解脫道論

Chapter 1: Causes and Conditions

Homage to the Blessed One, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One.

“Virtue, concentration, and wisdom,

Unsurpassed liberation—

He who fully awakened to this Dharma

Is rightly called Gotama.”

One who wishes to escape all hardships, cast off every bond, perfect the supreme mind, end the fear of birth, aging, and death, delight in liberation, and attain nirvana, which is difficult to reach, must gain a broad and thorough understanding of the Sutra Pitaka, the Abhidharma Pitaka, and the Vinaya Pitaka. This is the Path of Liberation that I shall now expound. Listen attentively.

Question: What is virtue?

Answer: Virtue means dignified conduct. Concentration is freedom from distraction and agitation. Wisdom is understanding. Liberation is release from all bonds. Unsurpassed means undefiled and the complete ending of all afflictions. Full awakening means wisdom that understands. “This Dharma” refers to the Four Noble Truths. Gotama is the clan name of Shakyamuni Buddha. “Rightly called” means that the Blessed One, through virtue, concentration, wisdom, and liberation, produced supreme merit and thus was worthy of the highest designation.

Question: What is the meaning of the Path of Liberation?

Answer: Liberation is of five kinds: (1) liberation by suppression, (2) liberation by the opposite factor, (3) liberation by eradication, (4) liberation by tranquillization, and (5) liberation by complete separation.

Question: What is liberation by suppression?

Answer: Liberation by suppression is the present cultivation of the first dhyana, whereby the hindrances are subdued. Liberation by the opposite factor is the present attainment of a degree of concentration whereby knowledge and vision are liberated. Liberation by eradication is the cultivation of the supramundane path, whereby the fetters are destroyed. Liberation by tranquillization is the secure and peaceful joy in the mind of one who has attained the fruit. Liberation by complete separation is the realm of nirvana without remainder.

Because this path leads to complete liberation through virtue, concentration, and wisdom, it is called the Path of Liberation.

I shall now expound the Path of Liberation.

Question: For what purpose is the Path of Liberation expounded?

Answer: There may be a person who wishes to attain liberation but has not heard about liberation, does not understand it, or misunderstands it. Such a person is like a blind man wandering alone in a foreign land and undergoing every kind of suffering. He wishes to attain liberation but lacks the necessary cause and condition—that is, the means. Why is this so? Because liberation itself is that cause and condition. As the Buddha said: “Living beings, wearied and afflicted by defilements, do not hear the Dharma and therefore ultimately undergo decline.” The Buddha also said: “Bhikkhus, there are two causes and two conditions for the arising of right view. What are the two? The first is hearing another person speak. The second is possessing right mindfulness oneself.”

Therefore, the Path of Liberation is expounded so that those who do not yet understand liberation may develop revulsion toward craving, and so that those who have heard incorrectly about liberation may abandon the wrong path and attain the liberation of dhyana. Expounding the Path of Liberation is like a traveler on a long journey encountering a skilled guide.

One who follows the path of liberation by suppression perfects three skandhas. What are the three skandhas? They are the skandha of virtue, the skandha of concentration, and the skandha of wisdom.

Question: What is the skandha of virtue?

Answer: It is right speech, right action, right livelihood, and similar modes of conduct, or the body of merit produced by all other virtuous practices.

Question: What is the skandha of concentration?

Answer: It is right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration, and similar modes of practice, or the body of merit produced by every form of concentration.

Question: What is the skandha of wisdom?

Answer: It is right view, right thought, and similar modes of practice, or the body of merit produced by every form of wisdom.

This is the complete perfection of the three skandhas.

One who follows the path of liberation by suppression must thoroughly train in the three trainings: the training in higher virtue, the training in the higher mind, and the training in higher wisdom. (“Higher” means surpassing.) There is training in virtue, and there is training in higher virtue. There is training in concentration of mind, and there is training in higher concentration of mind. There is training in wisdom, and there is training in higher wisdom.

Furthermore, there is virtue pertaining to the training in virtue, and there is virtue pertaining to the training in higher virtue. There is training in concentration of mind, and there is concentration pertaining to the training in the higher mind. There is training in wisdom, and there is wisdom pertaining to the training in higher wisdom.

Question: What is the training in virtue?

Answer: When the characteristic of virtue is spoken of, this is called the training in virtue. When a degree of virtue has been attained, this is the training in higher virtue. Furthermore, the virtue of an ordinary person is the training in virtue; noble virtue is the training in higher virtue.

Question: What is the training of the mind?

Answer: The training of the mind is concentration belonging to the desire realm.

Question: What is the training in the higher mind?

Answer: Concentration belonging to the form realm and the formless realm is the training in the higher mind. Furthermore, when, on the basis of the characteristic of concentration in the training of the mind, one attains a degree of concentration and the concentration of the path, this is the training in the higher mind.

Question: What is the training in wisdom?

Answer: Training in worldly knowledge is the training in wisdom. Training in the Four Noble Truths, conformity knowledge, and knowledge of the path is the training in higher wisdom.

Thus, the Blessed One expounded the training in higher virtue for those of dull faculties; the training in the higher mind for those of middling faculties; and the training in higher wisdom for those of keen faculties.

Question: What is the meaning of training?

Answer: Training means training in what is to be learned, training in the higher training—that which surpasses what is to be learned—and training in the state beyond training, which transcends the two preceding levels. Only when these are attained is it called training in accordance with reality. To complete these three levels of training is called following the path of liberation by suppression.

Having completed the three trainings, one perfects three purifications: purification of virtue, purification of mind, and purification of view. Thus, virtue is purification of virtue, concentration is purification of mind, and wisdom is purification of knowledge and vision. Virtue cleanses the defilements caused by transgressing the precepts. Concentration removes the defilements of the hindrances and purifies the mind. Wisdom removes the defilement of ignorance and purifies knowledge and vision.

