四諦論

Chapter 1: Deliberation and Discernment

There are Four Noble Truths. For what causes and conditions did the Buddha, the Blessed One, teach this sutra in this way? Why are there four Noble Truths, neither more nor fewer? What is meant by “noble,” and what is meant by “truth”? If “noble” means “truth,” the first two should not be called truths. If it is said that the truths themselves are noble, then the meaning of “truth” is indeterminate. Moreover, a sutra says: “There is only one truth; there is no second truth.” Why, then, is the meaning of the four not invalidated? Another sutra says: “All conditioned dharmas are called suffering.” Therefore there should be only two truths, and the assertion that there are four truths cannot be established.

Furthermore, there is a teaching in which one is successively added, establishing dharmas from one to two and onward to a great many. Why, then, is one not successively added to the truths?

Moreover, since their four characteristics differ, how can they be contemplated together at the same time? Furthermore, what difference is there between the four truths of the brahmins and the Noble Truths? Consider the following verse:

What are the Four Noble Truths? Are they not truths, their objects indeterminate? Why only add two and contemplate them together? How do the pure truths differ from the Noble Truths?

Why are all Buddhas of one mind regarding the Four Truths? Why are only the Four Truths taken as the supreme and definitive teaching of the Buddhas? Why are the Four Truths contemplated together as objects?

Although wisdom is equal, why do its fruits differ? Why does an arhat whose knowledge of the Four Truths is complete and without remainder not attain omniscience equal to that of the Buddhas? If it is unequal, there must still be ignorance regarding the Four Truths.

If all dharmas are contained within the Four Truths, then even the three leaves used as an analogy in the Superior Vehicle Sutra must be investigated. If they are not investigated, there must be five truths. If there are not five truths, then the other dharmas are not truths.

If the four dharmas—suffering and the rest—are called Noble Truths, then speaking of suffering alone should suffice to constitute the Noble Truths.

There is no need to cite sutras of this kind. If knowledge of the Four Truths is called suffering, the meaning is not so. If knowing one truth means also knowing the other truths, then teaching the latter three truths is useless.

Why is the truth of suffering taught first? If the effect is taught before the cause has been explained, how does this not contradict the twelve links of dependent origination? Why is the truth of cessation taught before the truth of the path? Consider the following verse:

One intent, the supreme fruit rightly attained; omniscience and the analogy of the leaves. Four errors, one is useless; suffering comes first, then its cause, cessation, and the path.

There are Four Noble Truths.

Why did the Buddha, the Blessed One, teach this sutra?

Answer: There were disciples who were to attain the Noble Path but had previously adopted the false teachings of non-Buddhist sects, such as the sect of Constant Practice, the sect whose adherents did not remain in one place, the Ajivika path, the path of Contradiction, the path of the Elder Disciples, the path of Gautama, the path of those who wore garments of feathers, the path of water worship, the path of those with braided hair, the path of fire worship, the path of naked ascetics, and so forth. Each of these paths praised its own doctrine, claiming that its doctrine alone was true, complete, consistent with reality, and the fruit of immortality, whereas other teachings were not so.

On hearing these assertions, those disciples could not determine through wisdom which doctrines were true and which were untrue. Regarding truth and non-truth, they gave rise to the delusion of ignorance. Therefore, to reveal the real truths, the Great Sage taught this sutra. It is like enabling someone deceived by a counterfeit necklace to see a genuine necklace.

Furthermore, there are other teachings that explain the matter as follows. A person may cast aside worldly adornments, assume the appearance of a sramana, dwell in a secluded place, and practice the dhutanga austerities. Encountering wholesome dharmas, he may relinquish possessions, preserve moral shame and dread of wrongdoing, mount the vehicle of moral discipline, restrain his faculties as one controls an unruly horse, sharpen the weapon of wisdom born of learning, and don the armor of meditative concentration.

On account of these practices, he calls himself a true sramana. Such persons are sramanas who have given rise to overweening pride. To enable them to see what a true sramana is, the Buddha, the Blessed One, taught this sutra to elucidate this meaning: one becomes a true sramana within the Noble Dharma by penetrating the Four Truths, not through other practices.

As stated in the Sramana Sutra: “If one possesses these, one is complete.” As the sutra says, a true sramana is established through contemplation of the Four Truths; one is not called a sramana by practicing worldly disciplines to their utmost and attaining states still accompanied by the outflows, as stated in the verse concerning naked asceticism.

Furthermore, some had escaped the nine adversities, been born in the presence of a Buddha, become disenchanted with conditioned dharmas, perfumed their minds with the fragrance of roots of virtue, long accumulated the provisions for the Noble Path, and purified both their intentions and conduct. They were ready to penetrate the Noble Truths. To inspire diligence in their minds and cause them to drink the medicine of knowledge of the Noble Truths, the Buddha, the Blessed One, taught this sutra. Just as medicine capable of curing an illness is given to the sick, so was this teaching bestowed.

Furthermore, some heard that the suffering of the evil destinies is truly difficult to endure and consequently gave rise to disenchantment and fear. To reveal to such persons the causes and conditions for not falling into the evil destinies, he taught this sutra.

Why is this so? Sentient beings born in the hells are surrounded on all six sides by blazing fire. Their entire bodies melt like molten gold, and their inhalations and exhalations are as hot as scorching flames.

Moreover, when hungry, they are made to eat balls of red-hot iron; when thirsty, they are made to drink boiling molten copper. They are cut, hacked, split apart, or torn asunder and undergo all kinds of suffering. Dogs and birds with iron beaks devour them. Others are born as hungry ghosts, constantly tormented by severe hunger and thirst. Their throats are as narrow as the eye of a needle. They continually desire food and drink yet never know satisfaction. Oppressed by karma from previous lives, they go in search of water, but as they approach a riverbank they see the river dry up, or see it filled with stinking blood, pus, excrement, and filth. They see trees, flowers, and fruits turn into a barren forest. As a verse says:

Thus hungry ghosts undergo extremely severe suffering.

Others are born as animals and are continually confined, bound, and beaten. They constantly devour one another and remain suspicious and afraid of one another, their minds never at peace. Such are the sufferings they undergo.

Others are born as asuras and undergo the sufferings of enmity, resentment, miserliness, arrogance, and aggression. The Buddha’s disciples heard of such sufferings in the evil destinies and feared falling into them themselves. Wishing to reveal that insight into the Four Truths is the cause and condition for not falling into them, the Buddha taught this sutra. It is like giving a boat or raft to rescue someone who has fallen into the sea. As a sutra says: “If sentient beings amid such sufferings can see suffering as it truly is, they are thereby liberated from the four evil destinies and from all the sufferings of birth, aging, and sickness.”

Furthermore, wishing to cause sentient beings to abandon five kinds of false and deceptive speech—1. speech capable of producing various evils; 2. speech that causes one to follow evil persons; 3. speech that causes the virtuous to keep their distance; 4. speech capable of arousing afflictions; and 5. speech whose very nature is deception—and wishing people to speak the fivefold right speech that benefits sentient beings—1. speech corresponding with one’s own virtue; 2. speech that causes one to follow good persons; 3. speech that nurtures roots of virtue; 4. speech that enables one to leave the thorny wilderness of the afflictions;

and 5. speech that enables one to reach true happiness—the Buddha taught this sutra so that they would abandon the five kinds of false speech and practice the five kinds of right speech.

It is like causing one to discard counterfeit treasure and take up genuine treasure. As stated in the sutra: “Do not speak false and evil words. When the Sangha assembles, it should do one of two things: first, maintain noble silence; second, speak the noble true Dharma.”

Furthermore, ordinary beings each cling to their own differing doctrines, maintaining that their own doctrine is right and those of others are wrong. Because of this attachment, they dispute with one another, like people blind from birth feeling an elephant. In order to reveal the supreme deathless state, so that disputes will no longer arise, and to reveal the wisdom of the Noble Truths, which is free from error, this sutra was taught. To manifest this meaning: those attached to annihilationism or eternalism, who assert a self, dispute with one another; but those who see the Four Truths do not do so, because they clearly understand true emptiness, as stated in the Khư Đa Kha Sutra.

Furthermore, one relies upon a true teacher, dwells in a secluded place, practices the dhutanga austerities, reduces one’s material necessities, guards the six faculties, and moderates food and drink. During the first and last watches of the night, one remains wakeful and joyful, listens single-mindedly, reflects in accordance with principle, recites and recollects, sits upright, quietly enters samadhi, and contemplates the Dharma gateway of counting the breaths.

Through these causes and conditions, one continuously matures. The ground of the mind becomes tranquil and subtle, or its agitation becomes slight. This sutra was taught so that such people might attain penetrating realization.

It is like administering further medicine to one who has already been well prepared. If the true meaning is understood solely through the faculty of wisdom, this is called penetrating realization. One should know that the faculties and conditions pertaining to these Four Noble Truths constitute penetrating realization; thus this sutra had to be taught.

