四諦論

I.1 Chapter on Investigation (Chapter One) I.1

Prajna pervades all dharmas,

Loving-kindness gathers in sentient beings;

Without characteristics, it expounds the true Dharma.

I bow to the Honored One of gods and humans.

The treatise of the Great Sage Katyayana

Briefly sets forth the profound meaning;

The venerable Buddhamitra

Expounded its words and meanings extensively,

Successively embellishing and augmenting it,

So that the extensive and concise meanings correspond,

And truth and characteristics harmonize.

Having examined both treatises,

I then discarded what was overly extensive

And therefore composed a treatise of moderate length,

To benefit those who speak and those who listen,

So that the true Dharma may long endure.

If one comprehends the Four Truths,

The four kinds of faith become difficult to shake;

One will never again behold another mode of existence,

Will certainly depart from the four evil paths,

And join the eight kinds of humans, gods, and consciousnesses;

Thereafter one will ultimately reach the end of suffering.

Therefore I compose this Treatise on the Four Truths,

Not out of a desire for mere completeness.

Dependent origination has meanings of many kinds;

The intent of passages before and after,

Their difficulties and meanings,

Their general and particular characteristics and principles,

The meanings established and their illustrations—

Relying upon this exposition of the Four Truths,

May sentient beings clearly understand

And attain the heavenly realms and nirvana.

There are four Noble Truths. This is stated in the sutras. For what cause and under what conditions did the Blessed One, the Tathagata, teach this sutra? Why are there precisely four Noble Truths, neither more nor fewer? What is meant by “noble,” and why are they called “truths”? Is the word “noble” used to qualify the word “truth”? Previously, neither of the two was called a “Noble Truth.” If it is said that “noble” means “truth,” this is incorrect. Furthermore, a sutra states that truth is only one and can never be two. Why, then, are there four meanings, and how does this not constitute a contradiction?

Another sutra states that all conditioned dharmas are suffering. Accordingly, there should be only two truths. Therefore, the doctrine of the Four Truths would be incorrect.

Furthermore, the Ekottarika Agama states that dharmas are established numerically from one to two and onward to many. Why, then, is the meaning of truth uniquely set apart and not increased beyond one? Furthermore, those four characteristics are dissimilar. How can they all be seen at the same time? Furthermore, how do the four characteristics of the Brahmanical truths differ in meaning from the Noble Truths? A verse then says:

Why are they called the Four Noble Truths?

They are not truths; their objects do not exist.

There are only two; they increase and are seen together—

How do the pure Noble Truths differ?

Why are all Buddhas of one and the same intent regarding the Four Truths? Why do the Buddhas select only the Four Truths and regard them as supreme for exposition? Why do they likewise contemplate the Four Truths as their objects?

Although wisdom is equal, why do the results differ? Why do the arhats possess complete and unexcelled wisdom regarding the Four Truths, yet unlike the Buddhas do not attain omniscience? If their wisdom is not the same, then there must be something within the Four Truths that they do not understand.

If all dharmas are included within the Four Truths, this greatly surpasses the Sutra of the Three Leaves; therefore, this difficulty should quickly be resolved. If it is not resolved, there will be five truths. If there are not five truths, then all other dharmas are non-truths.

If suffering has four aspects that are called the Noble Truth, yet it is also said that even a single instance of suffering fully constitutes the Noble Truth, then there would be no need for that sutra to teach further. If so, the Four Truths should be understood and described simply as suffering. This meaning is truly incorrect.

If, upon knowing one truth, one also knows the other truths, then subsequently teaching three additional truths would truly be unnecessary. Why is the truth of suffering taught first, rather than the cause preceding that result? What difference is there between one condition of arising and two conditions of arising?

Why is the Truth of Cessation taught, and only afterward the Truth of the Path? Another verse says:

One intent; that result is true;

Omniscience is like the leaves;

Four differ from one and are of no use;

First suffering, then its cause, cessation, and conditions.

There are four Noble Truths. Why did the Blessed One teach this sutra?

Answer: It was because certain disciples wished to realize the Noble Path but had previously received erroneous teachings among non-Buddhist traditions, or practiced the methods commonly followed by such traditions, such as the path of never dwelling in one place, the path of preserving life, the path of distinctions, the path of aged shravakas, the path of the followers of Gautama, the path of wearing bird wings as clothing, the path of cold water, the path of wearing long hair, the path of fire, the path of nakedness, and so forth.

Those who followed each of these paths understood its particular doctrine and regarded only their own doctrine as true, holding that there was no other truth, that it was free from error and deathless, and taking it as the result; all other teachings they considered incorrect. Having heard such claims, the disciples lacked the wisdom to decide and did not know which teaching was true and who was wrong. Because these disciples had given rise to ignorance regarding truth and non-truth, or because he wished to reveal the reality of truth, the Buddha taught this sutra.

It is like someone displaying counterfeit necklaces, whereupon one wishes to show the genuine necklace.

Furthermore, because there are distinctions among the various teachings, this meaning is taught as follows. Those who renounce household life, assume the appearance of shramanas, dwell in aranyas, practice the dhutanga disciplines, encounter the wholesome Dharma, reduce their possessions, guard modesty and moral dread, attain the virtue of ethical discipline, restrain the faculties, and train the inner mind to engage in the struggle of meditation—those capable of doing these things regard themselves as my true shramanas.

Because such shramanas give rise to overweening pride, I therefore reveal the true shramanas. Within the true Dharma, one becomes a shramana in the proper sense, not merely by performing the many practices described in the Shramana Sutra. If one fully possesses what is taught in that sutra, this is indeed the Dharma of a shramana.

It is established through contemplation of the Four Truths. One is not called a shramana merely because one pursues worldly practices as the ultimate end, as stated in the verse concerning naked ascetics.

Furthermore, here one is freed from the nine adversities. This teaching existed before the Buddha so that beings might distance themselves from those doctrines, perfume their minds with the fragrance of wholesome roots, and take the Noble Path as nourishment for the mind and as the fulfillment and purification of conduct. Thus they may thoroughly comprehend the Noble Truths, apply their minds diligently, bring themselves into accord with the Noble Truths, and come to know them as medicine.

Therefore, the Blessed One taught this sutra, just as a physician who wishes to cure an illness must administer medicine. Moreover, upon hearing of the suffering in the evil paths, it is truly difficult to give rise to acceptance, fear, and the wish to depart from them. For the sake of such people, he revealed the causes and conditions that would prevent them from falling into the evil paths, and therefore taught this sutra.

Why is this so?

When born in hell, sentient beings are surrounded in all six directions by flames and burned. Their bodies are raised up like iron being heated. Whether entering or departing, they are tightly surrounded and scorched by fire, undergoing suffering.

Some who are hungry and thirsty must eat red-hot iron pellets and drink molten copper; some are hacked apart, dismembered, or sawn and chopped into pieces, undergoing torment. There are also savage dogs and iron-beaked birds that peck, bite, and devour their flesh. Or they are born as hungry ghosts, with the suffering of hunger and thirst constantly following their bodies.

Their throats are as narrow as needles; they perpetually desire food and drink but ultimately are never satisfied. Tormented by thirst and longing for water, because of the karma they have created, when they approach a river they see that it is entirely boiling water; or they see blood, pus, feces, saliva, and foul filth filling it everywhere. When they encounter fruit-bearing trees, the trees transform into barren trees.

As a verse says:

Hot as the heavens in summertime,

The wind encounters the force of burning fire;

Raindrops are like drops absorbed by the sea,

Covered over as though being boiled.

Therefore, hungry ghosts undergo immeasurable suffering. Or they are born into the animal realm, where they are often mute and deaf, are frequently killed and harmed, and devour one another, thereby giving rise to fear and suspicion; their minds are never at peace, and they undergo suffering such as this. Or they are born among the asuras, harboring resentment, miserliness, and arrogance, and when they violate the precepts they have undertaken, they suffer.

When disciples of the Buddha hear of the suffering in the evil realms, they fear falling into them. Therefore, wishing to understand clearly the Four Truths so as not to fall into those realms is the cause and condition for teaching this scripture. It is like a person swept out to sea who is given a boat and thereby saved from death.

As the scripture says:

If any sentient being sees this suffering as it truly is, that being is immediately liberated from the four evil realms and from all the sufferings of birth, aging, and illness. Furthermore, this is taught to enable sentient beings to abandon five kinds of false and reckless speech. First, it can cause birth in an evil realm; second, it follows the conduct of wicked people; third, it separates one from the virtuous; fourth, it readily arouses afflictions; fifth, it takes deceit as its basis.

To make that teaching beneficial to sentient beings, there are five aspects of right speech. First, it accords with one’s own virtue; second, it follows the virtuous and good; third, it gives rise to wholesome roots; fourth, it enables one to leave the forest of birth and death, where beings slaughter one another; fifth, it brings peace and happiness. To enable beings to abandon the five kinds of false and deceitful speech and practice the five kinds of right speech, this scripture was taught.

It is like discarding counterfeit treasure and taking genuine treasure.

As the scripture says: Do not speak false or evil words. When the Sangha assembles, two things should be done: first, remain silent like the noble ones; second, speak the true Dharma like the noble ones.