Furthermore, virtue eliminates evil karma, concentration eliminates the defilements of the hindrances, and wisdom eliminates the fetters. Thus, to pass through these three purifications is to follow the path of liberation by suppression.

Furthermore, one follows the path of liberation by suppression through these three wholesome qualities: virtue as the initial good, concentration as the intermediate good, and wisdom as the final good.

Question: How is virtue the initial good?

Answer: A person diligently practices until reaching the stage of non-retrogression. Because of non-retrogression, gladness arises; because of gladness, rapture arises; because of rapture, the body becomes tranquil; because the body becomes tranquil, happiness arises; and because of happiness, concentration arises. This is the initial good. Because of concentration, knowledge and vision of things as they really are arise. This is the intermediate good.

The arising of wisdom is the final good. From knowledge and vision of things as they really are arises disenchantment with distress; from disenchantment with distress arises dispassion toward desires; through dispassion toward desires, liberation is attained; and upon attaining liberation, one knows for oneself: “I am liberated.” Thus, the three wholesome paths are perfected.

By following the path of liberation by suppression, one attains three kinds of happiness: the happiness of blamelessness, the happiness of quiescence, and the happiness of perfect awakening. Through virtue, one attains the happiness of blamelessness—the joy of knowing oneself to be free from fault. Through concentration, one attains the happiness of quiescence—the joy of serenity. Through wisdom, one attains the happiness of perfect awakening—the joy of right understanding. Thus, the three kinds of happiness are perfected.

One who understands and follows the path of liberation leaves behind the two extremes and fully follows the Middle Way. Through the virtue of morality, that person removes the desires that still bind him, and from the joy of seeing himself free from fault, gladness arises in his heart. Through concentration in the joy of tranquility, he removes bodily weariness and increases the joy of well-being. Through wisdom that discerns the Four Noble Truths and fully comprehends the Middle Way, he enjoys the joy of perfect awakening, which he constantly cherishes in his heart. Thus, he leaves behind the two extremes and fully attains the Middle Way.

One who understands and follows the path of liberation uses morality to eliminate the evil paths, concentration to transcend the sense realm, and wisdom to eliminate every realm of rebirth.

If one cultivates morality extensively, but concentration and wisdom to a lesser degree, one attains the fruits of stream-enterer and once-returner. If one cultivates morality and concentration extensively, but wisdom to a lesser degree, one attains the fruit of non-returner. If one fully cultivates all three, one attains arhatship and the highest liberation.

Chapter 2: Analysis of Morality

Question: What is morality? What is its characteristic? What is its function? How does it manifest? What is its proximate cause? What merits does it possess? What is its meaning? What constitutes moral conduct? How many distinctions of morality are there? Where does it arise? What are the beginning, middle, and end stages of morality? What are the obstacles to morality? From how many causes do they arise? How many kinds of morality are there? What purifies morality? What conditions help one abide in morality?

Answer: What is morality? It is morality as volition, morality as proper conduct, and morality as non-transgression. What is morality as volition? (Volition means thought.) “I shall not do evil; whoever does evil must bear its consequences.” What is morality as proper conduct? It is staying far removed from occasions that give rise to offenses. What is morality as non-transgression? It is having no fault in body or speech. (Non-transgression means not overstepping.) Furthermore, the meaning of proper conduct is that of severance—cutting off and eliminating.

All wholesome dharmas are morality.

As stated in the Abhidhamma: “Using renunciation to cut away every desire is morality, for it is capable of abandoning every evil; this is morality as volition, morality as guarding, and morality as proper conduct. Anger is removed through non-anger. Sloth is removed through luminosity.

Agitation and frivolity are eliminated through non-distraction. Doubt and remorse are abandoned through seeing the Dharma. Ignorance is eliminated through Knowledge.

Discontent is removed through gladness. The five hindrances are eliminated through the first jhana. Applied thought and sustained thought are eliminated through the second jhana.

Rapture is eliminated through the third jhana. Pleasure is eliminated through the fourth jhana. Perceptions of the form realm, including anger and all other kinds of perception, are eliminated through the concentration on infinite space.

Space is eliminated through the concentration on infinite consciousness. Perception of consciousness is eliminated through the concentration on nothingness. Perception of the sphere of nothingness is eliminated through the concentration on neither-perception-nor-non-perception.

Perception of permanence is eliminated through the contemplation of impermanence. Perception of pleasure is eliminated through the contemplation of suffering. Perception of self is eliminated through the contemplation of non-self.

Perception rooted in craving is eliminated through the contemplation of affliction. Perception rooted in sensual desire is eliminated through the contemplation of dispassion. Perception of origination, the source of suffering, is eliminated through the contemplation of cessation.

Perception of solidity is eliminated through the contemplation of wearing away. Perception of aggregation is eliminated through the contemplation of dispersion. Perception of permanence is eliminated through the contemplation of arising and cessation.

Signs are eliminated through the signless. Volitional activity—here meaning longing and aspiration—is eliminated through the wishless. Entry is eliminated through emptiness.

Attachment is eliminated through the contemplation of higher wisdom. The obstinacy of ignorance is eliminated through knowledge and vision of things as they really are. Clinging to one’s dwelling place is eliminated through the contemplation of affliction.

Non-contemplation is eliminated through contemplation. Grasping at combination is eliminated through the contemplation of transformation and dispersion. Views bound up with the defilements are eliminated through the path of stream-entry.

Coarse defilements are eliminated through the path of once-returning. Subtle defilements are eliminated through the path of non-returning. Every kind of defilement is eliminated through the path of arhatship.”

These are called morality as non-transgression, morality as volition, morality as guarding, and morality as proper conduct.

All the foregoing are called Morality.

