四諦論

Chapter 3: Analysis of the Noble Truth of Suffering, Part 2

The signs of falling teeth and so forth are not universal, whereas suffering is not non-universal. Why, then, is aging said to be the Noble Truth of Suffering?

Answer: Throughout the three realms, the conditioned formations undergo change; this is called aging and is the Noble Truth of Suffering, just as the life faculty comes to an end. The sutra says: All sentient beings are subject to aging.

Furthermore, although the bodies of devas are beautiful, they undergo slight deterioration and change. Because their earlier and later states differ, it cannot be said that they do not age. Because this is subtle, it is difficult to perceive, as is the case with the bodies of devas.

Furthermore, the difference between earlier and later continuance is the characteristic of the conditioned. That which pervades all conditioned formations is called aging. It is like the similarities and differences among cattle, for conditioned things do not remain but perish in every moment.

Why is there aging?

Answer: All conditioned dharmas truly perish in every instant and do not remain. Based upon their continuous duration, the characteristic of aging is spoken of, as with a river, a lamp, or rain. The water of a river flows without remaining for even a single moment, yet we see it continuing without interruption, and people say that this river flows swiftly or that the river is long. The same is true of a lamp and rain.

Furthermore, the interval between birth and death is called aging. Why is this so? The initial arising of the five skandhas is called birth. The final disintegration of the skandhas is called death. Between birth and death, the skandhas change and become different. Being confined between birth and death, illness is said to be suffering.

If the body is constantly suffering because of illness, how does this not contradict the verse that says: “Freedom from illness is the greatest gain”?

Answer: Because illnesses such as cold and heat come and afflict it, the body is said to be constantly diseased. When one is free from leprosy, suppurating sores, and other grave illnesses, one can move and enjoy oneself freely, possesses strength, and is capable of recitation, contemplation, and cultivation. Thus, with reference to this body, it is said that freedom from illness is the greatest gain.

Furthermore, because the fire of the suffering of conditioned existence burns it, the body is said to be constantly diseased. Because it is temporarily free from suffering, freedom from illness is said to be the greatest gain.

Furthermore, because it must constantly be treated and sustained, it is said to be perpetually diseased. When the bodily elements are temporarily in harmony, freedom from illness is said to be the greatest gain.

If there is no illness in the heavenly realms, must not the statement that all sentient beings are subject to illness be reconsidered?

Answer: The arising of the skandhas is suffering throughout the three realms; this is the illness of the heavenly realms. As the sutra says: “The arising of form is the arising of suffering,” because it is the basis upon which illnesses depend. As with form, so it is with the other skandhas.

Another sutra says: “Bhiksus, if one speaks of illness, one is speaking of another name for the five skandhas,” up to and including tumors, being pierced by sharp objects, and so forth.

Furthermore, other masters say that when devas are about to enter a period of decline, their bodies and minds become coarse and agitated; this is the illness of devas. The Treatise on the Right Path says: “Illness is the fruit of karma.” Is this karmic fruit included in the Noble Truth of Suffering, or is it not included in the Noble Truth of Suffering?

Answer: It is the karmic result that is inseparable from the fruit of craving. Therefore, to speak of the result of karma is to speak of the fruit of craving. Craving is no more separable from karma than a lamp is from its light. The fruits of karma, craving, self-view, and consciousness are by nature suffering and are therefore included within the Truth of Suffering. Thus, this does not contradict the Buddha’s teaching that suffering is called illness.

Another verse says: “Hunger is the foremost illness.” What is the difference between these two teachings?

Answer: When the suffering of illness is spoken of, grave illness includes all lesser illnesses, but hunger is not like this. Therefore, the two teachings differ.

Furthermore, because it cannot be cured, hunger is said to be the foremost illness. Why is this so? The suffering of hunger is difficult to cure because its treatment never comes to an end. Illnesses such as intermittent fever and eye disease are not like this.

Furthermore, because there is no fixed limit or time at which it ceases, this illness of hunger continues without cessation from birth until death. Other illnesses are not like this.

Furthermore, the illness of hunger must continually be treated. It is like a dilapidated house or an enemy pretending to be a friend. Because it is universal, all sentient beings who live by consuming food possess this suffering illness of hunger, as explained in the Chapter on the Hells. Therefore, hunger is the foremost illness.

What is death?

Answer: The termination of the life faculty is called death. In all sentient beings, the fire element is able to digest food and drink. When the elements of the body, like venomous serpents, oppose one another, their functions are completely extinguished through this conflict. The faculties, no longer nourished by the fire element, also perish. Mind and mental factors take the faculties as their dominant condition; therefore, when the faculties perish, the mental factors perish accordingly. When warmth, vitality, and consciousness abandon the physical body, that is called death. As the verse says:

Furthermore, when the continuity of the acquired aggregate—the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, and so forth—is severed, this is called death.

Death is of two kinds: first, natural death; and second, untimely death. Natural death is also of two kinds: first, death because karma is exhausted; and second, death because the lifespan is exhausted. Untimely death is likewise of two kinds: first, that caused by oneself; and second, that caused by another.

Furthermore, death is of three kinds: first, momentary death; second, untimely death; and third, death due to the exhaustion of causes. Momentary death occurs from the time consciousness enters the womb onward, through the kalala stage and the other eleven stages; moment after moment, decline proceeds without so much as the blink of an eye and never stops. As the verse says:

Furthermore, as the sutra says: “Bhiksus, you undergo birth, aging, and death in each and every moment.” This is called momentary death. Untimely death occurs through poison, fire, knives, clubs, and so forth, whether caused by oneself or by another, whereby the life faculty is severed. This is called untimely death. Death due to the exhaustion of causes occurs when the karma producing longevity is extinguished without remainder. This is true death and belongs only to arhats. Like a lamp whose oil is exhausted, this is death due to the exhaustion of causes.

What are the characteristic, function, and condition of death?

Answer: The severing of the life faculty is the characteristic of death; departure from one’s original course of existence is the function of death; and birth is the condition of death.

Why is death suffering?

Answer: Because of the suffering of fear. When a person approaches death, the vajra of death destroys him; he must pass to another realm and is about to be separated from those dear to him. When the warmth of self-craving that protected the body grows cold and disintegrates, and he must forever leave behind all that he has done, still greater fear arises. Therefore, death is said to be suffering.

Furthermore, because of the burning of fierce fire: if a person has habitually committed evil and has not delighted in doing good, then, as life approaches its end, because that person has broken the precepts, signs of impending birth in an evil realm appear. Anxiety, sorrow, and anguish then arise, as stated in the Sutra on the Dharma of Death. Therefore, death is called suffering.

