解脫道論

Chapter 1: Causes and Conditions

Homage to the Blessed One,

The Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One,

Perfect in virtue, concentration, and wisdom,

Possessed of unsurpassed liberation.

Through fully comprehending this Dharma,

He is therefore called Gotama.

Whoever has escaped from suffering, become free from attachments, and accomplished the supreme mind; who fears birth, aging, and sickness; who delights in wholesome deeds and liberation, and cultivates the bliss leading to nirvana—if that person has not yet reached that state, they should strive to bring the path to fulfillment. Having extensively examined the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, I shall now expound this Path of Liberation. Listen attentively.

Question: What is the meaning of virtue?

Answer: Virtue means proper conduct; concentration means non-distraction; wisdom means awakened knowledge; liberation means freedom from all bonds; unsurpassed means untainted; full awakening means the attainment of knowledge. This Dharma means the Four Noble Dharmas; Gotama means lineage; “called” refers to the Blessed One. Taking the excellence of virtue, concentration, wisdom, and liberation as his virtues, he is able to reach the supreme state; therefore, he is called immeasurable.

What is meant by the Path of Liberation?

Liberation here has five meanings: liberation through suppression, liberation through the opposite factor, liberation through eradication, liberation through support, and liberation through complete separation.

What is called liberation through suppression? It means that those presently cultivating meditation suppress the hindrances. This is the meaning of liberation through suppression.

Liberation through the opposite factor means that, through present cultivation, one reaches access concentration and the views are liberated. This is the meaning of liberation through the opposite factor.

Liberation through eradication means that one cultivates the supramundane path and is able to destroy the fetters. This is called liberation through eradication.

Liberation through support means that, upon attaining the fruit, the mind constantly abides in peace and bliss. This is called liberation through support.

Liberation through complete separation means nirvana without remainder. This is called liberation through complete separation. This Path of Liberation brings about liberation. Here, the complete path takes virtue, concentration, and wisdom as the Path of Liberation. I shall now expound that Path of Liberation.

Question: How should that Path of Liberation be explained?

Answer: There are those who delight in attaining liberation but have not heard liberation taught; moreover, they have not suppressed the defilements for liberation, nor have they rightly suppressed them for liberation. They are like a blind person who cannot see the path yet wanders through the garden of a kingdom. Although suffering and not liberated, that person wishes to attain liberation but has nothing upon which to rely.

Why is this? As the Buddha taught: if there are beings whose defilements are slight, yet they do not hear the Dharma, in the end they will regress. The Buddha also taught: “Bhikkhus, there are two causes and two conditions capable of giving rise to right view.

What are the two? The first is hearing it from another; the second is one’s own right mindfulness.” Therefore, liberation is taught.

Those who have not suppressed the defilements are caused to abandon them; therefore, liberation is taught. For those who have not rightly suppressed the defilements, the incorrect path is removed so that they may attain the meditative Path of Liberation; therefore, liberation is taught. It is like a traveler being shown the road by a good person. This is the path of liberation through suppression. It is complete in the three aggregates. What are the three? They are the aggregate of virtue, the aggregate of concentration, and the aggregate of wisdom.

What is called the aggregate of virtue?

Right speech, right action, right livelihood, and the other qualities included within them constitute the aggregate of virtue; alternatively, the aggregate of virtue is the collection of the many meritorious qualities of virtue.

What is called the aggregate of concentration?

Right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, and the other kinds of concentration included within them constitute the aggregate of concentration. Alternatively, it is the collection of the many meritorious qualities of concentration.

What is called the aggregate of wisdom?

Right view, right intention, and the other qualities included within them constitute the aggregate of wisdom. Alternatively, it is the collection of the many meritorious qualities of wisdom. This is called completeness in the three aggregates.

Because this is the path of liberation through suppression, one should train in the three trainings, namely: the training in higher virtue, the training in the higher mind, and the training in higher wisdom. There is virtue, and there is the training in higher virtue; there is concentration, and there is the training in higher concentration; there is wisdom, and there is the training in higher wisdom. Furthermore, there are virtue and the training in virtue; virtue and the training in higher virtue; concentration and the training of the mind; concentration and the training in the higher mind; wisdom and the training in wisdom; wisdom and the training in higher wisdom.

Question: Why is it called the training in virtue?

Answer: Because it possesses the characteristic of virtue, it is called the training in virtue. Reaching the stage of virtue is the training in higher virtue. Furthermore, the virtue of ordinary persons is called the training in virtue, while noble virtue is called the training in higher virtue.

Question: Why is it called the training of the mind?

Answer: It is concentration of the desire to act.

Question: Why is it called the training in the higher mind?

Answer: Concentration of the form realm and concentration of the formless realm constitute the training in the higher mind. Furthermore, concentration possessing the characteristic of concentration is the training of the mind, while the attainment of access concentration and concentration of the path is here called the training in the higher mind.

What is called the training in wisdom?

Mundane knowledge is called the training in wisdom. Knowledge resembling comprehension of the Four Noble Truths and knowledge of the path are called the training in higher wisdom. The Blessed One taught the training in higher virtue for those of mature faculties. For those of middling faculties, he taught the training in the higher mind. For those of keen faculties, he taught the training in higher wisdom.

Question: What is the meaning of training?

Answer: Training means being able to train in the training, the higher training, the training of those in training, and that of those beyond training; hence it is called training. Thus, the training here is threefold. The path of liberation through suppression brings purity to fulfillment by means of the three kinds of training.

