成實論

CHAPTER 13: ESTABLISHING THE TREATISE

I now wish to expound the Buddha-Dharma so as to bring abundant benefit to the world. Because the Buddha, moved by great compassion, benefited the entire world, He transmitted this Dharma, vast and boundless. Some may teach scriptures of liberation only for those of the Brahmin lineage. The scriptures taught by the Buddha, however, were all for the four classes of beings, extending even to animals, without limit.

Question: One should not compose treatises to expound the Buddha’s words. Why is this? If the Buddha Himself provided an exposition, it may properly be called a treatise; but if the Buddha did not expound it, others should not do so.

Why? Because the intention of an Omniscient One is difficult to comprehend, and one cannot know for what reason He wished to speak of a particular matter. If one does not comprehend the Buddha’s intent and speaks erroneously, one thereby harms oneself.

As a scripture says: “There are two kinds of people who slander the Buddha. The first slander Him out of disbelief and jealousy. The second, though having faith in the Buddha’s words, cannot properly receive and retain them and thus likewise slanders the Buddha.” Even one possessing true knowledge but not knowing the Buddha’s intent should not expound the Buddha’s words; how much less should one who has not attained true knowledge seek to compose a treatise explaining the Buddha’s intent?

Why? In the Scripture on Divergent Doctrines, the Buddha spoke of such matters because He wished to elucidate them. The bhikshus advanced many differing arguments, none of which accorded with the Buddha’s intent.

Moreover, the elder Mahakatyayana said to the bhikshus: “It is like someone who fells a great ancient tree, entirely discards its trunk and branches, and takes only its twigs and leaves. You likewise turn away from the Tathagata and question me?” Even Mahakatyayana, amid doctrinal discussion, compared himself to mere twigs and leaves; how, then, could others understand the Buddha’s words? Furthermore, the Buddha asked Shariputra: “Who is a trainee?

Who is one who enumerates the dharmas?” He asked three times, yet Shariputra was unable to answer. Moreover, the Buddha is the source of all dharmas. Only the Buddha understands them; others cannot.

When Ananda said to the Buddha, “On the path to attaining enlightenment, encountering a good spiritual friend constitutes half the benefit,” there was also some reason for this. Why? Because right view must arise through two conditions: first, hearing from another; and second, one’s own right mindfulness.

The Buddha told Ananda: “Merely encountering a good spiritual friend already constitutes the complete benefit for one’s attainment of the path.” The Buddha also said: “Even if I were to teach you so many dharmas, because that person would not understand My intent, disputes would arise.” The present masters of treatises each cling to their own views.

Some hold that dharmas exist in the past and future; others hold the contrary. One should know that these masters maintain such views because they do not understand the Tathagata’s teaching of the Dharma according to beings’ capacities, and therefore disputes arise. Furthermore, because Ananda cultivated right samadhi, he said that all kinds of feeling are suffering.

At that time, the Buddha told the bhikshus: “You see that Ananda still has only an indistinct understanding of this meaning.” Some masters of treatises also said that arhats should receive offerings first. A bhikshu who did not understand this immediately went to ask the Buddha. The Buddha taught: “Within My Dharma, those who went forth earlier should receive offerings first.” They do not understand even an ordinary matter such as food and drink; how much less could they understand the Tathagata’s intent in teaching the wondrous Dharma?

For the reasons stated above, one should not compose treatises.

Answer: This is not so. Why? Because, when the appropriate causes and conditions are present, one can understand another person’s intent.

As a verse says: “One can know toward what the speaker’s intent is directed and can also know what matter the speaker wishes to express.” There are two kinds of paths: the Noble Path and the worldly path. These will be explained extensively later. Through these two paths, one can understand the speaker’s intent.

Moreover, in the Scripture on Divergent Doctrines, the Buddha likewise permitted the composition of treatises. Furthermore, Katyayana and the other great debaters comprehended the Buddha’s intent and were all praised by Him. Bhikshunis such as Udayi and Dhammadinna also wished to request permission to compose treatises on the Buddha-Dharma.

When the Buddha heard their request, He immediately gave His permission. Because the Buddha-Dharma is profound and wondrous, those who understand it may compose treatises, while those who do not should refrain. In this way, all the remaining questions—including the statement that the Buddha is the source of all dharmas—may be answered according to this principle.

Moreover, treatises need to be composed. Why? When a scripture has an accompanying treatise, its meaning becomes easy to understand, and the Dharma Treasure can long abide in the world.

Furthermore, the Buddha permitted the composition of treatises, as stated in a scripture where the Buddha told the bhikshus: “Compose treatises as you wish, but receive and retain them well.” Therefore, arguments are established according to the meaning of the sutras, and distinct systems are called Separate Schools. Thus, treatises should be composed. Furthermore, for the sake of beings who were ready to be liberated, the Buddha taught various modes of worldly debate.

Because people such as Sati could not understand them, their minds became confused. The bhikshu Sati and his companions maintained: “Throughout the coming and going of birth and death, consciousness is always one and the same.” The Buddha therefore taught such dharmas. Without doctrinal discussion, how could they be explained?

For the reasons stated above, treatises should be composed.

CHAPTER 14: MODES OF DISCOURSE

A treatise has two modes: first, the conventional mode; and second, the mode of ultimate truth. According to the conventional mode, it is said that a mind exists. As a scripture says: “I always guard myself.

By doing good, I myself obtain good; by doing evil, I myself obtain evil.” Another scripture says: “Mind-consciousness is permanent.” It also says: “Cultivating the mind throughout the night, one is reborn in a higher realm after death.” It further says: “The agent initiates the karmic cause, and the agent personally undergoes its result.” It also says: “This being is born in this place,” and so forth. All such statements are made according to the conventional mode.

According to the mode of ultimate truth, however, all is said to be “empty” and “nonexistent.” As a scripture says: “Within these five skandhas, there is neither a self nor anything belonging to a self.” The mind, like wind and fire, arises and ceases in every thought-moment. Although karmic causes and karmic results exist, neither an agent nor an experiencer can be apprehended. On the basis of the continuous succession of the five skandhas, the Buddha spoke of birth and death.

There are also two modes of discourse: first, the worldly mode; and second, the mode of the Noble Ones. According to the worldly mode, it is said that the month has ended. In reality, the month does not end.

For example, Bama-giala says: “The daughter-in-law is the mother,” though in reality she is not the mother. A scripture says: “The tongue faculty knows flavor.” Yet it is tongue-consciousness that knows flavor; it is not the tongue faculty that knows flavor. A virtuous person may commonly say: “A person undergoes suffering.” Yet it is consciousness that knows suffering; there is no person who undergoes suffering.

Just as a poor and lowly person may be given a name meaning “wealthy and noble,” the Buddha likewise followed people’s usage in calling someone “wealthy and noble.” The Buddha also addressed non-Buddhist practitioners as Brahmins and as shramanas. Likewise, regarding the Kshatriya and Brahmin lineages, the Buddha followed worldly convention in calling them noble. Furthermore, the same object may have different names in different countries, and the Buddha followed those usages in naming it.

The Buddha also said: “This is the last time I shall behold the city of Vaishali.” All such expressions accord with worldly usage and are called the worldly mode.

The mode of the Noble Ones is as follows: A scripture says: “Through causes and conditions arise the waves of eye-consciousness and the other consciousnesses associated with the faculties, just as upon the great ocean.” Another scripture says: “There are only the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas united through conditions; there is no agent and no experiencer.” It is also said that all is suffering. As a scripture says: “What worldly people call happiness, the Noble Ones call suffering; conversely, what the Noble Ones call suffering, worldly people call happiness.” Another teaching states that emptiness and signlessness are called the mode of the Noble Ones.

There is also the mode of discourse concerning the three times: If, in regard to a given matter, it is called form, then form that existed in the past, will exist in the future, or exists in the present is all called form. Consciousness is likewise so: consciousness that knew in the past, will know in the future, or knows in the present is all called consciousness. All the foregoing are called the mode of discourse concerning the three times.

Furthermore, there are modes of discourse such as this: If there is contact, it certainly arises through the six ayatanas, but not all six ayatanas invariably serve as causes of contact. If there is craving, it certainly arises from feeling, but not every feeling invariably serves as a cause of craving. Sometimes a complete cause is stated, as when contact is said to be the cause and condition of feeling.

Sometimes an incomplete cause is stated, as when feeling is said to be the cause and condition of craving, while ignorance is not mentioned. There are also variant statements. For example, a sutra says: “When the mind is joyful, the body is at ease.” In the Third Dhyana there is no joy, yet the body is still at ease.

It is also said that ease is pleasant feeling, yet in the Fourth Dhyana there is ease without pleasant feeling. These are called variant statements.

There are also two modes of discourse: inclusive and restrictive. A sutra says: “A person may set out for a stupa to make offerings, but unfortunately die along the way; that person will immediately be reborn in heaven.” This is called inclusive. Another sutra says: “One who commits a heinous offense cannot be reborn in heaven.” This is called restrictive.

Again, a sutra says: “One who indulges in sensual pleasures will commit every kind of evil.” This is called inclusive. Although a stream-enterer still partakes of sensual pleasures, such a person cannot create the karmic cause for falling into an evil realm. This is called restrictive.

Again, a sutra says: “With the eye and form as conditions, eye-consciousness arises.” This is called inclusive. If this were invariably so, eye-consciousness should arise in dependence upon every form, but it does not. Again, a sutra says: “With the ear and sound as conditions, ear-consciousness arises, but eye-consciousness does not.” This is called restrictive.

Furthermore, both inclusive and restrictive statements have their rationale and do not violate the characteristics of dharmas. There are also two modes of discourse: definitive and non-definitive. The definitive mode includes statements such as: The Buddha is an Omniscient One; the words spoken by the Buddha are called the True and Sublime Dharma; and the community of the Buddha’s disciples is called the community of right practice.

