解脫道論

Chapter 11: Five Skillful Means

Section 1: Skillful Means Concerning the Skandhas, Ayatanas, Dhatus, and Conditionality

Thus, a beginner in meditation who wishes to escape the condition of birth and aging, eliminate the causes and conditions that bring about birth and death, dispel the delusion of ignorance, sever the binding cord of craving, and attain the wisdom of the noble ones must strive to develop five skillful means in five domains. These are the skillful means concerning the skandhas, the ayatanas, the dhatus, conditionality, and the Noble Truths.

Question: What is the skillful means concerning the skandhas?

Answer: The five skandhas are the form skandha, feeling skandha, perception skandha, formations skandha, and consciousness skandha.

Question: What is the form skandha?

Answer: It is the four great elements and the forms derived from the four great elements.

What are the four great elements? They are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the wind element.

What is the earth element? The earth element has the nature of solidity and the characteristic of hardness. What is the water element? The water element has the nature of moisture and causes matter to cohere. What is the fire element? The fire element possesses heat and brings matter to maturity. What is the wind element? The wind element has the nature of supporting matter.

To penetrate the concealments of the four great elements, a beginner in meditation should contemplate them in two ways: in brief and in detail, as was explained extensively in the preceding section on contemplation of the four great elements.

Question: What are the forms derived from the four great elements?

Answer: The forms, or material phenomena, derived from the four great elements comprise: the eye ayatana, ear ayatana, nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, body ayatana, visible form, sound, odor, taste, femininity faculty, masculinity faculty, life faculty, bodily action, verbal action, the space element, lightness of form, softness of form, adaptability of form, continuity of form, growth of form, succession of form, arising of form, death of form, impermanence of form, food, the basis of form, (...).

What is the eye ayatana? Through the eye ayatana, visible form is seen; it has visible form as its object, and dependent upon that object eye-consciousness arises. This is called the eye ayatana. Furthermore, situated within the three thin, circular layers—white and black—of the eyeball, amid the five substances of flesh, blood, wind, phlegm, and serum, and measuring approximately half a mustard seed or the head of an ant, that clear form is called the eye ayatana. It is derived from the four great elements in accordance with past karma, with the fire element predominating therein. As the Venerable Sariputta said, by means of clear eye-consciousness one sees forms, whether small or subtle, such as the head of a louse or nit.

What is the ear ayatana? Through the ear ayatana, sounds are heard; it has sound as its object, and dependent upon that object ear-consciousness arises. This is called the ear ayatana. Furthermore, within the two ears, bordered by red hairs, and based upon a thin membrane like the stalk of a mung-bean sprout, that clear form is called the ear ayatana. It is produced by past karma and the four great elements, with the wind element predominating therein.

What is the nose ayatana? Through the nose ayatana, odors are smelled; it has odor as its object, and dependent upon that object nose-consciousness arises. This is called the nose ayatana. Furthermore, inside the two nostrils, where three passages converge into a small opening shaped like a Kovilara flower, that clear form is called the nose ayatana. It is produced by past karma and the four great elements, with the wind element predominating therein.

What is the tongue ayatana? Through the tongue ayatana, tastes are tasted; it has taste as its object, and dependent upon that object tongue-consciousness arises. Furthermore, in the flesh of the tongue, about two finger-widths across and shaped like an uppala, a blue lotus, that clear form is called the nose ayatana. It is produced by past karma and the four great elements, with the water element predominating therein.

What is the body ayatana? Through the body ayatana, contact is felt; it has tangible objects as its object, and dependent upon that object body-consciousness arises. Furthermore, apart from body hair, head hair, fingernails and toenails, teeth, and other insensitive parts, throughout the entire body that clear form is called the body ayatana. It is produced by past karma and the four great elements, with the earth element predominating therein.

Matter possessing visible shape and color is called the visible-form ayatana. Sound that can be heard as an object is called the sound ayatana. Odor that can be smelled as an object is called the odor ayatana. Taste that can be tasted as an object is called the taste ayatana. The femininity faculty is the sexual characteristic of a female. The masculinity faculty is the sexual characteristic of a male. The life faculty sustains the material body produced by karma. Bodily action consists of the manifest actions of the body. Verbal action consists of the manifest movements of the mouth. That which enables material phenomena to be distinguished from one another is called the space element.

Lightness of form is the light quality of matter. Softness of form is the gentle, pliant quality of matter. Matter's capacity to undergo molding is called adaptability and retention of form. These three characteristics—lightness, softness, and adaptability and retention of form—are material qualities that render the body free from lethargy.

The aggregation of form is the coming together of the ayatanas, from the eye ayatana through the body ayatana and from the visible-form ayatana through the taste ayatana. This aggregation of form is also called the continuity of form, proceeding in unbroken succession. That which causes matter to arise is called the arising of form. That which brings matter to maturity is called the aging of form. When matter becomes weakened and decays, this is called the impermanence of form. The vitality of all living beings is sustained by food; this is called morsel food. Form that arises dependent upon the dhatu and the mind-consciousness dhatu is called dhatu. The basis of form consists of the indolent dhatus; it is also called the dormant form, meaning asleep or immobile.

These twenty-six kinds of matter derived from the four great elements, together with the four great elements themselves, constitute thirty kinds of form.

Question: How do the four great elements differ from the forms derived from the four great elements?

Answer: The four great elements arise together in mutual dependence. The forms derived from the four great elements arise in dependence upon the four great elements. Yet the forms derived from the four great elements do not serve as supports for the four great elements, nor do they serve as supports for other forms derived from the four great elements. Just as three staffs stand by leaning upon one another, so should the mutual dependence of the four great elements be understood. Just as the shadows cast by three staffs standing while leaning upon one another, so should the forms derived from the four great elements be understood.

This is the distinction between the two kinds: the four great elements and the forms derived from the four great elements.

A meditator discerns clearly the thirty kinds of form in five ways. The five are: (1) by their production, (2) by their aggregation, (3) by their arising, (4) by their kinds, and (5) by their identity.

Question: What does “by their production” mean?

Answer: Nine kinds of materiality arise through the condition of karma: the eye ayatana, ear ayatana, nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, body ayatana, femininity faculty, masculinity faculty, life faculty, and material base. Two kinds of materiality arise through the condition of mind: bodily action and verbal action. One kind of materiality arises, according to circumstances, through the condition of mind: the sound ayatana.

Four kinds of materiality arise, according to circumstances, through mind, nutriment, and conditions: lightness of materiality, softness of materiality, adaptability of materiality, and material base. Twelve kinds of materiality arise through four conditions: the visible-form ayatana, tongue ayatana, taste ayatana, space dhatu, material aggregation, continuity of materiality, arising of materiality, morsel-food, and the four dhatus.

Two kinds of materiality do not arise: aging of materiality and impermanence of materiality. Furthermore, birth serves as the condition that brings about aging, and aging serves as the condition from which impermanence arises. (morsel-food; “morsel” means round and “food” means that which is eaten; food is rolled by hand into a ball and placed in the mouth to be swallowed, according to the Indian manner of eating)

Thus, the kinds of materiality are known by that which causes them to arise.

Question: How are they known through aggregation?

Answer: Nine groups of materiality arise as aggregates produced by karma, nine groups of materiality arise as aggregates produced by mind, and three groups of materiality are aggregated through nutriment.

Question: What are the nine groups of materiality arising as aggregates produced by karma?

Answer: They are the eye-decad, ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, body-decad, femininity-faculty decad, masculinity-faculty decad, life-faculty decad, and base-decad.

Question: What is called the eye-decad?

