The form ayatana means the shapes and appearances of the realm of form, the objects seen by the eye.

The ear ayatana means that this faculty is purified and, by means of it, hears sounds. The sound ayatana means the realm of audible sounds, which is the sphere of the ear. The nose ayatana means that this faculty is purified and, by means of it, discerns foul and fragrant odors.

The odor ayatana means the realm of odors, which is the sphere of the nose. The tongue ayatana means that this faculty is purified and therefore can discern tastes. The taste ayatana means the realm of flavors, which is the sphere of the tongue.

The body ayatana means that this faculty is purified and experiences subtle, smooth contact. The tangible ayatana means the earth dhatu, water dhatu, fire dhatu, and wind dhatu—hardness, softness, cold, and warmth—which have the body as their sphere. The mind ayatana means the seven consciousness dhatus.

The dharma ayatana means the three immaterial skandhas, eighteen kinds of subtle form, and Nirvana. These are called the twelve ayatanas. Furthermore, these twelve ayatanas are most clearly understood by means of Five Practices: through their meaning in terms of phrases, their spheres, their conditions, the arising of the swift mind, and their inclusion.

Question: What is their meaning in terms of phrases?

Answer: The eye sees. Form means that which is manifested. The ear hears. Sound means audible vibration. The nose discerns foul odors. Odor means that which is smelled. The tongue discerns taste. Taste means flavor. The body is that which properly sustains. Tangible means that which can be touched. Mind means cognition. Dharma means that which is without life. Ayatana means a gateway for immaterial dharmas. Abode means that which receives and sustains. Thus they are understood through their meaning in terms of phrases.

Question: How are their spheres understood?

Answer: The eye and ear do not reach their spheres, whereas the nose, tongue, and body reach their spheres. The mind is present throughout its sphere. It is also said that the ear reaches its sphere. Why, then, when there is an obstruction, is speech not heard? It is like what is said concerning spells. It is also said that the eye passes from this very sphere to another sphere.

Why, then, does it not see beyond a wall? Thus they may be understood through their spheres.

Question: What are their conditions?

Answer: The eye, dependent upon light and accompanied by attention, gives rise to eye-consciousness. With respect to the eye, this is eye-consciousness. Four conditions serve as conditions.

At its initial arising, dependence upon the faculty is one condition; form serves as a condition; and three conditions together serve as conditions. At the initial arising, light serves as one of three conditions. Initially, dependence upon attention comprises two conditions.

In the succeeding sequence, there is no condition. Dependent upon the ear, sound, unobstructed space, and attention, ear-consciousness arises. These are distinguished through this analysis.

Dependent upon the nose, wind, odor, and attention, nose-consciousness arises. Dependent upon the tongue, moisture, taste, and attention, tongue-consciousness arises. Dependent upon the body, tangible objects, and attention, body-consciousness arises.

Dependent upon the mind, dharmas, release, and attention, mind-consciousness arises. Here, mind means the immediately preceding mind-moment. Dharmas mean the various objects of dharma.

These are of four kinds. The six internal ayatanas in the past, present, and future constitute one kind. The other five external ayatanas in the past, future, and present, apart from and excluding the faculty ayatanas, constitute the second kind.

The third kind consists of the eleven kinds that constitute the dharma ayatana. Therefore, at that time, beings commit offenses. All the signs of the ascetic practices, no one entering concentration, and the attainment of the concentration of cessation; true reflection and untrue reflection—these constitute the fourth kind.

These are called the objects of dharma. One who is intent means one who understands in accordance with them. Attention means directing the mind at the mind-door.

Consciousness means the swiftly moving mind. Here, mind serves as the condition for mind-consciousness through dependence. Dharmas serve as conditions by being objects.

Release serves as a condition through dependence. Attention comprises two conditions. Successive conditions in turn condition one another.

Thus they may be clearly understood through their conditions.

Question: What is meant by the arising of the narrow mind?