Furthermore, ordinary people cling to differing views of truth, saying, “What I hold is true, while what the other holds is wrong.” Because of this attachment, they contend with one another, like blind men examining an elephant. In order that they may discern the superior position without error and engage in debate without giving rise to inverted views, this scripture was taught, for this is the wisdom of the Noble Truths. To reveal this meaning to those who cling to views of eternalism or annihilationism and thereby give rise to disputes: when such people see the Four Truths, they no longer behave in this way, because they clearly understand emptiness. This is stated in the Khư Đa Kha Scripture.

Furthermore, some rely upon a teacher in a secluded place, undertake the dhutanga practices, reduce their needs, guard the six faculties, and moderate their food and drink. During the beginning, middle, and end of the night, they remain clearly aware and joyful, listen single-mindedly, reflect in accordance with true principle, speak and recite true words, sit upright in meditation, count their breaths, and contemplate.

Through these causes and conditions, they continually mature. Their minds become gentle, and their agitation diminishes. To enable such people to understand clearly, this scripture was taught, just as one who understands an illness administers medicine to bring benefit.

As for the true meaning, it is grasped solely through the faculty of wisdom, and its essential purpose is simply to bring clear understanding. One should therefore know that this is the fundamental condition of the Four Noble Truths. As the scripture states, it was taught for the sake of clear understanding.

Furthermore, this scripture was taught to reveal two skillful means for destroying the delusions of thought. As the verse says:

Arising, cessation, separation, and illumination,

Many kinds of attachment to falsehood;

Views comprise sixty-two kinds,

Ignorance concerning cause and effect.

The noble ones clearly understand these matters

And wish to reveal the unmoving principle,

Creating the conditions for liberation;

Therefore, the Buddha taught this scripture.

Furthermore, whether Brahmā gods or human beings, Bali or asuras, nāgas, and others, together with yakṣas, Yama spirits, and so forth—if they do not see the Four Noble Truths, they cannot escape the prison of the three realms. Like silkworms within cocoons, they revolve through the six realms, like a wheel rolling into darkness, sinking deep into peril, with fire blazing all around them. If they clearly understand the Four Noble Truths, they immediately dispel the darkness of ignorance, attain the illumination of wisdom, are liberated from the four realms of suffering, and are no longer bound therein.

This is because these Four Noble Truths are genuine, nondual, uninverted, and beyond contention; they enable one to become a Tathagata, transcend the world, and benefit the world. This scripture was taught so that this principle might be clearly understood. The author of the treatise wished to elucidate the incomparable meaning of the Four Truths and therefore spoke this verse:

Knowledge apart from the Truths brings no release;

Discipline, principle, and practice surpassing them

Cannot ferry beings beyond birth and aging,

Death, sorrow, and lamentation—the vast ocean.

Those possessing noble wisdom

Do not create disputes through greed and anger.

The wise who seek liberation

Should know nothing apart from the Truths.

If a person clearly understands the Noble Truths,

That person clearly recognizes false and evil paths,

Leaves behind all defiled and poisonous states,

And constantly practices the four immeasurable minds.

From the sufferings that pervade everywhere,

One is liberated from the prison of the three realms;

Clearly understanding and seeking nirvana,

One should therefore clearly see the Noble Truths.

Another verse says:

Disciples and śramaṇas

Leave far behind the fearful paths,

Errors, and false attachments;

The Teacher destroys them and reveals them to ordinary beings.

What are called the Noble Truths? Why are there only four—neither more nor fewer?

Answer: This question is not properly framed, for all such matters are boundless. Furthermore, because there are the view of a self in the body, the view of annihilationism, the view of eternalism, and the nihilistic view, and because these four kinds of views must be counteracted, only four Noble Truths are taught. Furthermore, the Four Truths are taught to counteract the four inverted views, just as with the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. Furthermore, they are taught in order to abandon four kinds of false attachment, for sentient beings possess four kinds of false attachment. What are the four?

They are false attachments concerning the result, the cause, liberation, and the means. First is false attachment concerning the result. We see that craving, karma, and the objects of thought give rise to the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. They are impure and foul, like the carcass of a dead dog. Scorched by the three kinds of suffering, beings fall into states of suffering. Even what is as hard as a diamond is impermanent and subject to destruction. Yet one regards the self and what belongs to the self as the agent and the recipient of what is done. Regarding that recipient as something set apart, one clings within it to permanence, happiness, self, and purity. This is precisely false attachment concerning the result. To abandon this attachment, the Noble Truth of Suffering is taught.

Second is false attachment concerning the cause. That is, one maintains that the Lord of the World, King Brahmā, Īśvara, and human beings arise simultaneously from an inherently fixed nature, spontaneously and without any cause from a previous life. Thus it is said: earth, water, fire, air, and even space do not exist. This is the unequal doctrine of causelessness and the attachment to such causes as generative causes. This is called false attachment concerning the cause. To abandon this false attachment, the Truth of the Origin of Suffering is taught.

Third is false attachment concerning liberation. It is claimed that one returns to the five, enters into the essential power of Viṣṇu, and then enters emptiness; or that, while remaining in the conventional world, one is free from suffering and abides independently above it; or that one becomes separated from the five qualities and attains the fruits of the three concentrations, relinquishing things gradually and then relinquishing them entirely. Thus, attachment to a liberation that is neither certain nor everlasting is called false attachment concerning liberation. To destroy this attachment, the Truth of Cessation is taught.

Fourth is attachment to wrong means. This means abstaining from the five sense-objects, food and drink, clothing, places for sitting and lying down, livelihood, and so forth, and using such things as wind, water, flowers, fruits, roots, shoots, branches, leaves, rice, sesame oil, and cow dung as food and drink. They use tree bark, grass, or goatskin, taking these things from the ground and pounding them with a pestle until soft, then lying upon them; or they hang their heads downward and raise their feet upward; or they orient their bodies according to the direction of the sun.

Or they wear warm garments and plunge into water, then walk upon fire and water without sinking; they rely upon the seasons and the exhaustion of karma, holding that there is no cause. Through these practices, they believe that nirvana is attained. This is called attachment to wrong means.

In order to abandon these attachments, the Truth of the Path is taught. Thus there are these four matters, and from them the Four Truths are taught. They are like the Noble Path.

Furthermore, in order to distinguish this rare Dharma, the Noble Truths are also four. Why is this? Because sentient beings cling to the skandhas and then rely upon what they cling to. Therefore, it is said that suffering must be clearly known and that there is no pure happiness therein. When craving ceases, quiescent cessation immediately arises. When suffering ceases, self-conceit also becomes quiescent; therefore, that suffering mind must be counteracted. These four practices cause ignorance to cease, and the Path is precisely what can counteract ignorance.

Furthermore, for all who seek liberation, if suffering is extinguished, happiness will be attained. This is precisely what is essential. How, then, is suffering to be extinguished? It is extinguished by eliminating its Origin. Happiness is attained through cultivating the Path. These are precisely the Noble Truths.

The master of the scriptural treatise said: If a person contemplates birth and death and becomes fearful, and contemplates nirvana as meritorious, that person immediately enters right concentration. What is meant by fear of birth and death?

It means that when birth is undergone, consciousness arises accordingly. The arising of this consciousness is the cause that brings craving into being. What, then, is the merit of nirvana?

It means that consciousness does not give rise to delight, and this consciousness also does not give rise to expedient means. This itself is the Noble Path; therefore, the Four Truths are taught. Furthermore, the Four Truths are taught in order to distinguish worldly and supramundane causes and effects. Furthermore, they are taught in order to comprehend four categories. Again, the Four Truths are taught because of reliance upon four categories. Again, the Four Truths are taught because of the distinctive characteristics of the four categories.

Question: What are the meanings of “Noble” and “Truth”?

Answer: “Noble” has eight meanings.

First is mastery. If one is bound by something, one has no mastery. Such a person is called a bondsman—a dependent servant—and is not called Noble. Buddhas and their disciples have mastery over both mind and dharmas. Therefore, they are called Noble.

Second is not being enslaved by craving, like one who has been permitted by a master to leave the household life.

Third is that the noble seed has arisen; therefore, one is called a Noble One, just as one is born into the brahmin lineage.

Fourth is being born in the noble ground. “Ground” means the true reality that is unborn, just as one is born within a country.

Fifth means that one’s deeds are free from birth and death, as with a brahmin.

Sixth is never again mounting the vehicle of birth and death, as when one relinquishes everything without attachment.

Seventh is never being born again, like a sterile seed.

Eighth is being reverently welcomed at rebirth, which is a blessing, like emperors. There is also a verse of praise:

Masterful, free from craving’s servitude,

The noble seed is born on noble ground;

Far removed, one mounts the vehicle no more,

Unborn, one is born into reverence.

“Truth” has seven meanings:

First, because it is not inverted, it is called Truth, like the characteristic of fire.

Second, because it is real, it is called Truth, as stated in the sutras.

Third, because it does not change, it is called Truth.

Fourth, because it is not twofold in its activity, it is called Truth, like the tree of Devadatta.

Fifth, because it does not arise immediately, it is called Truth. This knowledge does not arise immediately from that, nor does it accord with the knowledge of a wheel of fire.

Sixth, because it is without discrepancy, it is called Truth, like karma and the noble precepts.

Seventh, because the words and their meaning correspond, it is called Truth. Why is this? Because that suffering is precisely the meaning of suffering. Because of these seven meanings, it is called Truth.