Answer: The basis of the eye-decad is the four dhatus of purified eye-sensitivity. The eye-decad consists of ten things: the four dhatus, visible form, odor, taste, tangibility, the life faculty, and purified eye-sensitivity. These ten arise together and are never separated from one another; hence they are called the eye-decad (“eye” means the eye; “decad” means ten).

The arising of these ten is called birth; their maturation is called aging; their decline is called impermanence; and their being distinguished from one another is called the space dhatu. They manifest together through four stages: birth, maturation, aging, and impermanence. When that eye-decad ages, it gives rise to a second eye-decad; the first and second eye-decads then gather together, and this is called aggregation.

Their successive continuation is called continuity. When the second eye-decad has aged, it gives rise to a third eye-decad, which aggregates with the second eye-decad, and they again continue in succession. At that time, the first eye-decad has decayed, the second eye-decad has aged, and the third eye-decad has arisen; all this occurs within a single ksana (= an exceedingly brief unit of time).

Because eye-decads arise so swiftly, no one can discern their details clearly. The meditation practitioner sees the continuity of the eye like a flowing stream or a flame that keeps burning; this is called the eye-decad.

In the same way, the ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, body-decad, femininity-faculty decad, masculinity-faculty decad, and life-faculty ennead should be understood by extension.

Question: What are the nine groups of materiality arising as aggregates produced by mind?

Answer: They are: the pure octad, pure bodily-action ennead, pure verbal-action decad, pure-lightness ennead, light bodily-action decad, light verbal-action hendecad, pure-eye ennead, eye bodily-action decad, and eye verbal-action hendecad.

Question: What is the pure octad arising as an aggregate produced by mind?

Answer: The four dhatus together with visible form, odor, taste, and tangibility, which depend upon the four dhatus, are eight things that arise together and are not separated from their respective decads; they are therefore called the pure octad (“octad” means eight). When they arise, this is called birth; when they mature, this is called aging; when they decay, this is called impermanence; and when they are distinguished from one another, this is called the space dhatu. These four stages—birth, aging, impermanence, and the space dhatu—arise in mutual dependence. When the first pure octad decays, a second pure octad arises within a single ksana, undergoes change, and aggregates with a third pure octad that is arising; all three are aggregates produced by mind.

In the same way, the pure-lightness ennead and the pure-eye ennead should be considered. The remaining six groups (apart from the pure octad, pure-lightness ennead, and pure-eye ennead) do not decay, nor does a second one arise within a single ksana. Why is this? Because two actions cannot occur in a single movement of mind. The remainder concerning these nine groups of materiality aggregated through mind has already been discussed above.

Question: What are the six groups that arise and aggregate according to climatic conditions?

Answer: They are: the pure octad, pure-sound ennead, pure-lightness ennead, light-sound decad, pure-eye ennead, and eye-sound decad. There are two externally aggregated groups: the pure octad and the sound ennead.

Question: What are the three groups of materiality that arise and aggregate through nutriment?

Answer: They are the pure octad, pure-lightness ennead, and pure-eye ennead. The kinds of materiality arising through climatic conditions and nutriment aggregate in continuity and also accord with karma and their bases.

The celestial life ennead (“life” means life; “ennead” means nine; “celestial” means a heavenly realm) is aggregated in the sense realm and comes to be in accordance with karma and its basis.

Eight aggregated groups function by virtue of the life span: the nose, tongue, body, masculinity faculty, femininity faculty, the three kinds of light materiality, and sleep. In the form realm, these kinds of materiality have no life span.

Nine groups aggregate in the realm of non-percipient Brahmas; in their bodies, all the ayatanas function.

Thus, the kinds of materiality are clearly known through aggregation.

Question: How are the kinds of materiality known through arising?

Answer: When a male or female enters the womb, thirty kinds of materiality arise within a single ksana: the base-decad, body-decad, and either the femininity-faculty decad or the masculinity-faculty decad. For a hermaphrodite (whose sex is not clearly differentiated), only twenty kinds of materiality arise: the base-decad and the body-decad.

Among those spontaneously born in the sense realm, with all faculties and ayatanas complete, seventy kinds of materiality arise in a male or female within a single ksana: the base-decad, body-decad, eye-decad, ear-decad, nose-decad, tongue-decad, and either the femininity-faculty decad or the masculinity-faculty decad.

Among those spontaneously born in an unfortunate realm, one born blind has sixty kinds of materiality arising within a single ksana, excluding the ten kinds pertaining to the eye (= the eye-decad). One born deaf has only sixty kinds of materiality, excluding the ear-decad. One born both blind and deaf has only fifty kinds of materiality, lacking the eye-decad and ear-decad.

Likewise, among those spontaneously born in an unfortunate realm, a hermaphrodite has only sixty kinds of materiality arising within a single ksana, lacking either the masculinity or femininity faculty. If a hermaphrodite is born blind, only fifty kinds of materiality arise, excluding the male-and-female-faculty decad and the eye-decad. A hermaphrodite born deaf lacks the male-and-female-faculty decad and the ear-decad. A hermaphrodite born both blind and deaf has only fifty kinds of materiality, lacking the masculinity- and femininity-faculty decad, eye-decad, and ear-decad.

In the Brahma realm, forty-nine kinds of materiality arise within a single ksana: the base-decad, eye-decad, ear-decad, body-decad, and life-faculty ennead.

In the realm of the non-percipient devas, only nine kinds of materiality—the life-faculty ennead—arise within a single ksana.

Thus, the kinds of materiality are clearly known through arising.

Question: How are the kinds of materiality known by classification?

Answer: All kinds of materiality may be classified into two classes, three classes, and four classes.

They fall into two classes: gross material phenomena and subtle material phenomena. The twelve internal and external material sense bases are gross, in the sense that they have objects; the other eighteen material phenomena are subtle because they have no objects. Furthermore, they also fall into two classes: internal material phenomena and external material phenomena.

Thus, the five material phenomena constituting the internal eye base have the meaning of a sphere; the other twenty-five material phenomena are external and do not have the meaning of a sphere. Furthermore, they also fall into two classes: material phenomena possessing the life faculty and those not possessing the life faculty. Eight material phenomena possess the life faculty: the five internal bases, the female faculty, the male faculty, and the life faculty, because their significance is dependent; the remaining twenty-two material phenomena do not possess the life faculty, because their significance is not dependent.

They fall into three classes: material phenomena that are experienced, those that are not experienced, and those subject to dissolution. Thus, nine material phenomena are experienced: the eight faculties and the material base, because they are produced by karmic result. Nine material phenomena are not experienced: the sound base, bodily expression, verbal expression, lightness of matter, pliancy of matter, adaptability of matter, aging of matter, impermanence of matter, and torpor as matter; none is produced by karmic result. The remaining twelve material phenomena are all subject to dissolution. (...)

Furthermore, they also fall into three classes: material phenomena with visible objects, material phenomena with invisible objects, and material phenomena without visible objects. Thus, the form base is the one material phenomenon with a visible object. Eleven material phenomena have invisible objects: the remaining bases, apart from the form base; although their objects cannot be seen, they can be contacted. The remaining subtle material phenomena have no objects that can be seen or contacted.

They fall into four classes: material phenomena possessing intrinsic nature, material phenomena possessing configuration, material phenomena possessing characteristics, and material phenomena possessing differentiation. Thus, nineteen material phenomena possess intrinsic nature: the twelve gross material phenomena together with the female faculty, male faculty, life faculty, water element, solid nutriment, material base, and matter of torpor, according to the ultimate meaning.

Seven material phenomena possess configuration: bodily expression, verbal expression, lightness of matter, pliancy of matter, adaptability of matter, matter of reception, and continuity of matter. All material phenomena possessing intrinsic nature undergo transformation according to three characteristics: the characteristic of arising, the characteristic of aging, and the characteristic of impermanence. Through the space element, conditioned material phenomena are differentiated (conditioned means subject to change according to conditions and causes); thereby, material phenomena possessing intrinsic nature are distinguished from one another, while the other remaining material phenomena are not differentiated.