Therefore, there are purity of virtue, purity of mind, and purity of view. Virtue here is purity of virtue; concentration is purity of mind; and wisdom is purity of view. Virtue means cleansing the impurity of transgressing the precepts.

Concentration cleanses the impurity of mental bondage. This is the meaning of purity of mind. Wisdom means removing the impurity of ignorance.

This is called purity of view. Furthermore, virtue removes the impurity of evil karma; concentration removes the impurity of the hindrances; wisdom removes the impurity of the latent tendencies. Thus, these three purities constitute the path of liberation through suppression.

It is also through three kinds of goodness that the path is cultivated: goodness in the beginning, goodness in the middle, and goodness in the end. Virtue is goodness in the beginning, concentration is goodness in the middle, and wisdom is goodness in the end.

Why is virtue called goodness in the beginning?

One who is diligent accomplishes non-regression; taking non-regression as one’s intention, joy gives rise to exhilaration; through exhilaration, the body becomes tranquil; through bliss, the mind becomes concentrated. This is called goodness in the beginning.

Concentration is goodness in the middle because, through concentration, one knows and sees things as they truly are. This is the meaning of goodness in the middle.

Wisdom is goodness in the end because, after knowing and seeing things as they truly are, one becomes disenchanted; because of disenchantment, one becomes dispassionate. Because of dispassion, one is liberated. Because of liberation, the knowledge arises: “I am liberated.” Thus, the threefold good path is accomplished.

Through the path of liberation by suppression, three kinds of happiness are also attained: the happiness of blamelessness, the happiness of serene cessation, and the happiness of perfect awakening. Through virtue, one attains the happiness of blamelessness; through concentration, the happiness of serene cessation; and through wisdom, the happiness of perfect awakening. Thus, these three kinds of happiness are accomplished.

This path of liberation through suppression, being far removed from the two extremes, fulfills the Middle Way. Through virtue, attachment to sensual desires can be removed, and joy and happiness arise in the happiness of blamelessness. Through concentration, the bonds of the body are removed, and supreme happiness is found in the happiness of serene cessation.

Through wisdom, one discerns the Four Noble Truths and fulfills the Middle Way, deeply aspiring to and delighting in the happiness of perfect awakening. Thus, being far removed from the two extremes, one fulfills the Middle Way. This is the path of liberation through suppression.

Through virtue, one escapes the evil destinations; through concentration, one transcends the desire realm; through wisdom, one transcends all modes of existence. One who cultivates virtue extensively but cultivates concentration and wisdom to a lesser degree becomes a stream-enterer or a once-returner. One who cultivates virtue and concentration extensively but cultivates wisdom to a lesser degree becomes a non-returner.

One who completely cultivates all three becomes an arhat and attains unsurpassed liberation.

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Chapter 2: Analysis of Virtue

Question: What is morality? What is its characteristic? What is its function? How does it arise? What is its proximate cause? What are its benefits? What morality is called moral conduct? In what ways does it differ? How many kinds of morality are there? What is its source of arising? What morality is the beginning, the middle, and the end? How many states obstruct the path of morality? How many causes of morality are there? How many classifications of morality are there? How is morality purified? How many causes sustain morality?

Answer: What is morality? It means reflection upon the teaching, morality of proper conduct, and not transgressing morality.

What is called reflection upon morality?

I shall do no evil; the one who acts experiences it himself.

What is the morality of proper conduct?

It is keeping away from occasions of transgression.

What is not transgressing morality?

It is morality that a person does not transgress through body or speech. Furthermore, in another sense, the abandonment of improper conduct and all wholesome states constitute morality. As the Abhidharma states: Through renunciation, craving is abandoned.

This is morality that enables one to depart from evil: morality of volition, morality of restraint, and morality of proper conduct. Through non-hatred, hatred is destroyed; through the perception of luminosity, sloth and torpor are abandoned; through non-distraction, restlessness is abandoned; through the arising of vision into phenomena, doubt and remorse are abandoned; through wisdom, ignorance is abandoned; through joy, discontent is abandoned; through the first dhyana, the five hindrances are abandoned; through the second dhyana, initial and sustained thought are abandoned; through the third dhyana, joy is abandoned; through the fourth dhyana, pleasure is abandoned;

through attainment of the sphere of infinite space, perceptions of form, resistance, and perceptions of diversity are abandoned; through attainment of the sphere of infinite consciousness, space is abandoned; through attainment of the sphere of nothingness, the perception of consciousness is abandoned; through attainment of the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception, the perception of nothingness is abandoned; through contemplation of impermanence, the view of permanence is abandoned; through contemplation of suffering, the perception of pleasure is abandoned; through contemplation of non-self, the perception of self is abandoned; through contemplation of impurity, the perception of purity is abandoned; through contemplation of danger, the perception of gratification is abandoned;

through contemplation of dispassion, the sign of sensual desire is abandoned; through contemplation of cessation, arising is abandoned; through contemplation of what precedes, what follows is abandoned; through contemplation of parts, the perception of a mass is abandoned; through contemplation of arising and cessation, permanence is abandoned; through contemplation of the signless, signs are abandoned; through contemplation of the unconditioned, conditioned activity is abandoned; through contemplation of emptiness, clinging to entry is abandoned; through contemplation with higher wisdom, attachment is abandoned; through knowledge and vision of things as they truly are, clinging born of ignorance is abandoned; through contemplation of danger, clinging to dwelling is abandoned;

through contemplation of the other shore, failure to contemplate the other shore is abandoned; through contemplation of dissolution, clinging to cohesion is abandoned; through the path of stream-entry, defilements associated with views are abandoned; through the path of once-returning, gross defilements are abandoned; through the path of non-returning, subtle defilements are abandoned; through the path of arhatship, all defilements are abandoned.