Question: If something is called a Truth because it is Noble, then the first two should not be called Truths. Furthermore, if it is said that a truth belonging to the Noble Ones is therefore called a Truth, would this meaning not be indeterminate?

Answer: Truth is the cause of the Noble Ones and can give rise to Noble Ones. It is like the dwelling place of Brahma; therefore, it is called a Noble Truth. As stated in the sutra: Those four complete qualities are Noble and correspond to that meaning. Furthermore, they are spoken by Noble Ones; therefore, they are called Noble Truths. It is like a teacher who points out the path, as stated in the sutra. As for the Tathagatas, they teach by means of what is right and true, and they all teach the Four Noble Truths.

Question: If they are called Noble Truths because Noble Ones teach them, then when ordinary beings teach them, are they called ordinary truths?

Answer: They are spoken through the Buddha’s spiritual power, and the Buddha’s teaching is established in accordance with the true doctrine; therefore, they are not truths belonging to ordinary beings. It is like Sariputra’s exposition of causes and conditions. Furthermore, Noble Ones know them clearly beforehand, like an elixir of immortality. Furthermore, Noble Ones rely upon reality; therefore, they are called Noble Truths.

By analogy, one might ask: Since ordinary beings rely upon views that do not possess true meaning, are these neither Noble nor true?

Answer: With impure eyes, one cannot see, like a blind person selecting precious objects or a person with weak eyesight looking at the moon. Deluded and intoxicated ordinary beings cannot see. This is like grass covering the heads of one hundred elephants. Furthermore, because discourse is permeated by wisdom and takes nobility as its essence, these are called Noble Truths, like birds, snakes, and rice. Furthermore, as stated in the sutra: Because the unsurpassed noble wisdom illuminates them, they are called Noble Truths.

Question: Another sutra says that Truth is only one, not two. Why, then, are there as many as four meanings? Is this not contradictory?

Answer: Because their meanings do not contradict one another, they constitute only one category without difference. The four here are like four kinds of opposites, and they also derive from the meaning of Truth. The one refers to the Noble Path.

The four are like the individual sections of the path. Furthermore, this principle extends throughout the characteristics of all dharmas. The one is like the distinct characteristic of form.

The four are like the four great elements. Furthermore, in being without self, they are equal. The one is non-self, in which all are equal, like identity and difference.

Furthermore, it does not change or become otherwise. With reference to liberation of mind, it is said that Truth is only one, not two. Why is this?

Suffering and the Noble Truth both undergo change, as stated in the sutra. All conditioned things and empty space are dharmas subject to destruction, whereas the one reality is the indestructible liberation of mind. Just as all that accords with the characteristic of transformation is real and not false, so too are the four meanings here.

Therefore, there are four Noble Truths.

Question: Another sutra says that all conditioned dharmas are suffering. If there are only two Truths, the four meanings cannot be established, can they?

Answer: This is the purport taught by the Vibhajyavada school. Because all conditioned dharmas are impermanent, they are suffering. They are not suffering merely because of one meaning of Truth. In order to abandon this, the Blessed One cultivated the pure holy life. This is called the Truth of Suffering.

Furthermore, because it is intended to explain the matter extensively, the four meanings are not different. Moreover, the three kinds of suffering taught in the sutras encompass every part of all conditioned existence. The suffering of conditioned phenomena is fully explained: relying on the suffering of suffering, the various kinds of suffering, the faculties of suffering, the realms of suffering, painful feeling, and so forth are taught; relying on the disintegration of conditioned suffering, it is likewise explained.

Suffering is also taught in reliance upon all feelings. When it is said that impermanence is suffering, this refers to all conditioned phenomena; or, relying on conditioned suffering, the place from which it arises is explained. This is suffering that has arisen; it is suffering arising from form—that is, the arising of suffering.

Or this is called the Truth of Suffering, with suffering explained from many perspectives. Therefore, in all these cases there is no difference. Furthermore, in relation to the unchanging nirvana, all conditioned phenomena are said to be the suffering of suffering.

Because the characteristics of suffering correspond with one another, they never depart from the meaning of the Four Truths.

Question: Furthermore, in the Ekottara Agama, phenomena are arranged numerically from one to two and onward to many. Why is the meaning of truth uniquely one and no more?

Answer: Because its meaning is true and not inverted. The Buddha taught that all this is truth. There is only one; when there are two or three, this is called an increase.

Truth itself does not increase beyond one, but because truth is distinguished for the purpose of contemplation, four are taught. They are established according to wisdom and characteristics, just as with the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. The meaning of the causes and conditions previously given for establishing the Four Truths should be understood in this way.

Because there are four aspects to knowing the Noble Truths, they are four. To know suffering and its cause is to see the Dharma. As stated in the sutra: whoever clearly knows the twelve links of dependent arising clearly knows the Dharma.

Thoroughly comprehending the sixteen supramundane aspects is entirely due to clearly seeing the truth. The binding force of causes and conditions is precisely the meaning of impermanence, just as Nanda attained realization upon hearing the sound. Impermanence is suffering; suffering is non-self; and non-self is emptiness.

Whoever clearly knows this clearly knows the Dharma, thoroughly comprehends the sixteen aspects, attains cessation, and is freed from suffering. This is its meaning. There are four Noble Truths, yet they are also said to be of the highest order and not shared with the objects of ordinary cognition; therefore, truth does not increase beyond one.

Question: The four characteristics are nevertheless dissimilar. How, then, can they all be seen at one time?

Answer: It is because of their characteristics. The sutra states that by cultivating the perception of impermanence, all craving is uprooted. Here the object of perception is precisely the Truth of Suffering.

All craving is the Truth of Origin. The uprooting of it all is the Truth of Cessation. The perception of impermanence is the Truth of the Path.

This is precisely the meaning. Although the four differ, they are seen as one. This also occurs through discriminative reflection.

As stated in the sutra: one should reflect upon the cause of impermanence and then discern the five skandhas and craving; what has not yet arisen then arises, and what has arisen subsequently perishes. Here the five skandhas are the Truth of Suffering; craving is the Truth of Origin. Non-arising and cessation are the Truth of Cessation.

Impermanence and discernment are the Truth of the Path. This is the meaning; therefore, the four truths are seen at one time.

Furthermore, this occurs through contemplating loss. As taught in the sutra, one contemplates the locus of bondage as the loss caused by craving, and this is cessation. The locus of bondage is the Truth of Suffering. Craving is the Truth of Origin. Cessation is the Truth of Cessation. Contemplating error and loss is the Truth of the Path. This is the meaning of seeing the truths simultaneously. Furthermore, seeing the truths simultaneously resembles fire. Fire can burn objects and, at the same time, can illuminate them. Contemplation of the truths is likewise. As this arises, that ceases; while each has its own characteristic, relinquishment, cessation, realization, and cultivation all occur at the same time.

Furthermore, it resembles the sun, which can scorch objects yet, with the aid of water, nourishes flowers, each having its distinct characteristic. Its scorching, destroying, and nourishing occur simultaneously. Contemplation of the truths is also like this.

Furthermore, it resembles a lamp. A lamp can burn things, yet when oil is added it shines, and each function has a distinct characteristic. Its burning and illumination occur at the same time.

Contemplation of the truths is likewise. It also resembles a boat. A boat has the capacity to carry things to the farther shore, though its characteristics differ from those of the things carried.

That is, there are this shore and the other shore, and things arriving and things departing. Carrying across and becoming free occur at the same time. Contemplation of the truths is likewise.

The Vibhajyavadins say: If one cultivates the characteristic of suffering, contemplates and comprehends the arising and cessation of mind, fears conditioned phenomena, and cultivates the gateway of signless liberation—if one contemplates conditioned phenomena as consisting solely of arising and cessation and sees no other dharmas, one cultivates the gateway of liberation through emptiness. If one contemplates quiescence and sees neither conditioned phenomena nor the characteristics of arising and cessation, one cultivates the gateway of wishless liberation.

Here the characteristic of suffering is the Truth of Suffering. The characteristic of arising is the afflictions. Karma is the Truth of Origin.

The characteristic of cessation is the Truth of Cessation. This Dharma can cause the mind to relinquish characteristics and see the signless. This is the Truth of the Path.

If one sees the unconditioned Dharma, tranquil and free from arising and cessation, the four meanings are accomplished simultaneously. The distinction from this unconditioned quiescence is called the Truth of Suffering. Because this distinction is eliminated, this unconditioned and quiescent Dharma is called the Truth of Origin.

The unconditioned Dharma itself is the Truth of Cessation. To contemplate this quiescence and see the unconditioned is the Truth of the Path. Because of this meaning, although the four characteristics differ, they can be contemplated simultaneously.

More comparisons will be given later; they will not be explained at length now. A verse of praise says:

Characteristics discern error and confusion;

Like fire, a lamp, and a boat,

The characteristic of suffering passes through the gateway,

And at one time one sees the Four Truths.

Question: What is the difference between the Brahmin Truth and the Noble Truth?

Answer: The Blessed One is the true Noble One and the true Brahmin. These truths are without difference, just as Shakra and the Lord of the Devas are the same. Furthermore, the Brahmin Truth is encompassed by the Truth of the Path. The Noble Truth encompasses the path’s result, its antidote, and its sphere. Moreover, what is exclusively wholesome is the Brahmin Truth, whereas the wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate constitute the Noble Truth. Furthermore, only the Path is the Brahmin Truth, while the Path and its result are the Noble Truth.