It is also said that all conditioned dharmas are impermanent, suffering, empty, and without self, and that cessation is nirvana. Dharma teachings such as these are called definitive. The non-definitive mode includes a statement such as: Whoever dies will invariably be reborn.

This is non-definitive, because where craving exists, there is birth, but when craving is exhausted, there is cessation. Again, a sutra says: If one attains mental concentration, one will invariably give rise to true wisdom. This too is non-definitive, because when noble ones attain concentration, they can give rise to true wisdom, whereas when non-Buddhist practitioners attain concentration, they cannot give rise to such wisdom.

Again, a sutra says: Whatever one seeks, one obtains. This too is non-definitive, for one may or may not obtain it. The statement that the six ayatanas invariably give rise to contact is also non-definitive, for at times contact arises and at times it does not.

Statements such as these are called the non-definitive mode. There are also statements concerning conditioned things that are not modes of doctrinal discourse. For example, it is said that strange grasses and fragrant flowers do not send their fragrance against the wind.

Yet it is also said that the fragrance of the Kovilara flower can be smelled against the wind. Because it is an ordinary flower, it is said that its fragrance cannot be smelled against the wind; because it is a celestial flower, it is said to send its fragrance against the wind. Again, three feelings are taught: painful feeling, pleasant feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

Yet other sutras say: “Whatever is felt is suffering.” There are three kinds of suffering: the suffering of pain, the suffering of change, and the suffering of conditioned formations. Because of this meaning, it is said that all feelings whatsoever are suffering. It is also said that this suffering has three kinds: new, old, and intermediate.

A newly experienced feeling is pleasant; when it continues for a long time and one grows weary of it, it is painful; an intermediate feeling is neither painful nor pleasant. It is also said that because one who has attained the Path may still be called a person of the Path. Many such designations are established in dependence upon one another.

There is also the mode of discourse based on proximity. The Buddha told a bhiksu: “If you put an end to conceptual proliferation, you will attain nirvana.” Although one does not attain it immediately, because one is close to attaining it, it is nevertheless called attainment. There is also the mode of discourse based on common characteristics.

When one matter is stated, other matters sharing the same characteristic are all considered to have been stated as well. For example, when the Buddha says that the mind is buoyant, the mental factors are also thereby stated. There is also the mode of discourse based on the majority.

The Buddha said: “If a person does not know the characteristics of the arising and cessation of the two views, that person is still said to possess sensual desire; if a person knows them, that person is said to be free from sensual desire.” A stream-enterer also knows the characteristics of the arising and cessation of the two views but still possesses sensual desire. However, because most of those who possess such knowledge are free from sensual desire, this statement is made.

Furthermore, there is a mode of discourse in which the effect is spoken of within the cause. For example, it is said that by giving food one gives five things: life, beauty, strength, happiness, and eloquence. In truth, one does not give those five things directly, but only their cause.

Again, one speaks of “eating money.” Money cannot be eaten; it is only because money enables us to obtain food that we speak of eating money. Again, a sutra says: “Women are defilement.” In truth, women are not defilement; rather, because one becomes attached and the defilements arise, they are consequently called defilement. Again, the five objects of sensual desire are spoken of, although they are not actually desire; because they can give rise to desire, they are called desire.

Furthermore, a cause and condition of happiness is called happiness. For example, it is said: To gather people together through the Dharma—this is happiness. A cause and condition of suffering is likewise called suffering.

For example, it is said: Dwelling together with a fool is called suffering. Thus it is said to be half suffering and half happiness. It is also said that life depends upon the requisites of life.

As stated in a verse: The requisites for sustaining life are all external possessions belonging to life; therefore, robbing a person of possessions is called robbing that person of life. Again, the causes of the outflows are called outflows, as taught in the Sutra on the Seven Outflows. Of the seven, two are actual outflows; the remaining five are merely causes and conditions of the outflows.

Conversely, the cause may be spoken of within the effect. For example, the Buddha said: “I must undergo the karma of a former life.” This means undergoing the result of that karma. There are very many such modes of discourse, all of which must be understood.

CHAPTER 15: IN PRAISE OF THE TREATISE

This treatise should be studied. Why? Because through studying this treatise, one becomes a wise person who understands the dharmas.

As a sutra says: “There are two kinds of people in the world: the wise and the foolish. Those who cannot properly distinguish the dharmas of the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, the twelve links of dependent origination, and cause and effect are called foolish. Those who can properly distinguish the dharmas of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas are called wise.” This treatise precisely distinguishes and clearly explains the dharmas of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas.

Therefore, by means of this treatise, one ceases to be called an ordinary person. Again, there are two kinds of people: ordinary persons and those who are not ordinary persons. It is said that although one has shaved one’s hair and beard, donned the Dharma robe, and adopted the Buddha’s rules of deportment, one may still be far removed from the Buddhadharma because one has not perfected the faculties of faith and diligence.

If one can perfect the faculties of faith and diligence, then although one remains a lay householder, one is not called an ordinary person. As a sutra says: “There are four kinds of people: one who adopts the Sangha’s deportment but is not included among the Sangha; one who is counted among the Sangha but does not adopt the Sangha’s deportment; one who both adopts the Sangha’s deportment and is included among the Sangha; and one who neither adopts the Sangha’s deportment nor is included among the Sangha.” The first is called an ordinary person who has gone forth; the second, a noble layperson; the third, a noble person who has gone forth; and the fourth, an ordinary layperson.

From this it should be understood that without the faculties of faith and diligence, one is not included among the Sangha. Therefore, one should diligently cultivate the faculties of faith and diligence. To acquire the faculties of faith and diligence, one must hear, study, receive, retain, read, and recite the Buddhadharma, and practice according to its teachings.

Therefore, one must study this treatise on the Buddhadharma.

Furthermore, from this treatise two kinds of benefit are obtained: benefit for oneself and benefit for others. As stated in the sutra: “There are four kinds of persons: one benefits oneself but not others; one benefits others but not oneself; one benefits both oneself and others; and one benefits neither oneself nor others.” If one is able to perfect in oneself the virtues of morality and the rest but is unable to enable others to abide in morality and the rest, this is called benefiting oneself.

Thus there are these four kinds. Although a person may benefit oneself, if one also causes others to practice generosity and the rest and thereby obtain great fruits of recompense, this too is called benefiting others. Yet this is not the benefit intended by the Buddha here.

If a person merely expounds the Dharma to others, this is called benefiting others. Although that person does not personally practice in accordance with the Dharma, by expounding the Dharma to others one also obtains benefit oneself. As stated in the sutra: “One who expounds the Dharma to others obtains five kinds of benefit.” Yet this too is not the benefit intended by the Buddha here.

Here, only the benefit of the highest meaning is taught, namely, practicing in accordance with what is taught and bringing all the outflows to an end. Therefore, one should know that one who expounds the Dharma is able to benefit others. Because such a person encompasses both kinds of benefit, that person is called “the supreme person among persons,” just as clarified butter is supreme among flavors.

Furthermore, this person dwells in light and afterward enters into light. Most sentient beings in the world go from darkness into darkness, or from light into darkness. If a person cultivates even a little of the Buddha-Dharma, that person can go from darkness into light.

Why is this? The various benefits gained from practicing generosity cannot compare with the benefit of hearing the Buddha-Dharma. If one hears even a little of the Buddha’s teaching, one attains penetrating wisdom, dispels all afflictive distress, and gains immeasurable benefit.

As stated in the sutra: “There are four kinds of persons: one goes from darkness into darkness; one goes from darkness into light; one goes from light into light; and one goes from light into darkness.” There are also four other kinds of persons: one who follows the current; one who goes against the current; one who stands amid the current; and one who crosses beyond the current. If a person listens attentively to the Buddha-Dharma, that person immediately removes the five hindrances and cultivates the seven factors of awakening.

Therefore, that person can stem the current of birth and death and is called one who goes against the current; such a person is also called one who stands firm and one who crosses beyond the current. There are also four kinds of persons: one who is always submerged; one who briefly raises one’s head and then sinks again; one who raises one’s head and looks about; and one who crosses beyond. If one is unable to give rise to such virtues conducive to nirvana as faith and diligence, one is called always submerged.

If one gives rise to such worldly virtues as faith and diligence but cannot make them firm, so that they disappear again as soon as they arise, one is called one who briefly emerges and then sinks. To give rise to such virtues conducive to nirvana as faith and diligence, and to distinguish good from evil, is called raising one’s head and looking about. To fully cultivate such virtues conducive to nirvana as faith and diligence is called crossing beyond.

If a person can understand the correct meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, one will never lose it permanently; even if one temporarily regresses, one will not lose it altogether. Therefore, such a person is called one who cultivates virtue. If a person does not cultivate the body, morality, mind, and wisdom, even a small evil deed will cause one to fall into an evil realm.

If a person cultivates the body, morality, mind, and wisdom, even though one commits much evil, one will still not enter an evil realm. One who cultivates the body uses wisdom born of learning to cultivate contemplation of the body, feelings, mind, and dharmas. Through cultivating the body, one gradually gives rise to the various qualities of morality, concentration, and wisdom, and is able to extinguish karma.

When karma is extinguished, birth and death are extinguished accordingly. Again, as stated in the sutra, there are four kinds of persons: “There is one whose fetters are sharp but not deep; one whose fetters are deep but not sharp; one whose fetters are both deep and sharp; and one whose fetters are neither deep nor sharp.” The first is called one with intensified fetters, for they arise frequently. The next is called one with mild intermediate fetters, which continually remain in the mind.

The third is called one with intensified fetters, which continually remain in the mind. The fourth is called one with mild intermediate fetters, which arise only occasionally.