This is called non-transgression morality, morality of volition, morality of restraint, and morality of proper conduct. This is the meaning of morality.

What is the characteristic of morality?

It is proper conduct and the removal of improper conduct.

Question: What is called improper conduct?

Answer: It means the violation of Dharma. There are three kinds of violation of Dharma. The first is violation of the Pratimoksha; the second is violation concerning requisites; and the third is violation concerning the sense faculties.

What is called violation of the Pratimoksha?

It means shamelessness and fearlessness of wrongdoing, and the loss of faith in the Tathagata.

What is called violation concerning requisites?

Answer: It is abandoning contentment regarding the necessities that sustain the body and life and regarding clothing.

What is called violation concerning the sense faculties?

It is failing to guard the six sense doors and being devoid of mindfulness and wisdom. These three forms of unrestrained conduct constitute the characteristic of morality.

What is its function? What is its manifestation? What is its proximate cause?

The happiness of blamelessness is its function. Freedom from sorrow is its manifestation. The three forms of good conduct are its proximate cause. Furthermore, supreme delight is its function; non-remorse is its manifestation; and guarding the sense faculties is called its proximate cause.

What are the benefits of morality?

Non-remorse is the benefit of morality, as the Blessed One taught Ananda: “Wholesome morality has non-remorse as its benefit.” Furthermore, morality is called the happiness of blamelessness; it is supreme among beings; it is wealth that brings prosperity and honor; it is the ground of Buddhahood; it is a bath requiring no water; it is a fragrance that perfumes; it is a shadow following the form; it is a parasol capable of providing shelter; it is the lineage of the noble ones; it is the unsurpassed training; it is the wholesome path.

One endowed with morality, by virtue of that morality, perfects fearlessness, brings honor to relatives and friends, and receives the compassion of the noble ones. Morality is reliance upon good friends, wholesome adornment, the domain of all practices, the abode of merit, a field worthy of offerings, and a precious common ground of training. Regarding wholesome states, one is unafraid and does not retreat, and all pure aspirations are fulfilled.

Even at death one does not forget, and one perfects the means for attaining the bliss of liberation. Thus, the benefits of morality are boundless.

What is the meaning of morality?

Answer: It has the meaning of coolness, predominance, conduct, intrinsic nature, and a nature associated with suffering and happiness. It also has the meaning of a head, coolness, and security.

How does morality have the meaning of a head?

Answer: Just as, when a person has no head, none of the faculties can be maintained and that person is then said to be dead, so too bhikkhus take morality as their head. If the head is severed, all wholesome states are lost. In this Buddha-Dharma, this is called death. Therefore, morality has the meaning of a head.

How does morality have the meaning of coolness?

Just as excellent cooling sandalwood removes bodily heat and gives rise to joy, so morality, cooling even more than sandalwood, can extinguish the burning fear caused by transgressing morality and give rise to joy. This is the meaning of morality as cooling.

How does morality have the meaning of security?

Answer: If a person possesses morality, that person’s demeanor is orderly and dignified, and fear does not arise. This is the meaning of morality as bringing security.

How does conduct differ from it?

Energetic cultivation and observance of the dhutanga practices constitute conduct rather than morality. Yet morality is also called conduct: morality is the undertaking of proper conduct and is therefore also called conduct.

How many kinds of morality are there?

There are three kinds of morality: wholesome morality, unwholesome morality, and indeterminate morality.

What is called wholesome morality?

It means wholesome bodily and verbal karma and right livelihood. Because it is faultless, its result is desirable.

What is called unwholesome morality?

It means evil bodily and verbal karma and wrong livelihood. Because it is blameworthy, its result is undesirable.

What is indeterminate morality?

It consists of undefiled bodily and verbal karma and purity of livelihood. It is neither blameworthy nor does it produce karmic results.

What is called the arising of morality?

Wholesome morality arises from wholesome mental states. Unwholesome morality arises from unwholesome mental states. Indeterminate morality arises from indeterminate mental states.

What are the beginning, middle, and end of morality?

Undertaking morality is its beginning; not transgressing it is called its middle; and joy is the end of morality.

How many obstructing states are there? And how many causes of morality?

Answer: There are thirty-four states called obstacles to the path and thirty-four states that are causes of morality.

They are anger, vexation, concealment, agitation, stinginess, envy, deceit, hypocrisy, resentment, contentiousness, conceit, overestimation, arrogance, heedlessness, indolence, sensual desire, discontentment, disobedience, wrong mindfulness, harsh speech, evil friends, wrong knowledge, wrong views, impatience, lack of faith, shamelessness, fearlessness of wrongdoing, concern with beautifying the body, attachment to flavors, conformity with worldly customs, intimacy with women, disrespect toward the teacher, failing in the training by not restraining the sense faculties when taking food, lack of moderation during the first and last watches of the night, and indolence in meditation and recitation.

These are the thirty-four obstructing states. If the eleven obstacles to morality are not overcome, morality will be incomplete. If it is incomplete, it will certainly decline and be lost again.

The opposites of these thirty-four states are called the causes of morality.

How many classifications of morality are there?

There are classifications into two kinds, three kinds, and four kinds.

What is the classification into two kinds?

They are natural morality and prescribed morality. The Buddha prohibited bodily and verbal actions that ought not to be done; this is called natural morality. The Buddha prohibited certain bodily and verbal actions that could otherwise be done; this is called prescribed morality. Natural morality is fulfilled through faith and diligence. Prescribed morality is fulfilled through faith, mindfulness, and observance. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: morality subject to decline and morality that has been attained.