What is the characteristic of morality? It is the elimination of improper conduct through proper conduct.

Question: What is improper conduct?

Answer: Improper conduct is the violation of the Dharma. There are three kinds of violation of the Dharma. First is violation of the Patimokkha Dharma (Pātimokkha = individual liberation = the code of discipline = the 250 precepts for bhikkhus and the 348 precepts for bhikkhunis). Second is violation of the Dharma concerning requisites. Third is violation of the Dharma concerning the sense faculties.

What is violation of the Patimokkha Dharma? Through shamelessness—having no sense of shame before oneself—and moral recklessness—having no sense of shame before others—one becomes separated from faith in the Tathagata.

What is violation of the Dharma concerning requisites? Answer: For the sake of sustaining one’s life, one becomes excessively concerned with adorning the body and thereby departs from contentment.

What is violation of the Dharma concerning the sense faculties? Answer: By failing to close the doors of the sense faculties, one becomes separated from mindfulness and wisdom.

When these three forms of improper conduct are covered and restrained, this is called the characteristic of morality.

What are the function, manifestation, and proximate cause of morality? The joy obtained from being free of fault is the function of morality. Freedom from sorrow is its manifestation, the way morality becomes evident. The attainment of three wholesome qualities is its proximate cause, the source from which morality arises.

Furthermore, the function of morality is sublime delight. Its manifestation is never having remorse. Its proximate cause is the “closing of the doors” of the sense faculties.

What are the merits of morality? Freedom from remorse is the merit of morality. As the Blessed One said to Ananda: “Freedom from remorse is the merit and blessing of morality.” Furthermore, morality is also called the joy of being free from fault, the highest rank among living beings, the treasure that brings true wealth, the ground of Buddhahood, bathing without the need for water, fragrance that perfumes every place, a shadow that follows the body, (...), the lineage of the Noble Ones, the unsurpassed training, and the wholesome path.

Because a moral person possesses morality, he is never afraid; he brings honor to his friends; he is approached and cherished by the Noble Ones; he is a refuge for his friends; he is well adorned; he is a leader in every undertaking; he is a field for creating merit, a field worthy of offerings, and a basis for establishing noble spiritual fellowship. Amid all wholesome dharmas, he is unafraid and does not retreat. He fulfills every pure aspiration; even at death he suffers no loss; and he perfects the means leading to the joy of liberation.

Thus, the merits of morality are truly boundless.

What is the meaning of Morality? Answer: Morality has such meanings as coolness, elevation, action, intrinsic nature, and the essential condition corresponding to suffering and happiness. Furthermore, morality has the meanings of head, coolness, and peace.

Why is “head” a meaning of morality? Answer: Just as a person without a head cannot keep the sense faculties clean and free from dust and is therefore called dead, so too does a bhikkhu take morality as his head. If that head is severed, all wholesome dharmas are lost, and in the Buddha’s teaching this is called death. Therefore, morality has the meaning of a head.

Why is coolness a meaning of morality? Answer: Just as rubbing truly cool sandalwood upon the skin will lessen the body's heat and bring comfort, so morality, like cool sandalwood, extinguishes anxiety, lessens the burning within the mind caused by violating the precepts, and brings wholesome joy. This is the meaning of the coolness of morality.

Why is security a meaning of morality? Answer: One endowed with morality conducts oneself with dignity and does not give rise to fear. This is the meaning of the security of morality.

How do morality and practice differ? To cultivate diligently and undertake the dhutanga practices is practice, not morality. Morality is also called practice. Feeling is likewise called practice.

How many kinds of morality are there? There are three kinds: wholesome morality, unwholesome morality, and indeterminate morality (indeterminate means neither wholesome nor unwholesome is clearly determined here).

What is wholesome morality? It is skillfully guarding bodily action, verbal action, and right livelihood so that they are free from faults, thereby receiving favorable karmic results.

What is unwholesome morality? It is when bodily action, verbal action, and wrong livelihood are all evil, thereby bringing unfavorable karmic results.

What is indeterminate morality? It is when bodily action, verbal action, and a purified way of life are unencumbered by afflictions or faults, and therefore bring neither favorable nor unfavorable karmic results.

How does morality arise? Wholesome morality arises in a wholesome mind. Unwholesome morality arises in an unwholesome mind. Indeterminate morality arises in an indeterminate mind.

Through how many stages does morality arise? Morality arises through the beginning, middle, and final stages. Undertaking the precepts is the beginning stage. Not violating the precepts is the middle stage. Attaining wholesome joy is the final stage of morality.

What are the obstacles to morality and their causes? Answer: There are thirty-four obstacles to morality. These thirty-four obstacles are causes that impede morality and are called causes pertaining to morality. They are:

– Anger, sorrow, concealment, irritability, stinginess, jealousy, deceit, flattery, resentment, contention, pride, conceit, arrogance, laziness, indolence, craving, discontent, failure to follow wisdom, lack of right mindfulness, abusive speech, evil friends, wrong knowledge, wrong views, impatience, lack of faith, lack of moral shame, lack of moral dread before others, indulgence of the body, speech, and palate, association with worldly people, intimacy with women, disrespect for one's teacher, failure to restrain the sense faculties, lack of moderation in eating and drinking, failure to sit in meditation during the early night, midnight, and toward dawn, and failure to recite the scriptures.

The thirty-four things above are obstacles to the Path. If each one continues to be an obstacle, morality cannot be fulfilled. If morality is not fulfilled, it will inevitably decline.

The countermeasures to the thirty-four obstacles above are called the causes of morality.

How many classifications of morality are there? When arranged into groups, there are groups of two, groups of three, and groups of four.