If a person hears a correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma, one can sever both kinds of fetters that are deep and sharp. If one clearly understands the correct meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, one not only refrains from afflicting and harming oneself but also refrains from afflicting and harming others. When non-Buddhists cultivate morality, they afflict and harm their own bodies; if they fall into wrong views, they also harm others, for they maintain that there is no sin or merit, no karma and its causes, and no resultant recompense.

Even when they practice generosity, they harm both themselves and others, as when innumerable cattle and goats are slaughtered in temples dedicated to heavenly deities. If one understands the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, one gains the benefit of harming neither oneself nor others, as does one who attains meditative concentration and cultivates loving-kindness and compassion. Therefore, one should study this treatise on the Buddha-Dharma.

Furthermore, those who study this treatise should engage in discussion with one another, for they understand the correct meaning. As stated in the sutra: “When engaging in discussion, one should discern whether a person is fit or unfit to be engaged in discussion.” If a person does not abide in the principles of the wise, in what is possible and impossible, in analytical distinction, or in the path, that person is called unfit to be engaged in discussion.

Conversely, one who abides in these is called fit to be engaged in discussion. Not abiding in the principles of the wise means that a debater does not use correct wisdom to skillfully comprehend the meaning and purport before accepting and applying it. For example, the Nirgranthas say: “Our teacher is a person worthy of faith.” But this merely follows empty words.

Not abiding in what is possible and impossible means not abiding in the proper use of reasons. Non-Buddhists recognize two kinds of reasons: common reasons and distinct reasons. If someone asks them about a common reason, they answer with a distinct reason; or if someone asks them about a distinct reason, they answer with a common reason.

Thus they do not abide in these two kinds of reasons. Not abiding in analytical distinction means not abiding in examples. Not abiding in the path means not abiding in the proper method of discussion.

As it is said: A debater should not utter harsh or abusive words, nor abandon the essential thesis, but should speak only beneficial and skillful words of encouragement, enabling the other person to awaken, understand, and rejoice within. This is called the Dharma of noble speech. In this regard, only a debater who understands the correct meaning of the Buddha-Dharma is fit to be engaged in discussion; all others are unfit.

There is also another way of distinguishing those who are unfit to be engaged in discussion: when a question should be answered decisively, one gives an indefinite answer; when a question should be answered analytically, one answers without analysis; when a question should be answered by asking a counter-question, one answers without asking a counter-question; and when a question should be set aside, one answers without setting it aside.

The opposite of these is called being fit to engage in discussion. A question to be answered decisively is one for which there is only a single reason, as in: The Buddha, the Blessed One, is unequaled in the world. Other cases should be understood by extension from this example.

A question to be answered analytically is one involving additional causes and conditions, as in whether continuity resumes after death. A question to be answered by asking a counter-question is one in which, when someone asks us, we question that person in return and have that person answer. A question to be set aside concerns dharmas that have no real substance and exist only as provisional designations.

If someone asks whether such a dharma is one or different, permanent or impermanent, and so forth, the meaning is not to be answered, for only one who understands the Buddha-Dharma can know it. Therefore, one must study this treatise on the Dharma. There are also three kinds of persons: those definitely established in the right, those definitely established in the wrong, and those not yet determined.

Those definitely established in the right will certainly enter nirvana; those definitely established in the wrong will certainly not enter nirvana; all others are called not yet determined. If a person can understand the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, one will certainly become definitely established in the right. There are also four kinds of persons: one wholly sinful, one with much sin, one with little sin, and one without sin.

One wholly sinful possesses only unwholesome qualities and not a single wholesome quality. One with much sin has much evil and little good. One with little sin has much good and little evil.

One without sin possesses only wholesome qualities and no unwholesome qualities. If a person can understand the correct meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, one will certainly enter the two classes of those with little sin and those without sin. Furthermore, if a person understands the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, the suffering one undergoes will be limited, for one will certainly attain nirvana.

CHAPTER 16: THE FOUR MEANS OF EMBRACING

Furthermore, by studying this treatise one attains the supreme means of embracing beings. As stated in the sutra: “There are four means of embracing: giving, affectionate speech, beneficial conduct, and sharing in benefit.” Giving means providing clothing, food, and other necessities. Although one embraces sentient beings by giving them these things, such a bond may still be broken.

Affectionate speech means speaking in accordance with their wishes, but this too is at fault because it seeks to win over the other person’s mind. Beneficial conduct means seeking the welfare of others oneself, such as taking an opportunity to help them accomplish an undertaking; yet this bond may also be broken. Sharing in benefit is like traveling together in the same boat, sharing both sorrow and joy; yet even this bond may sometimes be broken.

If one embraces sentient beings through the gift of the Dharma, affectionate speech grounded in the Dharma, beneficial conduct grounded in the Dharma, and sharing in the benefit of the Dharma, that bond cannot be broken. To embrace beings through the Dharma is to study this treatise.

Furthermore, by studying this treatise one attains the supreme reliance. As stated in the sutra: “Rely on the Dharma, not on persons.” Someone may say: “I heard this from the Buddha,” or “I heard it from a learned bhikshu,” or “I heard it in the midst of the great assembly,” or “I heard it while attending upon a venerable senior elder.” One should not believe that person and immediately accept those words. Only if those words can be incorporated into the sutras, do not contradict the characteristics of the Dharma, and accord with the Vinaya should they then be accepted.

To be incorporated into the sutras means to be included within sutras of definitive meaning. A sutra of definitive meaning is one whose purport does not contradict the characteristics of the Dharma. The characteristics of the Dharma are that which accords with the Vinaya.

Vinaya is called cessation. If one contemplates conditioned phenomena as permanent, pleasurable, self, and pure, one cannot extinguish greed, hatred, delusion, and the rest. If one contemplates conditioned phenomena as impermanent, suffering, empty, and without self, one can extinguish greed and the rest.

Knowing impermanence and the rest is called knowing the characteristics of the Dharma. Therefore, one should rely on the Dharma, not on persons.

The statement that one should rely on the Dharma already encompasses all dharmas. Therefore, it is next said that one should rely on sutras of definitive meaning, not on sutras of non-definitive meaning. Reliance on sutras of definitive meaning is the third reliance: rely on the meaning, not on the words. If the meaning expressed by certain words can be incorporated into the sutras, does not contradict the characteristics of the Dharma, and accords with the Vinaya, it is a proper reliance.

Rely on wisdom, not on consciousness. Consciousness means cognizing form and the other dharmas. As stated in the sutra: “Because it is capable of cognizing, it is called consciousness.” Wisdom means penetrating true reality. As stated in the sutra: “Because one knows form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness as they truly are, it is called wisdom.” “As they truly are” means emptiness. Consciousness, therefore, apprehends something as attained and should not be relied upon. To rely on wisdom is to rely on emptiness. Those who wish to penetrate the Dharma through this supreme reliance must therefore study this treatise.

Again, as stated in the sutra: “There are four conditions through which devas and human beings may increase wholesome qualities: 1. Dwelling in a favorable place; 2. Relying on virtuous persons; 3.

Personally forming right aspirations; 4. Having planted wholesome roots in previous lives.” Dwelling in a favorable place means dwelling in a central region and being free from the five difficulties. Relying on virtuous persons means being born where one encounters a Buddha appearing in the world.

Having planted wholesome roots in previous lives means not being blind, deaf, mute, or afflicted by other disabilities. Personally forming right aspirations means possessing right view; and right view arises through studying and hearing the Buddha-Dharma. Therefore, one must study this correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma.

Furthermore, one who recites and studies this treatise obtains throughout one’s lifetime the great benefit of firmness, meaning that one penetrates what is certain. As stated in the sutra: “There are four firm qualities: firmness of teaching, firmness of concentration, firmness of view, and firmness of liberation.” Firmness of teaching means declaring that all conditioned dharmas are impermanent and suffering, that all dharmas are without self, and that nirvana is quiescent.

This is called firmness of teaching, and it constitutes the perfection of wisdom born of hearing. By means of this, one attains concentration, which constitutes the perfection of wisdom born of reflection. Then, by means of this concentration, one contemplates conditioned dharmas as impermanent, suffering, and so forth, and thereby attains right view; this constitutes the perfection of wisdom born of cultivation.

Attaining the fruit of these three kinds of wisdom is called firmness of liberation.

Again, by studying and hearing a correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma, one obtains great benefit. As stated in the sutra, there are four dharmas of great benefit: “Drawing near to virtuous persons, listening attentively to the true Dharma, properly reflecting and recollecting for oneself, and practicing in accordance with the Dharma.” If one draws near to virtuous persons, one is able to hear the true Dharma, because the true Dharma abides with virtuous persons. After hearing the true Dharma, right mindfulness arises. One then rightly contemplates all dharmas in terms of impermanence and the rest. Through this right contemplation, one attains practice in accordance with the Dharma, namely, the uncontaminated path of seeing.

Furthermore, by hearing this treatise one perfects the four foundations of virtue: the foundation of the virtue of wisdom, the foundation of the virtue of truth, the foundation of the virtue of relinquishment, and the foundation of the virtue of quiescence. The wisdom arising from hearing the Dharma is the foundation of the virtue of wisdom. Through this wisdom, one sees the emptiness of ultimate truth; this is the foundation of the virtue of truth. Because one sees true emptiness, one becomes free from the afflictions; this is the foundation of the virtue of relinquishment. Because the afflictions are exhausted, the mind attains quiescence; this is the foundation of the virtue of quiescence.

Furthermore, one who hears a correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma plants four kinds of wholesome roots conducive to nirvana. These are called the dharma of warmth, the dharma of the summit, the dharma of acceptance, and the foremost worldly dharma. When one contemplates the five skandhas by means of the practices of impermanence and the rest, there arises a quality conducive to nirvana.