What is called decline?

It is that which can be lost; it is not morality itself.

What is called attainment?

It is the attainment of wholesome qualities. Excluding what is not morality is like eliminating a reflection of light; by eliminating what is not morality, one departs from evil destinies; by attaining right morality, one can rejoice in a good destination; by eliminating what is not morality, one accomplishes the factor of stability. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: mundane and supramundane.

What is supramundane morality?

The morality attained through the fruits of the Noble Ones is called supramundane morality. All other morality is mundane. Through the accomplishment of mundane morality, one becomes complete; through the accomplishment of supramundane morality, one gains liberation. Furthermore, there are two kinds: limited and immeasurable. Incomplete morality is called limited. When morality is complete, with the Buddha as the point at which it culminates, it is called immeasurable. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: bounded and boundless.

What is bounded morality?

If a person regards worldly gain as supreme, and undertakes the precepts for the sake of the body, regarding the body, life, refuge, and support as paramount, that morality is called bounded because it is undertaken for gain and support. Praise is a boundary; bodily existence is a boundary; life is a boundary.

What is called boundless morality?

O bhikkhu! Not for gain, not for supremacy, not for the body, and not for life does one undertake the precepts in accordance with the Dharma. One does not give rise to a mind that would transgress them, much less deliberately transgress them. This is called boundless morality. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: dependent and independent.

What is dependent morality?

There is morality associated with attachment to a support. Morality concerning theft is associated with morality that depends upon views. Praising oneself and disparaging others is associated with morality grounded in conceit. These are instances of morality based upon dependence. If morality is used to accomplish liberation, it need not depend upon anything. Dependent morality is the delight of those without wisdom. Independent morality is the delight of the wise. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: that which comprises the beginning of the holy life for one newly training in the holy life, and the minor precepts.

What is called the beginning of the holy life?

Morality encompassed by right action, right speech, and right livelihood is called the beginning of the holy life. The remaining training precepts are called minor morality. Furthermore, morality is also of two kinds: associated with mind and not associated with mind.

What is associated with mind?

It means the beginning of the holy life for one newly training.

What is not associated with mind?

It means that which lies beyond the minor precepts. A disciple is steadfast regarding the morality that forms the beginning of the holy life and the higher morality. As for these minor precepts, transgressions may occur and arise. Why is this? Because the Buddha said that these do not obstruct liberation. Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: morality free from transgression and purified morality.

What is freedom from transgression?

It means the morality of a disciple.

What is called purified morality?

It is the morality of Buddhas and pratyekabuddhas.

Furthermore, morality is of two kinds: morality observed for a limited period and morality observed for life. Morality undertaken while young, before one has reached full age, is morality for a limited period: it begins with the vow made before the teacher and lasts until the undertaking is relinquished. Morality maintained until the end of one's bodily life is lifelong morality. Morality for a limited period brings results for a time; lifelong morality brings results without a fixed time.

How is it further divided into three kinds?

They are refraining from evil without transgressing, undertaking not to transgress, and abandoning the causes of transgression.

What is refraining from evil without transgressing?

Although one has not yet undertaken the precepts, when an occasion arises for doing what should not be done, the mind does not give rise to transgression. This is called refraining from evil without transgressing.

What is undertaking not to transgress?

Having undertaken the precepts, one thereafter never transgresses them. This is called undertaking not to transgress.

What is abandoning the causes of transgression?

A Noble One eliminates the causes of evil by means of the Noble Path. This is called abandoning the causes of transgression. Furthermore, morality is of three kinds: morality involving contact, morality not involving contact, and morality beyond transgression.

What is called contact?

Upon first seeing the characteristics of conditioned phenomena, one takes delight in them and consequently comes into contact with them. This is the wholesome morality of an ordinary person. The morality by which one enters the Path is morality not involving contact.

What is called morality beyond transgression?

It means the morality of an arhat. Furthermore, there are three kinds: morality dependent upon the world, morality dependent upon the body, and morality dependent upon the Dharma.

What is morality dependent upon the world?

If a person, out of fear and concern for worldly opinion, removes evil qualities, this is called morality dependent upon the world.

What is morality dependent upon the body?

If a person, out of apprehension and the wish to preserve this body and life, removes evil qualities, this is called morality dependent upon the body.

What is morality dependent upon the Dharma?

If a person, out of fear and the wish to preserve the true Dharma, removes unwholesome deeds, this is called morality dependent upon the Dharma. Furthermore, morality is of three kinds: morality based on an unequal aspiration, morality based on an equal aspiration, and morality without aspiration.

What is morality based on an unequal aspiration?

Undertaking the precepts in order to afflict others is called morality based on an unequal aspiration.

What is morality based on an equal aspiration?

Undertaking the precepts for happiness in the present and the happiness of liberation in the future is called morality based on an equal aspiration.

What is called morality without aspiration?

Undertaking the precepts without regret and bringing benefit to others is called morality without aspiration. Furthermore, morality is also of three kinds: purified morality, impure morality, and doubtful morality.

What is called purified morality?

Morality becomes purified through two causes: first, one does not transgress; second, after transgressing, one repents of the offense. This is called purified morality.

Morality becomes impure through two causes: first, one deliberately transgresses; second, after transgressing, one does not repent of the offense. This is called impure morality.

What is called doubtful morality?