Answer: With regard to the eye-door, there are three kinds, apart from what is narrow: upper, middle, and lower. With regard to the upper case, taking that narrowness, it is divided into seven minds. Immediately afterward, rebirth occurs in the Avici hell.

From the mind that adverts, there are the turning mind, the seeing mind, the receiving mind, the investigating mind, the determining mind, the impulsion mind, and the mind that registers the object. With regard to the adverting, this is the root-mind, tangled like a skein of thread. The turning mind means that, at the eye-door, a visible form in the midst becomes its condition.

Taking that condition, the various objects unfold in succession. Depending upon the appropriate basis, the adverting mind arises, and then the successive adverting occurs. Because one sees a visible form, a change takes place and that mind turns toward it.

The turning mind, in due succession, depends upon the eye to turn. When seeing becomes manifest, the seeing mind arises. After the seeing mind has successively seen, feeling becomes manifest in the mind, and the receiving mind arises.

The receiving mind, in due succession, takes reception as its meaning. Investigation becomes manifest, and the investigating mind arises. The investigating mind, in due succession, makes the meaning of investigation manifest and causes the determining mind to arise.

The determining mind, in due succession, determines the meaning. Through the activity of mind, it proceeds swiftly onward. Then the impulsion mind, in due succession, takes swift coursing as its meaning.

It cannot be produced by an expedient means, and that registering mind is resultant mind. From there, it immediately passes again to the adverting mind.

Question: What is the simile for this?

Answer: It is like a king sleeping above the city gate of his palace; like the boil of Mara’s daughter; there are the seats of the consort and the great minister, and the pavilions directly before the palace gate. A deaf gatekeeper dwells beside the city gate. It is also like a gardener watching over mangoes when a mango falls before the gate.

The king hears the sound and awakens, and tells his female attendants: “Go and open the gate.” The attendants immediately obey his command. By gestures they convey the instruction to a blind man, and the blind man understands its meaning; he then opens the city gate and sees only the mango. The king then takes up a knife.

A maidservant receives the fruit and presents it to the great minister. The great minister gives it to the consort, and the consort washes the fruit, determines whether it is ripe or unripe, and sets it in one place. Only afterward does she offer the fruit to the king as food.

After eating, he speaks of its good qualities and its faults, and then goes back to sleep as before. The discriminating mind should be understood in this way. Just as the gardener picks up the mango that fell before the gate, so the eye-door and a visible form in its midst should be understood.

Just as the king hears the sound, becomes aware of it, and orders the female attendants to open the city gate, so, through the successive conditions serving as an object and depending upon that basis, the adverting mind arises; it should be understood in this way. Just as the maidservant uses gestures to instruct the blind man to open the gate, so the turning mind should be understood. Just as the blind man, when opening the gate, sees the mango, so eye-consciousness should be understood.

Just as the knife is taken up, the woman receives the fruit, and the great minister appears, takes the mango, and hands it to the consort, so the investigating mind should be understood. Just as she determines whether it is ripe or unripe, sets it in one place, and only afterward offers it to the king, so the determining mind should be understood. Just as the king eats that fruit, so the impulsion mind should be understood.

Just as the king, after eating, speaks of its good qualities and faults, so the registering mind that is the result should be understood. Afterward, the king immediately goes back to sleep. Thus the adverting mind should be understood.

With regard to the eye, this is an object of middle degree. When the impulsion mind passes without delay, that mind is of the lower interval; then it causes the mind to arise without interruption, and this passage is called adverting. The other doors may likewise be clearly understood.

At the mind-door there is no intermediate place; conditioned by attention, it is released into activity. At the mind-door, the object is apprehended. In the upper case, three minds arise: the adverting mind, the turning mind, and the impulsion mind.

In the middle and lower cases, two minds arise: the turning mind and the impulsion mind. Here, the middle object may or may not be received. This should be understood through the many kinds of conditions and the many kinds of reception.

Through right attention or wrong attention conditioning wholesome or unwholesome states, it should be understood. Thus, amid these minds, superiority and inferiority arise; it should be understood in this way.