Question: Why do all Buddhas possess the same wisdom regarding the Noble Truths?

Answer: Because they thoroughly comprehend all dharmas without remainder and perceive their characteristics as equal, just as a pure eye observes forms. Furthermore, it is because no separate dharma is perceived, just as fire is hot, burning, and radiant. Regarding the world, this is the single wisdom and the common realization. It is also like a mirror that reflects clearly: all Buddhas thoroughly comprehend the entire dharmadhatu. They clearly know all the merit of the past and future as though it were present, just as there may be many vessels of water, yet the moon appears in them as a single image. A verse of praise then says:

The two persons are one, without difference;

The wholesome Path and its result differ.

Without remainder, they realize and see;

In the mirror of Dharma, all have equal wisdom.

Question: Why do all Buddhas teach only the Four Truths as supreme above all?

Answer: Because they can carry sentient beings beyond the ocean of birth and death, like the supramundane Dharma. Furthermore, these truths are supreme, for nothing surpasses them. They can also encompass all true dharmas, like the supreme example of the udumbara leaf.

They are also like Brahma and Shakra, with whom the other devas cannot compare. Even the bliss and power of the deva Vishnu cannot fully comprehend them, whereas the far-ranging wisdom of the seers has attained them. Furthermore, they are also the sphere of non-discriminating wisdom.

One who clearly understands this is adorned with all virtues, like Shariputra and the Blessed One. They also possess the meaning of completeness. Because they are unlike all else, they are said to possess supreme merit.

Therefore, the Four Truths are declared supreme.

Question: Since the Four Truths are equally contemplated as the object, and wisdom is therefore equal, why are the fruits attained different?

Answer: Wisdom is not necessarily the same merely because the object is the same. For example, concentration and sensual desire may have the same object. Furthermore, because wisdom differs, its fruits also differ. Just as fruits differ because the power of karma differs, so too, because different paths are cultivated, the fruits encountered are not alike. Just as seeds are not alike, their fruits also differ. Furthermore, because contemplation differs according to superior, middling, and inferior grades, the fruits attained are not alike.

Question: Regarding the Four Truths, apart from being of dull faculties, an arhat’s knowledge does not otherwise differ from omniscience—that is, there is no distinction. If this is not so, does ignorance concerning the Four Truths still remain in an arhat?

Answer: An arhat does not understand what lies beyond the Four Truths, but regarding the sphere of the Buddhas, the arhat has no ignorance. Why is this? Thus it is said that an arhat knows nothing beyond the Four Truths, yet does not possess ignorance, as stated in the Sutra of the Simile of the Simsapa Leaves. Furthermore, the Blessed One declared that not understanding suffering and the Truth is precisely ignorance. Not understanding, beyond the Four Truths, the four divisions of the Vedas and the Vedangas is not called ignorance.

Furthermore, it is specifically the knowledge concerning the Truth that counteracts the afflictions; therefore, its absence is called ignorance. It does not mean the absence of omniscience. Four other kinds are said to be ignorance. Why is this? Because each particular continuum of suffering differs, depending upon beginningless samsara. An arhat is also unable to perceive such a mind: how, once arisen, it is conditioned by such dominant conditions, continually conditioning one another together with volition, whether wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate, and so forth; how such causes produce it and how conditions gather it in. At this point, this is the accumulation of flavors.

Furthermore, from the second mind-moment through the intermediate and subsequent mind-moments, according to this method, beginning with a ksana and extending through a lava and a muhurta (a lava indicates a brief period; sixty ksanas constitute one breath, and ten breaths constitute one lava), through day and night, half a month, one month, the seasons, and the years, arising, changing, and ceasing in an uninterrupted continuum—an arhat is unable to perceive all this, much less all the varieties of suffering. If he cannot even perceive all his own suffering, how could he perceive the suffering of others? Therefore, an arhat cannot perceive the entire sphere of omniscience. Yet regarding the Four Truths, whether in general or in particular, he has no ignorance.

Furthermore, if ignorance counteracted through the Four Truths is set aside, there remain other dharmas outside the sphere of his knowledge. Even an arhat in the sphere of the sravakas cannot perceive them. As Sariputra said: “I do not see among humans or devas anyone who can perceive and know me, enter concentration to contemplate and praise me, and then cause me to emerge from it.

Only the Blessed One, through what is called the concentration of quiescence, can do so.” Even Maudgalyayana could not understand when Sariputra entered or emerged from concentration. As for converting Nanda Ya Brahmin and, in addition, Sanha Upatissa, others could not acquire such wisdom, eloquence, explanation, cultivation, and so forth. As it was with Sariputra, so too was it with Kasyapa.

Therefore, apart from the ignorance counteracted by the Four Truths, what remains is called non-knowledge; it is not ignorance.

Question: All dharmas are encompassed within the Four Truths, as immediately clarified in the Sutra of the Simile of the Simsapa Leaves. If they were not encompassed, there would be a Fifth Truth. If there is no Fifth Truth, are other dharmas then not truths?

Answer: They naturally disappear and do not extend beyond the Truths and the sphere of consciousness. Therefore, they cannot be contemplated. Why can they not be contemplated? Because one knows that these dharmas are inexhaustible and do not bring suffering to an end; they do not lead one far away from the aspirations of non-Buddhists, cannot be perceived, and cannot be moved, like the banner of Sakra. Even if one understood them, this could not be called subtle understanding. It would be as impossible as shooting an arrow so as to sever a hair. Therefore, one should not undertake their study.

Furthermore, some treatise masters say that all dharmas are encompassed within the Truths by virtue of their characteristics. Nevertheless, there are the Vedas and Vedangas; the hereditary traditions and original measures; treatises on discernment; the Samkhya, Yoga, and Extensive Reality treatises; the Treatise on Objects of Desire; the Vaisesika Treatise; medical treatises; physiognomic treatises; treatises on calculation; treatises on knowledge of time; treatises on animals; treatises on the regions of serpents; treatises on sacred knowledge; treatises on song, dance, and adornment; treatises on human warfare; treatises on celestial warfare; accounts of devas, seers, and kings; treatises of non-Buddhists;

and the practices customarily performed by non-Buddhists, amounting to ninety-six kinds.

There are also those concerning medicinal grasses, trees, thorns, and so forth; bark, stamens, fruit, and leaves; together with their powers, flavors, maturation, qualities, and so forth. There are also inconceivable and rare worldly matters, the four great kinds of transformation, karmic retribution, and so forth. Treatises exist that can distinguish these matters.

It was in reference to such treatises that the Buddha taught the Simile of the Simsapa Leaves. Such meanings were not taught to you because they do not give rise to merit, but can create doubts and increase conditioned dharmas. Therefore, they were not taught, just as poison becomes more potent when compounded with another drug.

To refute the spells and magical arts of the Pitara Treatise, which bring harm and distress to others, the Buddha did not teach these matters outside the Four Truths. Therefore, he did not expound them separately.

Question: Why are the four kinds of suffering called the Noble Truth, while the entirety of suffering is also called the Noble Truth? If so, then those sutras would not truly teach it. Furthermore, according to ordinary usage, suffering is called suffering with reference to painful experience. Would this meaning not therefore be incorrect?

Answer: This sutra teaches the Truth of Suffering through knowledge and, without differentiating its various objects, speaks of four matters. Furthermore, because the sphere of objects is established, knowledge is established, just as with the six consciousnesses. Moreover, this is also because of function. The essence of knowledge is one, but it is broadly divided into four, as with the Four Right Efforts. Understanding is likewise so. Furthermore, knowledge of the Four Noble Truths comprehends everything. In the contemplation of the Four Truths, knowledge is said to be supreme. For this reason, it is said that understanding accords with its object.

Furthermore, the wish to understand, decisiveness, and detachment are precisely the qualities of the Four Truths. Accordingly, even a single instance of suffering may be called the Noble Truth, for it shares the same meaning; this is spoken to make the meaning understood. That suffering is precisely the definitive truth.

Why is this? The Buddha taught that the Truth of Suffering has the characteristic of arising and established four kinds for contemplation. If it were not so, there would be only one contemplation to be cultivated.

If this sutra were used to distinguish the Truths, then although there would be only one truth, it would be the object of the Truth of the Path; that would mean the Truth itself had not been taught. This sutra does not establish such a meaning; it is established by relying upon the Abhidharma and the treasury of treatises.

Question: If, by understanding one truth, one also understands the other Truths, would not the additional teaching of the remaining three Truths be useless?

Answer: I do not say that seeing the Truth of Suffering means seeing each of the other Truths in turn. I say that the Four Truths are seen simultaneously. They are simultaneously abandoned, simultaneously eliminated, simultaneously attained, and simultaneously cultivated. Thus, teaching the other Truths is not useless. Just as, in addition to speaking of the Truth of Suffering, other spheres are specified to delimit their number, so too the constituents of the Path are enumerated. Furthermore, there are four kinds, and according to one’s understanding of one, one immediately comprehends the other Truths. For example, by understanding one grain of rice, one understands other grains of rice. Therefore, all Four Truths function in this way.

Furthermore, upon entering the gateway of contemplation, when one contemplates the appropriation of the skandhas, one immediately abandons thoughts of craving, as when one clearly recognizes an enemy. Appropriation of the skandhas is precisely the Truth of Suffering. Thoughts of craving are precisely the Truth of the Origin.