What is morality in the group of two? It consists of natural morality and prescribed morality. Performing with body and speech the things that the Buddha taught should be done is natural morality. Refraining with body and speech from the things that the Buddha prohibited is prescribed morality. Natural morality is fulfilled through faith, mindfulness, and diligence. Prescribed morality is fulfilled through faith, mindfulness, and careful guarding.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are morality of abandoning and morality of attainment. What is morality of abandoning? It is the capacity to eliminate what is contrary to morality. What is morality of attainment? It is the attainment of many wholesome qualities. Just as light drives back darkness, eliminating what is contrary to morality causes one to leave the evil destinies far behind; one attains right morality and follows the wholesome path. By abandoning what is contrary to morality, one accomplishes abiding in morality.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are mundane morality and supramundane morality. What is supramundane morality? Morality accomplished together with the attainment of fruition through the Noble Path is called supramundane morality. What remains is mundane morality, that is, morality within the world. Through the accomplishment of mundane morality, fulfillment is attained. Through the accomplishment of supramundane morality, liberation is attained.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are limited morality and immeasurable morality. Morality that is not fulfilled is called limited morality. Morality fulfilled according to the Buddha's judgment is called immeasurable morality.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are bounded morality and boundless morality. What is bounded morality? If a person undertakes the precepts for the sake of gain, fame, relatives and friends, or one's own life, (...), that person's morality is bounded by gain, praise, and life. What is boundless morality? If a bhikkhu undertakes the precepts in accordance with the Dharma and does not give rise to even the slightest thought of violating them for the sake of gain, fame, or life, how much less would he deliberately violate them? This is called boundless morality.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are dependent morality and independent morality. (Dependent means relying upon something.) What is dependent morality? Morality connected with existence, that is, with life, is morality dependent upon craving. Morality connected with clinging to rites and observances, that is, superstitious rituals, corresponds to wrong view. Morality that praises oneself and disparages others corresponds to conceit. This is dependent morality. If morality is accomplished for the enjoyment of liberation, that is independent morality. Dependent morality is not the joy of the wise. Only independent morality is the joy of the wise.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are morality constituting the fundamental training of the holy life and subtle morality. What is the fundamental training of the holy life? Morality pertaining to right action, right speech, and right livelihood is the morality constituting the fundamental training of the holy life. Training in the remaining matters is subtle morality.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are intentional morality and unintentional morality. What is intentional morality? It is the morality constituting the fundamental training of the holy life. What is unintentional morality? It is the remaining portion, namely the training in subtle morality, also called the minor precepts. Disciples whose fundamental training in the holy life is not yet firmly established may wish to observe the higher standards among the minor precepts, and thus violations may arise. Why? Because the Buddha did not speak of such matters as obstacles to liberation.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are morality free from transgression and purified morality. What is morality free from transgression? It is the morality of the disciples. What is purified morality? It is the morality of a Buddha and a pratyekabuddha.

Furthermore, in the group of two there are morality undertaken for a fixed term and morality undertaken for life. Temporarily undertaking the precepts while young without intending to observe them for one's entire life is morality undertaken for a fixed term. From the time one vows before one's teacher until one relinquishes one's life is morality undertaken for life. Morality undertaken for a fixed term also brings karmic results for a fixed term. Morality undertaken for life brings karmic results without a fixed term.

What is morality in the group of three? It consists of non-transgression through abstaining from evil, non-transgression through experiencing feeling, and non-transgression through eradication. What is non-transgression through abstaining from evil?

Even regarding external matters that do not pertain to one's own observance of morality, the mind does not give rise to any thought of transgression; this is non-transgression through abstaining from evil. What is non-transgression through experiencing feeling? From the moment one experiences the awareness that one has transgressed until that feeling ceases, one commits no further transgression; this is non-transgression through experiencing feeling.

What is non-transgression through eradication? Noble ones, by following the Noble Path, have eradicated the causes of all evil; this is non-transgression through eradication.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are the realm of contact, the realm without contact, and the Brahma realm. What is the realm of contact? As soon as one sees a conditioned form, craving arises; this is the realm of contact (contact means the realm that is subject to contact). The wholesome morality of ordinary beings used to enter the gateway of the Path is morality without contact. What is Brahma morality? It is the morality of an arhat.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are morality dependent on the world, morality dependent on the body, and morality dependent on the Dharma. What is morality dependent on the world? If, out of fear, a person relies upon worldly opinion to eliminate evil states, that is morality dependent on the world. What is morality dependent on the body? If, out of fear, a person relies upon bodily life to eliminate evil states, that is morality dependent on the body. If, out of fear, a person relies upon the true Dharma to eliminate unwholesome states, that is morality dependent on the Dharma.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are morality with unequal aspirations, morality with balanced aspirations, and morality without aspiration. What is morality with unequal aspirations? Undertaking morality while causing suffering and distress to others is called morality with unequal aspirations. What is morality with balanced aspirations? Undertaking morality to obtain happiness in the present and, afterward, the happiness of liberation is morality with balanced aspirations. What is morality without aspiration? Undertaking morality without regret for the benefit of others is morality without aspiration.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are pure morality, impure morality, and doubtful morality. What is pure morality? There are two causes through which morality becomes pure.

First, one does not transgress. Second, having transgressed, one immediately confesses and repents. This is pure morality.

What is impure morality? There are two causes through which morality becomes impure. First, one deliberately commits a transgression.

Second, having transgressed, one does not confess and repent. This is impure morality. What is doubtful morality?

There are three causes through which morality becomes doubtful. First, one does not distinguish the place. Second, one does not distinguish the transgression.

Third, one does not distinguish the act of transgression. This is doubtful morality.