Question: What is meant by inclusion?

Answer: There are three kinds of inclusion: inclusion within the skandhas, inclusion within the dhatus, and inclusion within the truths. The ten ayatanas are included within the form skandha; the mind ayatana is included within the consciousness skandha; and the Dharma ayatana, together with nirvana, is included within the four skandhas. Eleven ayatanas are included within eleven dhatus.

The mind ayatana is included within seven dhatus. The five internal ayatanas are included within the truth of suffering. The five external ayatanas may be included within the truth of suffering, or may not be included within the truth of suffering.

The mind ayatana may be included within the truth of suffering, or may not be included within the truth of suffering. The Dharma ayatana may be included within the Four Noble Truths, or may not be included within the truth of suffering. Inclusion should be clearly understood in this way.

Thus, this is the method by which formations enter into knowledge and cause it to arise. This is called the method concerning the ayatanas.

Question: What is the method concerning the dhatus?

Answer: There are eighteen dhatus: the eye dhatu, form dhatu, and eye-consciousness dhatu; the ear dhatu, sound dhatu, and ear-consciousness dhatu; the nose dhatu, odor dhatu, and nose-consciousness dhatu; the tongue dhatu, taste dhatu, and tongue-consciousness dhatu; the body dhatu, tangible-object dhatu, and body-consciousness dhatu; the mind dhatu, Dharma dhatu, and mind-consciousness dhatu. The purified eye is the eye dhatu; visible form is the form dhatu; and eye-consciousness is the eye-consciousness dhatu.

The others should be clearly understood in the same way. In the turning that occurs at the five doors, the mind dhatu receives the result, and the mind dhatu enters in conformity with phenomena, apart from the Dharma dhatu and the six consciousness dhatus. Exclude the mind-consciousness dhatu.

The rest were explained extensively above when discussing the ayatanas. Of the eighteen dhatus, ten are included within the form skandha; the Dharma dhatu, apart from nirvana, is included within the four skandhas; and seven dhatus are included within the consciousness skandha. Eleven dhatus are included within eleven ayatanas.

Seven dhatus are included within the mind ayatana. Eleven dhatus are included within the truth of suffering. Five dhatus may be included within the truth of suffering, or may not be included within the truth.

The mind-consciousness dhatu may be included within the truth of suffering, or may not be included within the truth.

Question: Why is it further called the transformation of the objects?

Answer: Only these Dharma skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus serve as objects. Because various phenomena possess the characteristic of aggregation, they are called skandhas; because they are gateways through which characteristics enter, they are called ayatanas; and because their intrinsic characteristics are stated, they are called dhatus. Furthermore, for those of sharp faculties, the Blessed One taught the truth of suffering through the gateway of the skandhas.

For those of middling faculties, he taught the truth of suffering through the gateway of the ayatanas. For those of dull faculties, he taught the truth of suffering through the gateway of the dhatus. Furthermore, for those attached to name and characteristics, visible form is contemplated through verbal designation, and the skandhas are taught by means of analysis.

For those attached to form, visible form is analyzed and the ayatanas are taught in brief. For those who take name-and-form as their primary characteristic, name-and-form is analyzed and the dhatus are taught. Furthermore, intrinsic nature and locus are taught when the skandhas are taught; the loci through which objects enter are taught when the ayatanas are taught; and the arising of mind based upon a locus is taught when the dhatus are taught.

Thus, these are the methods for discerning formations by way of the dhatus. This is called the method concerning the dhatus.

Question: What is the method concerning causes and conditions?

Answer: With ignorance as condition, formations arise; with formations as condition, consciousness; with consciousness as condition, name-and-form; with name-and-form as condition, the six sense bases; with the six sense bases as condition, contact; with contact as condition, feeling; with feeling as condition, craving; with craving as condition, clinging; with clinging as condition, becoming; with becoming as condition, birth; and with birth as condition, aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress.