Furthermore, this sutra was taught in order to destroy the four delusions and reveal the two skillful means. As the verse says:

Furthermore, Brahmas, celestial seers, humans, Bà Lợi, asuras, nagas, yakshas, Yamas, and others still do not see the Four Noble Truths and therefore cannot escape the three realms. Like silkworms lying within their cocoons, they revolve through the six destinies like a turning wheel, wandering through a realm of darkness, falling into perilous abysses, and suffering the burning of blazing fire. If they see the Four Noble Truths, they destroy the darkness of ignorance, attain luminous wisdom, escape the four evil destinies, and need not look toward any other paths. Therefore, the Four Noble Truths are true, nondual, free from error and dispute, and capable of accomplishing the Tathagata’s supreme supramundane function. This sutra was taught to reveal that meaning.

The author of the treatise, wishing to reveal that the meaning of the Four Truths is incomparable, spoke the following slokas:

Knowing external doctrines cannot free one
From the rules and practices of victory and defeat;
They cannot carry one beyond birth, aging,
And death—the great ocean of sorrow and anxiety.
Through these, even those possessing noble wisdom
Give rise to greed and anger and engage in strife.
The wise who seek liberation
Need not know external doctrines.
Whoever sees the Noble Truths
Attains the supreme Dharma and escapes the evil destinies.
Free from faults and undefiled,
One constantly cultivates the four immeasurable minds.
Though every kind of suffering fills all places,
One is released from the prison of the three realms.
Those of penetrating wisdom who seek nirvana
Must see the Noble Truths.

The verse of preservation and praise says:

Disciples and ascetics
Escape the fearful perils of the evil destinies,
Transgressions, and false attachments;
The Teacher destroys attachments and reveals the principle.

Why are there only four Noble Truths, neither more nor fewer? Answer: This question does not constitute a valid question, for if everything were questioned in this manner, the inquiry would be endless.

Furthermore, the four truths counteract four doctrines: the view of a self in the body, annihilationism, eternalism, and the view that nothing exists. Therefore, there are four Noble Truths.

Furthermore, the Four Truths were taught to counteract the four inverted views, just as there are four foundations of mindfulness.

Furthermore, they were taught to free beings from four false attachments, for all sentient beings possess four kinds of false attachment. What are the four? They are false attachments concerning result, cause, liberation, and means.

1. False attachment concerning result: Karma, the view of self, thought, memory, and craving produce the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, and so forth. They are impure and foul like a dead dog; the fires of the three sufferings continually burn them; the diamond of impermanence destroys them; and the notions of self and what belongs to self compel one to act and to undergo the results. Yet people cling to these as pure, pleasant, permanent, and self. This is false attachment concerning result. To relinquish this attachment, the Noble Truth of suffering was taught.

2. False attachment concerning cause: The Lord of the World, Brahma King, Ishvara as cause, conjunction, time, inherent nature, destiny, spontaneity without a cause, past karma, worldly medicines—that is, medicines derived from roots—as well as earth, water, fire, wind, particles, space, and so forth: such non-causes and unequal causes are held to be generative causes. This is called false attachment concerning cause. To relinquish this attachment, the Truth of Origination was taught.

3. False attachment concerning liberation: Taking refuge in and entering the five, entering the ultimate body of Vishnu, entering emptiness, reaching the thirty stupas and abiding in nonexistence; or maintaining that something separately exists above, apart from the qualities of self; or regarding the fruit of the three concentrations as temporary relinquishment or permanent relinquishment—liberations conceived through such attachments are neither certain nor permanent. This is false attachment concerning liberation. To destroy this attachment, the Truth of Cessation was taught.

4. False attachment concerning means: One abandons the five sense objects, food and drink, clothing, bedding, and dwellings. Wind, water, flowers, fruits, tubers, roots, branches, leaves, rice, wheat, oil dregs, cow dung, and such things are used as food. Tree bark, grass, vines, deerskin, cords, and plaited materials are used as clothing. One may also lie naked upon the ground or sleep upon a heap of ashes. One may hang with the head downward and the feet upward, or face the sun and allow its heat to scorch the body. One may constantly wear wet garments or continually remain beneath the water. One may cast oneself from a mountain, leap into fire, or submerge oneself in water. One relies upon the passage of time,

believing that karma will be exhausted without any cause. It is claimed that by performing such practices one attains nirvana. This is false attachment concerning means. To relinquish this attachment, the Truth of the Path was taught.

Because of these four matters, the Four Truths were taught, just as the Noble Path was taught.

Furthermore, there are Four Noble Truths in order to distinguish rare and exceptional dharmas.

Why is this so? Because the appropriated skandhas are what sentient beings depend upon and crave, they are called suffering; one should understand that they ought not to be depended upon or craved. Because of craving, there is no tranquility. When craving ceases, tranquility is attained. When suffering ceases, self-conceit is stilled, for cessation counteracts the mind of suffering. Through cultivation of the path, ignorance is stilled, for the path can counteract ignorance.

Furthermore, all who seek liberation wish to end suffering and attain happiness; this is the supreme function. How is suffering ended? It is ended through the cessation of origination. How is happiness attained? It is attained through cultivation of the path. Therefore, there are Noble Truths.

Furthermore, the masters of the Sutra Treatise school say: If anyone contemplates and sees the faults of samsara and contemplates the virtues of nirvana, that person enters the group established in right concentration.

What are the faults of samsara? They are the errors that arise when consciousness takes birth. The cause for the arising of this consciousness is craving.

What are the virtues of nirvana? They are the bliss of consciousness not arising. The means by which this consciousness does not arise is precisely the Noble Path. Therefore, the Four Truths were taught.

Furthermore, the Four Truths were taught to distinguish worldly and supramundane cause and effect.

Furthermore, they were taught for the penetrating realization of four kinds.

Furthermore, the Four Truths were taught in reliance upon and abiding in four kinds.

Furthermore, the Four Truths were taught because there are four distinct characteristics.

Question: What is the meaning of “noble,” and what is the meaning of “truth”?

Answer: “Noble” has eight meanings:

1. Sovereign. If one is bound to something else, one is not sovereign but is called a slave, not a noble one. Buddhas and their disciples have mastery over both mind and dharmas; therefore, they are called noble ones.

2. Free from craving for desirable things, as when a sovereign person is permitted to renounce the household life.

3. Born into a noble lineage, one is called a noble person, just as one born into a Brahmin lineage.

4. Born upon noble ground. “Ground” means the true and unarisen, just as one may be born in the central region of a country.

5. One’s practice is free from samsara, like that of a Brahmin.

6. One does not travel in the vehicle of samsara, for having relinquished it, one is no longer attached or defiled.

7. One is not born again, like an old seed.

8. One should be approached with reverence because one possesses merit and virtue, like an emperor. The verse of preservation and praise says:

“Truth” has seven meanings:

1. Non-inversion is the meaning of truth, just as heat is the characteristic of fire.

一. Real existence is the meaning of truth, as stated in the sutras.

一. Unchangingness is the meaning of truth.

一. 4. Not being twofold in its activity is the meaning of truth, as with the conduct of Thụ Đề Già and Xà Da Đạt Đa.

一. 5. Not arising again is the meaning of truth. From this knowledge, there is no further arising; it is unlike the cognition of a wheel of fire.

一. 6. Non-contradiction is the meaning of truth, as with the karma and moral discipline of the noble ones.

7. The correspondence of the words with their meaning is the meaning of truth. Why is this so? When it is said that attachment is suffering, the meaning is assuredly that it is suffering. Because of these seven meanings, it is called truth. You ask: If it is called truth because of the noble ones, then the first two should not be called truths. Furthermore, if it is said that they are called truths because they are truths of the noble ones, then is their meaning not indeterminate?

Answer: Truth is a cause of nobility because it can give rise to noble ones. Just as the Brahma-abodes are so called, these are therefore called the Noble Truths, like the path belonging to a guide. As stated in the sutras: Whatever the Tathagatas have rightly taught, they have all taught the Four Truths.

Question: If they are called Noble Truths because noble ones teach them, then ordinary beings also teach them; should they therefore be called truths of ordinary beings?

Answer: They speak by virtue of the Buddha’s spiritual power and thereby establish the Buddha’s true teaching. Therefore, these are not truths of ordinary beings, as in the account concerning Śāriputra.

Furthermore, because noble ones first comprehended them, they are like an elixir of immortality.

Furthermore, because noble ones rely upon true vision, they are called Noble Truths, just as conventional truths are so called.

Question: Since ordinary beings rely upon a vision of meanings that is not true, are these then neither noble nor truths?

Answer: Without the purified eye, one cannot see, just as one blind from birth cannot distinguish genuine treasures from false ones, or as a person whose eyes are veiled by cataracts sees many moons. Deluded and intoxicated, ordinary beings cannot see. This is like seeing a hundred elephants on the tip of a blade of grass.