Furthermore, it is suffering because of the hardships undergone in the womb, where one constantly endures many kinds of pain, whether because the mother’s food and drink are unsuitable, because she labors to exhaustion, or because she is subjected to violence by others. Although the being undergoes much great suffering, it does not lose its life. But if the suffering of death comes and overwhelms that former suffering, the life faculty immediately perishes. The same is true when emerging from the womb. Although the being undergoes much great suffering, it still does not lose its life. But if the suffering of death comes and overwhelms this suffering of birth, the life faculty immediately perishes.

Furthermore, in youth one enjoys the six sense objects without knowing contentment, and lives together with loved ones for only a short time. Because one is young, strong, free from illness, and abundantly wealthy, one is often intoxicated and arrogant. If one dies at such a time, no suffering can compare with it.

If a person has passed beyond youth but possesses abundant wealth and lacks nothing in life, and is then severely punished by the king or stricken with a critical illness, he immediately thinks, “Now I must die.” Having become certain of this in his heart, his eyes overflow with hot tears, his throat chokes, and he gazes unceasingly at his loved ones; yet the spirit of death drags him away. What suffering could be greater?

When death arrives, it closes in like great mountains, and even the use of all four expedients cannot stop it. It is like the power of a mighty enemy that cannot be subdued; it devours everything like the mouth of a mare; like the great conflagration at the end of the age, it burns everything. No sentient being can escape it.

It is like the turbulent waters of the sea that cannot reach the shore; like diamond hailstones shattering the mountain of the five skandhas; like a violent gale uprooting trees; like Garuda swallowing the dragon of the five skandhas whole; like a demon watching for a person’s vulnerability; like a great hostile bandit who constantly plunders possessions and kills people; like a person convicted of a grave crime whose mind has no peace; like a cruel king who imposes a severe punishment without pardon; and like springtime, which is certain to arrive.

For these reasons, death is said to be suffering.

How do the three kinds of death—death through heedlessness, death through breaking the precepts, and death through the termination of the conditions of birth—differ?

Answer: Because the life of wisdom is severed, it is called the death of one who is heedless. When the life of pure morality is destroyed and lost, it is called the death of one who breaks the precepts. Because the life faculty and lifespan are severed, it is called death through the termination of the conditions of birth.

Furthermore, falling away from the true Dharma is called death through heedlessness; losing the status of a bhikshu is called death through breaking the precepts; and falling away from the aggregate of one’s common class is called death through the termination of the conditions of birth.

Furthermore, there is conscious and unconscious death; death with and without remorse; death with and without heedlessness; death with and without attachment; disciplined and undisciplined death; and death with partial discipline. What are the characteristics of these?

Answer: When an ordinary person who practices good, a noble one, or a bodhisattva gives up the lifespan while correctly arousing mindfulness, this is called conscious death; the contrary is unconscious death. The death of one who has broken the precepts is called death with remorse. The death of one who keeps the precepts is called death without remorse.

Dying while intoxicated by the five sensual pleasures and failing respectfully to cultivate the training rules and discipline is called heedless death; the contrary is death without heedlessness. Dying with loving attachment toward one’s parents, spouse, and children is called death with attachment; the contrary is death without attachment. When arhats and others, abiding in the six constant abidings, discipline the six faculties and relinquish the life faculty, this is called disciplined death.

When an ordinary person who has done evil dies with a distracted and arrogant mind, this is called undisciplined death. When a noble disciple who is still in training relinquishes the lifespan, this is called death with partial discipline.

The five skandhas perish by themselves in every successive moment. How, then, can killing by another and so forth occur?

Answer: Although the skandhas truly perish in every moment, they are continually connected; precisely by relying on this continuity, killing by another can occur. Similarly, it is by reason of such continuity that one speaks of a lamp being extinguished.

Furthermore, the faculties no longer possess the capacity to perform their functions, just like a broken vessel.

Furthermore, because the life faculty of the lifespan is destroyed, some say that the life faculty does not perish from moment to moment. Why is this? If it perished in every moment, there would be no lifespan. Thus, death at the proper time, death at an improper time, death through being killed by another, and so forth could not be established, nor could the three kinds of illness be established. Therefore, the life faculty does not perish from moment to moment.

What is meant by encountering what one hates?

Answer: What is hated and what is loved are not fixed. If an object is hated, gathering with the hated is itself also hated, as when a person encounters food meant for pigs.

The heterodox teachers say: If so, would the truth of suffering not be established because it is not fixed?

Answer: No. Although enemies, loved ones, and sense objects are not fixed, the suffering produced by encountering what one hates is fixed, just as, though objects vary, the arising of good is fixed. The same is true of evil, and likewise of the suffering of encountering what one hates.

Furthermore, the gathering of results resembling evil karma from previous lives is called encountering what one hates and is designated as suffering.

Furthermore, the suffering of encountering what one hates is explained in terms of painful feeling and its supporting conditions. Why is this? Because all sentient beings experience happiness toward what they love and suffering toward what they hate, such an encounter is called encountering what one hates.

Furthermore, because gathering with bad companions entails many faults, it is called the suffering of encountering what one hates. As a verse says:

Furthermore, one who cultivates pure morality observes even minor faults and fears violating the evil precepts one has undertaken. This aversion gives rise to burning remorse, and thus evil conceptual thoughts arise. For a practitioner, what is hated can wither and destroy wholesome dharmas, and afflictions consequently blaze up. For a noble one, what is hated can disturb a tranquil mind. Therefore, here, the dharmas associated with evil karma and with the results of afflictions are called encountering what one hates.

What is the characteristic of encountering what one hates? What is its function? What is its condition?

Answer: The gathering of what is unloved is its characteristic. Mental anxiety is its function. Karma and afflictions are its conditions.

What is the suffering of encountering what one hates?

Answer: Oppression and torment are its essence. Thus, a bad neighborhood is a cause of suffering, like an animal encountering a wolf. It harms body and mind like poison, and is like a sharp spear piercing the body. Because it conditions anger, it is like meeting an old enemy; because it brings insecurity, it is like the story of King Ashoka.

Furthermore, it is associated with many kinds of severe suffering and can harm oneself, as in the account of Ananda’s former life. Being associated with what is unloved, throughout many lives one seeks sensual desires, and from the causes and conditions of seeking sensual desires arise many kinds of suffering, as the verse speaks of the suffering of those who seek through craving.