Thus the entire mass of suffering arises. Only when ignorance ceases do formations cease; when formations cease, consciousness ceases; when consciousness has ceased, name-and-form cease; when name-and-form have ceased, the six sense bases cease; when the six sense bases have ceased, contact ceases; when contact has ceased, feeling ceases; when feeling has ceased, craving ceases; when craving has ceased, clinging ceases; when clinging has ceased, becoming ceases; when becoming has ceased, birth ceases; and when birth has ceased, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress cease.

Thus, ignorance means not clearly knowing the Four Noble Truths. Formations are bodily, verbal, and mental karma. Consciousness means the single mind-moment at conception, which is called consciousness. Name-and-form means the mental factors that arise in continuity together with mind, and the form of the kalala. The six sense bases mean the six internal sense bases. Contact means the six kinds of bodily contact. Feeling means the six bodily feelings. Craving means the six kinds of bodily desire. Clinging is of four kinds. Through karma, one may give rise to becoming in the desire, form, and formless realms. Birth means the arising of the skandhas. Aging means the maturation of the skandhas. Death means the dissolution of those skandhas.

Question: How is ignorance the condition for formations? Why is birth the condition for aging and death?

Answer: Because ordinary persons, being ignorant, have neither heard nor understood the Four Noble Truths. Throughout the long night, they delight in and cling to the five clinging-skandhas as things belonging to a self, and thus become bound to them. Regarding these things and this body as real, they delight in and cling to them.

In conjunction with becoming, they form intentions, and such intention does not rest upon wisdom. Having acquired becoming, they therefore abide in becoming. It is like planting seed in a rice field: without the other factor, cessation does not occur.

This is the meaning of ignorance conditioning formations. From that ignorance, action arises. Intention, together with attachment and its characteristic, becomes a gathering place and then proceeds continuously.

Because that consciousness follows the mind without interruption, formations condition consciousness. Just as apart from the sun there is no sunlight, it abides upon a ground and increases. Likewise, apart from consciousness there is no name-and-form, nor can it abide and grow.

It is like the parts of a chair depending upon the seat and developing in mutual succession. Therefore, consciousness is said to condition name-and-form; depending upon it, the other factors called name arise together. The mind base enters and grows through mutual dependence; this is called life, which comprises the Four Great Elements.

In addition, conditioned by nutriment, the five sense bases grow and arise. Apart from this, there is no other condition. Therefore, form is said to condition the six sense bases.

Furthermore, the faculties, objects, and consciousness unite to give rise to contact. Therefore, the six sense bases condition contact. That contact gives rise to feeling—painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant; there is no feeling apart from contact.

Therefore, contact conditions feeling. An ignorant ordinary person experiences that pleasure and becomes attached to it; then, when experiencing pain, takes pleasure as its remedy. If one experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling and remains indifferent, that feeling conditions craving.

Because of thirsting craving, one proceeds to cling to the object of craving. Therefore, craving conditions clinging. Through that clinging, many deeds of many kinds are performed.

Therefore, clinging conditions becoming. Then, through karma, birth occurs in the various realms. Therefore, this is called birth.

Once born, one will age and die. Therefore, birth conditions aging and death. Just as a seed is a condition for sowing, so should ignorance conditioning formations be understood.

Just as a tree depends upon a shoot, so should formations conditioning consciousness be understood. Just as a shoot conditions leaves, so should consciousness conditioning name-and-form be understood. Just as leaves depend upon branches, so should name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases be understood.

Just as branches are conditioned by the root, so should the six sense bases conditioning contact be understood. Just as a tree depends upon its flowers, so should contact conditioning feeling be understood. Just as flowers depend upon irrigation, so should feeling conditioning craving be understood.

Just as water supports grain, so should craving conditioning clinging be understood. Just as grain conditions seed, so should clinging conditioning becoming be understood. Just as seed conditions a shoot, so should this conditioning of birth be understood.