Furthermore, the Treatise on the Collection of Knowledge says that because their essence is noble, they are called Noble Truths, just as with ô xà xích mễ.

Furthermore, the sutras say that because they are illuminated by the unsurpassed wisdom of the noble ones, they are called Noble Truths.

You ask: Another sutra says that truth is only one and that there is no second. How, then, can the four meanings exist without contradicting one another?

Answer: Because their meaning is non-inverted, they are one; because their categories differ, they are four, like the four inversions.

Furthermore, by virtue of the meaning of truth, they are one, like the Noble Path; because their functions differ, they are four, like the factors of the Path.

Furthermore, because the dharmas interpenetrate one another, they are one, like form; because they differ, they are four, like the four great elements.

Furthermore, because of the equality of non-self, they are one: where there is non-self, all things are equal; yet they are both alike and different.

Furthermore, because it is unchanging, it is with reference to liberation of mind that truth is said to be only one, without a second. Why is this so? The Noble Truth of Suffering and the others all involve change. As stated in the sutras: All conditioned things are empty and subject to destruction; the single true mind is the indestructible liberation. If their corresponding characteristics, though different, are all real and not false, the four meanings are likewise so. Therefore, there are Four Noble Truths.

You ask: Another sutra says that all conditioned phenomena are suffering. Therefore, there should be only two truths, and the four meanings cannot be established.

Answer: The Vibhajyavāda school explains that all conditioned dharmas are suffering because they are impermanent, not because they are suffering in the sense of ultimate truth. To abandon this suffering, one cultivates the pure holy life in the presence of the Blessed One; this is called the Truth of Suffering. It is subsequently explained at length, and therefore the four meanings are not invalidated.

Furthermore, many teachings and many sutras speak of three kinds of suffering. All conditioned phenomena are included within their respective categories. To say that conditioned phenomena are suffering is to speak comprehensively of all the categories.

With reference to the suffering of suffering, one speaks of the semblance of suffering, the root of suffering, the domain of suffering, painful feeling, and so forth. The same applies when speaking with reference to the suffering of change and the suffering of conditioned formations. With reference to all feelings, it is said that they are all suffering, just as impermanence is suffering.

Therefore, it is said that all conditioned phenomena are suffering. Alternatively, with reference to the suffering of conditioned formations, arising is said to be suffering, existence is suffering, and the arising of form is itself the arising of suffering. Or this Truth of Suffering is called suffering with many different meanings.

Thus, none of these statements contradicts the others.

Furthermore, because nirvana is unchanging, all conditioned phenomena are said to be suffering in relation to nirvana. Because they are suffering and correspond to the characteristic of suffering, the meaning of the Four Truths is not lost.

You ask: Furthermore, the Ekottarāgama establishes dharmas in numerical sequence, from one to two and onward to many. Why alone does the category of truths not increase one by one?

Answer: Because of their true meaning and because they are non-inverted, all that the Buddha taught is called truth. Although groups of one, two, and three are said to increase one by one, the truths do not increase in this way. Four are taught in order to distinguish contemplation of the truths.

They are like the four foundations of mindfulness because knowledge and characteristics are thereby established. As the causes and conditions for establishing the Four Truths were explained above, one should understand that knowing the Noble Truths means knowing four. Knowing that suffering has a cause is to attain vision of the Dharma.

As stated in the sutras: Whoever sees the twelve links of dependent origination is said to see the Dharma, because comprehension of the sixteen supramundane characteristics comes entirely through seeing the truths. Whatever depends upon causes and conditions has the meaning of impermanence, like the sound of a drum; the Nanda Sutra may be taken as proof. What is impermanent is suffering; what is suffering is non-self; what is non-self is empty.

Whoever knows this sees the Dharma, comprehends the sixteen characteristics, extinguishes the defilements, and abandons suffering. For this reason, there are Four Noble Truths.

Furthermore, because they are supreme and because they are not shared with the objects of ordinary cognition, there is no successive increase. You also ask: Since the four characteristics are not the same, how can they all be contemplated at one time?

Answer: It is through perception. The sutras say: By cultivating the perception of impermanence, one uproots all craving. The object of this perception is the Truth of Suffering. All craving is the Truth of the Origin of Suffering. Uprooting is the Truth of Cessation. The perception of impermanence is the Truth of the Path. Because of this meaning, although the four are different, they can be seen at one time.

Furthermore, this is through discriminative contemplation. As stated in the sutras: Through the perception of impermanence and so forth, one discriminatively contemplates the five skandhas; craving that has not yet arisen is prevented from arising, and craving that has already arisen is extinguished. Here, the five skandhas are the Truth of Suffering; craving is the Truth of the Origin of Suffering; non-arising and cessation are the Truth of Cessation; and discriminative contemplation of impermanence and so forth is the Truth of the Path. Because of this meaning, the Four Truths can be seen at one time.

Furthermore, this is through contemplating faults. As stated in the sutras: By contemplating the place of bondage and the faults of craving, craving is immediately extinguished. The place of bondage is the Truth of Suffering. Craving is the Truth of the Origin of Suffering. Its extinction is the Truth of Cessation. Contemplation of its faults is the Truth of the Path. Because of this meaning, the truths are seen at one time.

Furthermore, seeing the truths at one time is like fire. Fire is capable of burning things; at one time it burns, emits heat, and gives light. Contemplation of the truths is likewise: harming, arising, quiescence, and transcendence each respectively bring abandonment and cessation, while cultivation and realization occur simultaneously.

Furthermore, it is like the sun. The sun is capable of drying all things. Water, dark places, and flowers each have different characteristics, yet drying, ripening, and blossoming occur at one time. Contemplation of the truths is likewise.

Furthermore, it is like a lamp. A lamp is capable of burning things. The wick, oil, and dark objects each have different characteristics, yet burning, drying, dispelling, and illuminating all occur at one time. Contemplation of the truths is likewise.

Furthermore, it is like a boat. A boat can accomplish different things. With respect to this shore and the other shore, arrival, departure, and transportation all occur at one time. Contemplation of the truths is likewise.

The Vibhajyavada school says: If, contemplating the characteristics of the aggregate of suffering, one penetrates the arising and ceasing of the mind and becomes disenchanted with the conditioned, one cultivates the liberation gateway of wishlessness. If one contemplates that the conditioned consists solely of arising and ceasing, without seeing any other dharmas, one cultivates the liberation gateway of signlessness. Here, the characteristic of suffering is the truth of suffering.

The characteristic of arising consists of the afflictions and karma, which constitute the truth of accumulation. The characteristic of cessation is the truth of cessation. The Dharma that can cause the mind to relinquish characteristics and perceive signlessness is the truth of the path.

If one perceives the unconditioned Dharma as quiescent and free from arising and ceasing, the four meanings are accomplished simultaneously. What differs from this quiescence of the unconditioned is called the truth of suffering. Because it eliminates this, the Dharma of the quiescent unconditioned is called the truth of accumulation.

The unconditioned Dharma itself is the truth of cessation. That which enables one to contemplate this quiescence and perceive the unconditioned is the truth of the path. For this reason, although the four characteristics are distinct, they are contemplated simultaneously and subsequently examined once again; therefore, they are not discussed at length.

The summary verse says:

You ask: What difference is there between the brahmin truths and the noble truths?

Answer: The World-Honored One is the true Noble One and the true Brahmin; therefore, these truths are not different, just as Shakra is the same as the king of the gods.

Furthermore, the brahmin truths are included within the truth of the path. The noble truths are the fruit of the path and its antidotes, included within the sphere of the path.

Furthermore, what is exclusively wholesome constitutes the brahmin truths, while the wholesome, unwholesome, and morally indeterminate constitute the noble truths.

Furthermore, the path alone constitutes the brahmin truths, while the fruit of the path is called the noble truths.

You ask: Why do all Buddhas possess the same wisdom regarding the noble truths?

Answer: Because they completely penetrate all dharmas without remainder and perceive their characteristic of equality, just as pure eyes perceive visible forms.

Furthermore, it is because they directly realize and perceive the Dharma, just as fire is hot and luminous. The world realizes this matter through one and the same wisdom.

Furthermore, it is like the method of polishing a mirror. The Buddhas completely penetrate the Dharma realm and know all things throughout the three times as though they were present. It is like the many surfaces of water and mirrors in which the image of the moon is one. The summary verse says:

You ask: Why are only the four truths taken as the supreme and definitive teaching of the Buddhas?

Answer: Because they can rescue sentient beings from the ocean of birth and death, like a supramundane Dharma.

Furthermore, because they are supreme among all truths, they are likened to the supreme truth.

Furthermore, because they can encompass all true dharmas, they are like the analogy of the three Simshapa leaves.