Thus, material phenomena are clearly understood through their classes.

Question: How are material phenomena understood through their common nature?

Answer: All kinds of material phenomena are without cause, yet are also not without cause; they have conditions, and have conditions that are not associated; they are conditioned (= subject to change according to conditions and causes), bound to the mundane world, tainted (= giving rise to afflictions), involved, fettered, inundating, oppressive like a yoke, obscured, drawn along the various courses of existence, afflicted, indeterminate, without objects, without associated mental factors, connected with the desire realm, (...) not arising together with pleasure, not arising together with pain, not arising together with neither pleasure nor pain; they neither cause accumulation nor do not cause accumulation; they belong neither to the training nor to what is beyond training;

they can be abandoned neither through right view nor through intrinsic nature.

Thus, material phenomena are understood through this common nature.

The foregoing is the exposition of the form skandha.

Question: What is the feeling skandha?

Answer: When distinguished according to characteristic, there is only one feeling: feeling is what the mind experiences. When distinguished according to its locus, there are two kinds of feeling: bodily feeling and mental feeling. When distinguished according to intrinsic nature, there are three kinds of feeling: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

When distinguished according to Dharma, there are four kinds of feeling: wholesome feeling, unwholesome feeling, resultant feeling, and functional feeling. When distinguished according to faculty, there are five kinds of feeling: the pleasure faculty, pain faculty, joy faculty, sorrow faculty, and equanimity faculty. When distinguished as white and black, there are six kinds of feeling: tainted pleasant feeling (= still disturbed by afflictions), untainted pleasant feeling (= entirely purified of afflictions), tainted and untainted painful feeling, and tainted and untainted neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

When distinguished according to the doors, there are seven kinds of feeling: feeling born from the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind element, and mind-consciousness element.

When distinguished very broadly, there are altogether one hundred and eight feelings: six feelings arising in dependence upon attachment (= affection), six feelings arising in dependence upon renunciation (= departure), six arising in accordance with the sorrow of attachment, six arising in dependence upon freedom from attachment (= departure from affection), six arising in dependence upon the equanimity of attachment, and six arising in accordance with the equanimity of renunciation. Thus, six times six is thirty-six; multiplied by the three times—past, present, and future—there are altogether one hundred and eight feelings.

This is the feeling skandha.

Question: What is the perception skandha?

Answer: Distinguished according to characteristic, there is one perception: that by which the mind knows a thing. Distinguished as white and black, there are two perceptions: inverted perception and non-inverted perception. Distinguished according to the unwholesome, there are three perceptions: the thought of sensual desire, the thought of ill will, and the thought of harming.

Distinguished according to the wholesome, there are likewise three perceptions: the thought of renunciation, the thought of non-ill will, and the thought of non-harming. Distinguished according to failure to understand intrinsic nature, there are four perceptions: perceiving purity in what is impure, perceiving pleasure in what is suffering, perceiving permanence in what is impermanent, and perceiving a self in what is not-self.

Distinguished according to failure to understand the meaning of the locus, there are likewise four perceptions: the perception of impurity, the perception of suffering, the perception of impermanence, and the perception of not-self. Distinguished according to the Vinaya Pitaka, there are five perceptions: perceiving purity in what is impure, perceiving impurity in what is impure, perceiving impurity in what is pure, perceiving purity in what is pure, and uncertain perception.

Distinguished according to objects, there are six perceptions: perception of forms, perception of sounds, perception of odors, perception of tastes, perception of tangibles, and perception of dharmas (here, dharmas means objects). Distinguished according to the sense doors, there are seven perceptions: thoughts arising through contact at the eye, ear, tongue, touch, body, mind, and mind-consciousness element.

This is the perception skandha.

Question: What is the formations skandha?

Answer: Apart from feelings and perceptions, all mental factors belong to the formations skandha. They are: contact, volition, initial application of thought, sustained application of thought, mind, energy, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, the life faculty, hindrance, non-greed, non-hatred, moral shame, moral dread, tranquility (here meaning lightness and ease), desire, liberation, indolence, shamelessness, and lack of moral dread.

Contact is the mind’s coming into contact with an object, just as sunlight shines upon a wall; it is the sufficient condition for the arising of thought. Volition is the mind’s movement, like a housebuilder cultivating the ground; it is the sufficient condition for the gateway of entry into an object. Initial application is the mind’s directing itself, like one attentively reciting a sutra; it is the sufficient condition for thought.

Sustained application is the mind’s examination of an object, closely following its meaning; it is the sufficient condition for initial application. Rapture is the mind’s gladness, like that of someone who has obtained something; it is the sufficient condition for exultation and leaping with joy. Mind is the mind’s purity, like someone reciting an incantation to purify water; it is the sufficient condition for the four aspects of the path and fruit of stream-entry.

Energy is the mind’s vigor, like a strong ox capable of pulling a heavy load; it is the sufficient condition for the eight grounds of spiritual urgency. Mindfulness is the mind’s capacity to guard and preserve, like someone carrying a bowl filled with oil for fear of spilling it; it is the sufficient condition for the four foundations of mindfulness. Concentration is the mind’s one-pointedness, like a lamp in a palace; it is the sufficient condition for the four levels of meditative absorption.

Wisdom is the mind’s clear seeing, like a person who has eyes; it is the sufficient condition for the Four Noble Truths. The life faculty is an immaterial dharma that sustains life, as water sustains a lotus; it is the sufficient condition for name-and-form. Abstinence is the mind’s knowing to abandon evil, like someone who wishes to live keeping far away from poison; it is the sufficient condition for the cultivation of meditation.

Non-greed is the mind’s relinquishment of bonds, like being freed from an obligation; it is the sufficient condition for renunciation. Non-hatred is the mind’s freedom from anger, gentle as a cat’s fur; it is the sufficient condition for the four immeasurable states of mind. Moral shame is the mind’s feeling ashamed of doing evil, as one is disgusted by excrement and urine; it is the sufficient condition for self-respect.

Moral dread is the mind’s fear of doing evil, like being in awe of a high official; it is the sufficient condition for respect toward others. Tranquility is the cessation of mental agitation, like someone suffering from heat bathing in cool water; it is the sufficient condition for rapture. Desire is the mind’s delight in performing wholesome deeds, like a person who gives alms with faith; it is the sufficient condition for the four bases of spiritual power.

Liberation is the mind’s being like a deep stream winding as it flows downward; it is the sufficient condition for initial and sustained application. Equanimity is the mind’s neither going nor coming, like someone holding a balance; it is the sufficient condition for energy. Attention is the mind’s causing dharmas to arise, like someone holding a rudder; it is the sufficient condition for wholesome and unwholesome actions.

Greed is the mind’s clinging, like a goose; it is the sufficient condition for pleasing forms. Anger is the mind’s agitation, like an enraged venomous snake; it is the sufficient condition for the ten kinds of resentment. Ignorance is the mind’s inability to see anything, like a blind person; it is the sufficient condition for the four inversions.

Conceit is the mind’s arrogance, like two people fighting; it is the sufficient condition for the three kinds of conceit. Clinging to views is the mind’s obstinate attachment, like blind people touching an elephant; it is the sufficient condition for accepting what others say without properly reflecting upon it. Restlessness is the mind’s inability to remain still, like violently boiling water; it is the sufficient condition for excessively hurried exertion.