Abandonment is the Truth of Cessation. Clear knowledge is the Truth of the Path. Such is the meaning of entering the gateway of contemplation by relying on the contemplation of suffering.

Upon recognizing craving, one immediately abandons it. Thereby suffering does not arise, and craving is precisely the Truth of the Origin. The object of craving is the Truth of Suffering.

The non-arising of suffering is precisely the Truth of Cessation. Clear knowledge is the Truth of the Path. Thus, by relying on the Truth of the Origin, one enters the gateway of contemplation; when one clearly knows that it is quiescent cessation, then if a person realizes this, ignorance immediately ceases, and conditioned thirst and craving become quiescent.

The cessation of the conditioned is the Truth of Cessation. Here, the dharmas from which one is separated are the Truth of Suffering; ignorance and craving are the Truth of the Origin. Such clear knowledge is the Truth of the Path.

Thus, by relying on the Truth of Cessation, one enters the gateway of contemplation; upon clearly knowing the factors that aid the Path, one gives rise to their cultivation. The afflictive obstacles and their various distinctions are then relinquished. Through this relinquishment, arising occurs.

The aids to the Path are precisely the Truth of the Path. Existence is the Truth of Suffering; afflictions and karma are the Truth of the Origin. Relinquishing these and their non-arising are precisely the Truth of Cessation.

Such is entering the gateway of contemplation through the Truth of the Path. By contemplating this Truth, although one speaks of contemplating only one, the other Truths are contemplated as well; thus it is not without purpose.

Question: Why was the Truth of Suffering explained first?

Answer: Because one cultivates contemplation of the Four Truths in order to extinguish suffering, and because those who have gone forth live the holy life, suffering is explained first. Furthermore, birth, aging, and death are sufferings without end, constantly oppressive from moment to moment. The practitioner contemplates this and wishes to escape the cause of suffering.

It is like a lion: external conditions cannot cure it, because an illness of long duration has become deeply rooted. Having contemplated this, the practitioner then wishes to be freed from the cause of that illness. Like a physician, one sees that throughout the three realms all are afflicted by calamities and disease.

Contemplating this, the practitioner then seeks to escape their cause. It is like searching for a poisonous tree; it is also like dust disappearing, leaving evil far behind and relying upon cessation. Fear is found everywhere; therefore suffering is explained first.

Question: If the cause has not yet been explained and the effect is explained first, how is this not contrary to the twelve links of dependent arising?

Answer: In the sequence of arising, the causes among the twelve links of dependent arising come first, and the effects follow afterward. This is the sequence of arising. In the Four Truths, the effect comes first and the cause is explained afterward.

Therefore, the two teachings do not differ. Furthermore, within the effect there are deluded conditions that serve as causes of the effect. As the sutra says: “When this exists, that also exists.

With the arising of this, that also arises.” Again, within that cause there are deluded conditions, and the effect follows that cause. As the sutra says: “Aging and death, and existence—what dharma causes them to exist?” Through this meaning, all forms of existence are refuted. In all respects there is no difference; only the forward and reverse orders are explained.

The two teachings are not the same in expression. The reverse order is called dependent arising. This is called the Four Truths.

Therefore, it is not contrary to the twelve links of dependent arising.

Question: Why is the Truth of Cessation explained before the Truth of the Path?

Answer: There are two kinds of meaning: first, the forward order; and second, the reverse order. As the sutra says: “Purity of moral discipline leads to purity of mind. Purity of mind is purity of wisdom,” continuing through knowledge and vision of liberation, illumination, and liberation. This is called teaching in the forward order. Teaching in the reverse order is as follows: “Liberation takes dispassion as its condition. Dispassion means becoming separated from all unwholesome conditions. Separation takes seeing reality as its condition.” This continues until freedom from anxiety is said to take purity of moral discipline as its condition.

Treatise on the Four Truths, Chapter on the Investigation of the Ultimate

I.2 Chapter of the Brief Explanation (Second)

Question: What is the sequence of the Four Truths?

Answer:

Coarse and clumsy, heaped one upon another,

Relying on the Path, fearing the effect,

Illness and fire, anger depending upon each other,

Thirst and poison encounter harmful objects.

To reveal the coarse sphere, the Truth of Suffering is explained. Having apprehended the characteristic of suffering, one asks from what cause this dharma arises; thus the Origin is then explained. When this dharma has ended, where does it go? Cessation is then explained in sequence. By what cause is this dharma attained? The Path is then explained in sequence.

Furthermore, because it has continued from beginningless time as though one were caught in a net, it is called suffering. The root of that suffering is called the Origin. Permanent separation from the root of suffering is Cessation.

Because it can break it apart, it is called the Path. Most important of all is suffering; extensive attachment to it is the Origin. Relinquishing it is called Cessation, and extinguishing that attachment is called the Path.

Most important of all is suffering; extensive attachment to it is the Origin. Relinquishing it is called Cessation, and extinguishing that attachment is called the Path. Furthermore, the place of bondage is called suffering.

This bondage is called the Origin; the ending of that bondage is called Cessation. Contemplating its faults is the Path. Appropriation is likewise.

The place upon which one relies is called suffering.

Although ordinary people of the world are harmed by the appropriated skandhas, they arise, depend upon them, and cling to them, as though falsely regarding an enemy upon whom they depend as a loved one. Depending upon what is craved and regarding it as peace is called the Origin. Because of this cause, they delight in sensual craving and do not seek escape from the prison of the three realms, like deranged prisoners. Not depending upon craving is called Cessation. There is nowhere upon which one can depend and abide, as stated in the Goti Sutra. That which can extinguish dependence upon craving is the Path. Contemplating the faults of such dependence is like contemplating a burning house.

Furthermore, all six paths are suffering; there is nothing in them that constitutes happiness, just as in a filthy place. Karma and afflictions are called the Origin, for they are the cause of the paths. Separation from those paths is precisely Cessation. That which is free from falsity is called the reality, like a fire that has gone out, as stated in the Thô Đầu Sutra. That which can lead one out is the path. That path is called the Path. As stated in the Bà La Kha Ma Vương Sutra: Fear is called suffering. Self-craving is precisely the Origin. The state of fearlessness is precisely Cessation. The supreme true happiness that leads to that state of fearlessness is the Path.

Furthermore, those activities are suffering. The cause of those activities is the Origin. Eliminating that cause is precisely Cessation.

That which can disperse it is precisely the Path. Furthermore, that which is like a fruit is suffering; that which is like a seed is the Origin; that which is like the destruction of the seed is the Path. Furthermore, suffering is like an illness.

The Origin is the cause of the illness. Cessation is the ending of the illness, and the Path is the medicine used to treat it. Furthermore, suffering is like fire; the Origin is like straw; Cessation is like the extinguishing of the fire; and the Path is precisely the cause of the fire’s no longer existing.

Again, enmity is like suffering. Becoming bound together by resentment is called the Origin. Removing that bond of resentment is Cessation.

That which can eliminate its cause is the Path. Dependence is like suffering. Dust is like the Origin.

The purification of that dust is Cessation. The cause of purification is the Path.

Furthermore, suffering is accumulation. The Origin is greed. Cessation is freedom from greed, and the Path is wealth. Furthermore, suffering is like burning. The Origin is like the cause of the burning. Cessation is coolness. The Path is perfect coolness. Furthermore, suffering is like poison breaking out. The Truth of the Origin is precisely the poison. Cessation is like the ending of the poison, and the Path is precisely Agada, the medicine of immortality.

Furthermore, suffering is like oppression and affliction. Origination is precisely that which causes affliction. The Path is precisely the cause of becoming free from that affliction. Furthermore, suffering is like being slain. Origination is like that which can inflict harm. Cessation is like freedom from being slain. The Path is precisely the cause whereby such slaying is left far behind. Furthermore, suffering is an object to be understood; Origination is to be eliminated; Cessation is to be attained. For the sake of these three matters, the Noble Path should be cultivated. In due sequence such as this, what are the essential characteristics of the Four Truths? A verse says:

The semblance of truth comprises the categories,

The conditioned characteristics, images, and consciousness;

All three are false and delusive,

Their transformations amount to twelve.

There are also Dharma masters who say that, in reality, there are Two Truths. Birth arises as the fruit of craving and is therefore called true suffering. The path is the result of karma and is called semblant suffering. Craving is the cause of birth and is therefore called true Origination. Attachment to the karmic retribution of the six paths is semblant Origination. When craving, the cause of birth, is exhausted, this is called true Cessation. When the causes of the six paths are exhausted, this is called semblant Cessation. Right knowledge capable of extinguishing the cause that gives rise to existence is the true Path. Precepts and skillful means capable of bringing about freedom from the causes of the evil paths are called the semblant Path.

Furthermore, the masters of the Li Túc Treatise say: Consciousness itself is true suffering, and because form corresponds with it, form is also called suffering. Self-craving is called true Origination, and because karma corresponds with it, karma is also called Origination. When craving is known by oneself, this is called true Cessation. Because through this complete cessation it exists no more, it is called Cessation. Right view is called the Path. If this does not arise, it also does not cease. Because it arises, it is also called the Path.