Furthermore, Brahma, Shakra, and the other gods have never perceived them; therefore, even such resolute and courageous gods as Vishnu and others cannot reach them with their wisdom, while diligent wisdom travels far, as attained by the non-Buddhist seers.

Furthermore, because they are the sphere of non-discriminating wisdom, those capable of knowing all these adornments of merit are Shariputra and others, as well as the Buddha, the World-Honored One.

Furthermore, because their meaning is complete and not shared with others, their merit is declared to be the most excellent. Therefore, the four truths are called the supreme and definitive teaching.

You ask: Since the four truths are contemplated together as the objects of cognition, why, though wisdom is equal, do the fruits differ?

Answer: Wisdom is not the same merely because the object is the same, just as concentration and sensual desire, and so forth, may have the same object.

Furthermore, because wisdom differs, the fruits differ, just as differing karma produces differing fruits.

Furthermore, because the paths cultivated differ, the fruits attained are not the same, just as different seeds produce different fruits.

Furthermore, because contemplation of faults has superior, intermediate, and inferior grades, the fruits attained are not the same.

You ask: If arhats possess the same, undifferentiated knowledge of the four truths, they should be no different from those who possess omniscience. If this is not so, must there be ignorance concerning the four truths?

Answer: An arhat's not knowing the Buddhas' sphere beyond the four truths is not ignorance. Why is this? It is only said that if an arhat does not know teachings outside the four truths, this is not ignorance, as in the Sutra of the Analogy of the Simshapa Leaves.

Furthermore, the Buddha, the World-Honored One, definitively declared that not knowing the truths of suffering and so forth is ignorance. Not knowing matters outside the four truths, such as the four Vedas and so forth, is not called ignorance.

Furthermore, that which is directly counteracted by knowledge of the truths among the afflictions is called ignorance. Not possessing omniscience concerning the four separately stated categories is not called ignorance.

Why is this? The successive moments of consciousness within each portion of one's own suffering are all different. Even an arhat cannot perceive this mind throughout beginningless samsara.

Having arisen in this way, it is conditioned by objective conditions, dominant conditions, and so forth, together with volition and the like, whether wholesome, unwholesome, or morally indeterminate. Thus produced by causes and encompassed by conditions in that state, it is followed by a second moment of mind and then by a subsequent moment. In this manner, from the initial instant through a lava, a muhurta, a day, a night, half a month, a month, a year, and so forth, there are arising, transformation, and cessation.

Even an arhat cannot perceive all this within his own continuum, much less perceive every seed of all his own suffering. If he does not even know all his own suffering, how much less can he know the suffering of others? Therefore, an arhat cannot perceive the sphere of omniscience.

Yet not knowing the general and particular aspects of the four truths is not ignorance.

Furthermore, apart from the sphere of knowledge that counteracts ignorance concerning the four truths, there are other dharmas that are likewise beyond the perception of shravakas and arhats. As Shariputra said: “I do not see any person or god capable of seeing and knowing that I entered the first concentration, contemplated and examined, and have now withdrawn and emerged from it. Only the World-Honored One knows the name of this quiescent concentration.” Even Maudgalyayana could not understand which concentration Shariputra entered or from which concentration he emerged.

This extends to the conversion of Nanda, the brahmin Jaya, and Upatishya, the nephew through his maternal uncle. In concentration, wisdom, eloquence, and cultivation, others could not equal him. What was true of Shariputra was also true of Kashyapa.

Therefore, apart from the antidotes to ignorance and so forth concerning the four truths, such lack of knowledge is called neither knowledge nor ignorance.

You ask: If all dharmas are encompassed by the four truths, one should investigate the Sutra of the Analogy of the Simshapa Leaves. If it need not be investigated, there should be five truths. If there are not five truths, are all remaining dharmas not truths?

Answer: Natural cessation and so forth do not lie beyond the sphere of consciousness concerning the truths, and therefore they are not objects to be contemplated. Why are they not objects of contemplation? If one knows these dharmas, one still does not attain the exhaustion of the outflows or the exhaustion of suffering, nor does one escape the aspirations of non-Buddhist paths. One's views are not rendered unshakable like Shakra's banner. If one comprehends these things, one is not thereby said to have penetrated the subtle, just as one who shoots through the tip of a hair does not thereby possess universally applicable knowledge. Therefore, it is unnecessary to study them.

Furthermore, other treatise masters say that, by virtue of their characteristics, all dharmas are encompassed by the truths. Nevertheless, there are the Vedas and the transmitted branches of the Vedas; the Treatise on Fundamental Measures; the Samkhya treatises; the extensive Yoga treatises; the Treatise on Objects of Desire; the Vaisheshika treatises; medical treatises; treatises on physiognomy; treatises on calculation and numbers; treatises on knowledge of time; treatises on animals; treatises on dental regions; treatises on the sciences; treatises on the adornment of song and dance; treatises on human dance; treatises on celestial dance; treatises recounting celestial seers and kings; treatises of non-Buddhist paths; treatises of the perpetually practicing non-Buddhist paths;

and so forth, numbering as many as ninety-six kinds.

There are also the powers of medicinal herbs, trees, vines, bark, roots, pith, flowers, fruits, leaves, and so forth; their flavors, ripening, and other qualities; as well as treatises capable of distinguishing the karmic results and recompenses associated with the four great elements and the world's rare and inconceivable transformations, and so forth. It was in reference to such treatises that the Buddha taught the Analogy of the Simshapa Leaves.

Such meanings were not taught to you because they do not produce merit, can give rise to errors, and increase conditioned existence. Just as poisons, medicines that cause mutual hostility, magical incantations, and the Pitaka treatises on illusions and transformations can be used to harm others, the Buddha did not teach them. It was not because they lie outside the four truths that he did not teach them.

You ask: If suffering and the other three are called the Four Noble Truths, why is it also said that suffering fully comprises the Noble Truths? Such statements in the sutras should not be made.

Furthermore, if you say that the Truth of Suffering is called suffering, is this not contrary to the meaning?

Answer: That sutra speaks of knowledge as the Truth of Suffering. It is like an object that makes no distinctions, as when speaking of the four measures.

Furthermore, because an object is established, knowledge is established, just as with the six consciousnesses.

Furthermore, because of its function, although the essence of knowledge is only one, it can constitute four, as is also the case with knowledge of the Four Right Efforts.

Furthermore, the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths is universal; therefore, in the contemplation of the Four Truths, knowledge is said to be supreme. For this reason, knowledge is spoken of as though it were the object.

Furthermore, to reveal that definite deliverance is the virtue of the Four Truths, it is said accordingly that the single Truth of Suffering fully comprises the Noble Truths and accords with their meaning. If spoken of in the definitive sense, suffering and the others are truths of definitive meaning.

Why is this? The Buddha taught that the Truth of Suffering has the characteristics of arising and so forth in order to establish four kinds of contemplation. Were it not so, there would be only one contemplation called cultivation. If this sutra were used to distinguish the truths, there would be only one truth—the Truth of the Path—and it would thus assert that the unconditioned alone is truth. This sutra does not prove that meaning; rather, the doctrine is established on the basis of the Abhidharma and the Treatise Piṭaka.

You ask: If, by knowing one truth, one also knows the other truths, then are the latter three truths not useless?

Answer: I do not say that seeing the Truth of Suffering is itself seeing the other truths. I say that the Four Truths are seen at the same time. Since distancing oneself, abandoning, realizing, and cultivating occur at the same time, the other truths are not said to be useless. For example, although the Truth of Suffering is spoken of, the number of paths is also stated according to the number of objects.

Furthermore, within the Four Truths, fully knowing any one of them entails penetrating the others, just as knowing one seed entails understanding the other seeds. Therefore, all Four Truths are useful.

Furthermore, because one enters through the gateway of contemplation, contemplating the appropriated skandhas causes one to relinquish thoughts of craving, just as one who recognizes an enemy. The appropriated skandhas are the Truth of Suffering; thoughts of craving are the Truth of Origin; relinquishment is the Truth of Cessation; and knowledge is the Truth of the Path. Such is the meaning according to the contemplative gateway of suffering.

Once craving is known, it is abandoned. Because of this suffering, craving does not arise: this is the Truth of Origin. Craving is the Truth of Suffering; the non-arising of suffering is the Truth of Cessation; and knowledge is the Truth of the Path. Such is the contemplative gateway of the Truth of Origin.

Having known that conditioned phenomena are quiescent, when one realizes this Dharma, ignorance immediately ceases and thirst for conditioned existence becomes quiescent. The quiescence of conditioned phenomena is the Truth of Cessation. The phenomenon relinquished here is the Truth of Suffering; ignorance and craving are the Truth of Origin; and knowledge is the Truth of the Path. Such is the contemplative gateway of the Truth of Cessation.