If the morality born of meditation is impure, one should feel inward shame and confess and repent, thereby attaining the happiness of purity. If there is doubt, one should immediately seek to know where the fault lies, thereby attaining peace and happiness.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are the morality of one in training, the morality of one beyond training, and the morality of one who is neither in training nor beyond training. What is the morality of one in training? It is the morality of a trainee. What is the morality of one beyond training? It is the morality of an arhat. What is the morality of one who is neither in training nor beyond training? It is the morality of an ordinary being.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are morality based on fear, morality based on anxiety, and foolish morality. What is morality based on fear? A person who, from fear of wrongdoing, does not dare to do evil possesses morality based on fear. What is morality based on anxiety? If a person, anxiously remembering a loved one who is far away, gives rise to sorrow and distress, and because of that sorrow and distress does not undertake evil deeds, this is morality based on anxiety. What is foolish morality? A person who undertakes the ox observance or the dog observance possesses foolish morality. If the observance is fulfilled, that person will become an ox or a dog; if it is not, that person will also fall into hell.

Furthermore, in the group of three kinds, there are inferior morality, middling morality, and superior morality. What is inferior morality? Because the defilements are numerous, heavy, and great, when one transgresses, one does not fully and clearly recognize all the points that have become defiled; this is called inferior morality.

What is middling morality? Because the defilements are subtle, when one transgresses, one fully and clearly recognizes the points that have become defiled; this is called middling morality. What is superior morality?

There is no transgression, and one also fully and clearly recognizes the points that would become defiled through transgression; this is called superior morality. By completely fulfilling inferior morality, one will attain rebirth as a human being. By completely fulfilling middling morality, one will attain rebirth as a deva.

By completely fulfilling superior morality, one will attain liberation.

Furthermore, in the group of four kinds, there are morality conducive to decline, morality conducive to stability, morality conducive to distinction, and morality conducive to penetration. What is morality conducive to decline? Not removing the obstacles to the Path, abandoning diligence, knowingly and deliberately transgressing, and then concealing the transgression—this is called morality conducive to decline (decline means regression).

What is morality conducive to stability? When morality has been fulfilled, if one does not become indolent and does not give rise to a view of tranquility (a view concerning stillness and seclusion), one fulfills morality conducive to stability. What is morality conducive to distinction?

When morality accompanied by concentration has been fully perfected, if one does not become indolent and does not give rise to a view of tranquility, one fulfills morality conducive to distinction. What is morality conducive to penetration? When morality accompanied by concentration has been fully perfected, if one does not become indolent and also gives rise to a view of tranquility, one fulfills morality conducive to penetration.

Furthermore, in the group of four kinds, there are the morality of bhikkhus, the morality of bhikkhunis, incomplete morality, and the morality of white-robed laypeople. What is the morality of bhikkhus? The discipline of the Patimokkha is the morality of bhikkhus. What is the morality of bhikkhunis? The discipline of the Patimokkha is the morality of bhikkhunis. Samaneras and samaneris have ten precepts. The morality of a sikkhamana is called incomplete morality. The five precepts of upasakas and upasikas, and the eight precepts of the fasting observance, constitute the morality of white-robed laypeople.

Furthermore, in the group of four kinds, there are natural morality, customary morality, morality culminating in the Dharma, and morality of the original cause. Natural morality is the morality that accords with the natural disposition of the people of Uttarakuru. What is customary morality? All the laws and customs of nations, clans, and non-Buddhist traditions are called customary morality. What is morality culminating in the Dharma? When the bodhisattva (here meaning the Buddha before he attained awakening) entered his mother’s womb, this was called morality culminating in the Dharma. What is morality of the original cause? The morality of the bodhisattva (the Buddha while he was still a bodhisattva) and of Mahakassapa is morality of the original cause.

Furthermore, in the group of four kinds, there are morality as morality, the accumulation of morality, the cessation of morality, and the complete path leading to the cessation of morality. What is morality as morality? The two kinds—skillful morality and unskillful morality—are called morality as morality.

What is the accumulation of morality? A wholesome mind accumulates skillful morality; an unwholesome mind accumulates unskillful morality. What is the cessation of morality?

When skillful morality is attained, unskillful morality is eliminated; when the fruit of arhatship is attained, even skillful morality ceases. This is the cessation of morality. What is the complete path leading to the cessation of morality?

It is the four right efforts, the four qualities that lead to the complete path of cessation. Thus, one must distinguish and clearly understand that additional diligence is required; merely undertaking and observing morality is not sufficient to be called the four right efforts.

Furthermore, in the group of four kinds, there are morality consisting in the discipline of the Patimokkha, morality consisting in purification of right livelihood, morality consisting in restraint of the faculties, and morality concerning the obtaining of requisites.

What is morality consisting in the discipline of the Patimokkha? It is this: “Here, a bhikkhu dwells restrained by the discipline of the Patimokkha, acts in full accordance with right conduct, fears even the slightest offense, and trains in the precepts that ought to be learned.”

“Here” means: within the Dharma taught by the Teacher.

“Bhikkhu” means: a virtuous ordinary being; it also means one in training, one who has reached the stage beyond training, and one who is irreversible.

“Patimokkha” means: morality, manifestation, beginning, action, preservation, restraint, casting off the old shell, freedom from bonds, and the gateway into wholesome states. These are the meanings of Patimokkha.

“Dwells restrained by the discipline of the Patimokkha” means: one does not give rise to bodily or verbal karma, and through the encompassing restraint of the Patimokkha, one accomplishes such abiding.

“Conducting oneself fully in right conduct” means maintaining the four deportments in all one’s activities.

Furthermore, conduct may be right conduct or improper conduct. What is improper conduct? If a bhikkhu gives someone a section of bamboo, flowers, leaves, fruit, a tooth-stick, or bathing powder; advertises whether goods are good or bad; jokes frivolously; flatters others to advance himself; or runs about everywhere inviting people to gatherings—such actions were all prohibited by the Buddha because they constitute wrong livelihood. This is called improper conduct.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of improper conduct: bodily improper conduct and verbal improper conduct. What is bodily improper conduct? A bhikkhu, with an arrogant mind, may go to a place where the Sangha is assembled, jostle venerable monks, and push his way forward; he may lean against something or seize a high seat first, causing a senior to sit in a lower place; he may sit lounging and jesting, or slap someone on the shoulder while joking.