Remorse is the mind’s retreating, like taking pleasure in what is impure; it is the sufficient condition for the loss of what is wholesome and the performance of evil. Doubt is the mind’s grasping at many possibilities, like someone arriving in a foreign land and hesitating at a three-way crossroads; it is the sufficient condition for improper attention. Sloth is the mind’s indolence, like a snake coiling itself and hiding; it is the sufficient condition for laziness.

Shamelessness is the mind’s doing evil without shame, like a chandala, a low and despised outcaste; it is the sufficient condition for disrespect. Fearlessness of wrongdoing is the mind’s doing evil without fear, like a cruel king; it is the sufficient condition for the six kinds of disrespect.

This is the formations skandha.

Question: What is the consciousness skandha?

Answer: The consciousness skandha comprises eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, the mind-element, and the mind-consciousness-element. Thus, eye-consciousness is the consciousness that arises with the eye dependent upon form. Ear-consciousness is the consciousness that arises with the ear dependent upon sound.

Nose-consciousness is the consciousness that arises with the nose dependent upon odor. Tongue-consciousness is the consciousness that arises with the tongue dependent upon taste. Body-consciousness is the consciousness that arises with the body dependent upon contact.

The mind-element is the consciousness that arises in due sequence, before and after, dependent upon the five objects of the five consciousnesses. Apart from the six consciousnesses just enumerated, the remainder of the mind is called the mind-consciousness-element.

These seven consciousnesses may be clearly understood in three ways: by basis and object, by object, and by dharma.

Question: How are the consciousnesses clearly understood by basis and object?

Answer: The first five consciousnesses, from eye-consciousness through body-consciousness, differ in both their bases and their objects. The mind-element and the mind-consciousness-element share the same basis. The mind-element has five objects, whereas the mind-consciousness-element has six objects.

The first five consciousnesses are internal dharmas, and their bases are also internal, but their objects are external. The mind-element is likewise an internal dharma, but its basis and objects are external. The mind-consciousness-element is also an internal dharma; its basis is external, while its objects may be either internal or external—that is, an internal dharma, an external basis, and internal or external objects.

The bases and objects of the six consciousnesses, excluding the mind-consciousness-element, arise from the past. The basis of the mind-consciousness-element arises at the moment of conception, within a single instant. In the formless realm, consciousness has neither basis nor object.

Thus, the consciousnesses are understood by basis and object.

Question: How are the consciousnesses understood by their objects?

Answer: Each of the first five consciousnesses has its own distinct sphere. They do not give rise to one another, nor do they arise before or after one another; when they arise together, they are inseparable. With respect to the five consciousnesses, all five cannot be distinctly known at the same time, except for whichever consciousness occurs first.

Through the mind-element, likewise, all objects cannot be distinctly known unless the mind is directed toward them. The six consciousnesses—the first five consciousnesses and the mind-element—are in an unsettled state and become settled through the rapid cognitive process. Through the six consciousnesses, there is no undertaking of bodily karma, verbal karma, or what is wholesome or unwholesome; such undertaking occurs only through the rapid cognitive process.

Through the six consciousnesses, one cannot enter concentration or emerge from it peacefully; only through the rapid cognitive process can one enter concentration and cause the subsequent phase to be peaceful. Through the six consciousnesses, there is neither death nor rebirth. Through the six consciousnesses, there is no sleeping, waking, or dreaming; only in the subsequent phase of consciousness does one wake, sleep, or dream.

The mind-consciousness-element arises either through a subsequent phase, through the cessation of an object, or through karmic result.

Thus, the consciousnesses are clearly understood by their objects.

Question: How are the consciousnesses understood by dharma?

Answer: The first five consciousnesses have initial application and sustained application. The mind-element also has initial application and sustained application. The mind-consciousness element sometimes has both initial and sustained application; sometimes it has no initial application but a small degree of sustained application; and sometimes it has neither initial nor sustained application.

The first five consciousnesses are accompanied by equanimity, except that body-consciousness is sometimes accompanied by pain and sometimes by pleasure. The mind-consciousness element is sometimes accompanied by joy, sometimes by sorrow, and sometimes by equanimity. The first five consciousnesses arise in dependence upon karmic result, whereas the mind-element may arise either in dependence upon karmic result or as a means.

All six consciousnesses, apart from the mind-consciousness element, are mundane phenomena, without cause, not productive; they have afflictions, fetters, bonds, floods, yokes, hindrances, and contacts; they cannot be abandoned through views or reflection, do not bring about convergence, are neither subject to training nor beyond training, (...) and are indeterminate. The mind-consciousness element can destroy all.

Thus, the consciousnesses may be clearly understood by way of phenomena.

The foregoing concerns the consciousness skandha.

Furthermore, these five skandhas may be clearly understood in four ways. The four are: by the meaning of the terms, by characteristics, by analysis, and by inclusion.

Question: How are the five skandhas clearly understood by the meaning of the terms?

Answer: Form means that which becomes clearly manifest. Feeling means that which can be experienced. Perception means recognition. Formations mean making and acting. Consciousness means clear cognition. Skandha means the gathering together of the foregoing classes.

Thus, the five skandhas may be clearly understood by the meaning of the words.

Question: How are the five skandhas clearly understood by their characteristics?

Answer: The characteristic of form is like sharp thorns. The four great elements give rise to form. The characteristic of feeling is like the dreadful condition of a person afflicted with leprosy. Contact gives rise to feeling. The characteristic of perception is the characteristic of retaining and fashioning, like the drawing of an image. Contact also gives rise to perception. The characteristic of formations is that of combining together, like the turning of a wheel. Contact likewise gives rise to formations. The characteristic of consciousness is cognition, like knowing a taste. Name-and-form gives rise to consciousness.

Thus, the five skandhas may be clearly understood by their characteristics.

Question: How are the five skandhas clearly understood by analysis?

Answer: The five skandhas are analyzed into three classes: the five skandhas, the five clinging-skandhas, and the five Dharma-skandhas. The five skandhas refer to all conditioned phenomena—things produced through fabrication and subject to change according to conditions. The five clinging-skandhas comprise all contaminated phenomena—those accompanied by afflictions. The five Dharma-skandhas are: the skandha of morality, the skandha of concentration, the skandha of wisdom, the skandha of liberation, and the skandha of the knowledge and vision of liberation. We should delight in training in these five Dharma-skandhas.

Thus, the five skandhas may be clearly understood by analysis.

Question: How are the five skandhas clearly understood by inclusion?

Answer: The skandhas may be included within three categories: inclusion within the ayatanas, inclusion within the dhatus, and inclusion within the truths.

Thus, included within the ayatanas and the dhatus are the form skandha, the three Dharma-skandhas, and the consciousness skandha.

Included within the dhatus are the skandha of morality, the skandha of concentration, the skandha of wisdom, the skandha of liberation, the skandha of the knowledge and vision of liberation, phenomena and the dharma-ayatana, the dharma-dhatu, the mind-ayatana, and the mind-dhatu.

Included within the truths are the five clinging-skandhas, the truth of suffering, and the truth of the origin of suffering. The five skandhas may or may not be included within the truths. The skandha of morality, the skandha of concentration, and the skandha of wisdom are included within the truth of the path. The skandha of liberation is not included within the truths. The skandha of the knowledge and vision of liberation is included within the truth of suffering.

There are phenomena included within the skandhas but not within the truths; phenomena included within the truths but not within the skandhas; phenomena included within both the skandhas and the truths; and phenomena included within neither the skandhas nor the truths. Thus, those included within the skandhas but not within the truths are phenomena unbound by the faculties and the fruits of the ascetic path associated with the path. Nirvana is included within the truths but not within the skandhas. The three truths are included within both the skandhas and the truths. Restraint is included within neither the skandhas nor the truths.