Upon knowing the factors that assist the Path, one begins to cultivate them, and the hindrances of the afflictions together with their faults are abandoned. Because they are abandoned, existence arises again. The factors assisting the Path are the Truth of the Path; existence is the Truth of Suffering; karma and the afflictions are the Truth of Origin; and their abandonment and the non-arising of existence are the Truth of Cessation. Such is the contemplative gateway of the Truth of the Path.

Thus, because of the contemplative gateways of the truths, although one truth is contemplated, the other truths are not said to be useless.

You ask: Why is the Truth of Suffering taught first?

Answer: Because the Four Truths are contemplated in order to bring suffering to an end, and because those who have gone forth abide in the holy life, suffering is taught first.

Furthermore, the boundless and immeasurable sufferings of birth, aging, and death constantly oppress beings from moment to moment; therefore, practitioners contemplate this suffering and seek its cause, like a lion.

Furthermore, external conditions cannot cure the fundamental illness that has persisted since beginningless time. Practitioners contemplate this and seek the cause of the illness, like physicians.

Furthermore, calamities and illnesses pervade the three realms. Practitioners contemplate this and seek their cause, as one searches for a poisonous tree.

Furthermore, because suffering is coarse, loss occurs; because one grows weary of dependence, one fears its domain. Therefore, suffering is taught first.

You ask: If the effect is taught before the cause, does this not contradict the twelve links of dependent arising?

Answer: In the sequence of arising, the twelve links of dependent arising place the cause first and the effect afterward. In the sequence of contemplative investigation, the Four Truths place the effect first and the cause afterward. Therefore, the two teachings do not contradict one another.

Furthermore, when there is delusion concerning the effect, one grasps the effect on account of conditions. As the sutra says: “When this exists, that exists; from the arising of this, that arises.” When there is delusion concerning the cause, one grasps the cause on account of the effect, as the sutra says: “Through the existence of what phenomenon do aging and death, and so forth, exist?” For this reason, each teaching refutes something, and they do not contradict one another. Because they are taught in reverse and forward order, the two teachings differ. The Four Truths teach dependent arising in reverse order; therefore, they do not contradict the twelve links of dependent arising.

You ask: Why is the Truth of Cessation taught before the Truth of the Path?

Answer: There are two modes: forward and reverse. As the sutra says: “Purity of conduct leads to purity of mind; purity of mind leads to purity of wisdom,” and so forth, up to the knowledge and vision of liberation and the liberation of insight. This is teaching in forward order. Teaching in reverse order is: liberation has dispassion as its condition; dispassion has disenchantment as its condition; disenchantment has true seeing as its condition; and so forth, until freedom from sorrow and regret has purity of conduct as its condition.

Chapter 2: A Brief Explanation of the Four Truths

Question: What is the order of the Four Truths?

Answer:

To reveal the coarse and great domain, the Truth of Suffering is taught. Once the characteristic of suffering has been understood, one asks from what cause this phenomenon arises; therefore, Origin is taught. One then asks where this phenomenon ends; therefore, Cessation is taught next. One asks through what cause this phenomenon can be extinguished; therefore, the Path is taught next.

Furthermore, the net of entanglement extending from beginningless time is called suffering; the root of entanglement is called origin; permanent separation from the root of entanglement is called cessation; and that which can uproot it is called the path.

Furthermore, an extremely heavy burden is called suffering; grasping the burden is called origin; laying it down is called cessation; and that which can eliminate the grasping is called the path.

Furthermore, the place of bondage is called suffering; that bondage is called origin; the exhaustion of bondage is called cessation; and contemplating its faults is called the path.

Furthermore, appropriation is likewise.

Furthermore, the place of dependence is called suffering. Although ordinary beings in the world are harmed by the appropriated skandhas, they still give rise to dependence and attachment, like one who relies on an enemy while mistakenly regarding him as a close friend. Dependence upon what is deemed peaceful and lovable is called origin. Because they regard it as peaceful and lovable, they remain in the prison of the three realms without seeking escape, like madmen in a jail. Nondependence upon craving is cessation, because there is no place of dependence. As stated in the Kù-đề Sutra, that which can end dependence upon craving is called the path, because it contemplates the faults of dependence as one contemplates a burning house.

Furthermore, the six destinies are called suffering because there is nothing pleasurable in them, like a filthy latrine. Karma and the afflictions are origin, being the causes of the destinies. Separation from the destinies is cessation, because no conventionally designated entity remains, like a fire that has gone out. This is stated in the Lộc Đầu Sutra. Because it can lead beings out of the various destinies, it is called the path, as stated in the Bà-la-kha Mã Vương Sutra.

Furthermore, fear is called suffering; self-craving is called origin; the fearless state is cessation; and the means that carries one to the truly peaceful, supremely blissful, and fearless state is called the path.

Furthermore, an activity is called suffering; the cause of the activity is origin; uprooting the cause of the activity is cessation; and that which can uproot it is the path.

Furthermore, that which resembles a fruit is suffering; that which resembles a seed is origin; the destruction of that which resembles a seed is cessation; and the cause that destroys the seed is the path.

Furthermore, suffering is like an illness; origin is like the cause of the illness; cessation is like freedom from illness; and the path is like medicine that cures the illness.

Furthermore, suffering is like fire; origin is like firewood; cessation is like the extinguishing of the fire; and the path is like the cause of extinguishing the fire.

Furthermore, being one’s own enemy is suffering; the knot of hatred is origin; removing the knot of hatred is cessation; and that which can remove its cause is the path.

Furthermore, one’s own reliance is suffering; one’s own defilement is origin; purity from defilement is cessation; and the cause of purity is the path.

Furthermore, suffering is like debt; origin is like poverty; cessation is like the ending of poverty; and the path is like wealth.

Furthermore, suffering is like scorching heat; its origination is like the cause of the scorching heat; cessation is like coolness; and the path is like the means of bringing coolness.

Furthermore, suffering is like the outbreak of poison; the truth of origination is like the poison; cessation is like the elimination of the poison; and the path is like agada medicine.

Furthermore, suffering is like torment and oppression; origination is like the power to torment; cessation is like freedom from torment; and the path is like the cause of freedom from torment.

Furthermore, suffering is like being slain; origination is like the slayer; cessation is like freedom from being slain; and the path is like the cause of freedom from being slain.

Furthermore, suffering must be understood, origination must be abandoned, and cessation must be realized. For the sake of these three tasks, the Noble Path is cultivated. Their sequence is thus.

What are the essential characteristics of the Four Truths?

The verse says:

Certain Dharma masters say that each truth has an intrinsic aspect and a true aspect. Birth is the fruit of craving and is therefore called true suffering. The destinies are the fruit of karma and are called intrinsic suffering. Birth arises from craving and is called true origination. Karma leads beings through the six destinies and is called intrinsic origination. Birth ceases through the exhaustion of craving and is called true cessation. The exhaustion of the causes of the six destinies is called intrinsic cessation. Right knowledge, which can eliminate the causes of birth, is called the true path. Moral discipline and the other expedient means that serve as causes of freedom are called the intrinsic path.

Furthermore, the masters of the Li-tzu school say that consciousness is true suffering. The forms associated with this consciousness are also called suffering. Craving itself is called true origination. The karmic deeds associated with this craving are also called origination. The exhaustion of craving itself is true cessation. Because this ceases, other things are also said to cease. Right view is called the true path. If this right view does not arise, the other factors do not reach cessation. Because the other factors arise from it, they too are called the path.

Furthermore, the Prajñaptivada school says that each truth is of three kinds: first, the category of suffering; second, the truth as a category; and third, the Noble Truth.

The category of suffering is the suffering of the five appropriated skandhas. In the truth as a category, oppression and affliction are the characteristic of suffering. The Noble Truth of suffering has a single flavor. The category of origination is the origination of craving. In the truth as a category, the capacity to produce is its characteristic. The Noble Truth of origination has a single flavor. The category of cessation is the fruits of the śramana. In the truth of cessation as a category, quiescence is its characteristic. In the Noble Truth of cessation, a single flavor is its characteristic. The category of the path is the Noble Eightfold Path. In the truth of the path, direct deliverance is its characteristic. In the Noble Truth of the path, a single flavor is its characteristic.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavada school says that all conditioned phenomena are suffering because they are impermanent; they are not suffering merely because they constitute the first truth. To become free from this suffering, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of suffering.

All causes are called origination because a cause has the capacity to produce; they are not origination merely because they constitute the second truth. To abandon this origination, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of origination.

The quiescence and relinquishment of all conditioned phenomena is called cessation because it is quiescent; it is not cessation merely because it constitutes the third truth. To realize this cessation, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the Noble Truth of cessation.

All wholesome dharmas are the path because they can bring deliverance; they are not the path merely because they constitute the fourth truth. To cultivate this path, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is called the Noble Truth.