Furthermore, because of bad companions, great fear arises, like a deer encountering a hunter, or like a person who, while sitting or lying down, is covered with a celestial robe, placed upon a precious bed heated red-hot, and pierced in the body with iron needles, so that body and mind tremble in extreme misery. Therefore, it is called the suffering of encountering what one hates.

If hated things gather together and never separate from one another, is this meaning conclusive?

Answer: At any one time, objects, their natures, and their functions are continuous and mutually related, and one knows that dharmas are constantly gathered together. If encountering what one hates had a meaning different from this, the objection would be difficult to establish.

Furthermore, painful feeling is called what is hated. Since this feeling does not separate from the mind, is such a meaning tenable?

Answer: As stated in the sutras, inclusion has many meanings. As the verse on retention and dispersal says:

One part, the whole, and mind;
Path, function, kind, and association;

Kind, place, and intrinsic nature—
The sutras call these inclusion of dharmas.

In the same way, gathering also has many kinds. That is, it may mean not being separate within a single object, mutual opposition, mutual attachment, and so forth. Therefore, this objection may be understood as both contrary and concordant.

What is separation from what one loves?

Answer: What one loves may be sense objects, sentient beings, or non-sentient things. Separation from them is called separation from what one loves.

Furthermore, becoming separated from youth, freedom from illness, longevity, physical beauty, wealth and honor, independence and freedom, close friends, and so forth is also called separation from what one loves.

Furthermore, the loss of the results of wholesome karma comprised within contact at the six sense entrances is called separation from what one loves, as when one falls away from a heavenly realm.

Furthermore, the destruction of pleasant feeling is called separation from what one loves. Why is this? This pleasant feeling is that to which one is attached. Because of this attachment, attachment also arises toward forms and other objects. The companions of pleasant feeling—namely, perception, formations, consciousness, and so forth—are also objects of attachment. If the true meaning is discussed, only the destruction of pleasant feeling is called separation from what one loves.

What is the characteristic of separation from the loved? What is the function of separation from the loved? What is the condition for separation from the loved?

Answer: Parting from those one loves is its characteristic; inward grief is its function; encountering loss is its condition.

What is the suffering of separation from the loved?

Answer: Because of separation from those they love, sentient beings are inwardly scorched by sorrow, like a hollow tree consumed by a forest fire. As a sutra says: When a deva falls from the heavenly realm, the suffering of separation from the loved is even more intense than that in hell, as in the account of Moggallana's former life.

Furthermore, when sentient beings suspect, hear of, see, think about, or remember separation from their loved ones, sorrow arises; therefore, this is called the suffering of separation from the loved.

Furthermore, when separated from parents, spouse, children, relatives, and loved ones, they are oppressed by suffering as though they had lost their wealth. Distraught and no longer knowing anything, they seem possessed by a maddening spirit: speaking deliriously, wailing, fainting, and trembling. They are like one about to die, like a king who has lost his throne, devoid of awareness and perception, deluded, confused, and withdrawn, like a boat shattered and sunk in the sea of sorrow. Therefore, this is called the suffering of separation from the loved.

The coming together with old age is precisely association with the hated. The departure of youth and so forth is precisely separation from the loved.

Again, is speaking of association with the hated and separation from the loved not repetitive?

Answer: The arrival of old age and the departure of youth—these two sufferings occur even to arhats; only association with the hated does not. As the verse says:

For this reason, the statement is not repetitive.

Furthermore, the sufferings of old age and illness arise without discrimination and are shared even by arhats, as the preceding verse says: “Ugly old age, you are hateful,” and so forth. The sufferings of association with the hated and separation from the loved arise through discrimination and are both sufferings belonging to the mind. Those who have not abandoned desire undergo these sufferings.

Furthermore, old age and illness are called internal suffering, while association with the hated and separation from the loved are suffering arising externally. Therefore, the statement is not repetitive.

What is not obtaining what one seeks?

Answer: One seeks the happiness of being free from suffering and of not encountering suffering. When one seeks these inseparable things but does not obtain them, this is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks.

Furthermore, in life one seeks not to encounter the sufferings of old age, illness, and death, but this cannot be obtained. These are inevitable phenomena in life; therefore, this is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks.

Furthermore, one seeks not to encounter those one hates and not to be separated from those one loves, but this cannot be obtained. Therefore, this is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks.

Apart from the preceding four sufferings, these two sufferings have already been revealed. Why state them repetitively?

Answer: The gathering of what one does not love is called association with the hated, and the separation of what one loves is called separation from the loved. Here, one seeks not to encounter an enemy and seeks not to be separated from a loved one. These are the reverse of the preceding two and are called suffering; therefore, the statement is not repetitive.

Furthermore, after something has been obtained and not yet relinquished, association with disliked sense objects is called association with the hated. After something has been obtained and not yet relinquished, the inability to be together with beloved sense objects is called separation from the loved. When something has not yet been obtained or relinquished, seeking beloved sense objects but failing to obtain them is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks. Because these are established according to the three times, the statement is not repetitive.

What is the characteristic of not obtaining what one seeks? What is its function? What is its condition?

Answer: When one does not obtain what one seeks, opposition to one's wishes is its characteristic; anxiety and yearning are its function; the present lack of efficacy because one did not perform wholesome deeds in a former life is its condition.

What is the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks? It is like a wish-fulfilling vessel that has been shattered, so that one cannot obtain kingship and so forth, though one seeks it.

Furthermore, because of the causes and conditions of suffering, one seeks the five sense objects of desire; but, unable to obtain them, one is consumed by the fire of desire, like Thuat-ba-gia and others being burned to ashes. Therefore, this is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks.

Furthermore, because suffering can arise in the three times, when one seeks a benefit for oneself but did not obtain it in the past, does not obtain it now, or will not obtain it in the future, suffering and sorrow arise. Therefore, this is called the suffering of not obtaining what one seeks.

The sense objects themselves are suffering, and obtaining them is also suffering; why, then, is not obtaining what one seeks suffering?

Answer: Because this is not fixed, what is obtained is not necessarily all suffering. Why is this? If one obtains the faculty of faith, it is not called suffering.

Furthermore, because failure to obtain what one seeks serves as a basis for aversion and sorrow, seeking can give rise to an aversive and sorrowful mind. Obtaining the five sense objects is not like this, because it is perceived as pleasure.

Furthermore, just as a youthful body is followed by old age and therefore is spoken of as suffering, so too obtaining the five sense objects is followed by their loss and is therefore called suffering. Just as the aggregates of clinging are suffering because the basis itself is said to be suffering, so obtaining the five sense objects is said to be suffering in the same sense.

For what causes and conditions does one seek but fail to obtain?