In this way, all these factors arise in uninterrupted succession. Therefore, what came before was not clearly understood, and what comes afterward is likewise not known. This is because ignorance, arising first, serves as the condition for such continuity, so that what came before was not understood and what follows likewise remains obscure.

Question: By what is ignorance conditioned?

Answer: Ignorance itself conditions ignorance; the fetters of the defilements condition one another, the beginning becoming the beginning and the end becoming the end. Moreover, all the defilements become conditions for ignorance. As the Buddha said: “From the accumulation of the taints arises the mass of ignorance.” Furthermore, in a single mental event, when the eye sees form, an ignorant person gives rise to craving, and at that time the delight in its seeming purity is deluded mind.

This is called ignorance. Because there is attached intention, this ignorance conditions formations. This attached mind together with these formations conditions consciousness, namely, the associated mental factors that know and the form produced thereby.

This is consciousness conditioning name-and-form. Because delight is born from craving, it conditions that delight; that delightful form conditions the purity of the faculties. Therefore, form is said to condition the six sense bases.

Ignorant contact is conditioned by the six bases of contact. Joyful contact conditions sensual feeling. Feeling conditions craving, giving rise to attachment, grasping, joy, and sorrow.

This is craving conditioning clinging. Attached intention takes clinging as the condition for becoming. Because that phenomenon arises, becoming conditions birth.

Having come to life, one ages, and when the mental process dissolves, this becomes death. Thus, within each moment, the twelve factors of dependent origination come to be.

Question: Among these twelve factors of dependent origination, how many are classified as defilements, and how many as karma? How many are classified as results? How many belong to the past, future, and present? How many conditions are there, and which have arisen? Why are they called conditions? What are the conditionally arisen phenomena? These are two distinct matters. What is meant by the profound nature of dependent origination?

Answer: There are three defilements: ignorance, craving, and clinging. There are two kinds of karma: formations and becoming. The remaining seven are results.

These defilements become causes for subsequent birth. It is like a painter applying colors. This does not arise by itself.

Just as a painter produces colors, the defilements cause things to arise. What is born through conditions is like many different colors. Two factors belong to the past: ignorance and formations; two belong to the future: birth and aging-and-death.

The remaining eight belong to the present. Thus, one should understand the beginningless continuity of birth and death through these three periods. Apart from the twelve factors of dependent origination, the twelve constituent conditions should not be separately stated; neither should anything further be said.

Then why are they called conditions?

These twelve phenomena successively develop and become causes for one another. This is the meaning of the arising of conditions. When the twelve conditions are distinguished, the phenomena arise. These are two distinct matters. Conditions mean the distinctions among formations; they are not established and cannot be described as either conditioned or unconditioned. They should not be so spoken of. Through the arising of conditionally arisen phenomena, formations become established as conditioned. These are two distinct phenomena.

What is the profound nature of dependent origination?

This is formation; this is its characteristic—thus there are ignorance and formations. They are conditioned by those formations and that characteristic nature. Noble persons do not take these as conditions, but penetrate them with luminous wisdom. Thus, all of this signifies the profound nature of causes and conditions. Furthermore, these are causes and conditions. They may be understood through seven modes of practice. Thus, by means of three links, four summaries, and twenty modes, they are discerned as a turning wheel and as continuity.

Why are there three links?

Formations and consciousness comprise the first link. Feeling and craving comprise the second link. Becoming and birth comprise the third link. Past karmic afflictions condition present results: this is the first link. Present results condition present afflictions: this is the second link. Present afflictions condition future results: this is the third link. The first and third are links of cause and effect and links of becoming. The second is a link of cause and effect but not a link of becoming.

Question: What is meant by a link of becoming?

Answer: At the end there is no interval, and the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus have not yet passed away. Because the initial karmic afflictions serve as conditions, one is born again in another realm. This is called the link of birth.

Question: How does this occur?