Thus, the five skandhas may be clearly understood by inclusion.

The foregoing concerns the method concerning the skandhas.

Question: What is the method concerning the ayatanas?

Answer: There are twelve ayatanas in all: the eye-ayatana and form-ayatana; the ear-ayatana and sound-ayatana; the nose-ayatana and odor-ayatana; the tongue-ayatana and taste-ayatana; the body-ayatana and tangible-object ayatana; the mind-ayatana and dharma-ayatana. The eye-ayatana is the purified element that enables forms to be seen. The form-ayatana is the domain of shapes and visible configurations belonging to the sphere of the eye.

The ear-ayatana is the purified element that enables sounds to be heard. The sound-ayatana is the domain of sounds belonging to the sphere of the ear. The nose-ayatana is the purified element that enables odors to be smelled.

The odor-ayatana is the domain of odors belonging to the sphere of the nose. The tongue-ayatana is the purified element that enables tastes to be discerned. The taste-ayatana is the domain of flavors belonging to the sphere of the tongue.

The body-ayatana is the purified element that enables subtle activities to be felt. The tangible-object ayatana is the domain of the earth-dhatu, water-dhatu, fire-dhatu, and wind-dhatu—hardness, softness, cold, and heat—belonging to the sphere of the body. The mind-ayatana consists of the seven consciousness-dhatus.

The dharma-ayatana consists of the three immaterial skandhas, eighteen kinds of subtle form, and the Dharma of nirvana.

Furthermore, the twelve ayatanas may be clearly understood in five ways. These are: by the meaning of the terms, by their domains, by conditions, by the objects that draw near and give rise to mental discrimination, and by inclusion.

Question: How are the ayatanas clearly understood by the meaning of the terms?

Answer: Eye means seeing. Form means that which becomes clearly manifest. Ear means hearing. Sound means voice or sound. Nose means smelling. Odor means fragrance. Tongue means that which tastes. Taste means flavor or savor. Body means rightly maintaining, experiencing, and enduring. Contact means drawing near and touching. Mind means knowing. Dharma means that which has no life. Ayatana means a gateway for immaterial phenomena, a place, and that which receives and sustains. Thus, the ayatanas may be clearly understood by their meanings.

Question: How are the ayatanas clearly understood by their domains?

Answer: The eye and ear do not reach the domains of their objects. The nose and tongue reach the domains of their objects. The mind and its object share the same domain.

Another doctrine holds that the ear can reach the domain of its object. Why? Because hearing fails only when there is an obstruction nearby, as in the case of reciting incantations. Yet another doctrine holds that the eye can proceed from its own domain to the domain of an object. Why? Because one cannot see what lies on the other side of a wall.

Thus, the ayatanas may be clearly understood by their domains.

Question: How are the ayatanas clearly understood by causes and conditions?

Answer: When the conditions of the eye, form, light, and attention come together, eye-consciousness arises. Thus, there are four conditions that give rise to eye-consciousness: the antecedent-arising condition—that which has previously arisen—the mental condition, the faculty condition, and the existence condition. Form has three conditions for its arising: the antecedent-arising condition, the object condition, and the existence condition. Light also has three conditions: the antecedent-arising condition, the mental condition, and the existence condition. Attention has two conditions: the immediately preceding condition and the condition of nonexistence.

When the conditions of the ear, space, and attention are complete, ear-consciousness arises. The conditions giving rise to nose-consciousness are the nose condition, the odor condition, the wind condition, and the attention condition. Tongue-consciousness arises when the conditions of the tongue, taste, water, and attention come together. Body-consciousness arises when the conditions of the body, tangible objects, and attention are complete. Mind-consciousness arises when the conditions of mind, dharmas, liberation, and attention come together.

Thus, the mind belongs to the subsequent part, while mental phenomena are objects of phenomena (here, “phenomena” means things). Therefore, they may be arranged into four categories. The first category consists of the six internal ayatanas of the past, present, and future. The second consists of the five external ayatanas of the past, present, and future, excluding the ayatana that does not arise through a faculty. The third consists of the dharma ayatana. The fourth consists of eleven things: sentient beings, directions, time, transgressions, dhutanga practices, all signs of nothingness, attainment of concentration, meditative concentration, cessation, reflection upon what is real, and reflection upon what is unreal.

These four categories are collectively called objects of phenomena.

Concentration of mind means that the mind follows closely and in accordance with reason. Attention means turning inward through the mind door. Mind-consciousness means that the mind swiftly takes that very mental object as a condition for mind-consciousness. Phenomena arise through two conditions: the immediately preceding condition and the presence condition.

Thus, through causes and conditions, one clearly understands the ayatanas.

Question: How does one clearly understand the ayatanas through the arising of mental discrimination when an object draws near?

Answer: When an object reaches the eye door, there are three degrees of approach, arranged into three levels: high (very strong), medium (moderate), and low (weak). (...).

Thus, when a powerful object approaches the eye at the high level, seven activities of mind arise in sequence as follows: the continuum of existence (bhavanga-consciousness) arises; it turns seeing inward (advertence-consciousness) to receive the object (reception-consciousness); what is seen is investigated (investigation-consciousness); the mind is aroused (determining-consciousness); it swiftly comprehends (javana-consciousness); and it registers the object (registration-consciousness).

Bhavanga-consciousness means that, within the continuum of existence—that is, within the ongoing flow of living existence—the eye faculty awakens the mind as though pulling a cord. Advertence-consciousness means that, when a form-object approaches the eye door, it acts as a cause and condition for turning toward the mind-element, causing bhavanga-consciousness to vibrate; seeing the form-object, the mind turns toward it, and thus advertence-consciousness arises.

Relying upon the eye’s seeing of the form, advertence-consciousness causes reception-consciousness to arise and receive it. In accordance with the meaning of the form-object presently received, reception-consciousness immediately causes investigation-consciousness to arise. Taking the meaning that has just been investigated, this investigation-consciousness gives rise to determining-consciousness.

Taking that meaning, determining-consciousness causes javana-consciousness to arise according to karma. This javana-consciousness produces action in accordance with the meaning of javana, not through a contrived means, and registers the result connected with the object. Afterward, the mind immediately falls back into bhavanga-consciousness.

Question: Is there an analogy that explains this more clearly?

Answer: Yes, the analogy of the mangoes. The king is resting upon the royal couch, while the outer city gate is tightly shut. A mute maidservant is massaging the King’s feet.

The Queen is seated nearby. The ministers and attendants are standing before the King. A deaf gatekeeper is leaning against the city gate.

At that time, the gardener brings mangoes and knocks at the gate. The King hears the sound, awakens, and orders the mute girl to open the gate. Obeying the command, the mute girl uses hand gestures to communicate with the deaf gatekeeper.

Understanding her meaning, he immediately opens the city gate and sees the mangoes. The King taps his sword; the mute girl immediately receives the fruit and presents it to a minister. The minister hands it to the Queen.

The Queen washes the fruit, separates the ripe mangoes from the unripe ones, and then presents them to the King. The King eats them. After eating, the King says which fruit is good and which is not.

Then the King lies down and sleeps again.

Thus, when the King was initially resting, this is like bhavanga-consciousness. When the gardener knocks at the city gate, this is like a form-object approaching the eye door. When the King hears the knocking, awakens, and sends the mute girl to open the gate, this is like a cause and condition turning toward the mind-element and causing bhavanga-consciousness to vibrate.

When the mute girl gestures so that the deaf gatekeeper understands and opens the gate, this is advertence-consciousness. When the deaf man opens the gate and sees the mangoes, this is reception-consciousness. When the minister receives the fruit and hands it to the Queen, this is investigation-consciousness.