This is the lower wholesome root; because it is capable of warming the mind, it is called the dharma of warmth. When the dharma of warmth develops into the intermediate wholesome root, it is called the dharma of the summit. When the dharma of the summit develops into the higher wholesome root, it is called the dharma of acceptance.

When the dharma of acceptance develops into the highest of higher wholesome roots, it is called the foremost worldly dharma.

There are also four divisions of wholesome roots: the division conducive to regression, the division conducive to abiding, the division conducive to growth, and the division conducive to penetration. Wholesome roots consisting in reverence, reading, and recitation apart from the dhyana concentrations are called the division conducive to regression. Wholesome roots consisting in the attainment of dhyana concentration are called the division conducive to abiding.

Wholesome roots arising from hearing, reflection, and the rest are called the division conducive to growth. Uncontaminated wholesome roots are called the division conducive to penetration. If one hears the Buddha-Dharma, one will certainly leave behind the division conducive to regression and attain the latter three divisions of wholesome roots.

CHAPTER 17: THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

If a person hears the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, that person can skillfully discern the Four Truths: the Truth of Suffering, the Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, and the Truth of the Path. The Truth of Suffering comprises the three realms. The desire realm extends from Avici Hell to the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations.

The form realm extends from the Brahma worlds to the Akanistha Heaven. The formless realm comprises the four formless attainments. There are also four bases of consciousness: form, feeling, perception, and formations.

Some adherents of non-Buddhist paths hold that consciousness exists in dependence upon a Spirit. Therefore, the Buddha taught that consciousness depends upon these four bases. There are also four modes of birth: birth from an egg, birth from a womb, birth from moisture, and birth by transformation.

All heavenly beings and beings in hell are born by transformation. Hungry ghosts are of two kinds: those born from a womb and those born by transformation. The remaining beings include all four modes.

There are also four kinds of nutriment: material food, contact as nutriment, volition as nutriment, and consciousness as nutriment. Material food may be coarse or subtle. Rice and the like are coarse, while oil, fat, fragrances, and beverages are subtle.

Contact as nutriment consists of cold, heat, wind, and the like. Volition as nutriment means that some people sustain their lives through thoughts and desires. Consciousness as nutriment pertains to beings in the intermediate state and in hell, because these beings have no body of material form.

Those who enter the attainment of cessation, although they have no manifest consciousness, still retain consciousness; therefore, this too is called consciousness as nutriment. There are also six destinies: the gravest evil leads to hell; middling evil leads to birth as an animal; lesser evil leads to birth as a hungry ghost; the highest virtue leads to the heavenly destiny; middling virtue leads to the human destiny; and lesser virtue leads to the asura destiny.

There are also six elements: earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness. The four great elements surround one another with empty space between them, and consciousness abides within; this is commonly called a person. There are also six entrances of contact: when the six faculties, beginning with the eye, unite with consciousness, they are called the entrances of contact.

There are also seven stations of consciousness. Consciousness dwells in these stations because, through the power of delusion, it craves and delights in them. There are also eight worldly dharmas: gain, loss, acclaim, ridicule, disparagement, praise, suffering, and pleasure.

Because worldly people are certain to undergo these things, they are called worldly dharmas. There are also nine abodes of sentient beings. Sentient beings are able to dwell in these places solely through the power of delusion.

There are also five categories by which all dharmas are distinguished: the five skandhas, the twelve ayatanas, the eighteen dhatus, the twelve links of dependent origination, and the twenty-two faculties. Regarding the five skandhas, the eye and form constitute the form skandha. The consciousness that arises in dependence upon them and is able to apprehend the form before it is called the consciousness skandha.

When the mind arises and conceives of male and female, enemy and friend, all such conceptions are called the perception skandha. If one distinguishes and knows an enemy, a friend, or one who is neither enemy nor friend, and then gives rise to the three kinds of feeling, this is called the feeling skandha. When the three kinds of affliction arise within these three kinds of feeling, this is called the formations skandha.

Because of this, the three kinds of affliction arise; this is called the formations skandha. Because of this, the causes and conditions for taking on a body arise; these are called the five aggregates subject to clinging. Consciousness can arise only through four conditions: the causal condition, the immediately preceding condition, the objective condition, and the dominant condition.

Karma serves as the causal condition, and consciousness as the immediately preceding condition. Because one consciousness gives rise in sequence to another consciousness, form serves as the objective condition. The eye is the dominant condition.

Here, consciousness arises through two conditions, namely, the eye and form, continuing through the mind and dharmas; these are called the twelve ayatanas. When consciousness is added to these, they are called the eighteen dhatus, namely, the eye-dhatu, the form-dhatu, the eye-consciousness-dhatu, and so forth. How do these skandhas and dharmas arise?

Because they occur within twelve periods, they are called the twelve links of dependent origination. Among them, ignorance is an affliction, and formations are karma. From these two causes arise in sequence consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, feeling, craving, and clinging.

The latter two dharmas are called afflictions. Becoming is called karma. The initial reception of bodily consciousness in a future life is called birth.

The remainder is called aging-and-death. These twelve links of dependent origination reveal the existence of the past, future, and present. Yet because all conditions arise in dependence upon one another, there is no sovereign controller.

Furthermore, because birth and death proceed, return, and cease, the twenty-two faculties are taught. When all sentient beings first receive a body, they take consciousness as the basis. This consciousness is of six kinds.

Because it arises from the eye and the other faculties, these are called the six faculties, namely, the eye faculty through the mind faculty. Because they can produce the six consciousnesses, they are called the six faculties. They can distinguish the characteristics of the male and female faculties.

Some say that these are a small part of the body faculty. These six faculties are also called the six ayatanas. Because these six give rise to the six kinds of consciousness, this is called longevity.

Why is this so? Because these six ayatanas and six consciousnesses arise in an uninterrupted succession, this is called longevity. When this succession is severed, it is called death.

Therefore, this is called the life faculty. What serves as the faculty here? It is karma.

Because of karma, the six ayatanas and six consciousnesses can arise in uninterrupted succession. Within this lifespan, karma is called the life faculty. This karma arises from the various kinds of feeling.

These feelings are the five faculties beginning with pleasure. From these five faculties arise craving and all the other afflictions, as well as bodily and verbal karma. Because of these karmic causes and conditions, birth and death are again undergone.

These are defiled dharmas, capable of causing the causes and conditions of birth and death to continue without interruption. By what causes and conditions, then, can pure dharmas arise? They must depend upon faith and the other qualities.

Faith and the other four dharmas serve as causes and conditions for the accomplishment of wisdom. Wisdom has three stages: not yet knowing, desiring to know, and having known. Whether in cultivation or in undertaking any activity, these faculties are all distinctions within wisdom.

Because of birth and death, proceeding and returning, cessation, defilement, and purity, the Buddha taught the twenty-two faculties. All such dharmas are subsumed within the Truth of Suffering. Whoever is able to know this is said to know the Truth of Suffering skillfully.

The Truth of Origin is karma and afflictions. Karma will be discussed in the Chapter on Karma. Afflictions will likewise be discussed in the Chapter on Afflictions.

Because karma and afflictions are the causes and conditions for receiving a subsequent body, they are called the Truth of Origin. The Truth of Cessation will also be explained more fully in the section on the Truth of Cessation. It refers to the mind of conventional designation, the mind of dharmas, and the mind of emptiness.

The cessation of these three kinds of mind is called the Truth of Cessation. The Truth of the Path consists of the thirty-seven dharmas conducive to bodhi: the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of bodhi, and the eight factors of the Noble Path. The four foundations of mindfulness are mindfulness of the body, feelings, mind, and dharmas.

Through right mindfulness and the wisdom born of mindfulness, one contemplates the body as impermanent and so forth, and then abides upon the object; this is called the foundation of mindfulness of the body. As this mindfulness and wisdom gradually increase, enabling one to discern feelings, it is called the foundation of mindfulness of feelings. When they increase still further, purifying the mind and enabling discernment, it is called the foundation of mindfulness of mind.

The ability to discern all dharmas through right practice is called the foundation of mindfulness of dharmas. The four right efforts are as follows: When unwholesome and evil dharmas have already arisen, one sees their faults and, wishing to abandon them, gives rise to diligence and cultivates vigorous effort; the means for abandoning them is knowledge and vision. When unwholesome and evil dharmas have not yet arisen, one gives rise to diligence and cultivates vigorous effort so that they will not arise; the means for preventing their arising is knowledge and vision.

When wholesome dharmas have not yet arisen, one gives rise to diligence and cultivates vigorous effort so that they may arise. Through the successive application of superior, middling, and lesser powers, one becomes irreversible. The four bases of spiritual power are as follows: Wishing to perfect the wondrous practice of samadhi, one cultivates the factors of spiritual power.

The wish to give rise to samadhi is called the samadhi of aspiration. Aspiration, vigorous effort, faith, joy, recollection, serene wisdom, reflection, equanimity, and all such wondrous dharmas together bring it to completion; this is called the accomplishment of wondrous practice. Because merits and virtues increase, it is called a base of spiritual power.

The wish to increase them is called vigorous effort. This is called the second. A practitioner who wishes to possess vigorous effort therefore cultivates concentration and wisdom.

Attaining the mind of samadhi is what is called concentration. Contemplating this samadhi is what is called wisdom. The five faculties are as follows: Faith arising from hearing the Dharma is called the faculty of faith.

Having gained faith, one wishes to abandon defiled dharmas and realize pure dharmas, and therefore arouses diligence and cultivates vigorous effort; this is called the faculty of vigor. Cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness is called the faculty of mindfulness. When samadhi is achieved through the faculty of mindfulness, it is called the faculty of concentration.