It is further said that attachment to characteristics is an affliction. The afflictions and the karma generated by the afflictions are called origination. If existence arises from them, it is called the Noble Truth of origination; if birth occurs, it is called the Noble Truth of suffering.

Thus, the first truth arises from the second truth. If the mind relinquishes attachment to characteristics and reaches the realm without characteristics, then, through this cause, the afflictions and the karma generated by the afflictions cease. Because they cease, there are no further causes and conditions for return, and existence does not arise again.

This cessation whereby there is no further arising is called the Noble Truth of cessation. This Dharma can cause the mind to relinquish attachment to characteristics and realize the realm without characteristics. These right views are called the Noble Truth of the path leading to cessation.

As with attachment to characteristics, so it is also with other reflections, such as false discrimination and the like.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavada Treatise says that the Blessed One did not rely upon all forms of suffering when provisionally speaking of the truth of suffering. If so, for what purpose did he reveal the morally indeterminate fruit? Because the appropriated skandhas have the nature and characteristics of suffering, he provisionally spoke of the truth of suffering and provisionally described dharmas that are causes of suffering. To part from this, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the true truth of suffering.

He did not rely upon all causes when provisionally speaking of the truth of origination. To reveal the capacity to produce, and because causes provisionally possess the nature and characteristics of origination, he provisionally spoke of the truth of origination and provisionally described dharmas that are causes of origination. To abandon this, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the true truth of origination.

He did not rely upon every kind of cessation when provisionally speaking of the truth of cessation. To reveal the ending of the course of cyclic existence, and because cessation has its nature and characteristics, he provisionally spoke of the truth of cessation and provisionally described dharmas that are causes of cessation. To realize this, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the true truth of cessation.

He did not rely upon every path when provisionally speaking of the truth of the path. To reveal that which can eliminate the afflictions, and because the path has its nature and characteristics, he provisionally described dharmas that are causes of the truth of the path. To cultivate this Dharma, one cultivates the pure holy life under the Blessed One. This is the true truth of the path.

Furthermore, the Piṭaka Treatise says: Briefly stated, suffering is of two kinds: 1. Meeting those one hates. 2. Separation from those one loves.

These two occur in two places: first, the body; second, the mind. Because of the three kinds of craving, three kinds of suffering arise. The truth of origination has three aspects: craving, views, and karma.

The two afflictions of craving and views are called subsequent origination. Because of them, karma comes into being. The cessation of coarse and subtle origination has three aspects: 1.

The cessation of the afflictions of the single sphere of views. 2. The cessation of the afflictions of the single sphere of desire. 3. The cessation of the afflictions of the single sphere of existence.

The truth of the path has three aspects: 1. The path of seeing. 2. The path of cultivation. 3.

The path that perfects appropriation. These three are precisely the three faculties.

It is further said that suffering has the characteristic of oppression, origination has the characteristic of production, cessation has the characteristic of quiescence, and the path has the characteristic of deliverance.

It is further said that suffering has the characteristic of existence, origination has the characteristic of producing existence, cessation has the characteristic of freedom, and the path has the characteristic of bringing freedom.

Chapter 3: Analysis of the Truth of Suffering, Part 1

What is the truth of suffering? It has been stated briefly in this manner. How is it explained in detail?

Within the aggregate of suffering, why is birth taught first? What is called birth? What is called the characteristic of birth?

What is called the function of birth? What is called the condition for birth? What is called the suffering of birth?

If birth is suffering, then the meaning of the three kinds of happiness arising from birth cannot be established. How do birth and arising differ? Since the five skandhas of an arhat have not yet ceased, why is it said that birth has been exhausted?

What is aging? What is the characteristic of aging? What is the function of aging?

What is the condition for aging? What is the suffering of aging? Characteristics such as the falling out of teeth are not universally present, whereas suffering is universally present, are they not?

Why is aging said to be the Noble Truth of suffering? Conditioned phenomena cease at every moment and do not remain.

Why, then, is there aging?

The summary verse says:

First analyze the four kinds of birth,
The three kinds of suffering and their distinctions,
The exhaustion of four, aging and its suffering,
The falling out of teeth and momentary cessation.

What is illness? What is the characteristic of illness? What is the function of illness? What is the condition for illness? What is the suffering of illness? If the body is always suffering because of illness, how does this not contradict the following verse:

If there is no illness in the heavenly realms, yet all sentient beings are subject to illness, this statement must be examined according to the right path. The treatise says that illness is the fruit of karma, but the suffering that is the fruit of karma is not the Noble Truth of suffering. The Buddha called suffering an illness.

Moreover, a verse says that hunger is the foremost illness. How do these two teachings differ?

What is death? What is the characteristic of death? What is the function of death? What is the condition for death? What is the suffering of death? Death through heedlessness, death through breaking the precepts, and death through conditioned arising: how do these three differ?

Furthermore, what is the meaning of death with awareness or without awareness, death with regret or without regret, death with heedlessness or with heedfulness, death with attachment or without attachment, death with discipline or without discipline, and death with only partial discipline?

The five aggregates perish of themselves in each successive moment; how could another person kill them? What is association with the hated? What is the characteristic of association with the hated? What is the function of association with the hated? What is the condition for association with the hated? In what way is association with the hated suffering? If hated things come together, they would never be separated from one another; this would necessarily follow.

What is separation from the loved? What is the characteristic of separation from the loved? What is the function of separation from the loved? What is the condition for separation from the loved? In what way is separation from the loved suffering?

The coming together of old age and so forth is association with the hated. Separation from youth, the prime of life, and so forth is separation from the loved. Moreover, is speaking of association with the hated and separation from the loved not redundant?

What is not obtaining what one seeks? What is the characteristic of not obtaining what one seeks? What is the function of not obtaining what one seeks? What is the condition for not obtaining what one seeks? In what way is not obtaining what one seeks suffering? The objects of desire are themselves suffering, and even obtaining them is suffering; why, then, is not obtaining what one seeks suffering?

Through what causes and conditions does one not obtain what one seeks? Why is the brief statement that the five aggregates of clinging are suffering a concise exposition of the meaning of suffering?

What are the aggregates, what are their characteristics, and what is the meaning of “aggregate”? Form, consciousness, and the others alike bear the characteristic of being conditioned. Why are the five aggregates distinguished from the aggregates of clinging?

Why are the aggregates of clinging called aggregates of suffering? What is meant by not calling them aggregates of suffering? When, through right view, one has comprehended a single form of suffering, one has thereby penetrated the truth of suffering; what need is there to explain the characteristics of the various sufferings extensively?

The sutras also say that form can be pleasant and can abide in a pleasant state. If the aggregates of clinging are suffering, this contradicts the sutras; why, then, does this sutra alone give this concise statement? The sutras say that form is suffering, up to consciousness being suffering.

For what causes and conditions, moreover, are the aggregates of clinging suffering, and what is the meaning of this general summary?

You ask: What is the truth of suffering? It has already been stated briefly in this way. How, then, is it distinguished extensively?

Answer: Some disciples delight in hearing the true teaching in brief, such as Sariputra and others; because their wisdom opens readily and they are receptive to instruction, it is taught briefly. Some disciples delight in hearing an extensive exposition, such as Nanda, Phalguna, and others; because their wisdom discerns through extensive analysis, it is taught to them at length.

Again, some disciples possess very strong causal capacities, such as Mahakasyapa, whose roots of goodness had matured; therefore, it was taught to them briefly. Those with weak supporting conditions, such as Sati and others, whose roots of goodness had not yet matured, were taught at length.

Furthermore, those of sharp faculties, such as Angulimala and others, were taught briefly. Those of dull faculties who were receptive to instruction, such as Jāṇussoṇi and others, were taught at length.

Furthermore, disciples of great learning, such as Ananda and others, were able to preserve the treasury of teachings; therefore, it was taught briefly. Disciples who had heard little, such as Culapanthaka and others, whose wisdom was weak and slow, were taught through extensive analysis.

Furthermore, those abundant in the noble teachings and supreme qualities, such as Revata and others, constantly cultivated inner contemplation; therefore, it was taught to them briefly. Those who did not yet possess the noble teachings and supreme qualities, such as Channa and others, and had not cultivated inner contemplation, were taught through extensive analysis.

You ask: Among the group of sufferings, why is birth taught first?

Answer: Because it is the beginning of suffering. Of the sufferings of old age, illness, death, and so forth, birth comes first. Just as morality is the beginning of supramundane and mundane qualities such as freedom from remorse, so birth is the basis for old age, illness, death, and so forth. Therefore, birth is taught first, because they are inseparable.

Furthermore, because birth has causal efficacy: once birth occurs, there are old age, illness, death, and so forth. Fire has the power to harm; once fire has arisen, there are burning, illumination, and so forth, but not when there is no fire. Birth is likewise; therefore, it is taught first.