Answer: Because the causes and conditions are insufficient. For example, if a seed lacks the necessary conditions, it will not sprout. Because in former lives one acted with stinginess, jealousy, wrong views, and anger, one damaged and lost the causes for becoming a person of great wealth; therefore, what one now seeks cannot be obtained, as in the account of the former life of the bhikkhu Uttara and others.

Because of unwholesome dharmas, one cannot obtain freedom from suffering and the experience of happiness, just as sentient beings in Avici hell cannot. Generally speaking, there are three causes for not obtaining what one seeks: 1. The absence of wholesome karma from former lives. 2. One's own lack of effort. 3. The lack of respect and affection from others.

Why, in brief, are the five skandhas said to be suffering?

Answer: Because they encompass suffering at the beginning, middle, and end. Birth is suffering at the beginning. Death is suffering at the end. Old age, sorrow, and so forth are suffering in the middle.

Furthermore, they encompass both intermittent suffering and uninterrupted suffering. Intermittent suffering means suffering with intervals, such as old age, illness, death, and so forth. Uninterrupted suffering is the continuous suffering that constantly accompanies all factors of existence.

Furthermore, because they encompass the boundless sufferings, each with its own characteristic, the five skandhas of clinging are said to be the general characteristic of suffering. Why is this? Because the kinds of suffering are numerous and boundless. Even if the Tathagata were to explain extensively the characteristics of suffering for immeasurable kalpas, he could not exhaust them.

Furthermore, the sufferings of birth and so forth are like fire, while the five skandhas of clinging are like fuel, as stated in the Discourse on Burning.

Furthermore, the five skandhas of clinging are the field in which all sufferings arise. Why is this? The suffering of the arising of the skandhas of clinging is called the birth of the skandhas of clinging. The suffering of change is called the aging of the skandhas of clinging. The suffering of oppression is called the illness of the skandhas of clinging. The suffering of destruction is called the death of the skandhas of clinging. The suffering of gathering with what is unloved is called the skandhas of clinging of association with the hated. The suffering of separation and dispersion from loved ones is called the skandhas of clinging of separation from the loved. When what one needs does not accord with one's wishes, it is called not obtaining what one seeks.

What is meant by “in brief”?

Answer: It has three aspects: first, multiplicity; second, difference; and third, gathering in one place. That is, the various kinds dispersed throughout the three times are not the same, yet they are gathered together in one place; therefore, this is called a summary.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of summary. The first is a summary of meaning, in which one meaning encompasses many meanings, as when one says “true treasure.” The second is a summary in name: an abbreviated name, sentence, or verse that encompasses various meanings, as when one says “an object of true treasure.” In the same way, although suffering has many meanings and many names, using only one meaning and one name to encompass them all is called a summary.

Question: What are the characteristics of the skandhas? What is the meaning of “skandha”? Since all the skandhas share a single mode of activity, why are they not established as one skandha? What are the two kinds, skandhas and skandhas of clinging?

Answer: These questions have been extensively distinguished in the discussion of the five skandhas in the Chapter on Investigation.

Question: Why are the skandhas of clinging said to be suffering, rather than simply saying that the skandhas are suffering?

Answer: To distinguish the four characteristics of the truths, it is said that the skandhas of clinging are suffering. If one simply said that the skandhas are suffering, the two truths could not be established. Why is this? Because if the skandhas, dhatus, concentration, and so forth were explained in this way, all five skandhas would constitute the truth of suffering.

Question: What is the meaning of “skandhas of clinging”?

Answer: Craving is the meaning of clinging. These skandhas are capable of giving rise to clinging. Once clinging has arisen, they are associated with clinging and pursued by clinging; therefore, clinging exists in relation to them, and they are called the skandhas of clinging.

Question: If contemplating any single suffering accordingly is sufficient to penetrate the truth of suffering, why is it necessary to distinguish extensively the characteristics of all the sufferings?

Answer: Practitioners must contemplate the various forms of suffering extensively and give rise to disenchantment. Only after giving rise to disenchantment can they penetrate suffering through contemplation and enter right contemplation. Because of this function, suffering must be explained extensively.

Furthermore, by distinguishing the arising of such sufferings as birth and aging, one gives rise to discerning wisdom. After attaining this wisdom, when one contemplates the single meaning of suffering, there is definitively no discriminating cognition; thus this wisdom arises. Taking equality as its object, without laborious effort it flows forth naturally, free from initial and sustained thought. This is called the eighth wisdom. It arises based upon the object of phenomena, like a precious elephant.

Question: As the sutra speaks of what is called pleasure—that is, what pleasure depends upon—why, then, does it say that the appropriated aggregates are suffering?

Answer: As the verse says:

Because of grasping at an antidote, there is pleasure;
Because of the delusion of desire, there is pleasure.
Since the sutra declares it to be suffering,
Right view sees no pleasure.

This meaning is explained extensively in the Treatise on the Five Aggregates. With regard to slight suffering and the antidote to suffering, the perception of pleasure arises, but in reality there is only suffering.

Question: Why does this sutra explain it briefly, while other sutras discuss extensively that form is suffering?

Answer: For those endowed with learning and wisdom, it is stated briefly that the appropriated aggregates are suffering. For those lacking learning and wisdom, it is explained extensively that appropriated form and so forth are suffering. Likewise, the teaching is given extensively or briefly for those who have seen the light and those who have not yet seen the light.

Question: Why are the appropriated aggregates said to be suffering?

Answer: Because intense suffering oppresses them. Suppose a person dwells in a palace made of the seven precious substances, adorned with the five delightful sensory objects, pleasing the mind and bringing supreme joy. If pricked by even a tiny needle, that person immediately experiences a painful sensation, like a salty or sour taste, and forgets all previous joys.

Furthermore, suffering is exceedingly abundant: aging, illness, death, separation from loved ones, encountering those one hates, not obtaining what one seeks, sorrow, grief, pain, and distress; the suffering of seeking and guarding things, the suffering of losing them, the suffering of oppression and affliction, and many more. These abound within the appropriated aggregates, whereas pleasure is scarce and deceptive, like water in a deserted well.

Question: Eight sufferings are stated in brief. What is their meaning?

Answer: Because it is the support of all sufferings, birth is suffering. Because it can alter and ruin, aging is suffering. Because it can oppress and torment the body, illness is suffering. Because it can destroy the faculties, death is suffering. Because one comes together with those who are not loved, encountering those one hates is suffering. Because one is separated from those one loves, separation from loved ones is suffering. Because one’s hopes are unfulfilled, not obtaining what one seeks is suffering. Because they possess the characteristics of all these sufferings, the appropriated aggregates are suffering, like an archery range.