When wisdom arises through concentration, it is called the faculty of wisdom. When these five faculties grow and become powerful, they are called the five powers. The eight factors of the Noble Path are as follows: Wisdom born from hearing, which enables one to believe that the five skandhas are impermanent, suffering, and so forth, is called right view.

When this wisdom arises from reflection, it is called right intention. Through right intention, one abandons unwholesome dharmas, cultivates wholesome dharmas, and gives rise to diligent practice; this is called right effort. From this point, one gradually goes forth into homelessness and receives the precepts, thereby attaining the three factors of the Path called right speech, right action, and right livelihood.

Through this right morality, one then perfects the foundations of mindfulness and the various meditative concentrations. By relying on this mindfulness and concentration, one attains knowledge in accordance with reality; these are called the eight factors of the Noble Path. Such is their sequence.

Yet among the eight factors of the Noble Path, morality should stand first. Why is this? Because the sequence in the categories of morality, concentration, and wisdom is such.

Right mindfulness and right concentration are called the category of concentration. Vigorous effort is always present throughout all practices. The category of wisdom is nearest to the Path and is therefore discussed last.

This wisdom is of two kinds: coarse and subtle. The coarse consists of wisdom arising from hearing and wisdom arising from reflection, and is called right intention. The subtle is wisdom arising from cultivation, namely, entry into the dharmas of Warmth and Summit.

The ability to destroy conventional designations and the dharmas of the five skandhas is called right view. Through this right view, one sees the cessation of the five skandhas; this is called the initial entry into the Path. From this point, one gradually attains the seven factors of bodhi: The mindfulness factor of bodhi means that if a trainee loses mindfulness, afflictions will arise, and thus one must bind oneself to a wholesome object.

Once mindfulness has been secured, right view is attained first; this is therefore called investigation of dharmas. Not abandoning the investigation of dharmas is called vigor. While cultivating vigor, afflictions diminish and the mind gives rise to gladness; this is therefore called joy.

Because the mind is joyful, the body becomes tranquil; this is called tranquility. When the body is tranquil, one experiences happiness; when there is happiness, the mind becomes concentrated. Because this concentration is difficult to attain, it is called vajra samadhi.

When one attains the fruit without attachment and abandons sorrow, joy, and the like, this is called equanimity. This is called superior practice: neither sinking nor erupting, the mind attains evenness, and is therefore called equanimity. Bodhi is called the knowledge of one beyond training.

By cultivating these seven dharmas, one can attain bodhi; hence they are called the factors of bodhi.

By cultivating these thirty-seven factors, one attains the four fruits of the śramaṇa. The fruit of stream-entry is penetrating the dharma of emptiness; by means of this knowledge of emptiness, one can abandon the three fetters. The fruit of once-returning is attained by further cultivating this Path, whereby the afflictions in the Desire Realm gradually become attenuated, with only two more births and deaths remaining before completion. The fruit of non-returning is the abandonment of all afflictions. The fruit of arhatship is the abandonment of all afflictions. If anyone cultivates this correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma, that person will penetrate the Four Truths and attain the four fruits of the śramaṇa. Therefore, one should cultivate this correct treatise on the Buddha-Dharma.

CHAPTER 18: THE COLLECTIONS OF DHARMAS

Furthermore, one who studies this treatise should comprehend the various collections of dharmas. Through such comprehension, the erroneous doctrines of non-Buddhists will be unable to subdue that person, who will also be able swiftly to extinguish afflictions, free oneself from suffering, and deliver others as well. The collections of dharmas that should be known are the dharmas that should be understood.

The dharmas to be known are: material dharmas and immaterial dharmas; visible dharmas and invisible dharmas; resistant dharmas and non-resistant dharmas; contaminated dharmas and uncontaminated dharmas; conditioned dharmas and unconditioned dharmas; mental dharmas and non-mental dharmas; mental-factor dharmas and non-mental-factor dharmas; dharmas associated with mind and dharmas not associated with mind; dharmas coexistent with mind and dharmas not coexistent with mind; dharmas that follow the activity of mind and dharmas that do not follow the activity of mind; internal dharmas and external dharmas; coarse dharmas and subtle dharmas; superior dharmas and inferior dharmas; near dharmas and distant dharmas; appropriated dharmas and non-appropriated dharmas;

dharmas of emergence and dharmas not of emergence; dharmas shared with ordinary beings and dharmas not shared with ordinary beings; sequential dharmas and non-sequential dharmas; dharmas possessing sequence and dharmas possessing no sequence.

Such dharmas are arranged in pairs of two. There are also dharmas arranged in groups of three: material dharmas, mental dharmas, and dharmas not associated with mind; past dharmas, future dharmas, and present dharmas; wholesome dharmas, unwholesome dharmas, and indeterminate dharmas; dharmas of trainees, dharmas of those beyond training, and dharmas of neither trainees nor those beyond training; dharmas abandoned through seeing the Truths, dharmas abandoned through cultivation, and dharmas not subject to abandonment.

Such dharmas form groups of three. There are also dharmas arranged in groups of four: dharmas bound to the Desire Realm, dharmas bound to the Form Realm, dharmas bound to the Formless Realm, and dharmas not bound to any realm. There are also four paths: the painful path that is difficult to cultivate, the painful path that is easy to cultivate, the pleasant path that is difficult to cultivate, and the pleasant path that is easy to cultivate.

There are also four purport-flavors: the flavor of emergence, the flavor of dispassion, the flavor of quiescent cessation, and the flavor of right knowledge. There are also four dharmas of realization: dharmas realized by mind, dharmas realized by mindfulness, dharmas realized by the eye, and dharmas realized by wisdom. There are the four modes of receiving a body, the four modes of entering the womb, the four conditions, the four kinds of faith, the four noble lineages, and the four evil courses of conduct.

All such things belong to the category of fourfold dharmas. There are the five skandhas; the six elements; the six internal ayatanas; the six external ayatanas; the six dispositions arising from birth; the six courses of joy; the six courses of sorrow; the six courses of equanimity; the six wondrous practices; the seven purities; the eight meritorious births; the nine successive cessations; the ten noble abodes; and the twelve links of dependent origination.

Causes and dharmas such as these, which should be understood and known, are immeasurable and boundless and cannot be fully described. Therefore, I have now presented only a brief outline of their essentials.

The Dharma to be comprehended is the truth of ultimate meaning. The Dharma to be known is conventional truth. Material dharmas are form, sound, odor, taste, and touch.

Immaterial dharmas are mind and non-manifest dharmas. The visible dharma is the form ayatana. Dharmas possessing resistance are material dharmas.

Outflow-tainted dharmas are those capable of producing the various outflows; for example, the conventionally designated mind of an arhat is such a dharma. Conditioned dharmas arise through various conditions; namely, the five skandhas. The unconditioned Dharma is the complete cessation of the five skandhas.

A mental dharma is that which apprehends an object. Mental-factor dharmas are those such as perception and the rest, which arise successively immediately after consciousness apprehends an object. Dharmas associated with mind are those such as perception and the rest, which necessarily arise successively when consciousness apprehends an object.

Dharmas coexistent with mind are dharmas and mind that exist together, such as form and the mind cognizing the associated activity. Dharmas that accompany mental activity are those that arise when mind is present and do not arise when mind is absent, such as the non-manifest karma of body and speech. Internal dharmas are the six internal ayatanas of the body.

Coarse and subtle dharmas exist in mutual relation; for example, when contemplating the form meditations in relation to the five sensual pleasures, the form meditations are subtle; when contemplating the formless meditations, the form meditations are coarse. Superior and inferior dharmas are likewise. Near and distant dharmas are distant either because they are in another place or because they are dissimilar.

Appropriated dharmas are dharmas arising from the body. Dharmas of deliverance are wholesome dharmas. Dharmas shared with ordinary beings are outflow-tainted dharmas.

Successive dharmas arise successively from something else. Material dharmas are all five dharmas beginning with form. Mental dharmas are as explained above.

Activities dissociated from mind are non-manifest karma. Past dharmas are dharmas that have already ceased. Future dharmas are dharmas that will arise.

Wholesome dharmas benefit sentient beings and true knowledge; dharmas contrary to those above are called unwholesome dharmas.

Dharmas contrary to both of the foregoing are indeterminate dharmas. Dharmas of one in training are the dharmas of an outflow-free mind belonging to a person in training. Dharmas of one beyond training are the dharmas of the mind of ultimate meaning belonging to a person beyond training.

The remaining dharmas are called neither of one in training nor of one beyond training. Dharmas abandoned through seeing the Truths are the manifest forms of self-conceit abandoned by a stream-enterer and the dharmas arising therefrom. Dharmas abandoned through cultivation are the non-manifest forms of self-conceit abandoned by stream-enterers, once-returners, and non-returners, together with the dharmas arising therefrom.

Dharmas not subject to abandonment are outflow-free. Dharmas bound to the Desire Realm are those subject to karmic recompense from the Avici hell up to the Heaven of Enjoying Others’ Emanations. Dharmas bound to the Form Realm extend from the Brahma worlds up to the Akanistha Heaven.

Dharmas bound to the Formless Realm are the dharmas of the four formless realms. Unbound dharmas are outflow-free dharmas. The painful path that is difficult to cultivate is the path cultivated by a person of dull faculties who has attained concentration.

The painful path that is easy to cultivate is the path cultivated by a person of sharp faculties who has attained concentration. The pleasant path that is difficult to cultivate is the path cultivated through wisdom by a person of dull faculties. The pleasant path that is easy to cultivate is the path cultivated through wisdom by a person of sharp faculties.

The stage of going forth is leaving home to seek the Way. The stage of detachment is the separation of body and mind. The stage of quiescent cessation is the attainment of meditative concentration.