When the Queen washes and sorts the fruit and then presents it to the King, this is determining-consciousness. When the King eats the mangoes, this is javana-consciousness. When he has finished eating and praises one fruit while criticizing another, this is registration-consciousness registering the result of the object.

When the King lies down and sleeps again, this is like returning once more to bhavanga-consciousness.

With objects that strike the eye door at a medium level, javana-consciousness arises and then passes directly, without interruption, into bhavanga-consciousness. With objects that approach the eye door at a low level, determining-consciousness arises and then passes directly, without interruption, into bhavanga-consciousness. Thus, the same method may be applied to understand the doors of the other sense faculties.

At the mind door, there is no impact with an object. Therefore, with attention serving as the condition and without any physical action, the object is apprehended directly at the mind door. Thus, with powerful objects, there are three activities: advertence-consciousness, javana-consciousness, and registration-consciousness, after which bhavanga-consciousness arises.

With objects of medium or low intensity, there are only two kinds of consciousness: advertence-consciousness and javana-consciousness. Regarding objects that can or cannot be experienced, they are clearly understood according to their different conditions and according to the kind of feeling involved. Regarding wholesome or unwholesome matters, they may be clearly understood according to whether correct or incorrect attention serves as their condition.

Thus, through the impact of an object giving rise to mental discrimination, one clearly understands the ayatanas.

Question: How does one clearly understand the ayatanas through inclusion?

Answer: There are three kinds of inclusion: inclusion within the skandhas, inclusion within the dhatus, and inclusion within the truths. Thus, ten ayatanas are included within the form skandha. The mind ayatana is included within the consciousness skandha. Apart from nirvana, the dharma ayatana is included within the other four skandhas. Eleven ayatanas are included within eleven dhatus. The mind ayatana is included within seven dhatus. The five internal ayatanas are included within the Truth of Suffering. The five external ayatanas may or may not be included within the Truth of Suffering. The mind ayatana may or may not be included within the Truth of Suffering. The dharma ayatana may be included within the Four Truths, or it may not be included within the Truth of Suffering.

Thus, through inclusion—being comprised within something—one clearly understands the ayatanas. (...)

Question: What is skill in regard to the dhatus?

Answer: There are altogether eighteen dhatus:

– the eye dhatu, form dhatu, and eye-consciousness dhatu;

– the ear dhatu, sound dhatu, and ear-consciousness dhatu;

– the nose dhatu, odor dhatu, and nose-consciousness dhatu;

– the tongue dhatu, taste dhatu, and tongue-consciousness dhatu;

– the body dhatu, tangible-object dhatu, and body-consciousness dhatu;

– the mind dhatu, phenomena dhatu, and mind-consciousness dhatu.

Thus, the purified eye belongs to the eye dhatu. Visible form belongs to the form dhatu. Eye-consciousness belongs to the eye-consciousness dhatu. The other dhatus may be understood in the same way. At the five sense doors, objects are turned inward, and the mind dhatu receives the karmic result. (...)

Accordingly, ten dhatus are included within the form skandha. The Dharma dhatu, with the exception of nirvana, is included within the four skandhas. Seven dhatus are included within the consciousness skandha. Eleven dhatus are included within eleven ayatanas. Seven dhatus are included within the mind ayatana. Eleven dhatus are included within the Truth of Suffering. Five dhatus are either included within the Truth of Suffering or are not included within it. The Dharma dhatu is included within the Four Truths or is not included within them. The mind-consciousness dhatu is either included within the Truth of Suffering or is not.

Question: What is the sphere of exposition (= teaching)?

Answer: With regard to dharmas (= phenomena) alone, the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus constitute the sphere. When teaching dharmas (= phenomena), the characteristic of the various classes of dharmas combined and gathered together is called a skandha. When teaching the doors of the sense faculties, their characteristic is called an ayatana. When teaching the intrinsic nature of dharmas, that characteristic is called a dhatu.

Furthermore, for those of keen faculties (= sharp faculties, quick to understand), the Blessed One taught the Truth of Suffering by way of the skandhas. For those of middling faculties (= faculties of average capacity), he taught the Truth of Suffering by way of the ayatanas. For those of dull faculties (= dull faculties, slow to understand), he taught the Truth of Suffering by way of the dhatus.

Furthermore, for those attached to name and characteristics, he taught form in brief in order to distinguish it from name, and taught the skandhas extensively. For those attached to form and characteristics, he taught name in brief in order to distinguish it from form, and then taught the ayatanas extensively. For those attached to both Name-and-Form and characteristics, he taught the dhatus extensively in order to distinguish Name-and-Form clearly.

Furthermore, when speaking of intrinsic nature and sphere (place or domain), he taught the skandhas; when speaking of the domains of objects (= objective spheres), he taught the ayatanas; and when speaking of the arising of mind in relation to the domains of objects, he taught the dhatus.

Thus, through these distinctions, the method concerning the dhatus may be clearly understood.

Here ends the Method concerning the Dhatus.

Question: What is the Method concerning Causes and Conditions?

Answer: In forward order, the causes and conditions are: conditioned by ignorance, formations arise; conditioned by formations, consciousness arises; conditioned by consciousness, Name-and-Form arises; conditioned by Name-and-Form, the six ayatanas arise; conditioned by the six ayatanas, contact arises; conditioned by contact, feeling arises; conditioned by feeling, craving arises; conditioned by craving, clinging arises; conditioned by clinging, becoming arises; conditioned by becoming, birth arises; conditioned by birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress arise. Thus the entire skandha of suffering arises. (Condition = serving as a condition that causes a corresponding transformation.)

In reverse order, the causes and conditions are: with the cessation of ignorance, formations cease; with the cessation of formations, consciousness ceases; with the cessation of consciousness, Name-and-Form ceases; with the cessation of Name-and-Form, the six ayatanas cease; with the cessation of the six ayatanas, contact ceases; with the cessation of contact, feeling ceases; with the cessation of feeling, craving ceases; with the cessation of craving, clinging ceases; with the cessation of clinging, becoming ceases; with the cessation of becoming, birth ceases; with the cessation of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, and distress cease. Thus the entire skandha of suffering wholly ceases. (Cessation = being extinguished and passing away.)

Ignorance means not comprehending the Four Sublime Truths (= the Four Noble Truths). Formations mean the karmic activities of body, speech, and mind (karmic activity = an action that produces karma). Consciousness means a single thought-moment in the mind at the time of entering the mother’s womb.

Name-and-Form means the mind and mental factors arising together with kalala form. (Kalala form = the embryo.) (Mental factors = states of mind, also called mental states.) The six ayatanas mean the six internal ayatanas (internal ayatanas = eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind). Contact means the six kinds of contact with the body. Feeling means the six kinds of bodily feeling.

Craving means the six kinds of bodily craving. Clinging means the four kinds of clinging (= grasping). Becoming means that, through karma, one must be born in the three realms of the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.

Birth means that, within existence (= life), the skandhas arise. Aging means that the skandhas have grown old and matured. Death means that the skandhas disintegrate.

Question: Why are formations conditioned by ignorance? Why are aging and death conditioned by birth?

Answer: An unlearned ordinary person does not comprehend the Four Sublime Truths (= the Four Truths), and therefore, day and night, clings to the body of the five skandhas as self (= I), and clings to possessions as belonging to the self (= mine, that which belongs to self). Thus, delighting in and clinging to becoming (= life), together with the enjoyment of pleasure, produces volition concerning becoming (that is, the thought that clings firmly to life). That thought, not knowing what its destination will be, encounters a state of becoming and takes up residence there, just as a seed falls upon fertile soil. If that consciousness did not exist, becoming would cease. This is called formations being conditioned by ignorance.