Doubtful morality arises through three causes: first, uncertainty regarding the circumstances; second, uncertainty as to whether a transgression occurred; and third, uncertainty regarding improper conduct. This is called doubtful morality. If a meditator's morality is impure but afterward the meditator becomes ashamed, it may be purified. Again, when there is doubt regarding morality, recognizing the offense in the present brings peace and ease. Furthermore, morality is of three kinds: that of one in training, that of one beyond training, and that of one who is neither in training nor beyond training.

What is called the morality of one in training?

It is the morality of the seven kinds of trainees.

What is the morality of one beyond training?

It is the morality of an arhat.

What is the morality of one who is neither in training nor beyond training?

It is the morality of an ordinary person.

Morality is of three kinds: morality based on fear, morality based on sorrow, and morality based on wrong observances.

What is morality based on fear?

If a person fears wrongdoing and therefore does not dare to commit evil, this is called morality based on fear.

What is called morality based on sorrow?

If a person resolves to leave relatives and gradually gives rise to sorrow and distress, and because of that sorrow and distress gives rise to evil deeds, this is called morality based on sorrow.

What is called morality based on wrong observances?

If a person undertakes the observance of cattle or the observance of dogs, this is called morality based on wrong observances. If such an observance succeeds, that person becomes a cow or a dog. If it does not succeed, that person falls into hell. Furthermore, morality is of three kinds: superior, middling, and inferior.

What is inferior morality?

It is morality belonging to one who is excessively afflicted by defilements, exceedingly afflicted by defilements, or dominated by great defilements, and who acquiesces in discontent. This is called inferior morality.

What is middling morality?

When the defilements make only slight contact and one knows contentment amid objects of attachment, this is called middling morality.

What is superior morality?

When one remains untouched and knows contentment amid objects of attachment, this is called superior morality.

The accomplishment of inferior morality brings the fulfillment of a human rebirth. The accomplishment of middling morality brings the fulfillment of a heavenly rebirth. The accomplishment of superior morality brings the attainment of liberation.

Furthermore, morality is of four kinds: the factor of decline, the factor of stability, the factor of distinction, and the factor of penetration.

What is called the factor of decline?

One does not remove the obstacles to the path and keeps far from diligent people. Knowing that an act is wrong, one deliberately transgresses, and after transgressing, conceals it. This is called the factor of decline.

What is called the factor of stability?

Regarding accomplishment in morality, one does not give rise to heedlessness or engender a view of quiescence, and thus accomplishes the abiding part. Regarding complete accomplishment in morality and concentration, one does not give rise to heedlessness or engender a mature view, and thus accomplishes the superior part. Regarding complete accomplishment in morality and concentration, one does not give rise to heedlessness but engenders a view of quiescence, and thus accomplishes the penetrative part. Furthermore, morality is of four kinds: the morality of bhikshus, the morality of bhikshunis, the morality of those not fully ordained, and the morality of laypeople.

What is the morality of bhikshus?

It is the discipline of the Pratimoksha. This is called the morality of bhikshus.

The discipline of the Bhikshuni Pratimoksha is the morality of bhikshunis.

The ten precepts of shramaneras and shramanerikas, and the precepts of shikshamanas, are called the morality of those not fully ordained.

The five precepts and eight precepts of upasakas and upasikas are the morality of laypeople.

Furthermore, morality is of four kinds: natural morality, customary morality, Dharma-attained morality, and morality from a former cause.

What is called natural morality?

The morality of Uttarakuru is natural morality.

What is customary morality?

The customs of royal lineages, nations, non-Buddhist traditions, and their various practices, when complete, are called customary morality.

What is Dharma-attained morality?

The morality of a bodhisattva entering the womb is called Dharma-attained morality.

What is called morality from a former cause?

The morality of the bodhisattva and Mahakashyapa is called morality from a former cause.

Morality is also of four kinds: morality, the arising of morality, the cessation of morality, and the complete path to the cessation of morality.

What is called morality?

Morality is of two kinds: wholesome morality and unwholesome morality. This is the meaning of morality.

What is called the arising of morality?

A wholesome mind accumulates wholesome morality, and an unwholesome mind accumulates unwholesome morality.

What is called the cessation of morality?

Upon attaining wholesome morality, unwholesome morality ceases. Upon attaining arhatship, wholesome morality ceases.

What is called the complete path to the cessation of morality?

It means the Four Right Efforts. This is called the complete path to the cessation of morality. Thus, these four dharmas are clearly distinguished. This is energetic exertion, not the true observance of morality. It is called Right Effort. Furthermore, morality is of four kinds: the morality of discipline according to the Pratimoksha, the morality of purity of livelihood, the morality of restraint of the faculties, and the morality concerning the use of requisites.

What is called the morality of discipline according to the Pratimoksha?

A bhikshu abides restrained by the discipline of the Pratimoksha, is complete in conduct and proper sphere, sees danger in the slightest faults, and rightly undertakes and trains in the training precepts. For this teacher, this is the Dharma of a bhikshu. It pertains to virtuous ordinary persons, as well as to trainees and those beyond training; the Pratimoksha is an unshakable Dharma.

This morality is its foundation. Its first undertaking is practice; its guarding is discipline; and its release is freedom from bondage. These are the dharmas that serve as the basis for rightly undertaking wholesome dharmas.

This is the meaning of Pratimoksha: one does not transgress through bodily or verbal karma. One remains accomplished in discipline through being restrained by this discipline of the Pratimoksha. One guards the four deportments, and all conduct is complete.

Furthermore, there are proper conduct and improper conduct.

What is called improper conduct?