Furthermore, the Provisional-Designation School says: Truth is of three kinds. First is the category of suffering; second is the category of truth; and third is the Noble Truth. The category of suffering means that oppression and affliction constitute the characteristic of suffering.

The Noble Truth means that this suffering has a single flavor. The category of Origination means the origination of craving; the category of truth means taking production as its characteristic. The Noble Truth of Origination is the single flavor of Origination.

The category of Cessation means the fruits of the śramaṇa. The Noble Truth of Cessation takes a single flavor as its characteristic. The category of the Path means the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Truth of the Path means the characteristic of truly becoming free. The Noble Truth of the Path takes a single flavor as its characteristic.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavāda School says: All conditioned things are suffering because they are impermanent. They are not suffering merely because of the first truth; rather, it is in order to become free from them that the holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of Suffering.

All causes are Origination because they are capable of producing. They are not called Origination merely because of the second truth; rather, it is in order to abandon them that the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of Origination.

The quiescence and relinquishment of all conditioned dharmas is called Cessation, because it is quiescent. It is not called Cessation merely because of the third truth; rather, it is in order to realize this cessation that the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of Cessation.

All wholesome dharmas are the Path because they can bring about liberation. They are not the Path merely because of the fourth truth; rather, it is in order to cultivate this Path that the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. Therefore, it is called a Noble Truth.

It is also said: Grasping at characteristics is affliction. Afflictions and the karma arising in association with afflictions are called Origination. From these comes existence, and this existence is called the Noble Truth of Origination.

The birth of existence is called the Noble Truth of Suffering. Thus, the first truth is born from the second truth. If the mind relinquishes grasping at characteristics and attains the signless realm, then, through this cause, afflictions and the karma arising in association with afflictions are eliminated.

Because of this elimination, no causal conditions remain, and existence can no longer arise. This non-arising is called the Noble Truth of Cessation. The Dharma that enables the mind to relinquish grasping at characteristics and realize the signless realm—this right seeing—is called the Noble Truth of the Path to Cessation.

It is likewise with grasping at the characteristics of images and then falsely discriminating the Path.

As stated in the Treatise on Analysis: The Blessed One did not rely upon all forms of suffering, but provisionally spoke of the Truth of Suffering. Likewise, in order to reveal the morally indeterminate fruit, He referred to the aggregates in terms of their nature, essence, and characteristics. Here, this is provisionally called the Truth of Suffering.

What is provisionally called suffering is the cause and Dharma from which one is to become free. For this purpose, the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the true Truth of Suffering.

He did not rely upon all causes, but provisionally spoke of the Truth of Origination. In order to reveal what can provisionally give rise to causes in terms of their nature, essence, and characteristics, He provisionally spoke of the Truth of Origination. He provisionally spoke of origination, causes, and dharmas because these are to be abandoned.

For this purpose, the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the true Truth of Origination. He did not rely upon every cessation, but provisionally spoke of the Truth of Cessation.

In order to reveal the turning of the Path with respect to severance, nature, essence, and characteristics, He provisionally spoke of the Truth of Cessation. He provisionally spoke of Cessation, causes, and dharmas because that state is to be realized. For this purpose, the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One.

This is the true Truth of Cessation. He did not rely upon every path, but provisionally spoke of the Truth of Cessation. In order to reveal the turning of severance in terms of its nature, essence, and characteristics, He provisionally spoke of the Truth of the Path, its causes, and its dharmas.

This is because it is to be cultivated. For this purpose, the pure holy life is cultivated under the Blessed One. This is the true Truth of the Path.

Furthermore, the Treatise Treasury says: Briefly stated, suffering is of two kinds. The first is encountering what is hateful, and the second is separation from what is loved. Each of these occurs in its respective sphere: one pertains to the body and the other to the mind.

Cause and craving form a third kind, thus constituting the three sufferings. The Truth of Origination is also threefold: craving, views, and karma. The two delusions of craving and views are called subsequent Cessation.

Because of these, such karma exists. The Truth of Coarse and Subtle Origination is also threefold. First, delusion associated with the realm of seeing is extinguished; second, delusion associated with the realm of desire is extinguished; and third, delusion associated with the realm of existence is extinguished.

The Truth of the Path is also threefold. First is the path of seeing; second is the path of cultivation; and third is the path that accomplishes and maintains. These three are the three roots.

It is also said: Suffering is precisely characterized by oppression and affliction. Origination is precisely characterized by production. Cessation is precisely characterized by quiescence.

The Path is precisely characterized by its ability to bring about liberation. It is also said: Suffering is precisely the characteristic of existence. Origination is precisely that which is capable of producing the characteristic of existence.

Cessation is precisely freedom from characteristics. The Path is precisely that which can bring about freedom from characteristics.

I.3 Chapter Distinguishing the Truth of Suffering (Chapter Three)

What is the Truth of Suffering? Having explained it briefly in this way, how is it now to be distinguished in detail? Among the forms of suffering to be contemplated and cultivated, why is birth mentioned first?

What is the characteristic of birth? What is the activity of birth? Why does birth arise through conditions?

Why is it suffering? If birth is suffering of three kinds, then the meaning of the arising of joy could not be established. What is the distinction between birth and arising?

Since the five skandhas of an arhat have not yet ceased, how can it be said that birth has been exhausted? What, then, is aging? What is the characteristic of aging?

What is the activity of death? What are the conditions of death? Why is aging suffering?

Since the characteristic of falling teeth is not universal, it involves both suffering and its absence! Why, then, is aging called the Noble Truth of Suffering? Conditioned things do not abide but arise and cease from moment to moment.

How, then, can there be aging? A verse of praise says:

First distinguish the four, beginning with birth;

The three sufferings and their distinctions;

The four exhaustions, aging and suffering;

Falling teeth and momentary cessation.

What, then, is illness? What are the characteristics of illness? Through what conditions does illness arise? Why is illness suffering? If the body constantly suffers because of illness, why does that not contradict this verse?

Freedom from illness is the foremost gain;

Contentment surpasses all wealth;

Freedom from doubt is clear seeing;

Nirvana is bliss beyond compare.

In a heavenly realm where there is no illness, all sentient beings take illness as a universal condition. This statement accords with the right path. It is said that illness is the fruit of karma, and that the fruit of karma is suffering, yet it is not the Noble Truth of Suffering. The Buddha said that suffering itself is illness. Again, a verse says that hunger and thirst are the foremost illness. If so, how do these two teachings differ?

Why is there death? What is the characteristic of death? What constitutes death? What conditions lead to death? Why is death suffering? There is death through heedlessness, death through breaking the precepts, and death conditioned by birth; are these distinct from one another? It is also said that there is death with awareness and death without awareness; death with remorse and death without remorse; death with heedlessness and death without heedlessness; death with attachment and death without attachment; death with discipline and death without discipline; and death with partial discipline. What do these mean? The five skandhas perish by themselves from moment to moment. How, then, can that injury and death come to be?

Why is there the meeting of those one hates? Why must those who hate one another meet? For what reason is meeting those one hates suffering? Do those who hate one another gather together? They are never separated from one another. The meaning of this is clearly understood.

Why are loved ones separated? What is the characteristic of separation? Why are those who love one another separated? For what reason are those who love one another separated? Why is separation from those one loves suffering? The gathering of old age is itself meeting those one hates. Separation while still young is separation from those one loves; thus it is said that both the hated and the loved are subject to separation.

Why is nothing further said, and what is meant by not obtaining what one seeks? What is the characteristic of not obtaining what one seeks? What constitutes not obtaining what one seeks?

What are the causes and conditions of not obtaining what one seeks? Why is not obtaining what one seeks suffering? The objects of desire are themselves suffering, and obtaining them is also suffering.

How, then, is not obtaining what one seeks suffering? For what reason does one fail to obtain what one seeks? Why is it said, in brief, that the skandhas of the five destinies are suffering?

What are the characteristics of the skandhas? What does “skandha” mean? Are form and consciousness here the same as the characteristics of conditioned phenomena?

Why are the five skandhas and the five skandhas subject to clinging spoken of, and how do they differ? Why are the skandhas subject to clinging called the skandhas of suffering? What does it mean that they are not called the skandhas of suffering?

Once one has correctly perceived a single instance of suffering, one thereby clearly understands the Truth of Suffering. Why, then, is it necessary to expound at length the various characteristics of suffering? Moreover, the sutra does not say that pleasurable form is itself a locus of suffering, yet it says that the skandhas subject to clinging are suffering.

Examined in this way, this would be contradictory. Why does this sutra alone state it briefly, whereas other sutras say that form is suffering, up to consciousness being suffering, and that the skandhas subject to clinging are suffering? Furthermore, for what causes and conditions is there suffering?

What is the general meaning of this statement?

Question: What is the Truth of Suffering? It has already been stated briefly. Why is it then explained and distinguished at length?

Answer: Some disciples delight in hearing the true teaching stated briefly. For example, the Venerable Sariputra, whose wisdom was open and keen, could easily receive instruction. Therefore, it was stated briefly.

Other disciples, such as Nanda, Phaggava, and others, delighted in hearing extensive explanations. Because their understanding required broad analysis, it was explained at length. Furthermore, disciples of surpassing faculties, such as the Venerable Mahakasyapa, were given the teaching briefly so that their wholesome roots might increase.