Furthermore, existence is true suffering, and existence is birth. What phenomenon is birth? It is name-and-form. Form is harmed by aging, illness, and death. Name is harmed by separation from loved ones, encountering those one hates, and not obtaining what one seeks. The appropriated aggregates are harmed by all sufferings.

Furthermore, aging, illness, and death are bodily sufferings because they do not arise through discrimination. The three—separation from loved ones and so forth—are mental sufferings because they arise through mental discrimination. Birth and the appropriated aggregates comprise both bodily and mental suffering.

Furthermore, because of birth, the suffering of conditioned formations is taught; because of death, the suffering of change is taught. The remaining five statements are called the suffering of suffering. These three kinds of suffering take the appropriated aggregates as their cause.

Furthermore, the arising of existence within the appropriated aggregates is called birth, because one is born among the six destinies. The transformation and maturation of the body is aging, because the body becomes haggard and withered. Imbalance and its increase within the body is illness, because it causes the bodily elements to oppose one another.

The ending of life and the dissolution of the aggregates is death, because one departs from one’s former course. Coming together with causes of experience that are not dear is encountering those one hates, because one is joined with what is displeasing. Separation from causes of experience that are dear is separation from loved ones, because one can no longer remain together with those one loves.

The nonfulfillment of one’s desires is not obtaining what one seeks, because one’s wishes are not realized. Because they are the principal field in which all suffering is planted, the appropriated aggregates are called suffering, for sufferings arise from them spontaneously, without deliberate effort.

Thus ends the Chapter Analyzing the Truth of Suffering by Dharma Master Vasubhadra.

Chapter 4: Contemplation of the Truth of Origin

The truth of suffering has now been explained. Why is the truth of origin explained next in sequence? What is the meaning of “origin”? Why does the Buddha pose the question and answer it himself? What is this craving? What is the characteristic of craving? What is its basis, and what are its conditions?

This craving is spoken of in the ultimate sense; why, then, is craving itself the origin? Is this statement sufficient in itself? Once craving has been mentioned, why is it also necessary to say that it can bring about future existence?

What does it mean to say that it can bring about future existence? It can bring about future existence, and is invariably accompanied by delight and desire, delighting and clinging here and there. Why is delight and desire described in several ways?

What is the meaning of “accompanied by”? Why is “delighting and clinging here and there” stated repetitively? How can other, distinct afflictions constitute characteristics of origin?

Why is only craving said to be the origin? For what reason is craving alone called the origin, while karmic actions are not mentioned? If craving and so forth are also the origin of karma and afflictions, why is only the origin of suffering spoken of?

How do the conditions of ignorance, the contemplation of gratification, and the three kinds of feeling differ? It has already been said that the four great elements, contact, and name-and-form are all causes of the aggregates; yet craving is also said to be their cause. Do these two teachings not contradict each other?

Craving, ignorance, conceit, karma, and nutriment are all causes of suffering; how do their characteristics differ? What are the meanings of intention, desire, and sensual desire? “Forest,” “creeper,” and so forth are alternative names for greed; what do they mean?

You ask: After teaching the truth of suffering, why is the truth of origin taught next in sequence?

Answer: One has resolved to believe in the result but does not yet understand or believe in its cause. To bring about understanding and faith in the cause, origin is taught next, thereby clarifying that the truth of suffering depends upon causes and conditions.

Furthermore, because those to be taught are confused about the twelve links of dependent origination, it is explained that the truth of suffering arises in dependence upon causes and conditions.

Furthermore, the truth of suffering resembles a mechanism, because it depends upon causes and conditions, is weak in its own nature, and lacks the characteristic of a self.

Furthermore, beings in the world are fettered and shackled by craving and cannot escape the prison of birth and death. Therefore, it is clarified how they are bound and what can bind them.

Furthermore, some beings hold this view: “This truth of suffering has neither beginning nor end and is difficult to eradicate.” Because of this belief, they do not cultivate right effort. Therefore, the Buddha taught that although suffering is beginningless, because it arises from causes and conditions, it can be eradicated, just as a sprout ceases when its seed is removed. Thus one must cultivate right effort.

You ask: What is the meaning of “origin”?

Answer: The uniform convergence that gives rise to something is called origin. Apart from these three meanings, a cause cannot be established.

Furthermore, that which causes existence to arise, serves as its root and fountainhead, brings it into being and manifestation, and obstructs its cessation is the meaning of origin.

You ask: Why does the Buddha pose the question and answer it himself?

Answer: Some disciples lack clear understanding, harbor fear, or need their concentrated minds safeguarded. For these three reasons, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself, refuting assertions of false causes and clearly establishing the true cause. Various people maintain that Brahma, Ishvara, gods, human beings, time, primordial nature, the four great elements, space, atoms, and so forth are the true cause. To refute these false beliefs and clarify the true cause, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself.

Furthermore, in the twelve links of dependent origination and elsewhere, the sutras teach many kinds of origin. Some disciples do not yet know which phenomenon this sutra definitively identifies as the origin of suffering. Therefore, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself so that they may acquire the power of certain knowledge.

Furthermore, because the wisdom of those to be taught is obscured and they cannot penetrate the concise meaning of the teaching, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself to awaken their understanding.

Furthermore, because those to be taught who possess superior wisdom engage in abundant initial and sustained thought, yet do not retain the teaching, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself to make their wisdom firm.

Furthermore, to enable discerning disciples to understand clearly, as though a lamp were being lit, the Buddha poses the question and answers it himself.

You ask: What is craving? What are the characteristic, basis, and conditions of craving?

Answer: Sentient beings constantly contemplate the merits of conditioned dharmas, and their minds continually rely upon useful provisions and requisites without ever being satisfied; therefore, this is called thirsting attachment. It is like a person drinking salt water, or a person who, scorched by the summer sun and oppressed by thirst, wanders about searching for water and then drinks the salty water of the sea: even if he were to drink the sea dry, his thirst would still not cease.

In the same way, ordinary beings in the world are constantly scorched in their minds by sensual craving, the provision for birth and death. False and deluded discrimination causes burning thirst, so they single-mindedly seek the pleasures of the five desires. Through the consciousnesses of the eye, ear, and body, and through mental thought and recollection, they embrace and retain objects of enjoyment.

Whether they have obtained them or not, they are never satisfied. Therefore, this dharma is called craving thirst.