Suppose a bhikshu gives another person a bamboo staff, flowers, leaves, or fruit; gives a tooth-cleaning stick or water for washing the face; trades in good or inferior goods; indulges in jesting; slanders others to advance himself; or travels far and wide merely to make encounters. Such are modes of conduct prohibited by the Buddha. That is, sustaining oneself through wrong livelihood is improper conduct. Furthermore, improper conduct is of two kinds: bodily improper conduct and verbal improper conduct.

What is bodily improper conduct?

Suppose a bhikshu, with a contemptuous and arrogant mind, enters the Sangha, disparages venerable elders, and acts greedily in their presence. He may behave willfully, take a higher and larger seat while placing others below on lower seats, or, after sitting down, praise himself and disparage others. He may put his arm around another's shoulder while laughing and talking; rush ahead to obtain a seat; wear his sandals himself while walking along the road; or walk about speaking loudly, disturbing the assembly through such signs of contempt and vexation.

He may use the superior to defeat the inferior or set the weak against the strong. He may burn firewood in the bathhouse. He may open and close doors and gates without asking; or, after obtaining water, enter first and attend to his own body, displaying an unseemly appearance.

If he enters another's room, he may manipulate things in front and behind him, and walk or stand without due care. Or, in a secluded place, he may laugh and frolic with women and young girls and touch their heads. All such transgressions are called bodily improper conduct.

What is called verbal improper conduct?

Suppose a bhikshu, with a disrespectful and discontented mind, makes improper requests and preaches the Dharma on his own initiative; or expounds the Pratimoksha; or speaks while putting his arm around another's shoulder; or enters another's house, addresses a woman, and asks, “What is your name and family? Is there anything to eat? Is there anyone here who wishes to eat and drink with me?” Such speech is verbal improper conduct. All such violations of morality are called improper conduct.

What is proper conduct?

It is the opposite of improper conduct.

Furthermore, a bhikshu is respectful, possesses moral shame and moral dread, is accomplished in discipline without deficiency, guards the faculties, and is moderate in eating and drinking. During the beginning and end of the night, he does not sleep or rest. He is accomplished in wisdom, has few desires, and knows contentment. He does not become habituated to worldly affairs and arouses a courageous mind. Toward fellow practitioners of profound attainment, he gives rise to reverence. This is called proper conduct.

As for one's sphere of activity, there are proper spheres and improper spheres.

What is an improper sphere?

Suppose a bhikshu enters a brothel, a house inhabited by women where no man is present, the dwelling of bhikshunis, or places where liquor is sold; or associates with kings, great ministers, non-Buddhists, or shramanas who are not spiritual companions. Such are places where there is no faith capable of gladdening the mind. By frequenting them, he brings no benefit to the fourfold assembly and truly gives rise to anxiety. This is what is meant by an improper sphere. As the Buddha taught: “These bhikshus engage in conduct contrary to the holy life.”

What is conduct contrary to the holy life?

It means trafficking in women; it is known by that circumstance.

Furthermore, there are three kinds of proper sphere: the sphere of reliance, the sphere of guarding, and the sphere of binding.

What is called the sphere of reliance?

It means possessing the ten bases of merit and associating with good spiritual friends. By relying upon these virtues, one hears what one has not yet heard. If one has already heard it, that learning increases and expands. One completely dispels doubt, and one's right view becomes pure and clear. One is able to train in accordance with the Dharma, with profound faith and courage. Through morality, learning, generosity, wisdom, and mindfulness, one grows from moment to moment. This is called the sphere of reliance.

What is called the sphere of guarding?

When a bhikshu wishes to enter a house in a village, he should first observe that there is no danger there. His bearing should be composed so that others give rise to respect. He should not gaze at carts, elephants, horses, or gatherings of men and women. He should not gaze at houses and marketplaces or look about in the four directions. This is called the sphere of guarding.

What is called the sphere of binding?

As the Buddha taught: “If a bhikshu contemplates the circumstances of this household.” This is called the sphere of binding. These are called spheres of conduct. Because one is accomplished in these spheres of conduct, one is also said to be fully accomplished in one's sphere. Seeing danger in the slightest fault means that, concerning a training precept one thoroughly understands, one fears to transgress it; that is, one fears even a minor offense. It is also said that if an unwholesome mind arises, this is called a slight fault. The mind withdraws from this slight fault. Seeing its danger, one fears it and withdraws from it. This is the meaning of seeing danger in the slightest fault. One rightly undertakes and trains in that which is to be learned.

What is that which is to be learned?

It means rightly undertaking all the detailed rules of discipline contained within the seven classes of offenses. This is the meaning of rightly undertaking and training in that which is to be learned. This is called the morality of discipline according to the Pratimoksha.

Question: What is purity of morality?

Answer: It means not transgressing through wrong livelihood.

What is wrong livelihood?

It is indolence, deceitful flattery displayed through outward signs, displaying signs motivated by anger and delusion, and giving in order to seek gifts.

What is indolence?

Indolence has three bases: scheming to obtain what one desires, coveting those four requisites, assuming a dignified demeanor, and speaking well of oneself. If a bhikkhu harbors evil desires, craves material gain, delights in clothing and food, and gladly seeks money and wealth, then when he desires these things but does not obtain them, yet becomes fond of anyone who possesses them, such conduct concerns the four requisites.

This is called scheming indolence. If a bhikkhu, with evil desires and craving for gain, displays a dignified demeanor as though entering meditative concentration, or recites scriptures solely because he desires offerings, this is called indolence through demeanor. If a bhikkhu, covetous, deceitful, and deluded, tells others: “I have attained the noble Dharma and dwell in a place of tranquility.