The stage of right knowledge is penetrating the Four Truths. The dharmas realized through mindfulness are the four foundations of mindfulness. Because these foundations of mindfulness can give rise to the four meditations, this is called realization through the body.

Penetrating the Four Truths is called realization through wisdom. The four kinds of bodily experience are: one harms oneself but cannot be harmed by others; one is harmed by others but does not harm oneself; one harms oneself and can also be harmed by others; and one does not harm oneself and cannot be harmed by others. The four ways of entering the womb are: one is not mindfully aware when entering the womb, abiding in the womb, or emerging from the womb; one is mindfully aware when entering and abiding in the womb but not when emerging; one is mindfully aware when entering the womb but not when abiding in or emerging from it; and one is mindfully aware when entering, abiding in, and emerging from the womb.

Because the mind is distorted, distracted, and confused, one is not mindfully aware; because the mind is lucid, upright, and undisturbed, one can be mindfully aware.

The four conditions: The causal condition consists of the generative cause, the habituating cause, and the supporting cause. The generative cause is a dharma that, when arising, can serve as a cause for something else, as karma serves as the cause of karmic recompense. The habituating cause is like repeatedly cultivating sensual desire, whereby sensual desire increases day by day.

The supporting cause is like mind and mental-factor dharmas depending upon form, odor, and the other such dharmas. These are called causal conditions. The immediately antecedent condition is like the cessation of a preceding mental dharma, whereby the subsequent mind is then able to arise in succession.

The objective condition is that from which a dharma arises as its object, as form can give rise to visual consciousness. The dominant condition is the assistance given by other conditioning dharmas when that dharma arises.

Personal confidence: Faith in the Buddha means that a person possessing true knowledge decisively gives rise to a pure mind toward the Buddha, because the Buddha’s knowledge concerning sentient beings is supreme. Faith in this true knowledge is faith in the Dharma. One who has attained this knowledge is foremost among all sentient beings; this is called faith in the Sangha. To attain the moral discipline cherished by the noble ones is, with a mind of deep confidence, not to commit evil karma. Knowing for oneself that through this moral discipline one can have faith in the Three Jewels, and having faith in the power of moral discipline, is called faith in moral discipline.

The four noble lineages: Through these four noble lineages, one is not defiled by craving for clothing, nor by craving for food, drink, bedding, and bodily necessities; therefore, they are called the four noble lineages. The four evil courses of conduct are acting out of desire, acting out of anger, acting out of fear, and acting out of delusion, whereby one falls into an evil destiny.

The five skandhas: The form skandha consists of the five dharmas beginning with form. The feeling skandha is the dharma capable of apprehending an object. The perception skandha is that which can discriminate conventionally designated dharmas. The formations skandha consists of dharmas capable of producing a subsequent body. The consciousness skandha merely cognizes objective dharmas.

The six elements: The earth element is the combination of form, odor, taste, and touch in which the characteristic of solidity predominates. That in which the characteristic of moisture predominates is called the water element. That in which the characteristic of heat predominates is called the fire element.

That in which the characteristic of lightness predominates is called the wind element. That which has no material characteristic is called the space element. That which can apprehend dharmas as objects is called the consciousness element.

The six internal ayatanas: The eye ayatana is the combination of the four great elements that serves as the basis of visual consciousness. The ear, nose, tongue, and body ayatanas are likewise. The mind ayatana is mind.

The six external ayatanas: The form ayatana is the object apprehended by visual consciousness. The sound, odor, taste, touch, and dharma ayatanas are likewise.

The six kinds of disposition: A person of dark disposition can cultivate dark dharmas, but can also cultivate white dharmas and dharmas that are both white and dark. A person of white disposition is likewise. The six courses of joy depend upon desire.

The six courses of sorrow depend upon anger. The six courses of equanimity depend upon delusion. The six sublime courses are true wisdom.

The seven purifications: Purification of moral discipline is restraint through the precepts. Purification of mind is the attainment of meditative concentration. Purification of view is the abandonment of identity view.

Purification through overcoming doubt is the abandonment of the fetter of doubt. Purification of knowledge and vision concerning what is and is not the path is the abandonment of attachment to precepts and observances. Purification of knowledge and vision of practice is contemplation of the path.

Purification of knowledge and vision through the completion of practice is the path of one beyond training.

The eight fortunate births: These extend from being born as a wealthy and honored person among human beings up to birth in the Brahma worlds. The pleasures of fortunate karmic recompense attained among these become progressively greater; therefore, they are called the eight fortunate births.

The nine successive cessations: Upon entering the first meditation, speech ceases; upon entering the second meditation, initial and sustained thought cease; upon entering the third meditation, joy ceases; upon entering the fourth meditation, inhalation and exhalation cease; in the sphere of infinite space, the perception of form ceases; in the sphere of infinite consciousness, the perception of infinite space ceases; in the sphere of nothingness, the perception of infinite consciousness ceases; in the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, the perception of nothingness ceases; and upon entering the concentration of cessation, feeling and perception cease.

The ten abodes of the noble ones: A noble one abandons five dharmas, perfects six dharmas, guards one dharma, relies upon four dharmas, puts an end to truth-obscuring falsehood, relinquishes all quests, entertains no turbid thoughts, becomes separated from all bodily formations, well attains liberation of mind, well attains liberation through wisdom, has completed what was to be done, and dwells alone without companions.

To abandon five dharmas is to abandon the five higher fetters and attain the fruit of arhatship. Because all fetters have been completely ended, one cultivates the six dharmas of wondrous conduct: when the eye and the other sense faculties encounter forms and the other sense objects, one is neither distressed nor delighted, nor is one deluded. To guard one dharma is to establish mindfulness in contemplation of the body.

To rely upon four dharmas is to rely upon the four requisites, beginning with alms food. Others say: To rely upon four dharmas means that a noble one possesses a dharma to be kept at a distance, a dharma to be approached, a dharma to be eliminated, and a dharma to be patiently endured. Because one purely observes the precepts, one is able to realize the true characteristic; this is called putting an end to truth-obscuring falsehood.

Ending all delusions of views is called attaining the first fruit. Relinquishing all quests means relinquishing the quest for sensual desire, the quest for existence, and the quest for the holy life. Only upon attaining the first fruit does one know that all conditioned dharmas are false and deceptive.

Wishing to relinquish the three kinds of quests, one first attains the vajra samadhi and only then relinquishes the training in the Path; only at that time is one said to have relinquished all quests. Entertaining no turbid thoughts means that when the six kinds of thought have been extinguished, the mind becomes pure. When the three poisons have gradually grown weak, one realizes the second fruit.

When craving has been eliminated, one realizes the third fruit; this is called entertaining no turbid thoughts. Becoming separated from all bodily formations means eliminating the various fetters of the Desire Realm and attaining the fourth dhyana; this is called becoming separated from bodily formations. Because one attains the knowledge of exhaustion, this is called well attaining liberation of mind.

Because one attains the knowledge of non-arising, this is called well attaining liberation of mind. Because one attains the knowledge of non-arising, one attains liberation through wisdom. Since the minds of noble ones abide in these ten places, they are called the ten abodes of the noble ones.

Because the work of the Buddha-Dharma will certainly bring suffering to an end, this is called having completed what was to be done. Being far removed from ordinary beings and those noble persons who are still in training is called being without companions. When the mind is detached from all dharmas and abides ultimately in “emptiness,” this is called dwelling alone.

The twelve links of dependent origination: Ignorance is the mind that follows conventional designation. Because this inverted mind is capable of accumulating karma, it is said that ignorance conditions formations. Because consciousness follows karma and is thereby able to receive a body, it is said that formations condition consciousness.

After receiving a body, there are name-and-form, the six sense entrances, contact, and feeling. These links develop in due course. When experiencing feelings, one relies upon conventional designation and is therefore able to give rise to craving.

Because craving gives rise to numerous afflictions, these are called clinging. Craving and clinging serve as the causes and conditions for becoming; these are called the three links. Because of these karmic causes and conditions and afflictions, birth occurs in a subsequent life; and from the causes and conditions of birth arise aging, death, and the rest.

Here, the teaching of ignorance and karmic formations makes clear the existence of a past life, so that attachment to the view of permanence may be ended and one may understand that throughout beginningless birth and death, beings have wandered back and forth, receiving bodies through the causes and conditions of karma and afflictions. The teaching of birth and death makes clear the existence of a future life, so that attachment to the view of annihilation may be ended.

If true knowledge is not attained, birth and death will have no limit, and there will be only painful retribution. The teaching of the eight intermediate links makes clear the dharmas of the present: they arise solely through the continuity of conditions, and no real dharma exists. Here, ignorance and karmic formations are the causes and conditions of the previous life.

The results of these causes and conditions are consciousness, name, form, the six sense entrances, contact, and feeling. From these five kinds of causes and conditions arise craving, clinging, and becoming, which are the causes of the future life. The results of these causes and conditions are birth, aging, and death.

When the various feelings are experienced, they once again give rise to craving and clinging. Therefore, these twelve links revolve without end.

If one is able to attain true knowledge, one does not accumulate karma; when karma is not accumulated, there is no birth. Birth means the initial arising and coming into being. If anyone studies this correct treatise, that person will know that the intrinsic characteristics of all dharmas are entirely empty and will not accumulate karma. When karma is not accumulated, there is no birth; therefore aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and distress are all completely ended. Thus, those who wish to benefit themselves and others should enable sentient beings gradually to accomplish the Buddha Path.

Those who wish to elucidate their own Dharma and refute the doctrines of others should study this treatise.

CHAPTER 19: THE FIRST OF THE TEN DISQUISITIONS—THE CHARACTERISTIC OF EXISTENCE

Question: Earlier, your scripture extensively taught the study of various doctrines for the purpose of discussing the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma. What are these various doctrines?