At the very place where ignorance arises, volitional formation (= formation in the form of thought) enters becoming (= life), clings to it, and accumulates there. Thereafter, becoming moves without interruption, causing a continuity of consciousness to arise and follow the mind without departing from it. Thus consciousness is conditioned by formations.

Just as, without sunlight, the myriad things upon the earth would not grow, so without consciousness, Name-and-Form could not exist. Just as reeds in a bundle stand firm by supporting one another, consciousness and Name-and-Form proceed in mutual dependence. Thus Name-and-Form is conditioned by consciousness.

On the basis of that consciousness and Name-and-Form, the remaining kinds of name arise together, and the mind ayatana develops in dependence upon name. The four great elements, the life faculty, nutriment, and climate serve as causes and conditions through which the remaining five ayatanas develop. (...) Thus the six ayatanas are conditioned by Name-and-Form.

Through the conjunction of the faculties, their objects, and consciousness, contact arises. Thus contact is conditioned by the six ayatanas.

Because there is contact, feelings of pain, pleasure, or neither pain nor pleasure are experienced. If there were no contact, there would certainly be no feeling. Thus feeling is conditioned by contact.

When a deluded ordinary person experiences pleasure, he immediately clings to it and seeks further pleasure; when he experiences pain, he seeks pleasure to counteract it. If he experiences neither pain nor pleasure, that is equanimous feeling. Thus craving (= desire) is conditioned by feeling.

Through thirsting craving (= excessive desire), one clings (= grasps) to what is desired. Thus clinging is conditioned by craving.

That clinging (= grasping) sows the seed of becoming (= life). Thus becoming is conditioned by clinging.

Through the predominance of karmic force, one must be born in one of the six realms. Thus birth is conditioned by becoming.

Because there is birth, one grows old and then dies. Thus aging and death are conditioned by birth.

Just as a rice plant is a condition for a grain of rice, so should formations being conditioned by ignorance be understood. Just as a grain of rice is a condition for a rice sprout, so should consciousness being conditioned by formations be understood. Just as a sprout is a condition for leaves, so should Name-and-Form being conditioned by consciousness be understood.

Just as leaves are a condition for branches, so should the six ayatanas being conditioned by Name-and-Form be understood. Just as branches are a condition for the trunk, so should contact being conditioned by the six ayatanas be understood. Just as the trunk is a condition for flowers, so should feeling being conditioned by contact be understood.

Just as flowers are a condition for plant sap, so should craving being conditioned by feeling be understood. Just as plant sap is a condition for rice flour, so should clinging being conditioned by craving be understood. Just as rice flour is a condition for a grain of rice, so should becoming being conditioned by clinging be understood.

Just as a grain of rice is a condition for a rice sprout, so should birth being conditioned by becoming be understood.

Thus, once the initial seed has arisen and the succession continues, one cannot know the past preceding it, nor can one comprehend the future that follows. Likewise, birth has ignorance as its initial condition and then continues in succession, while neither the past nor the future can be known.

Question: What is the condition for ignorance?

Answer: Ignorance alone serves as a condition for ignorance itself; the fetters serve as latent conditions for ignorance, and ignorance in turn serves as a condition for the fetters. (...) Furthermore, all defilements serve as conditions for ignorance, as the Blessed One said: “From the origin of the taints arises the origin of ignorance.” Furthermore, as with a single mental state: when the eye sees a form, a deluded person gives rise to craving, and while enjoying that pleasure, the mind becomes deluded; this is called ignorance.

The mind’s thought of clinging to it is ignorance conditioning formations. The mind’s adherence to that thought is formations conditioning consciousness. When one cognizes the mental factors associated with the form created by the mind, this is called consciousness conditioning name-and-form.

From craving, joy arises, and joy is produced by form, serving as the condition for the arising of the purified faculties; this is called name-and-form conditioning the six sense bases. Because of ignorance, contact occurs at the faculties; this is called the six sense bases conditioning contact. Contact produces pleasure, and thus contact conditions feeling.

Because one wishes continually to experience pleasant feeling, feeling conditions craving. Because of clinging to the pleasure found in feeling, craving conditions clinging. Because of firmly grasping the thought of desiring pleasure in that feeling, clinging conditions existence.

When this existence arises, that is existence conditioning birth. When that life continues until it declines, that is aging. When the mental process disintegrates, that is death.

Thus, within a single moment, all twelve conditions arise.

Question: Into how many factors are those twelve conditions divided? How many are defilements, how many are karma and its results, how many belong to the past, how many to the present, how many to the future, how many remain conditions, and how many have already arisen? What is a condition? What is a conditionally arisen phenomenon? How do these two differ? Why is the nature of the twelve conditions so profound?

Answer: There are three defilements: ignorance, craving, and clinging. There are two kinds of karma: formations and existence. The remaining seven conditions belong to karmic results. They are called defilements because defilements constitute a cause that brings about subsequent existence. They are like a painter’s pigments: by themselves they cannot form a painting; only when defilements are present does existence condition birth, together with all the various kinds of material form.

Two conditions belong to the past: ignorance and formations. Two conditions belong to the future: birth and aging-and-death. The remaining eight conditions belong to the present. Thus, time is divided into three periods, and birth and death have continued in succession since beginningless time.

The factors of the twelve conditions signify that they cannot be explained separately, one factor at a time, nor can any single factor be explained without reference to all twelve conditions.

What is a condition? These twelve phenomena proceed conditionally in sequence; therefore, they are said to arise through conditions. Once the twelve conditional factors have arisen, they become conditionally arisen phenomena. How do conditions and conditionally arisen phenomena differ? “Conditions” means that each kind of condition operates differently and has not yet been fully accomplished; therefore, each cannot be clearly described. Whether they are conditioned or unconditioned also cannot be definitively stated. Conditionally arisen phenomena, however, have already arisen and become accomplished phenomena, and therefore belong to conditioned phenomena. This is the difference between conditions and conditionally arisen phenomena.

Why is the nature of the twelve conditions so profound? Through their operation and their distinguishing characteristics, we know that ignorance serves as the condition for formations. As for that operation, its distinguishing characteristics, and its intrinsic nature, noble ones need no instruction from others, but comprehend them all through their faculty of wisdom. This is what is meant by saying that the nature of the twelve conditions is exceedingly profound.

Furthermore, these conditions may be clearly understood by contemplating them in seven ways. The seven are: by the three links, by the four summaries, by the twenty modes, by the cycle, by the sequential chain, by analysis, and by inclusion.

Question: What is meant by the three links?

Answer: The interval between formations and consciousness is the first link. The interval between feeling and craving is the second link. The interval between existence and birth is the third link.

In the past, karma and defilements served as conditions for present karmic results; this is the first link. Present karmic results serve as conditions for present defilements; this is the second link. Present defilements serve as conditions for future karmic results; this is the third link. The first and third links are links of cause and effect and are also links of existence. The second is a link in which karmic results become causes, but it is not a link of existence.

Question: What is a link of existence?

Answer: For a person who has not yet attained liberation, the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus must follow past karma and defilements as their conditions, causing existence to be born and reborn ceaselessly among the various realms. This is called the link of existence and birth.

Question: How does this come about?

Answer: An ordinary person performs actions associated with ignorance and craving, thereby creating evil karma. When he is about to die, he suffers. Lying upon his sickbed, he is no longer aware of this world or the next; his mind loses all right mindfulness. At that time, he suffers because of his attachment to life; the acuity of his mind declines, his bodily strength greatly diminishes, and his faculties gradually fail. Then, beginning either in the upper or lower part of his body, the life faculty withers away like a dried tala leaf. At that time, the person is as though in a dream.

Because of karma, four phenomena arise: karma, the sign of karma, the destination of rebirth, and the sign of that destination.