Or when an elder walks barefoot, he may drag his clogs noisily along. Or when a venerable monk of great virtue walks on a low, narrow path, he may stroll along the broad, elevated road. Taking advantage of every occasion, he may show contempt for and trouble others.

Or he may compete with a junior for a good place while pushing an inferior place upon a senior. Or in the bathing room, he may light firewood at his own discretion and bolt the door. Or upon reaching a riverbank, he may enter the water first, twisting his body and scrubbing himself in a coarse manner.

Or when entering another person’s house, he may rush through the front door, slip through the back door, and stand or sit without regard for precedence. Or in a screened chamber, he may jest with women and stroke the heads of young girls.

All faults such as these are called bodily improper conduct.

What is verbal improper conduct? A bhikkhu, without reverence or scruple and without asking the consent of the senior elders, may take it upon himself to teach the Dharma or expound the Pratimoksha. Or he may speak while slapping another person on the shoulder. Or, upon entering an unfamiliar house, he may ask the lady of the house, “What is your name? What food do you have? I wish to eat now.”

All such speech constitutes an offense against the precepts. This is called verbal improper conduct.

What is good conduct as opposed to improper conduct? Furthermore, a bhikkhu is respectful, possesses moral shame and moral dread, is fully accomplished in dignified deportment without deficiency, guards the sense faculties, knows moderation in eating and drinking, does not habitually sleep during the early night or at dawn, possesses wisdom, has few desires and knows contentment, does not follow worldly customs, arouses vigorous resolve, and shows deference toward his fellow practitioners. This is good conduct.

What is a proper resort? What is an improper resort? (“Resort” here means a place one frequents, a place to which one comes and goes.) What is an improper resort? If a bhikkhu goes to houses of prostitution, the homes of widows, the homes of unmarried girls, the homes of eunuchs, nunneries, taverns, or associates closely with kings, ministers, non-Buddhist ascetics, or unrighteous companions

who have no faith, do not benefit the people, and are deeply hated by them—these are places that should not be frequented and are called improper resorts. As the Buddha said, a bhikkhu should not frequent places incompatible with the holy life. What is incompatible with the holy life? Places where women’s charms are bought and sold are an obvious example.

Furthermore, there are three kinds of proper resort: a supportive resort, a guarded resort, and a binding resort.

What is a supportive resort? It is a good spiritual friend endowed with ten virtues. By relying upon those virtues, one hears what one has not yet heard; what one has heard becomes more broadly understood; doubt and remorse are dispelled; right view is purified; one knows how to practice in accordance with the Dharma; profound and vigorous faith arises; and moral conduct and wisdom increase. This is a supportive resort, or a place worthy of being frequented and relied upon.

What is a guarded resort? When a bhikkhu enters someone’s house or walks along a village road, he keeps his eyes lowered toward the ground ahead, looking no farther than one fathom (one fathom is approximately two meters). His demeanor is composed, so that all who see him regard him with respect. He does not gaze at elephants, horses, vehicles, or men and women going to festivities; he does not look toward palaces, alleys, or footpaths; and he does not raise his head to look in every direction. This is knowing how to guard oneself while coming and going, and is called a guarded resort.

What is a binding resort? As the Buddha said, if a bhikkhu abides within his own proper domain, that is a binding resort.

This is the meaning of conduct and resort. When both conduct and resort are fulfilled, this is the meaning of the passage: “...conducting oneself fully in right conduct...”

The passage “...fearing even the slightest offense...” means: I fear even the most subtle faults into which I might fall while training. This is fearing even the slightest offense. Furthermore, according to one explanation, when an unwholesome state of mind arises, that itself is a slight fault. Seeing the danger caused by that slight fault, one gives rise to a mind that withdraws from the offense.

This is knowing how to perceive and fear even the slightest offense.

The passage “...training in the precepts that are to be learned” is rendered in the original text as “properly undertaking and learning what should be learned.” What does this mean? It means training in the matters that must be learned. These refer to the seven groups of rules concerning deportment; that is, one must train in all the matters explained above.

This concludes the explanation of the moral discipline of dignified deportment according to the Pratimoksha.

Question: What is purity of moral discipline?

Answer: It is not engaging in wrong livelihood. What is wrong livelihood? It bears the marks of deceit, flattery, and trickery; the mark of feigned abuse; and the mark of giving little while hoping to receive much in return.

What is deceit? Deceit has three spheres: devising schemes so that others will offer one the four requisites, pretending to possess perfect deportment, and making ostentatious claims about oneself. A bhikkhu of evil desires who covets material gain may relinquish fine clothing and seek coarse garments, acting as though he does not desire anything fine; or, pretending to act out of compassion for someone, he may accept that person’s offerings of the four requisites.

This is deceit concerning the solicitation of offerings. (The four requisites offered are: 1. food, 2. clothing, 3. lodging and bedding, and 4. medicine.) A bhikkhu of evil desires who covets gain may pretend to possess perfect deportment, saying, “I enter meditation and attain concentration,” in hopes of receiving offerings for reciting scriptures. This is deceit concerning deportment. A bhikkhu who is still covetous, flattering, and mendacious may tell others, “I have attained the noble Dharma and abide in tranquil seclusion,” or, “Because I practice meditation, I teach profound Dharma,” thus displaying signs of superiority to others.

Excessively exalting himself out of greed for gain is deceit through false self-praise. Harboring deceitful intentions while speaking agreeable words, praising or criticizing what is good or bad, and engaging in mockery and humor to bring gain to oneself—this is flattery. What is trickery?