I practice meditation and speak of profound matters,” thereby giving misleading indications and displaying signs of craving for gain, directing attention toward himself and praising himself, this is called indolence and crooked flattery—deceitful speech. Such a state of mind displays what is unreal, uses fine words in praise, and exaggerates what is good or bad solely for the sake of gain. He disparages others and speaks falsely for his own benefit.

This is called crooked flattery.

What is called giving indications?

It is when one teaches the Dharma in dependence upon expected gain, chiefly seeking benefit for oneself and not for anyone else. This is called giving indications.

Giving indications through angry abuse means reviling another so as to frighten him; or slandering him on empty pretenses; or even striking and injuring him to make him afraid, chiefly for the sake of gain. This is called giving indications through angry abuse.

Why does one give a gift in expectation of a gift?

One likes to give a little while desiring a much greater return. This is called giving a gift in expectation of a gift. These evil practices belong to wrong livelihood. Wrong livelihood also includes giving bamboo staffs, flowers, leaves, or fruit; giving tooth-cleaning sticks or bathing water; practicing physiognomy or interpreting dreams; observing the stars; interpreting the cries of birds and beasts in relation to various kinds of karma; predicting good or ill fortune; speaking malicious words that cause division; burning flowers with fire; trading for profit; commanding armies; and bearing firearms, clubs, or blades. Practices of these kinds belong to wrong livelihood. One who does not transgress in these ways is said to possess purity of virtue.

Question: What is the virtue of guarding the faculties with proper deportment?

Answer: Regarding all that is seen and heard, one clearly knows forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangible objects, and mental phenomena, guarding against attachment to their signs and the arising of afflictions, and refraining from transgression. This is called the virtue of guarding the faculties with proper deportment. This virtue of guarding the faculties is fully accomplished through nine practices.

Its characteristic is restraint from evil, thus shutting off the faculties. To counteract those defilements, one should not attend to them, but should act as though extinguishing a fire upon one’s head, never gradually relinquishing this restraint to the very end. As in the case of Nanda, one subdues the evil mind through proper deportment.

Does one thereby gain mastery over the mind established in concentration?

One who guards the faculties is thereby far removed from defilements. This is harmony in one who guards the faculties.

Question: What is the practice of the fourfold virtue?

Answer: One contemplates by means of these eight considerations and practices the gathering of alms. First, one does not act recklessly or arrogantly. Second, one does not put on airs or seek adornment. Third, one sustains this body in order to discipline and protect it. Fourth, one does so to remove hunger and thirst. Fifth, one does so to preserve the holy life. Sixth, one always reflects that food and drink are taken first to eliminate old illness, not to give rise to new illness. Seventh, one is content with little. Eighth, one does not dwell in excessive indulgence.

Question: What does it mean not to act recklessly or arrogantly?

Answer: If, through greed for food, one seeks strength and health so as to behave recklessly, delight in violence, compete, and roam about, this is reckless conduct. To boast arrogantly of oneself is not to know how to renounce such behavior. Like an angry person who fights, lacks proper deportment, makes his body and countenance unsightly, and pleases those who follow worldly sentiments, such a person does not know how to renounce it.

One who desires merely to sustain this body disciplines and protects himself in this way. He keeps the body settled, like rice stored in a jar. To remove hunger and thirst, one should always eat sparingly.

Thus, a practitioner uses food as medicine for curing illness and thereby supports the holy life. By eating little, one delights in attaining the noble fruit. Thus the practitioner regards this food and drink as serving first to eliminate old illness and not to give rise to new illness.

Taking neither too little nor too much, one practices in this way, as though drinking a restorative medicinal decoction. One abides at ease with little. With but little merit, one maintains this body at ease and constantly trains in this, like a careful nurse who makes no mistake and keeps the patient comfortable with little.

Practicing in this way, one does not render the spirit unbenefited. This is a difficult matter requiring wisdom. Therefore, one does not remain in excessive ease.

Even when there is food, it is used only for sustenance, and one is never indolent. During the first and last watches of the night, one never gives oneself over to sleep and thus accomplishes well-being. In this way, one contemplates by means of these eight considerations and practices alms-gathering accordingly.

Furthermore, these eight considerations may be summarized as four contemplations: contemplation of what should be abandoned, contemplation of the purpose, contemplation of being at ease with little, and contemplation of the merit of having little.

Question: What is called contemplation of what should be abandoned?

Answer: Not acting recklessly, not being arrogant, not putting oneself first for the sake of the body, and not seeking adornment—this is called contemplation of what should be abandoned. One sustains this body for proper discipline and protection, for removing hunger and thirst, and for supporting the holy life.

Contemplation of the purpose means: “I shall first eliminate old illness and shall not give rise to new illness.”

This is called contemplation of being at ease with little, meaning: “I shall be at ease with little, without excess, and shall abide in happiness.”

This is contemplation of the merit of having little.

After contemplating these four contemplations, they may be further summarized as three: abandoning the two extremes and becoming fully endowed with the middle way. Through contemplation of abandonment, one first abandons sensual pleasure. Removing hunger and thirst means eliminating the original illness without giving rise to new illness.

Through this contemplation, one also eliminates bodily illness. In all other respects, one becomes fully endowed with contemplation and practices accordingly. One also contemplates clothing: it is used to ward off cold, wind, heat, insects, ants, and mosquitoes, and to cover what would cause shame, thereby avoiding nakedness and exposure.

Thus one practices with complete contemplation. One also contemplates medicines for the treatment of illness. If this is the teaching, then at what time should one contemplate?