Answer: There is karma associated with ignorance and craving, producing either merit or demerit. When an ordinary person who still possesses unwholesome karma dies, he undergoes suffering and enters the state of a corpse. He no longer sees this world or another world; mindfulness is lost and he can no longer recollect. At that time, he is reborn in a realm of suffering; thought and wisdom decline; the body's strength also disappears, and the faculties gradually lose their power. Beginning either in the upper or the lower part of this body, when the life faculty ceases, the body dries and stiffens like a withered palmyra leaf. At that time, as in a dream, four phenomena arise from karma: karma, the sign of karma, the realm of rebirth, and the sign of that realm.

What is karma?

It is what has been performed, whether meritorious or unmeritorious, heavy or light, abundant or slight. If it is proximate, that which was performed first in this situation and that karma immediately arise. The sign of karma means that, based upon where that karma was performed, it immediately arises there, and the circumstances associated with the karma arise following the sign of karma.

According to the occasion, if meritorious karma has been performed in the present, it arises in relation to a fortunate realm. If it is unmeritorious, it arises in relation to an evil destination. This is called the sign of karma.

When entering the womb, birth occurs through the harmonious conjunction of three factors. In the case of spontaneous birth, one is born in dependence upon an appropriate place. This arises according to the place of birth: perhaps in a palace, upon a seat, on a mountain, in a tree, or in a river.

In accordance with that realm, the apprehended sign arises, and at the proper time one is reborn there—perhaps standing, sitting, or lying down. One sees it and apprehends what is seen. At that time, the first karma performed and the sign of karma, or the realm and the sign of that realm, swiftly become manifest and then vanish within the mind.

At death, they rapidly approach the insensible mind. When the life faculty ceases, that life comes to an end. Immediately after the final mind-moment, the next mind arises in succession through that swift mental process.

Only that karma and that sign of karma arise or are apprehended as signs, producing the resultant consciousness and bringing subsequent existence into being, like a lamp and its light, or like fire issuing from a firebrand. When that mind-moment has arisen, it is likewise connected with the mother's womb and depends upon the impure substances of the father and mother. From this, thirty kinds of material phenomena produced by karma come into being and arise.

There are ten in the body, and their aging occurs within a single instant, without any consciousness of regret. Forty-six material phenomena arise. Thirty are formed by karma, while nutriment produces the nutritive group.

There are two material phenomena and eight kinds of mindless material phenomena that have passed beyond the moment. In the instant of aging, together with these two consciousnesses, fifty-four material phenomena arise. Thirty are formed by karma and produced by nutriment.

Thus three material phenomena and eight kinds arise. Consciousness conditions name-and-form, and name-and-form conditions consciousness. In this way the link of becoming is established.

Through this, the three links may be clearly understood.

Question: What are the four summaries?

Answer: Ignorance and formations constitute the summary of past karmic afflictions. Consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, and feeling constitute the summary of present results. Craving, clinging, and becoming constitute the summary of present karmic afflictions. Birth, aging, and death constitute the summary of future results. Thus, they may be clearly understood through the four summaries.

Question: What are the twenty modes?

Answer: By taking past ignorance, craving, and clinging, the sign of affliction is apprehended. By taking past formations and becoming, the sign of karma is apprehended. Consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, and feeling are then apprehended.

In the present, birth, aging, and death are apprehended through the sign of resultant retribution. By apprehending present craving, the sign of affliction is apprehended. By taking present formations and becoming, the sign of karma is apprehended.

By apprehending future birth, aging, and death, consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, and feeling are apprehended. These twenty-four phenomena are fulfilled through this apprehension and become twenty, as stated in the Abhidharma. The delusion involved in the initial performance of karma is precisely ignorance; the gathering together is formations; attachment is craving; grasping is clinging; and conceiving that something exists is becoming.

These are the five phenomena pertaining to this birth and existence. The initial performance of karma is the condition. Failure to understand because of delusion is ignorance.

Gathering together is formations. Attachment is craving; taking to heart is clinging; and conceiving existence is becoming. These are the five phenomena pertaining to karmic existence.