Teaching the Dharma to the wealthy in hopes of obtaining gain while failing to discipline one’s own mind is trickery. Or one may berate others to make them afraid. Or one may slander others and sow discord among many people, making them afraid in order to seek personal gain.

This is the feigned appearance of abuse.

What is giving little while hoping to receive much in return? Giving something meager while hoping for a generous repayment is using generosity to seek generosity in return.

The foregoing practices constitute wrong livelihood. Furthermore, wrong livelihood also includes giving a section of bamboo; presenting flowers, leaves, or fruit; offering tooth-sticks or bathing powder; reading physiognomy and interpreting dreams; observing the stars; interpreting the cries of birds and beasts; predicting good or bad fortune from a person’s manner of walking or standing; burning flowers in fire worship; opening a shop and engaging in trade; commanding an army; and manufacturing and selling weapons. Thus, all such activities are called wrong livelihood. If one does not engage in them, this is called purity of moral discipline.

Question: What is the morality of deportment that guards the sense faculties?

Answer: When seeing forms, hearing sounds, smelling odors, tasting flavors, touching tangible objects, and cognizing phenomena (phenomena = things), one does not allow oneself to become entangled in the afflictions and observes the precepts without violating them. This is guarding the sense faculties in accordance with the morality of deportment.

The guarding of the sense faculties is fulfilled through the following eight practices: abandoning evil signs that arise at the sense faculties; counteracting inattention; never pausing, as though extinguishing a fire on one’s head; exercising restraint after the manner of the Venerable Nanda; subduing the evil mind; attaining mastery of the concentrated mind; avoiding those who do not know how to guard their sense faculties; and associating with those who know how to guard their sense faculties.

Question: What is the morality concerning the proper use of the four requisites?

Answer: One should contemplate the use of alms food through the following eight practices. First, it is not for violent conduct or perilous deeds, nor for self-exaltation. Second, it is not for making the body beautiful. Third, it is for sustaining and preserving the body. Fourth, it is for dispelling hunger and thirst. Fifth, it is for maintaining the holy life. Sixth, one should constantly recollect that eating and drinking are for removing an old illness without giving rise to a new one. Seventh, one should always be content and at ease with little. Eighth, one should always abide in blamelessness.

Question: What does it mean that it is not for violent conduct or self-exaltation?

Answer: When, out of greed for food, I seek strength and delight in violent and perilous deeds, racing and competing to surpass others, these are perilous actions. Self-exaltation means being haughty and conceited, elevating oneself and knowing no contentment, like an angry person striking another. Not seeking to make the body beautiful means that one whose heart is full of craving does not continually seek to make the body plump and the face well-fed, thereby indulging insatiably in pleasures.

It is for sustaining and preserving the body means that, through this food, the body remains at ease, like an axle lubricated with grease. It is for dispelling hunger and thirst means always intending to eat little, as medicine is applied to ulcerated skin. It is for maintaining the holy life means that, by eating little, one joyfully travels the path of the noble way and regards food and drink as though eating the flesh of one’s own child.

Eating and drinking are for removing an old illness without giving rise to a new one means taking neither too much nor too little, practicing as though one were taking medicine. Being content and at ease with little means that, through satisfaction with little, one keeps the body continually at ease, as a nurse tends a patient. Always being blameless means that, by being satisfied with little and devoted to practice, one never causes one’s innermost mind to incur the reproach of the wise and thus abides in blamelessness.

If food and drink are taken in proper measure, one will not habitually be indolent; during the first watch of the night, at midnight, and at dawn, one will not be overcome by sleep, and one will attain ease. Thus, one should employ the eight contemplations described above in the practice concerning alms food.

Furthermore, the eight contemplations above may be summarized into four other contemplations: contemplation of what must be abandoned, contemplation of the purpose, contemplation of taking little so as to be at ease, and contemplation of contentment with little.

Question: What is contemplation of what must be abandoned?

Answer: Not acting for violent deeds, not acting for self-exaltation, and not seeking to make the body beautiful constitute the subject of contemplation concerning what must be abandoned. Sustaining and preserving the body, dispelling hunger and thirst, and maintaining the holy life constitute the subject of contemplation concerning the purpose. “I am removing an old illness without giving rise to a new one” constitutes the subject of contemplation concerning taking little so as to be at ease. “I am content with little and therefore dwell joyfully in blamelessness” constitutes the subject of contemplation concerning contentment with little.

The four contemplations just mentioned may further be summarized into three: contemplation of abandoning the two extremes (two extremes = the two sides, the two extreme positions), contemplation of attaining the Middle Way (= the path between and apart from the two extremes), and contemplation of completeness (= being full and entirely accomplished). One employs contemplation of what must be abandoned to sever bondage to sensual pleasures (= craving for pleasurable enjoyment), to end hunger and thirst, to remove old illness and prevent new illness, and also to counteract bodily fatigue. For the remainder, one applies contemplation of attaining the Middle Way and contemplation of completeness to the practice.

One also contemplates clothing as protection against wind, cold, heat, mosquitoes, gadflies, and ants, and as a covering for the private parts so as to avoid shame (...) Likewise, one contemplates medicines in this manner with regard to illnesses and ailments.

If one contemplates properly as described above, when should one arouse and perform this work of contemplation? With regard to food, drink, and medicines, contemplation should be aroused when one begins to use them. With regard to clothing and bedding, contemplation should be aroused as soon as they are received. Furthermore, every day and every hour one should contemplate: “This life of mine depends upon others”; therefore, one should contemplate in this manner at all times. (...)