Those whose conditioning faculties were weak, such as Sati, and whose wholesome roots had not yet increased, required an extensive explanation. Again, for one of keen faculties, such as Angulimala, the speaker gave a brief explanation. For one of dull faculties who was to be trained, like that serpent, an extensive explanation was necessary.

Again, learned disciples such as Ananda were able to retain what they heard and accumulate it; therefore, the teaching was stated briefly. Meanwhile, disciples of little learning and understanding, such as Cudapanthaka, whose wisdom was weak, required an extensive explanation. Again, those foremost in the noble qualities, such as Revata, were addressed briefly, whereas Channa had not yet entered into inward contemplation; therefore, the teaching had to be explained extensively for him.

Question: In regard to suffering, why does the exposition begin with birth?

Answer: Because it is the beginning of suffering. Old age, illness, death, and the other sufferings arise after birth. For example, just as, without anger or resentment, morality is still taken as foremost among worldly and supramundane dharmas, so it is with old age, illness, and death.

Again, because birth is capable of producing them: once birth has occurred, there are old age, illness, and death. These can injure the bodily faculties and the mind, just as fire, once fully kindled, burns the body and gives forth flames and so forth. Without the arising of fire, this would not occur; the same is true here.

Therefore, birth is spoken of first. Moreover, it cannot be escaped. Even if sentient beings could escape old age and illness, they certainly could not escape birth.

Because it is the suffering of conditioned formations, it is precisely the reception of the fruit. The Path is what counteracts it; therefore, birth is spoken of first.

Again, because there is both equality and difference: all sentient beings alike undergo birth and injury, just as all are slain by the demon of impermanence. Again, because it extends throughout all the factors. Birth, arising through ignorance, pervades all twelve factors, just as poisoned milk spreads everywhere throughout the three realms. Birth likewise pervades the three realms, with common and differing aspects, as among cattle; therefore, birth is spoken of first. Again, because it is the root of suffering, birth is precisely the basis of suffering. As stated in the sutra: All sufferings have birth as their root and take birth as their cause, as extensively explained in the sutra. Therefore, birth is spoken of first. A verse also says:

Suffering, from the very beginning, is not escaped;

Its distinctions are divided according to existence.

Throughout the three realms it is the root of suffering;

Therefore, birth is spoken of first.

What, then, is birth?

The answer is given in verse:

Birth is explained alike in five sutras:

The acquisition of the skandhas, the mind arising first,

The factors of birth together with their companions,

The establishment of the embryo, and the five kinds.

Explanation: The Abhidharma scripture within the treatises of learning explains birth in relation to the twelve links of dependent origination. The Treatise on the Investigation of Mind extensively discusses birth in this manner; thus it should be understood. Again, through the increase of karma, the eye associates with objects, and then dharmas arise through causes and conditions.

Once these have assembled, the various abodes of sentient beings are obtained, and the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth are acquired. This is called birth. Again, at the initial moment of birth, the consciousness that receives birth arises first.

This is called birth, as the sutra states, because consciousness enters. When name and form unite, birth is then explained in due sequence. The initial arising of consciousness is called birth.

Other masters of the treatises say: First, birth-consciousness arises, and afterward the other constituents arise in full. This is called birth.

Again, birth has many kinds. These refer to kalala and the various distinctions in the formation of the embryo, continuing until the child is born, as stated in the Sutra on Taking Birth. Furthermore, birth has five kinds, as the verse says:

Attaining the noble Dharma is called birth;

Within the embryo, the nature develops into a human being.

Assemblage, lineage, and difference constitute existence;

There is also that which is merely named birth.

Explanation: Attaining the noble Dharma is called birth, as stated in the sutra: “Freed from what is insipid, born from my mouth, and, once vitality has arisen, born into the noble Dharma and discipline.” This is stated in the Angulimala Sutra. Again, existence within the womb is called birth, or life. This refers to kalala, arbuda, and ghana, like the seed of a tree.

Again, the arising of knowledge concerning lineage is called birth, as when one is born among nobles or ksatriyas. Furthermore, an assemblage of beings of the same and different kinds is called birth. Their forms and characteristics differ, as with human beings, elephants, horses, and so forth, or as with the patala and other trees.

Again, there is that which is merely named birth. This refers to the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and existence. This is called birth, just as one speaks of flowers and seeds.

This treatise speaks only of the arising of conditioned existence. Why is this? Because its root is the fruit of craving; therefore, only such existence is called birth.

What, then, is the characteristic of birth? What constitutes birth? What are the conditions for birth?

Question: The characteristic of birth is its manifestation, its activity is the production of the many kinds of suffering, and its conditions are conditioned phenomena. What, then, is suffering?

Answer: The three kinds of suffering are like a blazing fire. This is a place where craving arises; it is neither delightful nor the fruit of meritorious conduct. When gathered together, they are alike yet different. Those sufferings and the place of burning, the place where birth is undergone, arise from craving and delight. This is the fruit of meritorious conduct. Gathered together into similar and dissimilar kinds, there are the suffering of decay in existence and the place of birth produced by the fruit of imperturbable conduct. Gathered together into similar and dissimilar kinds, the suffering of formations is the existence that burns, like a wildfire consuming a great tree. Therefore, birth is suffering.

Furthermore, because those sufferings depend upon one another, the arising of body and mind and all sufferings have origination as their basis. This is not so when birth has not occurred, just as a fertile, dust-free place serves as a dwelling for a sage. Moreover, because the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and existence become manifest, this is called the place of birth. Once that place has arisen, it is again broken apart, dispersed, divided, and cast down, making suffering and descent through birth alike through impermanence and enmity, without any fixed sequence, like a king’s domain and bowls and vessels. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, birth contains all sufferings. The arising of sorrow, lamentation, and pain is not the root of anything wholesome; rather, aging and death, as causes and conditions, give rise to illness, pain of every kind, and evils that take refuge therein to cause disturbance and destruction. It is the gateway of illness and resentment, like a storehouse filled with afflictions.

This birth leads into darkness, where no lamp can be obtained by oneself, and into a deep pit from which escape is difficult. Though there is no fire, one is burned by fire. This resentment is difficult to comprehend.

It is indeed a foundation beyond doubt. Here, illness has no medicine to cure it. It is a bondage that does not release one, like a dense forest without a path or any illuminating light.

The foolish rejoice, while the wise are dismayed. That delight is caused by the object of craving. Because of this, all Buddhas and great bodhisattvas give rise to great compassion; those in training will leave it far behind, and those beyond training—the arhats—will eradicate it completely.

The Buddhas clearly know this and therefore call it suffering. Thus, birth itself is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, the formation of the fetus itself is suffering. At the time birth is assumed, the white and red essences unite; consciousness then arises, and one undergoes the suffering of impurity. Kalala, Arbuda, and Ghana become gateways through which suffering develops and turns into suffering, like the pain of a ripening boil.

From these this body is born and undergoes the oppressive torments of suffering. That suffering is like being confined in a great house within the womb. The misery of lying therein is like that of a criminal, tightly enclosed above and below as in a prison.

When the mother eats and drinks irregularly, walks, stands, runs, jumps, or swims in water, the fetus lying within suffers pain. Because of improper food and drink and changes in standing and walking, its four limbs are thrown out of balance, and it undergoes every kind of suffering. It is like violating the king’s law and undergoing extreme punishments.

Therefore, birth is called suffering. When emerging from the womb, this body is tender and the mind is like a plantain tree; the birth passage is painful like a cart lacking oil, and one undergoes exceedingly intense agony.

Furthermore, when first born, the body is like grass or wood, the hands and feet are tender, and their flailing is truly painful. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering. If birth is suffering, then would the meaning of the birth of the three kinds of happiness not be untenable?

Answer: This is because karma differentiates the retributions of delusion, because there are differences in abiding within the three realms, and because the three kinds of feeling are revealed. From this it should be understood that the three feelings—pleasant, arising, and conditioned—are encompassed by suffering; therefore, this is called the Truth of Suffering. Suffering is oppression, and suffering has many kinds. Therefore, birth itself is suffering. Furthermore, because there are merit, conduct, and fruit, three kinds of happiness arise, as the verse says:

The happiness of merit and its reward,

Fulfillment obtained according to one’s wishes,

Then the attainment of ultimate quiescence,

Parinirvana according to one’s aspiration.

Because it is mixed with the virulent poison of impermanence, that suffering is like food adulterated with poison. Although it possesses a hundred exquisite flavors, colors, fragrances, and tactile qualities, whoever eats it will certainly meet the retribution of death; all sentient beings have died in this way. Because it is mixed with the harmful poison of impermanence, it is called suffering. Furthermore, because at birth there is pleasure in what is pleasurable, it is called the arising of happiness. Yet when the security accompanying that birth deteriorates, suffering is incurred once again. Noble ones shun this suffering of decay as they would encounter foul excrement. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering. In what different ways does this birth arise?

Answer: Transformation birth is called arising, while the other three have distinct names referring to birth. Furthermore, entering the womb is also called birth. Emerging from the womb at delivery is called arising. Furthermore, because birth proceeds in successive stages, it is called birth. When birth is complete in a single moment, it is called arising. The Abhidharma says: Birth depends upon consciousness, which entrusts that seed to the womb. Arising depends upon karma, which can cause that consciousness to disperse. An arhat has not yet brought the five skandhas to cessation. Why, then, is it said that birth has been exhausted?