Furthermore, because they are inseparable: even if sentient beings could be free from old age and illness, they certainly could not be free from birth. Because conditioned existence is suffering, because one experiences its result, and because the path is its antidote, birth is taught first.

Furthermore, because its fault applies equally: all sentient beings are harmed by birth, just as by the murderous demon of impermanence.

Furthermore, because it accompanies every factor of existence: birth pervades the twelve factors of existence, beginning with ignorance, like milk containing poison. Furthermore, because it pervades the three realms: birth pervades all three realms, as cattle may belong to different breeds. Therefore, birth is taught first.

Furthermore, because it is the root of suffering: birth is the root of suffering, while old age, illness, and death are its branches and leaves. As a sutra says: “All sufferings have birth as their root.” Because birth is their cause, as extensively taught in the sutras, it is taught first.

The mnemonic verse says:

Suffering begins with what cannot be escaped,
Applies equally and follows every factor of existence;
Pervading the three realms, it is the root of suffering—
Therefore, birth is taught first.

What is birth? The verse answers:

Birth is explained in five sutras:
The obtaining of aggregates, the first continuity of mind,
The factor of birth together with its companions,
The stages in the womb, and the five kinds.

Explanation: Birth is extensively explained in the Abhidharma Piṭaka Treatise, the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, and so forth, and in the Treatise on Discernment of Mind; this should be understood.

Furthermore, in the Chapter on the Growth of Karma, it is said that the latent tendencies serve as companions, drawing forth the causes and conditions of the dharmas of renewed birth; through their accumulation, the various places of birth are obtained, and the aggregates, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth are acquired. This is called birth.

Furthermore, when renewed existence is about to continue, the initial consciousness receives birth; this is called birth. As the sutra says, because consciousness enters, name-and-form unite. If birth is explained in sequence, the first arising of consciousness is called birth.

Furthermore, other treatise masters say that the factor of birth is the arising together of the initial consciousness and all its companions; this is called birth.

Furthermore, birth is of many kinds, namely the distinct embryonic stages such as kalala and so forth, up to emergence from the womb, as taught in the Sutra on Taking Birth.

Furthermore, birth is of five kinds. As the verse says:

Attaining the noble Dharma is birth;
The embryonic stage and the establishment of lineage;
Groups of the same or different species, and existence—
These alone bear the name of birth.

Explanation: Attaining the noble Dharma is birth, as the sutra says: “You have escaped the status of slaves and servants and have been born from my mouth.”

Furthermore, one has been born into the discipline of the noble Dharma, as stated in the Angulimala Sutra.

Furthermore, the stages of abiding in the womb are called birth, namely kalala, arbuda, ghana, and so forth, like a seed, sprout, shoot, branch, and so forth.

Furthermore, establishment within a lineage is called birth, as in the arising of precious gold and so forth, or birth among the kshatriyas and so forth.

Furthermore, groups of the same or different species are called birth when their forms and characteristics differ, as with humans, elephants, horses, and so forth, or trees such as the palāśa and tāla.

Furthermore, existence is called birth, meaning the various modes of existence comprising the aggregates, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth. These are called birth, just as one speaks of the existence of flowers and fruits or of sons and daughters.

This treatise speaks only of existence as birth. Why is this? Because existence is fundamentally the result of craving; therefore, only existence is called birth.

What is the characteristic of birth? What is the function of birth? What is the condition for birth?

Answer: The manifestation of existence is the characteristic of birth. The various sufferings are its function, and conditioned phenomena are the condition for birth.

In what way is it suffering?

Answer: Because it is scorched by the three fires of suffering. A place of birth that is undesirable and is not the result of meritorious action is scorched by the manifold sufferings belonging to groups of the same or different species. A place of birth that is desirable and is the result of meritorious action is scorched by the suffering of change belonging to groups of the same or different species. A place of birth that is the result of imperturbable action is scorched by the suffering of conditioned existence belonging to groups of the same or different species. It is like a wildfire burning trees; therefore, birth is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, because it is the support of all sufferings: wherever there is birth, body and mind become the gathering place and support of all sufferings, which is not the case when there is no birth. It is like the Deer Park, which is the dwelling place of seers.

Furthermore, the manifestation of the various modes of existence comprising the aggregates, ayatanas, and dhatus is called the place of birth. Once that place has arisen, sufferings such as cutting, striking, piercing, breaking, dissection, separation, and falling away arise equally in accordance with it, for the enemy of impermanence cannot be restrained. It is like the prince's land and an object fashioned from clay. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, birth is the repository in which all sufferings, anxieties, sorrows, and afflictions are contained; it is not the foundation of anything wholesome. It is the condition for aging and death, the arising of various illnesses, the entry of pain and the loss of one’s kind, the support of every evil, an obstruction that causes ruin and trampling, the arduous gateway to the citadel, a treasury filled with enmity, and the continuation of afflictions.

This birth is darkness without a lamp to illuminate it, a deep pit difficult to escape, a place where one is consumed though there is no fire, an enemy difficult to recognize, truly a fruitless waste beyond doubt, a pain for which there is no medicine, a bondage without cords, and a thorny forest without a path or any bright flame. Children praise it, but the wise revile it. Those attached to existence delight in and cherish it; all Buddhas and bodhisattvas, moved by great compassion, guide beings away from it; those in training abandon it, and those beyond training eradicate it completely.

Having awakened to this themselves, all Buddhas designate it as suffering. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, the stages within the womb are suffering. Thus, when one is about to undergo birth, the red and white elements unite, and consciousness comes to lodge there and endure all manner of impure suffering. Next come the stages of kalala, arbuda, ghana, peśī, and so forth, in which one undergoes the suffering of transformation and maturation, like an abscess ripening to maturity.

Once the body has become firm and its parts develop, one undergoes immense suffering, like that of a great calamity. While lying in the womb, one is compressed between two organs, like a prisoner tormented by being steamed from below and pressed from above. Because the mother eats, drinks, or conducts herself improperly—such as by running, jumping, wading through water, laboring, bending, or stretching—the fetus is struck and suffers pain. When her food and drink are unsuitable, or her deportment is improper, every part within the body feels as though it were being cut and torn, and one undergoes many kinds of suffering, like a person who has violated the king’s law and is subjected to painful interrogation. Therefore, birth is suffering.

When one is about to emerge from the womb, the body is as soft as the pith of a plantain tree. Compressed by the birth canal as oilseeds are crushed in a press, one undergoes extremely painful pressure. Upon first emerging from the womb, the body is like a newly formed sore; when hands, water, or clothing touch it, it is as though scalding lye touched it or a knife cut into it, causing unbearable pain. Therefore, birth is said to be suffering.

If birth is suffering, does this mean that the doctrine of the three kinds of pleasant birth cannot be established?

Answer: In order to distinguish the different results of karma, to establish the distinctions among the three realms, and to make clear that there are three kinds of feeling, three pleasant births must therefore be recognized. Yet they are included within the suffering of conditioned formations; they belong to the truth of suffering, are oppressive suffering, and contain much suffering. Therefore, birth is suffering.

Furthermore, because there is the result of meritorious conduct, there are three pleasant births. As the verse says:

Because they are mingled with the virulent poison of impermanence, they are suffering, like food mixed with poison. Although it may possess a hundred delicious flavors, colors, and fragrances, whoever eats it will certainly die. All affairs of birth and death are likewise: because they are mingled with the poison of impermanence, they are called suffering.

Furthermore, because there is pleasure when birth occurs and pleasure while it continues, it is called a pleasant birth. Yet when the happiness of this birth disintegrates, there is suffering. Therefore, noble ones abhor this suffering of disintegration as they would filthy excrement, and birth is consequently called suffering.

How do birth and arising differ?

Answer: Transformation birth is also called arising, while the other three kinds are called birth.

Furthermore, entering the womb is called birth, while emerging from the womb is called arising.

Furthermore, when the constituents of existence are born in sequence, it is called birth; when they arise fully and simultaneously, it is called arising. The Treatise Treasury states: Birth pertains to consciousness, because consciousness is the initial seed entering the womb. Arising pertains to karma, because karma is capable of dispersing and placing consciousness within the various destinies.

Since the five skandhas of an arhat have not yet ceased, why is it said that birth has been exhausted?

Answer: Because in one respect it has already ceased, birth is said to have been exhausted.

Furthermore, because its causes and conditions have ceased, there is in this life no dharma that will produce birth in a future life. It is like saying that the truth of suffering has ceased because craving has ceased.

Furthermore, because the roots of birth have been uprooted, it is said to have been exhausted. For example, when a tree’s roots have been severed, even though it still has many flowers and leaves, it is called destroyed. The exhaustion of birth is likewise.

Furthermore, because it will subsequently come to an end, birth is said to be exhausted. It is like an earthen object thrown down from the summit of a mountain: although it has not yet reached the ground, it is already said to be broken. The exhaustion of birth is likewise. Therefore, it is said that an arhat’s birth is exhausted.