Concerning the use of requisites (= receiving and using things offered as gifts), the great masters of former times taught that there are four kinds of use: use as a thief, use as a debtor, use as one enjoying an inheritance, and use as an owner. What is use as a thief? It is the use of one who violates the precepts. What is use as a debtor? It is the use of one who has neither moral shame nor moral dread before others and who lives by wrong livelihood. What is use as one enjoying an inheritance? It is the use of one who practices diligently. What is use as an owner? It is the use of a noble one.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of use: defiled use and pure use. What is defiled use? It is the use of one who, though possessing moral shame and moral dread before others, is incapable of contemplation. What is pure use? It is the use of one who possesses moral shame and moral dread before others, always knows how to restrain oneself, and feels revulsion toward evil thoughts. Therefore, one should always understand this purity and be able to cultivate it accordingly.

This is the morality concerning the proper use of the four requisites.

Thus, the morality of restraint according to the disciplinary rules is fulfilled through deep faith; the morality of purity of livelihood is fulfilled through diligence; the morality of deportment concerning the sense faculties is fulfilled through deep faith; and the morality concerning the proper use of the four requisites is fulfilled through profound wisdom.

Thus, the morality of purity of livelihood accompanies the morality of restraint according to the disciplinary rules. Why is this? Because when, for the sake of one’s livelihood, one does not sever oneself from the constraints of all circumstances, body and mind become tranquil, enabling one’s conduct to attain proper deportment in bodily and verbal karma.

Both of these kinds of morality accompany the morality of deportment concerning the sense faculties. Why is this? Because if the wholesome mind is well guarded, bodily and verbal karma will also be well guarded.

The proper use of the four requisites is itself deportment concerning the sense faculties. Why is this? If one understands the five skandhas and their interdependence and thereby gives rise to disenchantment, one can abide in Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

As the Blessed One said, a bhikkhu who understands the nutriment of material food (= food formed into morsels, namely physical food) fully understands the five kinds of sensual pleasure.

Thus, restraint according to the disciplinary rules and purity of livelihood belong to the group of morality. The morality of deportment concerning the sense faculties belongs to the group of concentration. The proper use of the four requisites belongs to the group of wisdom.

What makes the undertaking of the precepts pure? If a bhikkhu who has only recently undertaken the meditation practice examines the seven classes of offenses and sees that he himself has committed a parajika offense, he has lost the status of a bhikkhu and dwells with incomplete ordination. If he dwells with complete ordination, he is attaining the supreme Dharma. Such is the instruction of the great teachers of former times.

If he sees that he has committed a parajika offense, he should approach the Sangha and confess all his transgressions. If he sees that he has committed any of the remaining offenses, he should approach an individual and confess it. If he sees that he has engaged in wrong livelihood, he should return to the place where the offense was committed and confess the transgression.

Having thus confessed, he should resolve: “I shall not commit it again.” Seeing matters in this way, he should continue to uphold the precepts accordingly. If he has violated the precepts concerning the foundations of proper conduct in relation to the use of the four requisites, he should likewise resolve: “I shall not commit it again.” If he can uphold them in this manner, the bhikkhu will in the future attain noble and excellent conduct.

For a bhikkhu whose precepts are purified in this way, whatever ought to be done through bodily and verbal action is properly performed. He should examine himself and his own actions, skillfully eliminating all evil. Day and night, every day, he should examine himself and abide in the purity of the precepts.

If he can do so, he thereby purifies his precepts.

What is the characteristic of purified precepts? One is able to withstand the defilements, neither regressing nor giving rise to remorse, and one attains concentration of mind. When this has been fully accomplished, it is called the characteristic of purified precepts.

How many causes enable one to abide in the precepts? There are two causes. First, reflecting upon the perils of transgression. Second, reflecting upon the virtues of the precepts.

How does one reflect upon the perils of transgression? If a person violates the precepts, he creates the obstruction of wrongdoing, enters the evil destinies, fears the four assemblies—the bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, laymen, and laywomen—and is often beset by doubt. Wise and virtuous people avoid him and refuse to instruct him in meditation; devas condemn him as impure; and everyone resents, despises, and scorns him.

When he recalls his own violations and hears others praise the virtues of observing the precepts, his heart is filled with regret, yet he lacks faith. He frequently becomes angry and quarrels with the four assemblies. Toward friends and companions, he often gives rise to resentment.

He shuns those who observe the precepts and instead forms factions with evil people. He cannot patiently persevere so as to attain the supreme Dharma of concentration. Though he adorns himself beautifully, he cannot conceal his wickedness.

He is loathed like feces and urine, is unreliable like a counterfeit object, and is like stagnant water in a muddy mire, possessing neither value nor benefit in the present or the future. He is constantly anxious and haggard; recalling the offenses he has committed, he is remorseful and ill at ease, like a thief confined in prison. His mind takes no delight in the Noble Path, just as a chandala of the lowest caste would not dare dream of the royal throne.

Even if he hears teachings on the virtues of wisdom, no one esteems him, just as no one esteems a fire made from cow dung. In life he finds no place that accords with his wishes; at death his consciousness becomes confused, and he falls into an evil destination.

To examine all the faults described above is to know how to reflect upon the perils of violating the precepts.

If a person wishes to cast aside these evils and perfect the virtues of the precepts, he should reflect thus: One who violates the precepts becomes dispirited and distressed, his resolve weakens and collapses, and he regresses; but one who preserves moral conduct intact, through profound and exalted effort, redoubles his faith and becomes diligent, reverent, and devoted.

One should single-mindedly guard the precepts as an ant guards its eggs, as a yak cherishes its tail, as one cares for an only child, as one protects one’s sole remaining eye, as a spirit-medium guards her body, as a poor person safeguards a treasure, and as a ship’s captain protects his vessel. Even more vigilantly than all these, one who observes the precepts should reverently believe in and safeguard the precepts one has undertaken. By upholding them in this way, the mind is protected and abides in meditative concentration, thereby preserving one’s moral conduct.