What is karma? It consists of the deeds that have been performed, whether meritorious or evil, weighty or light, many or few. Karma then appears just as it was formerly performed.

What is the sign of karma? The sign of karma appears in the likeness of an action performed in the past. Accompanying former karma like a companion, it appears at that time as though the person were presently performing the deed.

What is the destination of rebirth? The destination is the realm of rebirth. Through wholesome merit, one is directed toward a fortunate destination; through evil karma, one must wander into an unfortunate destination.

What is the sign of the destination? At the time of entering the mother’s womb, birth comes about through the conjunction of three conditions. In the case of spontaneous birth, the place of rebirth may be a palace, a village, mountains, trees, rivers, or lakes, according to the arising of the destination and the sign of the destination.

At that time, whether sitting, leaning, or lying down, one sees the sign arise and immediately grasps it. Then past karma, the sign of karma, or the destination and the sign of the destination become active, causing impulsion-consciousness to arise without interruption. With the ending of the life faculty, that person dies.

Immediately thereafter, impulsion-consciousness arises in sequence; past karma, the sign of karma, or the sign of the destination becomes active as the object for resultant consciousness passing into the subsequent existence, just as one lamp is kindled from another lamp, or as fire issues from a fire-jewel. In the section concerning existence, consciousness arises as a companion. In the mother’s womb, through the impurities of the mother and father, thirty kinds of material phenomena are produced according to karma....

Thus, with the arising of consciousness as condition, name-and-form arises, and name-and-form in turn conditions consciousness. In this way, the section concerning existence is established.

From this, the three sections may be understood.

Question: How may the twelve links of dependent origination be further understood through four summaries?

Answer: Ignorance and formations, belonging to past karma, are included in the summary of defilements. Consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling, belonging to present results, are included in the summary of results. Craving, clinging, and existence, belonging to present karma, are likewise included in the summary of defilements. Birth, aging, and death, belonging to future results, are likewise included in the summary of results.

Thus, through the four summaries, the twelve links of dependent origination are understood.

Question: How may the twelve links of dependent origination be further understood through twenty modes?

Answer: Through firmly grasping past ignorance, craving, and clinging, there comes to be grasping at the sign of defilement. Through firmly grasping past formations and existence, there comes to be grasping at the sign of karma. Through firmly grasping present consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling, together with the resultant birth, aging, and death, there comes to be grasping at the present.

Through firmly grasping present craving and clinging, there comes to be grasping at the sign of defilement. Through firmly grasping existence and present actions, there comes to be grasping at the sign of karma. Through firmly grasping future birth, aging, and death, and future consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling, there comes to be grasping at feeling.

Those twenty-four phenomena—that is, instances of firmly grasping—through clinging bring the twenty modes to fulfillment.

As stated in the Abhidhamma: “In the past karma of existence, delusion is ignorance, accumulation is formation, attachment is craving, seeking is clinging, and volition is existence. These five phenomena—ignorance, formation, craving, clinging, and existence—in this present life were originally produced by past karma. These five phenomena condition the maturation of the sense bases: delusion is ignorance, accumulation is formation, attachment is craving, seeking is clinging, and volition is existence.

Together they constitute karmic existence as the causal condition that gives rise to future life. There, in dependence upon future life, consciousness becomes name-and-form, purified form becomes the sense bases, sensory experience becomes contact, and clinging becomes feeling. Those two phenomena in the future condition the arising of existence, while in this life they constitute karma.”

Thus, through the twenty modes, the twelve links of dependent origination are more clearly understood.

Question: How may the twelve links of dependent origination be further understood through cyclic continuation?

Answer: With ignorance as condition, formations arise; with formations as condition, consciousness arises; and so on, up to birth as condition for aging and death. Thus this entire mass of suffering arises. Within this entire mass of suffering, non-understanding is called ignorance, and it causes ignorance once again to condition formations.

Thus, through cyclic continuation, the twelve links of dependent origination are more clearly understood.

Question: How may the twelve links of dependent origination be further understood through sequential tracing?

Answer: Sequential tracing has two directions, forward and reverse: beginning with ignorance and beginning with aging and death. Question: What is meant by beginning with ignorance? Answer: It means proceeding forward in sequence from ignorance down to aging and death. Question: What is meant by beginning with aging and death? Answer: It means proceeding in reverse, beginning with aging and death and going back up to ignorance.

Furthermore, by beginning with ignorance, the boundary extending toward the future is seen; by beginning with aging and death, the boundary extending toward the past is seen.

Thus, through the forward and reverse sequences, the twelve links of dependent origination are more clearly understood.

Question: How may the twelve links of dependent origination be further understood through analysis?

Answer: There are two kinds of dependent origination: mundane dependent origination and supramundane dependent origination. Thus, dependent origination beginning with ignorance is mundane dependent origination.

Question: What is supramundane dependent origination?

Answer: Suffering depends upon suffering; faith depends upon faith; gladness depends upon gladness; rapture depends upon rapture; tranquility depends upon tranquility; happiness depends upon happiness; concentration depends upon concentration; knowledge and vision of things as they truly are depend upon knowledge and vision of things as they truly are; disenchantment depends upon disenchantment; dispassion depends upon dispassion; liberation depends upon liberation through the knowledge of destruction. This is called supramundane dependent origination.

Furthermore, one teaching holds that there are four kinds of causes in dependent origination: (1) karma and defilements as cause, (2) seed as cause, (3) activity as cause, and (4) collective karma as cause.

Question: What is karma and defilements as cause?

Answer: It is the ignorance at the beginning.

Question: What is seed as cause?

Answer: It is like seed and sprout succeeding one another in continuity.

Question: What is activity as cause?

Answer: It is as in the case of spontaneous birth.

Question: What is collective karma as cause?

Answer: It is exemplified by the earth, snow, mountains, oceans, the sun, and the moon.

Furthermore, one teaching holds that there is no collective karma at all; it is merely material phenomena, mental phenomena, and climatic conditions that serve as causes. As the Blessed One said in verse:

Karma is not shared with others;

No one can steal it away.

One who has performed wholesome merit

Will obtain its wholesome result.

Thus, through analysis, the twelve links of dependent origination are more clearly understood.

Question: What is mutual inclusion?

Answer: There are four kinds of mutual inclusion: (1) inclusion within the skandhas, (2) inclusion within the ayatanas, (3) inclusion within the dhatus, and (4) inclusion within the truths.

Thus, ignorance, formations, contact, craving, clinging, and existence are included within the formations skandha. Consciousness is included within the consciousness skandha. Name-and-form is included within four skandhas. The six sense bases are encompassed by two skandhas. Feeling is included within the feeling skandha. Birth, aging, and death are included within both the form skandha and the formations skandha.

Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, existence, birth, aging, and death are all included within the dharma ayatana. Consciousness is encompassed by the mind ayatana. Name-and-form is included within the five internal ayatanas. The six sense bases are included within the six internal ayatanas.

Ignorance, formations, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, existence, birth, aging, and death are all included within the dharma dhatu. Consciousness is included within the mind-consciousness dhatu. Name-and-form is included within the five dhatus.

The six sense bases are included within the twelve dhatus.

Ignorance, craving, and clinging are subsumed under the Truth of Origin. The remaining nine conditions are encompassed within the Truth of Suffering. Supramundane conditions and the factors of the supramundane path are all included within the Truth of the Path. The cessation of the conditions is subsumed under the Truth of Cessation.

Thus, through this subsumption, one gains further clear understanding of the twelve conditions.

By the methods set forth above, one understands the method concerning conditions.

The method concerning conditions ends here.

(The Treatise on the Path to Liberation: End of the Tenth Fascicle)