Furthermore, never knowing satisfaction is called craving thirst. Just as grass, wood, ghee, and oil are things that fire can burn, yet fire never knows satisfaction with any of them, so the craving of ordinary beings in the world burns their minds. From moment to moment, they enjoy the supremely exquisite objects of the five senses available to humans and devas without ever knowing satisfaction, like King Murdhaja.

Furthermore, because craving thirst differs in category, view, and nature, each has two kinds: differences in category and differences in view.

Differences in category: When attachment to self and love of self arise within the appropriated skandhas, this is called the category of craving that takes internal conditions as its objects. When, with regard to what is not of the appropriated category, attachment to what belongs to the self arises—namely, attachment to provisions and requisites—this is the category of craving that takes external conditions as its objects.

Differences in view: Relying upon the view of existence, one aspires to an excellent rebirth; this is craving based upon existence. Relying upon the view of nonexistence, one wishes to annihilate the self; this is called craving for nonexistence.

Differences in nature: When inverted craving arises and performs the function of concealment, like clouds that obscure, it is called manifest craving. When latent craving follows along, like poison contracted by stepping upon it, it is called craving separated from the mind.

Furthermore, because craving thirst differs according to its supporting conditions and karma, each has three kinds: differences in cause, differences in basis, and differences in condition.

Differences in cause: Aspiring to obtain sense objects never before acquired, this craving is the cause of the suffering of seeking. When the mind becomes attached to sense objects already acquired, this craving is called the cause of the suffering of guarding. When the mind becomes distressed over sense objects that have been lost, this craving is called the internal grief that brings the cause of suffering to maturity.

Differences in basis are the basis of sentient beings, the basis of place, and the basis of requisites for enjoyment. The basis of sentient beings means desiring to obtain future skandhas and seeking rebirth; hence it is called craving based upon sentient beings. Craving for place means delighting in the paths of the three realms of existence and constantly seeking a place therein; this is called craving based upon place. Desiring excellent sensory objects—sounds, tangible objects, forms, tastes, and odors—and seeking to enjoy them is called craving based upon requisites for enjoyment.

Differences in condition: Craving can produce karma and afflictions that condition suffering, and, conditioned by these three, different kinds of karma arise. These are equal craving, unequal craving, and continuous craving. Equal craving means seeking and enjoying things in accordance with right principles; this is called equal craving. Its opposite is called unequal craving. Continuous craving is latent craving. Because it has followed beings from beginningless time, it is called continuous craving.

Furthermore, because craving thirst differs in appropriation, its counteracting paths, and provisions, each has four kinds.

Differences in appropriation: Within the Desire Realm, craving thirst that is deluded by and attached to sensual pleasure is called appropriation of sensual desire. Craving thirst attached to views asserting a self, precepts, and so forth is likewise so called.

Differences in counteracting paths are the four noble qualities that serve as counteragents.

Differences in provisions are food, clothing, bedding, and medicine.

Furthermore, because craving thirst depends upon three different feelings, it has five kinds. Two kinds of craving arise within pleasant feeling: craving for union and craving for nonseparation. Two kinds also arise within painful feeling: craving for nonencounter and craving for separation. Within neutral feeling, craving accompanied by ignorance arises.

Furthermore, because its activities differ, craving is separately distinguished into five kinds. First, seeking to obtain what has not yet been obtained, with aspiration as its activity. Second, having produced the aspiration for pleasure, undertaking the search as its activity. Third, after obtaining through searching, making it increase as its activity. Fourth, after it has increased, guarding it as its activity. Fifth, after guarding it, grieving when it subsequently decays or is lost as its activity.

Furthermore, craving thirst is fivefold because it depends upon the five skandhas, and sixfold because it depends upon the six faculties. Because each of the six faculties has three feelings, it becomes eighteenfold.

Furthermore, based upon bondage and freedom from bondage, it becomes thirty-sixfold. Thus, all these are the roots and latent tendencies of the tree of craving. Love of self, provisions, and feeling form its trunk; craving for the three realms forms the height of the tree; the six aggregates of craving are its branches; activities driven by craving are its luxuriant leaves; the 108 cravings are its flowers; and birth and so forth are its evil fruits.

Such craving thirst is the cause of the origination of suffering and the cause from which suffering arises; therefore, it is called craving thirst. Here one should understand that the characteristic of craving thirst is mental delight. Its activities are the eleven kinds, such as dissatisfaction.

Its condition is the contemplation of the merits of conditioned existence.

You ask: If this craving thirst is explained according to the ultimate meaning, how is craving thirst itself origination? Is this statement complete in itself?

Answer: Craving thirst has many kinds. Only that which can bring about a future existence is definitively origination; the others are not included. If this were not so, listening to the true Dharma and so forth would also have to be origination.

Furthermore, only the craving thirst that can bring about future existence is included. If it cannot bring this about, it is not included.

Furthermore, if this craving thirst is accompanied by delight and desire, it is called origination. If it is not so accompanied, it is not included.

Furthermore, craving thirst is specified in order to exclude dharmas resembling the truth of origination.

Furthermore, its retention is presented to clarify valid proof. The suffering of the present life is demonstrably known to arise from craving thirst. One should therefore understand that the arising of suffering in subsequent lives is not separate from craving thirst, as stated in the Ugra Householder Sutra.

You ask: Since craving thirst has already been stated, why is it necessary to say that it is capable of bringing about future existence?

Answer: The statement “craving thirst” is not yet complete. Therefore, saying that it can bring about future existence clarifies definitively what craving thirst is. If it were said merely that craving thirst is origination, then an arhat’s thirst for water and so forth would also have to be origination. If there is craving thirst that can serve as the basis for eliminating craving thirst, that too would have to become origination.

You ask: What does it mean to be capable of bringing about future existence?

Answer: It can cause the consciousness skandha and so forth to become attached to future existence. Why is this? Because the self and what belongs to the self are objects of attachment. Thus, love of self can cause consciousness and the other skandhas to cling to that place, like dust adhering to wet clothing or a seed adhering to moist soil.

Furthermore, it can produce future existence, just as a mother gives birth to a child.

Furthermore, it can provide the nutriment of birth for the future, like the nutriment of consciousness and the nutriment of contact.

Furthermore, it can attract a desirable existence; therefore, it is said to be capable of bringing about future existence.

Moreover, ancient teachers explained that the Buddha taught four causes and conditions by which craving thirst can bring about future existence:

1. It can cause conditions to follow one another, as the sutra says: “So long as the latent tendency of craving has not been completely uprooted, suffering constantly arises and continues without interruption, like a dragon’s pool.”