Answer: Within the Tripitaka there are many differing doctrines. Those who delight in disputation debate the following: whether the dharmas of the two times exist or do not exist; whether everything exists or nothing exists; whether an intermediate existence exists or does not exist; whether the Four Noble Truths are attained successively or simultaneously; whether there is regression or no regression; whether the fetters are associated with the mind or are not associated with the mind; whether the nature of mind is originally pure or originally impure; whether karma that has already received its result still exists or does not exist; whether the Buddha is included in the number of the Sangha or is not included in the number of the Sangha; and whether a person exists or no person exists.

Some say that the dharmas of the two times exist, while others say that they do not.

Question: For what causes and conditions is it said that they exist? For what causes and conditions is it said that they do not exist?

Answer: Those who say that they exist maintain: If a dharma is such that a thought can arise regarding it, then because the dharmas of the two times are capable of giving rise to thought, one should know that they exist.

Question: Did you yourself not previously maintain that whatever possesses a characteristic exists?

Answer: Wherever the knowing faculty can reach is called something possessing the characteristic of existence. The objector says: The knowing faculty can also reach a place where nothing exists. Why is this so?

It is like contemplating after forming a belief and seeing blue where there is no blue. It is also like creating an illusion: although nothing exists, one sees something as existing. It is also like directing awareness toward a place where nothing exists, which is therefore called entering the Samadhi of the Sphere of Nothingness.

It is also like pressing a finger against the eye and then seeing two moons. It is also as stated in the sutra: “I know that inwardly there is no sensual desire.” Another sutra states: “Knowing that craving for form has ended is called the cessation of form.” It is also like falsely seeing in a dream what does not exist. For these reasons, one knows that the knowing faculty can also reach a place where nothing exists.

It should not be asserted that wherever the knowing faculty can reach is therefore called something possessing the characteristic of existence.

Answer: There is no cognition that proceeds to where there is no object. Why is this so? Because consciousness arises only in dependence upon two causal and conditional dharmas—one as its basis and the other as its condition.

If consciousness could arise without an object as its condition, it should likewise be able to arise without a basis. Then would not those two dharmas be useless? If this were so, there would also be no liberation, because consciousness would arise perpetually.

Therefore, one should know that consciousness does not proceed to what is nonexistent. Moreover, it is because there is something cognized that it is called consciousness. If there were nothing to cognize, consciousness likewise would not exist.

Furthermore, it is said that consciousness can cognize sensory objects: eye-consciousness cognizes forms, and so forth, up to mind-consciousness cognizing dharmas. If it is said that there is a consciousness without an object as its condition, what does that consciousness cognize? Moreover, to say that consciousness exists without an object as its condition is erroneous.

It is like a person who says: “Because I am insane, my mind is disordered. Nothing whatsoever exists in the world, yet I see all of it as existing.” Furthermore, if one cognized that nothing whatsoever existed, one should not give rise to doubt, for doubt can arise only when there is something cognized. As the sutra says: “That nothing whatsoever exists in the world, yet I cognize and see it, is unreasonable.” Moreover, your statement contradicts itself: if nothing exists, what is cognized?

As the sutra says: “The conjunction of three things is called contact.” If a dharma does not exist, what is conjoined? Furthermore, how could cognition without an object as its condition be established? If it is cognized, it is not nonexistent; if it is nonexistent, it is not cognized.

Therefore, there is no cognition without an object as its condition. Moreover, the statement, “Cognition proceeds to where there is no object, just as through resolute contemplation one sees as blue a color that is not blue,” is unreasonable. Why is this so?

Because within that color which is not blue, the nature of blue actually exists. As the sutra says: “Within this tree there is the nature of purity.” Furthermore, when the characteristic of blue is apprehended and, through the power of the mind, extended widely, everything becomes blue, and there is not a single characteristic that is not blue. Moreover, the Sutra of the Net of Illusion says: “When there is an illusionist and the objects used to perform an illusion, one sees within what is not a sentient being something resembling a sentient being;

therefore, it is called an illusion.” Furthermore, regarding the statement, “Because one cognizes that there is no place whatsoever, it is called entering the Concentration of the Sphere of Nothingness”: through the power of samadhi, this characteristic of nothingness arises; it is not that nothing exists.

It is like form that truly exists but, when destroyed, bears the characteristic of nonexistence. Furthermore, upon entering this samadhi, because few dharmas are perceived, they are regarded as nonexistent; just as something with little salt is called saltless, and one with little wisdom is called devoid of wisdom. It is also like the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

Although perception truly exists therein, it is nevertheless said to be neither existent nor nonexistent. Furthermore, regarding the statement, “When one rubs one’s eye with a finger, one sees two moons”: because one sees without reflective examination, one takes one as two. If one closes one eye, one does not see two.

Furthermore, regarding the statement, “I cognize inwardly that there is no sensual desire”: because this person sees that the five hindrances are opposed to the seven factors of awakening, the thought immediately arises, “I cognize that there is no sensual desire.” This does not mean cognizing something nonexistent. Furthermore, regarding the statement, “Cognizing that attachment to form has ceased is called the cessation of form”: because one sees that true wisdom is opposed to deluded understanding, it is called the cessation of attachment.

Furthermore, regarding the statement, “In a dream, though something does not exist, one sees it as existing”: because one has previously seen, heard, remembered, conceived, discriminated, and cultivated it, one sees it in a dream. One may also dream accordingly because cold or heat predominates in the body; dreams may arise from numerous conditions; or devas and spirits may come and manifest dreams. Therefore, one sees things as existing in dreams; it is not cognition of the nonexistent.

The challenger said: You state, “Consciousness arises only in dependence upon two causal and conditional dharmas.” This is incorrect. The Buddha taught that consciousness arises from two causal and conditional dharmas because he wished to refute the doctrine of a divine self; this does not apply to all cases. Furthermore, you state, “Because there is something cognized, it is called consciousness.” The cognition of consciousness cognizes an existing dharma as existent and a nonexistent dharma as nonexistent.

If a certain thing does not exist, because that thing is absent, this is called seeing nonexistence. Furthermore, because the three minds have ceased, this is called the Truth of Cessation. If there were no nonexistent mind, what would cease?

Furthermore, you state, “Eye-consciousness cognizes forms, and so forth, up to mind-consciousness cognizing dharmas.” This consciousness can only cognize dharmas as objects, but it does not distinguish whether they exist or do not exist. Furthermore, you state, “If there is a consciousness that cognizes without an object as its condition, that is erroneous.” Yet there is cognition that cognizes the nonexistent, as when an insane person sees things that do not exist.

Furthermore, you state, “If one cognized that nothing whatsoever existed, one should not give rise to doubt.” If one doubts whether something exists or does not exist, then there is cognition without an object as its condition. Furthermore, you state, “As the sutra says: ‘That nothing whatsoever exists in the world, yet I cognize and see it, is unreasonable.’” This sutra does not discuss the characteristics of dharmas and seemingly is not spoken by the Buddha.

Or perhaps it concerns such a samadhi: upon entering the samadhi, everything perceived exists; because that is the samadhi, it is expressed in this way. Furthermore, you state, “Your statement contradicts itself...” I say that taking the nonexistent as an object is not self-contradictory. Furthermore, you state, “Mind and mental factors can take all dharmas as objects.” In this cognition, mind and mental factors exist, but no conditioned object exists.

There are also mind and mental factors that cannot truly take an object; therefore, this is not called taking an object. Moreover, because the true characteristic of all dharmas is apart from all characteristics, it is not called an object. Furthermore, you state, “Dharmas as objects are causes and conditions for consciousness; if nothing exists, what can serve as the cause?” The “nonexistent” itself serves as the cause.

Furthermore, you state, “The conjunction of three things is called contact.” If the three things can be obtained, there is conjunction; it is not the case that the three things exist in every instance. Furthermore, you state, “If it is cognized, it is not nonexistent; if it is nonexistent, it is not cognized.” If an object exists and is cognized, this incurs the same fault. Furthermore, you state, “Within the tree there is the nature of purity.” This is incorrect, for it entails the fault that the effect already exists within the cause.

Furthermore, you state, “One apprehends the characteristic of blue and extends it widely.” This is incorrect. Originally, the characteristic of blue is slight, yet one sees the entire great earth as wholly blue; this is a deluded perception. Thus, by contemplating a small amount of blue, one can see the whole continent of Jambudvipa and everything in it as blue—would this not be a deluded perception?

Furthermore, you cite the statement from the Sutra of the Net of Illusion: “There is an illusionist and the objects used to produce an illusion; where there is no sentient being, one sees something resembling a sentient being.” This concerns the appearance of a sentient being; although it does not truly exist, it is seen. This, then, is cognition without an object as its condition. Furthermore, you state, “Through the power of samadhi, this characteristic of nothingness arises, just as form that truly exists becomes nonexistent when destroyed.” If form truly exists but becomes nonexistent upon destruction, that is an inversion.

Furthermore, you state, “One sees without reflective examination.” This is incorrect. It is like a person with an eye disease who sees strands floating in the sky, though in reality they do not exist. Furthermore, you state, “Seeing that the five hindrances are opposed to the seven factors of awakening, the thought immediately arises: ‘I cognize that there is no sensual desire.’” The seven factors of awakening are one thing, and the absence of sensual desire is another; how could they be the same?

Furthermore, you state, “Seeing that true wisdom is opposed to deluded understanding is called the severance of attachment.” Deluded understanding means false contemplation. Therefore, one then knows that sensual desire has been severed, and hence that form has ceased. True wisdom is the contemplation of impermanence.