Answer: Because cessation exists, it is said that birth has been exhausted. Furthermore, because its causes and conditions have ceased, no dharma of birth will arise afterward; therefore, it is said that birth has been exhausted. For example, because craving has ceased, it is said that the Truth of Suffering has ceased.

Furthermore, because the root of birth has been eradicated, it is said to have been exhausted, just as when the root of a tree has been cut. Although its flowers and leaves remain abundant, the tree is nevertheless said to have come to an end. The exhaustion of birth is likewise.

Furthermore, because it will be exhausted in the future, it is said that birth has been exhausted. It is like throwing a cup down from a mountain summit: although the cup has not yet reached the foot of the mountain, it is said that the cup is broken. The ending of birth is likewise.

Therefore, it is said that an arhat’s birth has been exhausted. Why is there aging?

Answer: It is the loss of youthfulness, the gradual decline and deterioration of the four great elements, the alteration of all formations, the aging of the body, the coarsening and ugliness of one’s appearance, the weakening of the faculties, difficulty in controlling memory, understanding, and actions, and an inclination toward death. This is called aging. Furthermore, the subtle faculties pervade the entire person and then gradually change and deteriorate.

This dharma is called aging. Why is this? With aging, the teeth all fall out, the skin and flesh undergo a hundred changes, the hair turns white, the four great elements begin to weaken, the faculties lose their strength, the bodily form changes, and one’s movements become unsteady.

In the mind, one frequently forgets memories and extensive knowledge; the back becomes bent, the other parts of the body grow feeble, the signs of middle age disappear, and the marks of gradual deterioration become manifest.

Furthermore, aging is of two kinds: first, decline that occurs in accordance with deterioration; and second, deterioration of that upon which the body depends. First, decline in accordance with deterioration means that flesh, blood, bones, and marrow gradually diminish. From this decline, its marks may be seen and its result known: walking and standing become slow, coming and going become difficult, and everything diminishes and is lost.

Second, deterioration of that upon which the body depends means that the eyes and ears, and the faculties of seeing and hearing, are no longer clear. From this lack of clarity, its result can plainly be seen. Memory and understanding gradually disappear, the disposition of the mind changes, and loss constantly accompanies it.

This has been extensively explained in the sutras and the Abhidharma concerning the twelve links of dependent origination. This is called aging. Why are there signs of aging?

What is the activity of aging, and what are the causes and conditions of aging?

Answer: Because there is decline, alteration, and disintegration, these are called the signs of aging. The loss of youthful health, difficulty in walking, standing, coming, and going, and the arrival of various undesirable conditions are called the activity of aging. The skandhas and dhatus enter into and permeate life. These are called the causes and conditions of aging. Aging also gives rise to sorrow. What is called the suffering of aging?

Answer: This aging can give rise to ugly and evil features, then rob one of loveliness and strength, and gradually diminish memory and understanding until death, just as one who violates the king’s law is punished by mutilation of the ears and nose. Aging is likewise. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, sentient beings clearly know that the strength of the faculties can serve as the support of consciousness and knowledge, yet they can no longer make contact, because aging robs them day by day. It is like the sun in the hot season, freed from the five coverings and therefore radiant, while the resistance of the waters gradually diminishes and everything dries up. Aging is likewise.

Therefore, aging is said to be suffering. Furthermore, aging makes the bodily form haggard, can rob it of loveliness, diminishes youthfulness, and leaves nothing delightful. Physical strength grows feebler day by day, and endurance gradually declines.

The power of thought diminishes; the faculties weaken and can no longer regain their strength. It is like a rakshasi who drains away all vital energy, causing death. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, when young, this body is lovely like a lotus flower; its form is upright and handsome, pleasing to the eye, and renowned as such. But aging is like a dewdrop that changes and rolls into the eye, damaging it and causing that person’s mind no longer to find delight, while the person becomes ugly and wretched. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering. Furthermore, it can impair this body, as well as memory and wisdom; therefore, aging is said to be suffering. Because this body changes, walking, standing, lying down, and sitting become difficult and lack freedom. Because the faculties change, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and so forth all become unclear.

Another teaching says: “I do not hear clearly.” This deterioration is like that of a young man whose memory has been impaired, so that he cannot remember events, cannot speak of what he has seen, and knows nothing of their origin. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering, according to its mode of activity. Furthermore, as the Vatsiputriya school says: Conditioned dharmas truly undergo a diminution of their lifespan.

This lifespan changes. This characteristic of the conditioned is called aging. As stated in the sutra: “This body may endure for one hundred years”; or it speaks of the four stations of consciousness.

It is on the basis of this meaning that it is called aging. If the sutra states: “This body may endure for one hundred years”; or speaks of the four stations of consciousness, it is on the basis of this meaning that it is called aging. If conditioned dharmas truly perish moment by moment, then youth could not be established, nor would there be a life faculty.

Why is it called illness?

Answer: Because that bodily faculty is not uniform in its growth and development. Because disparities arise during life, the body is said to be ill. If it were in equilibrium, it would not be ill, as the Buddha said to Nhon Xa Ba: “Until now, the body of the Tathagata has remained in equilibrium.” Furthermore, its intrinsic natures conflict with one another, no consciousness nourishes it beneficially, and poisonous parasites arise within this body; therefore, it is called illness. Furthermore, illness is of two kinds: first, bodily; and second, mental.

Bodily illness is again of two kinds. First, it arises from distinct causes and is therefore said to arise from internal conditions. Second, it arises because other causes oppress and make contact; therefore, it is spoken of in terms of the locus of the cause, and distinctions arise.

Because there are many different kinds, they are called distinctions. These include suppurating disease, smallpox, jaundice, cancer, sores, abdominal tumors, malaria, wind disorders, madness, and so forth. Their causes differ: domination by phlegm and wind gives rise to many diseases, whether involving one, two, three, or four factors.

In this way, phlegm produces sixty-two kinds of illness. These are distinctions of cause and location, namely, the head, eyes, ears, neck, heart, and so forth. These are called bodily illnesses.

Explained extensively, there are 404 illnesses.

Mental illness arises from false and deluded causes, namely, distress and affliction. This illness is also of two kinds. First, when it takes an internal object as its condition, it is called an affliction of the inner gateway.

Second, when it takes an external object as its condition, it is called an affliction of the outer gateway. Because they are named according to their causes, distinctions arise. Because their categories are diverse, they are called distinctions.

These are anger, conceit, delusion, views, doubt, deviousness, deceit, and so forth. Their causes are distinct, namely, the disappearance of the characteristic of purity, the characteristics of existence and nonexistence, and the causes that take the characteristics of mental illness as their defining marks. Their locations are distinct, namely, the faculties and the six sense objects.

As stated in the sutra: “Attachment to forms, up to attachment to dharmas.” Here, bodily illness is clearly discussed, but mental illness is not discussed.

What is the characteristic of illness? What is the actuality of illness? What are the conditions of illness?

Answer: Illness means the characteristic of the body being oppressed and afflicted. Pain and anxiety are its actuality. Imbalance at its root is its condition.

Why is illness suffering?

Answer: Intelligent people in the world undertake actions according to what they desire. Because of illness, however, they cannot accomplish them; as their wishes are frustrated, they suffer. Therefore, sickness can be a cause of suffering. Just as fire is the cause of burning and the sun is the cause of light, aging and death are likewise able to harm the root; therefore, illness is said to be suffering. It is also like plants and trees that arise by themselves and endure by themselves: their life is easily harmed, and their longevity is lost, as though burned by poisonous fire. Therefore, illness is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, the suffering of suffering binds one thing to another and arises in an unbroken succession that sentient beings cannot endure, like a young elephant that has fallen into a forest fire. Therefore, illness is suffering. Moreover, there is no freedom.

When a person falls ill, the four deportments and one’s thoughts are all without freedom. This body is exhausted and can do nothing, like a wooden puppet; its faculties are obstructed, as though the person were already dead. When a person falls ill and can no longer endure the illness, one wishes for poisonous fire to surround and burn the body so that it may be cast off, as did the arhat Dhanika.

Furthermore, even after employing every means, if the illness cannot be treated, that life will certainly end in death. Therefore, illness is said to be suffering. It is like the seer At De, who, when suffering from dysentery, drank hot medicine; thereupon, the oppressive urgency of an irascible nature arose again.

This is because ignorance is dense. Because wisdom is unstable, this constitutes the essence of the cause of suffering. Relying upon an insecure basis, one does not understand and falls into forgetfulness.

Because one understands merely by categories, one selects and rejects, taking these as grounds for estrangement; one does not know that this matter is not another matter, like a foolish person. Such is the meaning. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

As the Venerable Buddhamitra said: Throughout immeasurable and innumerable kalpas, the Buddhas, the Blessed Ones, cultivated roots of goodness, perfected the ten powers, possessed the ten masteries, triumphantly vanquished the four maras, attained the four fearlessnesses, and were impartially able to discern every skillful means, like the full autumn moon, delightful to behold. They possessed bodies as firm as Narayana, with fullness throughout the body; yet even the appearance of their skin was invaded and damaged by the marks of aging. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering. The Buddha explained this meaning to the bhikshu Udayin in the country of Alavi. Relying upon the Buddha’s words, a verse says:

Aging, evil one, you clearly know,

Makes ugly the beautiful form;

This mind clearly knows all minds—

Thus is the Treatise on the Four Truths.