2. It can gather in the various paths, as the sutra says: “Bhiksus, if craving and attachment arise toward form and the other objects, consciousness follows them, takes them as its support, and abides in form. The same applies to feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.”

3. It can bind and connect, as the sutra says: “Because it can bind and stitch together, and does not relinquish its objects, it causes birth in the three realms of future existence.”

4. It can cause birth to be received, as the sutra says: “If desire and craving exist toward these four kinds of nutriment, name-and-form immediately arises.” You ask: Since bringing about future existence, being definitively accompanied by delight and desire, and being attached here and there are its characteristics, why are so many explanations given? Answer: These three phrases are all different names for craving thirst. It is like the human hand, which is called hastā, and is also called kara and pāṇi.

Furthermore, because the objects, fruits, and companions differ, many expressions are used. Because it concerns future fruit, “future” is stated; because it concerns the fruit itself, “bringing about future existence” is stated; because mental desire is its companion, “accompanied by mental desire” is stated; and because it appropriates various objects, “attached here and there” is stated.

Furthermore, there are dharmas that bring about only a subsequent existence but do not accompany delight and desire, such as the latent tendency of craving. There are dharmas that only accompany delight and desire but cannot produce existence, such as craving that does not pursue an object. Therefore, the many names must be stated in full.

You ask: What is the meaning of “delight and desire”?

Answer: Delight means that, with regard to the provisions and requisites, the mind gives rise to ease and happiness; this is called delight and happiness. The desire that arises therein is called delight and desire, just as in “sensual desire.”

Furthermore, desire of the class of delight is called delight and desire, just as in “precious vessel.”

Furthermore, this pleasure, when defiled, is called delight, and the mind’s attachment is called desire. The combination of these two is called delight and desire, just as name-and-form is so called.

Furthermore, because delight and desire give rise to one another, they are called delight and desire, as with the amra fruit and so forth.

You ask: What is the meaning of “accompanying”?

Answer: Sharing something in common is called accompanying. This latent tendency, together with the active state of mind, can produce a subsequent existence.

Furthermore, because it proceeds together with external craving, it is said that internal craving proceeds together with delight, as in craving and clinging.

Furthermore, “accompanying” means attaining a particular plane.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavada school says: There are four kinds of accompaniment: 1. accompaniment by object; 2. accompaniment by association; 3. accompaniment by intermixture; 4. accompaniment by dependent arising.

Accompaniment by object is as a sutra says: “If a person gives rise to initial and sustained thought, discrimination accompanies form.” Accompaniment by association is as a sutra says: “This mind is accompanied by loving-kindness.” Accompaniment by intermixture is as a sutra says: “This person cultivates the faculty of faith accompanied by loving-kindness.”

Furthermore, a sutra says: “Defiled attachment is accompanied by aversion; thought is accompanied by dependent arising.” Accompaniment by dependent arising is as a sutra says: “Cultivate right view accompanied by heedfulness.” This treatise explains that delight and desire constitute accompaniment by intermixture.

You ask: Why is attachment in place after place repeatedly mentioned?

Answer: Within the three modes of existence, attachment has a great many distinct objects. Among these objects, attachment arises in many places. In the many places where attachment arises, many kinds of beings assemble. Among these assemblies of beings, attachment engages many faculties.

Among the faculties, attachment engages many kinds of sense objects. Among the sense objects, attachment engages many kinds of karma.

Furthermore, the mind is like a monkey leaping among uncertain objects, constantly delighting in grasping sense objects and pursuing its craving for the modes of existence and the provisions for existence. It therefore follows and clings with attachment in every place.

Furthermore, because its activity of seeking places to which it was formerly attached is unstable, it is like an ox stealing rice.

Furthermore, although it relinquishes and grasps other sense objects, it still does not depart from desire, like the mother of five prisoners. Therefore, it is said to be attached in place after place.

You ask: There are other afflictions capable of constituting the characteristic of origination. Why is craving alone said to be origination?

Answer: Because it is supreme. Wherever King Craving goes, all the afflictions assemble there.

Furthermore, because craving encompasses them, if craving does not cause the afflictions to savor their objects, the afflictions will cease. If the afflictions do not arise, craving also does not arise. Why is this? Because they depend upon nondiscrimination.

Furthermore, even supposing that no other afflictions existed and there were craving alone, samsara would still arise, just as a hand can scoop up wet sand.

Furthermore, because it is difficult to distinguish, this craving also enters wholesome dharmas. Merely observing its outward expression, it is like an enemy within.

Furthermore, it reaches the gate but does not enter, just as an anagamin reaches the gate of nirvana but, because of craving, cannot enter and becomes one who proceeds upstream.

Question: Ignorance is also supreme. Why is it not established as origination?

Answer: It is not so. Because of craving, a person blinded by ignorance falls into the pit of suffering constituted by the aggregates, like a blind elephant. One seeks a subsequent birth and therefore receives future retribution because of craving, not because of ignorance, just as one born blind enters through various gates. For this reason, craving is said to be origination.

You ask: For what reason is craving alone said to be origination, without mentioning karma?

Answer: Because the afflictions are superior. Why is this? Craving and the other afflictions are the true causes of birth. Karma is not so. How is this known? Although karma remains fully present, because craving has been exhausted, arhats have no subsequent birth. It was previously explained that there are true origination and origination of its own class. Craving and the other afflictions can serve as causes of existence and therefore constitute the true truth of origination. Karma is the cause that draws forth existence and is therefore said to have the characteristic of origination of its own class.

Furthermore, greed and the other afflictions are extinguished by the Path. Karma is not so. Why is this? Even after the Buddhas have cultivated the Path to perfection, it is still said that residual karma remains.

Furthermore, karma does not fall within the domain of objects and therefore is not called true origination.

You ask: If craving and the other afflictions are also the origination of karma and affliction, why are they said to be only the origination of suffering?

Answer: This meaning does exist. Here, because the Four Truths are being established, it is called the origination of suffering. Why is this? Because within the Noble Truths it is the cause selected as true; therefore, craving and the other afflictions are said to be the origination of the truth of suffering.

Furthermore, craving for existence and the aggregates produced at birth constitute origination. That is, in the present life, craving in relation to birth and the other conditions combines to form the origination of affliction and karma. This is not the same as craving alone being the origination of suffering. Therefore, craving alone is said to be the origination of the truth of suffering.

Furthermore, it is definitively the latent tendency of craving that is taken as the origination of the truth of suffering. To clarify this meaning, the Buddha spoke this verse:

As a tree whose roots have not been pulled up,
Though cut down, will still live again,
So, while the latent tendency of craving remains uneradicated,
The continuum of suffering perpetually continues.