They serve as conditions for future birth. At the time of future birth, consciousness is added; purity of name-and-form is the entrance into the basis of contact; taking up contact is contact; and experiencing is feeling. These are the two phenomena pertaining to future birth and existence.

Here, what performs karma is what serves as the condition. Thus, the twenty modes may be clearly understood.

Why is it called a wheel?

Ignorance conditions formations; formations condition consciousness; and so forth, until birth conditions aging and death. In this way, the entire mass of suffering arises, yet this mass of suffering is not clearly understood. This is called ignorance. Ignorance then serves as the condition for formations, and thus the cycle continues. In this way, the wheel may be clearly understood.

Why is it called a guide?

There are two guides. Thus, ignorance is a starting point, and aging and death are also a starting point.

Question: In what way is ignorance a starting point?

Answer: This will be explained in due sequence.

In what way are aging and death a starting point? This will likewise be explained afterward in due sequence.

Furthermore, when ignorance is taken as the starting point, the final boundary is becoming, and the path toward the future is known. When aging and death are taken as the starting point, the initial boundary is known, and the path toward the past is known. Thus, it may be clearly understood by means of the guide.

Question: What is meant by analysis?

Answer: There are two kinds of causality: mundane causality and supramundane causality. Here, ignorance is the starting point.

Question: What is supramundane causality?

Answer: Suffering is supported by suffering. Faith is supported by faith. Rapture is supported by rapture. Vigor is supported by vigor. Gladness is supported by gladness. Bliss is supported by bliss. Concentration is supported by concentration. Knowledge and vision of things as they truly are are supported by knowledge and vision of things as they truly are. Disenchantment is supported by disenchantment. Dispassion is supported by dispassion. Liberation is supported by the knowledge of cessation associated with liberation. This is called supramundane causality.

Furthermore, there are said to be four kinds of causes and conditions: karmic afflictions as cause, seeds as cause, productive activity as cause, and collective karma as cause.

Question: What is meant by karmic afflictions as cause?

Answer: Ignorance is the first suffering.

Question: Why is it called the seed that serves as a cause?

Answer: Just as when a tree is planted, the sprout will continue to grow.

Question: Why is there a place of fabrication?

Answer: It is like conjuring forth a realm.

Question: Why is collective karma called a cause?

Answer: It is like the earth, snow, mountains, oceans, the sun, and the moon. It is also said that these are not caused by collective karma, but are material, mental, and dharmic phenomena that take climatic conditions as their originating cause. There is no collective karma whatsoever. As the Blessed One spoke in the following verse:

Karma is not shared with that;

Its repository is not the same.

Through a person’s cultivation of merit,

This very thing is well attained.

By discerning in this way, one may clearly understand.

Question: What are the modes of inclusion?

Answer: There are four modes of inclusion: inclusion under the skandhas, inclusion under the ayatanas, inclusion under the dhatus, and inclusion under the truths. Ignorance, formations, contact, craving, clinging, and becoming are included under the formation skandha. Consciousness is included under the consciousness skandha.

Name-and-form is included under four skandhas. The six sense bases are included under two skandhas. Feeling is included under the feeling skandha.

Birth, aging, and death are included under the form skandha, and are also included under the formation skandha. Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, aging, and death are included under the dharma ayatana. Consciousness is included under the mind ayatana.

Name-and-form is included under the five internal ayatanas. The six sense bases are included under the six internal ayatanas. Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, aging, and death are included under the dharma dhatu.

Consciousness is included under the mind-consciousness dhatu. Name-and-form is included under five dhatus. The six sense bases are included under the twelve truths.

Ignorance, craving, and clinging are included under the ten truths. The remaining nine are included under the truth of suffering. The factors of the supramundane causal path are included under the truth of the path.

The cessation of causes and conditions is included under the truth of cessation. Thus, their mutual inclusion may be clearly understood. In this way, by using formations as the expedient means of causes and conditions, one may clearly understand.

This is the meaning of the expedient means of causes and conditions.

Treatise on the Path of Liberation

End of fascicle 10