When gathering alms and taking medicine, one contemplates each morsel of food. Regarding clothing and lodging, one contemplates them when they are first received. Moreover, day after day and hour after hour, one reflects that one’s life depends upon these things. In this way, everything becomes a practice of contemplation.

As stated previously, there are four kinds of use: the use of a thief, the use of one indebted, the use of an inheritance, and the use of an owner.

What is the use of a thief?

It is the use made by one who has neither shame nor moral dread and lives by wrong livelihood.

What is the use of an inheritance?

It is the use made by one who practices diligently.

What is the use of an owner?

It is the use made by a noble one.

There are also two kinds of use: defiled use and pure use.

What is defiled use?

It is when one possesses shame and moral dread but fails to contemplate properly. This is called defiled use.

What is pure use?

A person possessed of moral shame and moral dread contemplates and knows how to regulate himself, with the intention of abandoning evil. This is called purity. Through purity, one continually cultivates the four requisites with discernment.

This is called the fourfold practice of virtue. Here, the virtue of restraint should be fulfilled through deep faith. The virtue of purity of livelihood should be fulfilled through profound diligence.

The virtue of restraint of the faculties should be fulfilled through deep faith; and the practice concerning the four requisites should be fulfilled through profound wisdom. In this livelihood, virtue is purified. All this accords with restraint.

Why is this? One does not, for the sake of sustaining life, abandon peaceful practices, but causes bodily and verbal karma to be conducted with proper deportment. These two kinds of virtue accord with restraint of the faculties.

Why is this? Regarding wholesome things, one guards them with the mind, skillfully protects bodily and verbal karma, and practices concerning the four requisites: this is restraint of the faculties. Why is this?

One has already discerned the signs, accumulation, and place of reliance, and thus rectifies mindfulness and concentration. The Blessed One also said: If a bhikkhu knows moderation in eating, understands the five sensual pleasures, and is content within this restraint and purity of livelihood, then this virtue protects and gathers him in. The virtue of restraint of the faculties is protected and gathered in by concentration.

The practice of these four kinds of virtue is protected and gathered in by wisdom.

How is the undertaking of virtue purified?

If a bhikkhu who has newly undertaken the Dharma of meditation examines himself with regard to the seven classes of offenses, and if he has committed any parajika offense, he has entirely lost the status of a bhikkhu and no longer remains within the higher ordination. If he remains within the higher ordination, he should obtain the wholesome Dharma and approach his teacher to report the matter. If he finds that he has committed a sanghadisesa offense, he should undergo the prescribed act of repentance. If he finds that he has committed an offense with a remainder, he should confess the offense before one person. If he finds that he has committed wrong livelihood, he should confess mutually concerning that transgression. Having thus repented, he should not commit it again.

Seeing the observance in this way, if one has transgressed restraint of the faculties or the practice concerning the four requisites, one resolves, “I shall not transgress again.” If one maintains the observance, one will possess excellent deportment in the future. Such a person thereby purifies virtue. Therefore, bodily and verbal karma can be manifested in action. One should contemplate whether one is performing wholesome deeds and eliminating evil. One should examine the light and darkness within the purification of virtue. In this way, one causes virtue to become pure.

What is the characteristic of purified virtue?

Attaining concordance, the defilements do not arise, regret recedes, and concentration is fully attained. This is called the characteristic of purified virtue.

How many practices are there for abiding?

One abides through two contemplations concerning virtue. The first is weighing the grave faults of violating virtue, and the second is weighing the merits of virtue.

What is meant by weighing the grave faults?

If a person violates virtue, he becomes devoid of merit and falls into evil states. He fears the four assemblies, is anxious that others may know, and flees from those possessed of virtue. He is unable to teach meditation; devas and humans censure him, and people despise and detest him because of his violation of virtue.

When he sees others praising the merits of maintaining virtue, his remorseful mind lacks faith. Within each of the four assemblies, he gives rise to anger, resentment, disputes, and litigation. Toward those close to him, he frequently gives rise to aversion.

To those who maintain virtue, he becomes an evil friend. He cannot attain any excellent concentration. Although he adorns himself with a false appearance of dignity, it serves only to deceive.

Like human excrement and urine, he is a source of foulness; like an impostor posing as a model, he merely presents an appearance of competence. He is like a muddy mire, gaining no benefit or happiness either in the present or the future. He constantly gives rise to sorrow.

After committing an offense, he again feels shame and remorse and has no peace. As though his mind were in hell, he takes no delight in the noble state. Like a candala, he does not aspire to kingship.

Although such a person hears the joy of wisdom and speaks of merit, others neither esteem nor respect him. Like a fire of dung, he is born in an improper place; at death he loses mindfulness, and his consciousness enters an evil destination. Such exceedingly grave faults are called that which may be weighed.

If these evils are reversed and transformed into the merits of virtue, this too is called that which may be weighed. Weighing them in this way, the mind of one who violates virtue is obscured, and his resolve declines and disperses. One possessed of virtue has profound faith and diligence; his faith and reverence increase twofold.

He becomes diligent and reverent, single-mindedly protecting virtue as an ant guards its eggs, as an ox cherishes its tail, as one guards an only child, as one protects one’s sole eye, as a spirit medium guards the body, as a poor person guards precious treasure, and as a helmsman guards his boat. Amid all these examples of guarding, one reflects, “I shall cultivate virtue and protect it with the utmost reverence.” When the mind maintains and protects virtue in this way, it abides securely in meditation, and virtue is safeguarded.

Treatise on the Path to Liberation

End of Fascicle One