Craving conditioned by internal objects is called craving that conditions the arising of clinging. Craving conditioned by external objects is called craving that conditions clinging and gives rise to the karma of seeking.

You ask: What are the differences in meaning among craving conditioned by ignorance, craving conditioned by contemplating the savor of things, craving conditioned by the three feelings, and craving conditioned by karma?

Answer: A sutra speaks of ignorance as craving. This craving serves as a condition for the arising of afflictions. A sutra says that, when one contemplates the savor of things and sees an object arise, it is ordinarily a mistaken object; because of this, craving arises. That craving is arisen through the condition of karma. A sutra says that because of craving, the three kinds of feeling are experienced. This craving is arisen through the condition of feeling.

Furthermore, ignorance is the condition for all afflictions. This craving arises conditioned by ignorance and is therefore called craving conditioned by ignorance. All views are conditions for various karmas. Craving arises conditioned by these views. This craving is called craving conditioned by karma. All sufferings have the three feelings as their essence. Craving arising conditioned by these is called craving conditioned by suffering.

Furthermore, lack of faith and understanding is the cause and is called craving conditioned by ignorance. Mistaken knowledge that contemplates conditioned dharmas as pleasurable and permanent is the cause and is called craving conditioned by contemplating their savor. Other kinds of causes are called craving conditioned by feeling. This craving serves as a condition for arising; it is threefold because there are three realms and sixfold because there are six kinds of objects.

You ask: It has already been said that form consists of what is touched through the four great elements and that these are the cause of the aggregates. It is also said that craving is their cause. Do these two statements not contradict each other?

Answer: To clarify the cause of existence, craving has been said to be the cause of existence. To clarify the cause of homogeneous continuity, the four great elements are mentioned. To clarify the multiplicity of causes, contact is mentioned; because contact is not of one kind, feeling is threefold. To clarify the firmly supporting cause, name-and-form is mentioned. As the Great Sutra on Dependent Arising says: “Ananda! If consciousness did not descend into the mother’s womb, could the kalala congeal there?” “No, Blessed One, it could not.” “Ananda! If there were no kalala, could this consciousness become established in the womb?” “No, Blessed One, it could not.” Thus, because these two dharmas sustain one another, they are able to remain firmly established.

Furthermore, the cause extending from beginningless time is called the cause of craving pertaining to a single lifetime. The four great elements are the cause in each instant. Contact and name-and-form together constitute two causes: the cause from a previous life and the cause of present activity.

Furthermore, the cause from a previous life of the five aggregates is craving at the time of taking birth. The four great elements are the initial cause, just as the kalala is the cause of the arbuda and so forth. The cause that arises simultaneously is called contact. The initial and simultaneously arising cause is form.

You ask: Craving, ignorance, self-conceit, karma, and nutriment are all causes of suffering. What are the distinctions among their characteristics?

Answer: Craving is the undifferentiated cause. Karma is the differentiated cause. Nutriment is the cause that sustains and conducts suffering. Ignorance and self-conceit are causes of all these.

Furthermore, craving can be the cause of existence. Karma is the cause of the paths of rebirth. Nutriment is a common cause. Ignorance and self-conceit are mutually causal.

Furthermore, craving is the true cause of suffering and the root of suffering. Therefore, all other causes are merely provisions accumulated to support and assist craving.

You ask: What are the meanings of delight in desire and desire for desire?

Answer: When an object has arrived, the mind consequently gives rise to delight. Because craving arises from delight, this is called delight in desire. Seeking an object not yet obtained is called desire. The craving that arises from this is called desire for desire.

You ask: “A forest of vines,” and so forth, are alternative names for craving. What do they mean?

Answer: Because sense objects are spheres that can defile the mind, this is called defilement by desire. Attachment to the four dhyanas and their fruits is called desire for form. Attachment to samapatti and its fruits is desire for existence.

Because it can obstruct the practice leading to nirvana, it is called a thorn. Because it can burn within the mind, it is called the fire of desire. Because it can stain the mind, it is called the dust of desire.

Because it can make the mind impure, it is called the taint of desire. Because it can bind the mind, it is called the cord of desire. Because it does not reflect or deliberate, it is called the bondage of desire.

Because it causes delusion, it is called the bewilderment of desire. Because the mind sinks into it, it is called attachment through desire. Because it follows the various forms of existence, it is called following the current.

Because it continually longs, it is called insatiability. Because it is never satisfied with what it obtains, it is called greed. Because it obstructs emancipation, it is called a covering.

Because it can harbor and conceal, it is called an affliction. Because it prevents separation from the various forms of existence, it is called a fetter. Because one is tormented through improper reflection, it is called piercing and boring.

Because it can bind and constrain, it is called a vine. Because it increases ever further, it is called great. Because desire pervades all realms, paths of rebirth, wildernesses, faculties and objects, and supreme pleasures, it is called all-pervasive.

Because one clings to various objects and gives rise to various attachments, it is called craving and attachment. When the provisions for samsara that were not yet obtained are obtained, the mind becomes joyful; therefore, it is called insatiable delight in desire. Accumulating the gains and offerings associated with sense objects is called craving.

Such means of transmigration, whether sending beings forth or drawing them in, never depart from samsara; therefore, they are called the characteristics of desire. Roaming through the waters of the afflictions, with the fetters of craving as cords, is called the net of desire. Flowing from the upper stream to the lower stream and entering the ocean of samsara, it is called the river of craving.

Just as one oppressed by thirst enters the ocean of sense objects and is therefore never satisfied, it is called thirst; it is like the great ocean swallowing all rivers or fire consuming firewood, and so forth. These delusions are never filled; therefore, they are said to be unceasing. Because it can link earlier and later births and deaths without interruption, it is called stitching together.

So long as this craving remains, it causes samsara to continue without end. Whether through oneself or through others, one must undergo birth and death within the six paths. Therefore, among the many delusions, it is called the origin, as extensively explained in the Chapter on Great Existence.

This chapter explains eleven aspects of craving that should be understood. They are: 1. Name. 2.

Meaning. 3. Essence. 4. Function. 5.

Cause. 6. Antidote. 7. Purity. 8.

Impurity. 9. Sequential arising. 10. Formulating questions. 11.

Investigating the meaning.

If practitioners know how to initiate this contemplation, practice it themselves, and teach others to practice it, they will not be confused concerning its principles. Therefore, this meaning has been explained.

End of the Chapter on Contemplating the Truth of the Origin of Suffering.

TREATISE ON THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

(End of Fascicle Two)