What is aging?

Answer: The appearance of youth disappears; gradually, the four great elements deteriorate, conditioned formations change, the body becomes slow and its joints grow loose, the form becomes coarse and ugly, the faculties weaken, and mindfulness, consciousness, wisdom, and conduct can no longer perform their functions. One approaches the gateway of death. This is called aging.

Furthermore, something subtle passes through the faculties and pervades the body; only afterward do its diminution and transformation become evident. This dharma is called aging. Why is this so?

If aging enters the teeth, the sign of teeth falling out appears. If it enters the skin, the skin wrinkles and darkens. If it enters the hair, the signs of whitening and falling out appear.

If it enters the four great elements, those elements weaken. If it enters the gateways of the faculties, the faculties become powerless. If it enters the bodily form, the body trembles and moves unsteadily.

If it enters the mind, memory is lost, and one becomes distracted and forgetful. If it enters the spine, the back becomes hunched. If it enters the limbs and joints, they become misaligned.

All the vigor of youth is lost, and the signs of decay and decrepitude appear.

Furthermore, aging is of two kinds: first, the deterioration of the support; second, the deterioration of that which depends upon the support. The deterioration of the support means that the great elements, blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow, and so forth gradually diminish. As a corresponding result of this diminution, one’s ability to run, jump, stretch, bend, walk, move about, carry burdens, and so forth all declines.

The deterioration of that which depends upon the support means that the functions of the faculties, such as the eyes and ears, become unclear. Because they become unclear, corresponding results occur: the functioning of mindfulness, wisdom, and mental activity diminishes, while mental strength and endurance are all impaired. This is extensively explained in the sutras, the Treatise Treasury, and the Treatise on the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination.

This is called aging.

What is the characteristic of aging? What is the activity of aging? What is the condition for aging?

Answer: Diminution, alteration, maturation, decay, and so forth are the characteristics of aging. The loss of youth, the disappearance of vigor, and becoming an object of aversion are the activity of aging. The arising of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas is called the condition for aging. Aging, in turn, becomes the basis for anxiety, sorrow, and so forth.

What is the suffering of aging?

Answer: It is capable of producing in sentient beings signs that arouse aversion. It robs them of their pleasing appearance, capacity for action, and memory, and leads them toward death, like a person who has violated the king’s law and awaits being taken to the execution ground to have his nose sliced off and his hands severed. Aging is likewise. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, sentient beings falsely contend that the strength of the body and faculties can be preserved through reflection, while consciousness and the power of wisdom continue without interruption, not ceasing even for the blink of an eye. Yet when the day of aging arrives, it oppresses, plunders, and seizes them, like the sun at the height of the hot season, freed from the five kinds of obscuring clouds: its fierce light shines everywhere, and all the shallow water in small pits dries up completely. Aging is likewise. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, aging makes the bodily form ugly, causes one to lose the qualities that inspire affection, destroys youth and the happiness of being free from illness, and impairs one’s capacity for action, mindfulness, wisdom, patience, thought, and consciousness. The faculties grow weak and lose their power and usefulness, like a female rakshasa demon that drains a person’s vital essence until death. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, the youthful body, the beautiful body, and the pleasing, upright form delightful to the eye and gladdening to the hearts of others are transformed, swept away, and destroyed by the thunderbolt of aging. One’s own mind becomes unhappy, and others feel aversion. Therefore, aging is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, because aging can destroy the body, faculties, mindfulness, and wisdom, aging is said to be suffering. Because the body deteriorates, one is no longer free and independent in walking, standing, sitting, lying down, bending, stretching, or moving. Because the faculties deteriorate, seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching, and so forth can no longer be clearly distinguished.

One also says, “I cannot hear clearly,” as though one were a small child. Because mindfulness deteriorates, one remembers nothing, does not understand what others say, and, after seeing something, does not know what it is. Therefore, this is called aging, in accordance with the characteristics of its activity.

Furthermore, the Vatsiputriya school says that conditioned dharmas truly abide temporarily. This abiding undergoes alteration; this is the conditioned characteristic called aging. As a sutra says, “This body may abide for a hundred years,” and it also speaks of the four abodes of consciousness. In this sense, it is called aging.

If conditioned dharmas truly perish moment by moment, then youth could not be established, nor could there be a life faculty. How, then, is illness defined?

Answer: When the elements of the body develop without equilibrium and become antagonistic to one another, this is called bodily illness. When they are in equilibrium, it is called freedom from illness. Thus the Buddha, the Blessed One, said to Jivaka, “The elements of the Tathagata’s body have remained in equilibrium until now.”

Furthermore, when their intrinsic natures oppose one another and they are not properly nurtured—like venomous snakes contending within the elements of the body—this is called illness.

Furthermore, illness is of two kinds: bodily and mental. Bodily illness is again of two kinds: first, that arising from an internal condition, called the mutual opposition of the elements; and second, that arising from an external condition, called affliction by something else. Because the names, causes, and locations of bodily illnesses differ, there are many categories.

Differences in the names of illnesses include consumption, leprosy, tumors, edema, indigestion, malaria, insanity, and so forth. Differences in their causes include phlegm, wind, bile, and illnesses affecting all the bodily constituents, whether only one, two, three, or four. Thus phlegm and the rest comprise sixty-two causes of illness. Differences in the locations of illness include the head, eyes, ears, throat, heart, abdomen, and so forth. These are called bodily illnesses. If explained extensively, they number four hundred and four.

Mental illness arises from false and deluded thoughts, namely anxiety and the like. This illness is also of two kinds: first, affliction whose object is conditioned internally, called affliction through the inner gateway; and second, affliction whose object is conditioned externally, called affliction through the outer gateway.

Because the names, causes, and locations of these illnesses differ, there are many distinct categories.

Differences in the names of mental illnesses include greed, anger, pride, delusion, wrong views, doubt, deceit, crookedness, fraud, and so forth. Differences in their causes include the perception of purity, the perception of loss, perceptions of existence and nonexistence, and so forth; these are the causes of mental illness. Differences in their locations concern the six sense objects—form and so forth. As a sutra speaks of attachment to forms through attachment to dharmas, this is clearly explained therein. Here, however, only bodily illness is discussed, not mental illness.

What is the characteristic of illness? What is the function of illness? What is the condition of illness?

Answer: With regard to illness, afflicting and tormenting the body is its characteristic; pain, grief, and distress are its function; and the disequilibrium of the original elements is its condition.

What is the suffering of illness?

Answer: Intelligent people in the world wish, according to their abilities, to accomplish this or that undertaking; yet because of illness they cannot succeed. Since this runs contrary to their wishes, they suffer. Thus illness can be a cause of suffering, just as fire is a cause of burning and the sun is a cause of light. Aging and death are likewise causes of suffering and therefore are suffering.

Furthermore, because it can become the root of injury, illness is said to be suffering, just as with the plantain tree, bamboo, and reeds.

Furthermore, because it causes painful sensations, can destroy life, and may even bring death, illness is said to be suffering, like fire and poison.

Furthermore, it is suffering within suffering; throughout birth and the continuity of existence, sentient beings cannot endure it, like a young elephant trapped in a burning forest. Therefore illness is suffering.

Furthermore, because one loses autonomy, when a person falls ill, all postures, movements, thoughts, and perceptions are no longer under that person’s control. The body curls inward and cannot move, bend, or stretch, like a wooden puppet.

Furthermore, it can cause one to abandon life. A sick person, unable to endure the pain, may seek fire or poison to end his own life, as did the arhat Dhanika.

Furthermore, when every means of treatment fails to cure the illness and it leads to the end of life, illness is said to be suffering. Thus the seer Ati ceased taking medicine for the treatment of dysentery.

Furthermore, because it is repugnant, it oppresses and harms; its nature gives rise to prolonged ignorance, and its substance consists of fearful and distressing wisdom. Because its basis is unstable, even those beyond training become forgetful. Since wisdom is impaired, one does not know what to choose or reject, nor what is right or wrong, and becomes like a fool.

For this reason, aging is said to be suffering. As the Venerable Buddhamitra said: “The Buddhas, the Blessed Ones, have cultivated roots of virtue throughout immeasurable kalpas. They are endowed with the ten powers, possess the ten masteries, have vanquished the four maras, attained the four fearlessnesses, and can contemplate all skillful means with impartiality.

They are as lovely as the full moon in the clear autumn sky. Yet even their Narayana bodies, firm and powerful in form, complexion, and all other respects, are diminished by aging. Therefore aging is said to be suffering.”

Regarding this meaning, when the Buddha was in the country of Alavi, the bhiksu Udayin addressed the Buddha with the following verse:

Aging, how hideous you are,
Defiling the lovely complexion.

This body, once pleasing to people,

Is transformed because of you.

TREATISE ON THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

(End of Fascicle One)