Furthermore, you state, “In a dream, one sees what is real.” This is incorrect. One may dream that a house collapses, though in reality the house has not collapsed. Therefore, there is cognition that cognizes the nonexistent.

One should not claim that because cognition proceeds somewhere, it must therefore possess a characteristic.

CHAPTER 20: THE CHARACTERLESS

Question: If these are not characteristics of existence, then some now say that the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas are comprised within the Dharma and therefore must exist.

Answer: This too is unreasonable. Why? Because such a person says that the ordinary person’s dharmas are comprised within the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, which does not accord with the characteristics of dharmas. If this were so, then someone might say that unconditioned dharmas must likewise exist. Yet in truth those dharmas do not exist. Therefore, one should know that being comprised within such dharmas as the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas is not a characteristic of existence.

Question: Some hold that whatever dharmas are presently known and can be trusted as attainable are called characteristics of existence.

Answer: These too are not characteristics of existence, because such trustworthy dharmas cannot be spoken of through definitive discrimination. Therefore, a sutra says that one should rely upon wisdom and not upon consciousness, because consciousness has the nature of apprehending something. Form and the other sense objects are unattainable. This will be explained extensively later. Since this absence of characteristics cannot be destroyed, how can a characteristic consisting in something attainable be established?

Question: “Existence” combines with a dharma, and therefore it is called existent.

Answer: “Existence” will be refuted later. Since within existence there cannot be yet another existence, how could existence combine with a dharma and thereby cause it to be called existent? For this reason, a characteristic of existence cannot be spoken of through definitive discrimination. Nevertheless, existence is spoken of according to conventional truth, not according to the truth of ultimate meaning.

Question: If existence is affirmed according to conventional truth, then, again according to conventional truth, should the past and future be said to exist or not?

Answer: No. Why? Form and the other skandhas in the present can perform functions and can be seen and known. As a sutra says: “Susceptibility to affliction and deterioration is the characteristic of form.” It is only in the present that form can be afflicted and deteriorate, not in the past or future. Feeling and the other skandhas are likewise. Therefore, one should know that only the five present skandhas exist, while those of the other two times do not exist.

Furthermore, if a dharma performs no function, it has no intrinsic characteristic. Just as a past fire cannot burn and therefore is not called fire, consciousness is likewise: if, being in the past, it cannot cognize anything, then it is not called consciousness. Furthermore, it is unreasonable for something to exist without a cause.

There is no cause by which a past dharma could exist. Therefore, it does not exist. Furthermore, all dharmas that exist arise from causes and conditions.

When there are earth, seed, water, and other causes and conditions, shoots and roots arise. When paper, brush, and human labor are present, writing is produced. When two or three dharmas combine, consciousness arises.

In the future, the causes and conditions for shoots, writing, consciousness, and the like have not yet converged; how then could those things exist? Therefore, the other two times cannot exist. Furthermore, if a future dharma existed, it would be permanent, because it would pass from the future into the present.

Just as one who goes from one house to another does not thereby become impermanent, so too this cannot be the case. Moreover, a sutra says: “When the eye arises, it comes from nowhere; when it ceases, it goes nowhere.” Therefore, one should not discriminate a past or a future. Furthermore, if the eye, form, and consciousness existed in the future, there would be an agent acting there; the same would be true of the past.

Yet in truth this is not so. Therefore, one should know that no past or future dharmas exist. Again, if past and future form existed, it would possess resistance and obstruction.

Yet in truth it does not. Therefore, it does not exist. Again, if such objects as jars existed in the future, potters and others should not have to make them.

Yet we presently see that they are made; they do not already exist in the future. Furthermore, the Buddha taught that three characteristics of conditioned dharmas may be apprehended: arising, ceasing, and abiding-change. Arising means that a dharma, formerly nonexistent, is now presently produced.

Ceasing means that, after being produced, it is produced no more. Abiding means that it continues through succession; because it undergoes alteration, this is called change. These three characteristics, which are the characteristics of the conditioned, all exist in the present, not in the past or future.

CHAPTER 21: THE EXISTENCE OF THE TWO TIMES

Question: The past and future truly exist. Why? If a dharma exists, a thought concerning it can arise, as with present dharmas and unconditioned dharmas.

Moreover, the Buddha spoke of the characteristic of form and also spoke of past and future form. He further said that all forms—whether internal or external, coarse or subtle, past, future, or present—are collectively called the form skandha. He also said: “Even past and future form are impermanent, how much more so present form.” Impermanence is a characteristic of the conditioned.

Therefore, they must be said to exist. Furthermore, we presently see that cognition arises from cognition through cultivation, just as a grain of rice arises from a rice sprout. Therefore, the past must exist.

If the past did not exist, an effect would be without a cause. Moreover, a sutra says: “If a past event were truly beneficial, the Buddha would still speak of it.” It is also said that one should contemplate all things, past and future, as non-self. Furthermore, mental consciousness that takes the future as its object relies upon the past mind faculty.

If the past did not exist, upon what would consciousness rely? Furthermore, knowing that past karmic causes produce future retribution is right view. Furthermore, through his ten powers, the Buddha knows past and future karmic causes.

Moreover, the Buddha himself said: “If this person had not committed evil karma in the past, he would not fall into the evil destinies.” Furthermore, when a trainee remains in a mind accompanied by outflows, do the faith faculty and the other faculties free from outflows not exist in him? Furthermore, noble ones should not be able to make definitive predictions concerning future events. Again, if the past and future did not exist, people in the world should not be able to remember the five kinds of sense objects.

Why? Because mental consciousness does not cognize the five kinds of present sense objects. Furthermore, it is said that all eighteen mental activities take the past as their object.

Again, if the past and future did not exist, an arhat should not be able to declare: “I have attained meditative concentration,” because while in concentration he does not speak. Furthermore, in the four establishments of mindfulness, one should not be able to contemplate internal mind or internal feeling. Why?

Because what is present cannot contemplate what is past. Nor should one be able to cultivate the four right efforts. Why?

Because no evil dharmas exist in the future; the other three efforts would likewise be impossible. Furthermore, if there were no past or future, there would also be no Buddha. Nor should there be any distinction between one who has long cultivated morality and one who has only recently begun to cultivate it.

Therefore, the assertion that the past and future do not exist is unreasonable.

CHAPTER 22: THE NONEXISTENCE OF THE TWO TIMES

Answer: The past and the future do not exist. Although you say, “Within dharmas, there is a time when the mind arises,” I have already answered that the mind can arise even without an existing dharma. Furthermore, regarding your statement about “the characteristic of form, the enumeration of form, and that which may be characterized as form,” this is unreasonable.

The past and the future are not form, because they are not subject to affliction and destruction. Nor should it be said that this is the characteristic of impermanence; the Buddha merely spoke of this designation in accordance with the deluded conceptual distinctions of sentient beings. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “cognition produces cognition,” cause and effect mutually serve as causes and conditions and then cease, just as a seed and a sprout mutually serve as causes and then cease.

Therefore, the Buddha also said: Because this arises, that arises. Furthermore, regarding your statement, “If something is real and beneficial, the Buddha also speaks of it,” the Buddha said that this matter originated when it was present; the Buddha did not say that it “also exists.” When it is said that the past has entirely ceased, one thereby knows that it does not exist. Furthermore, regarding your statement about “contemplating non-self,” because sentient beings cling to a self in relation to past and future dharmas, the Buddha spoke in this way.

Furthermore, regarding your statement that “this is right view,” it is because this body gives rise to karma, and this karma serves as a cause of its result and then ceases. Later, one personally undergoes the corresponding retribution, and therefore it is called a result. In summary, within the Buddha-Dharma, statements that things either exist or do not exist are all expedient means intended to reveal the causes and conditions of meritorious and sinful karma; they are not the ultimate truth.

Just as sentient beings are said to exist because of causes and conditions, so too are the past and the future. When it is said that one relies upon past consciousness, this reliance is spoken of expediently; it is not like a person leaning against walls or pillars. It also explains that mind arises, rather than arising in dependence upon the body.

Because the preceding mind serves as a cause, the subsequent mind is able to arise. The force of karma is likewise. The Buddha knows that although this karma ceases in each successive moment, it is able to serve as a cause of its result; this is not described as determinate knowledge like knowing the characters written on paper.

Sinful karma is likewise: this body performs karma, and although that karma completely ceases, its retribution is not lost. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “there should be no undefiled faculties,” if a trainee has attained undefiled faculties, they are attained in the present. Although the past has ceased and the future has not yet arrived, because these faculties have already been perfected, they cannot be said not to exist.

Furthermore, regarding your statement that “a noble one should not predict future events beforehand,” this is due to the power of a noble one’s wisdom. Although a dharma does not yet exist, the noble one can foretell it in advance, just as a past dharma, although it has entirely ceased, can be known through the power of recollection. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “one should not recollect the five sense objects,” ordinary beings, deluded and filled with false thoughts, first apprehend their characteristics as determinate.

Later, although those objects have entirely ceased, thoughts of recollection still arise because dharmas operate according to such a principle; this is not like recollecting the hair of a tortoise or the horns of a hare. The eighteen kinds of mental activity are likewise: one apprehends present form, and although the past has ceased, one still recollects it accordingly. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “one should not declare, ‘I have attained meditative concentration,’” the concentration was attained in the present, and through the power of recollection one says, “I attained it.” Furthermore,

regarding your statement that “one should not be able to contemplate the mind internally or feeling internally,” there are two kinds of mind: the first arises and ceases from moment to moment; the second continues in successive sequence.

With the present mind, one contemplates the continuum of mind, not a thought that still remains present. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “one should not cultivate the four right efforts,” one guards against the causes and conditions of future unwholesome dharmas while also arousing the causes and conditions of future wholesome dharmas. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “at that time there is no Buddha,” the Buddha has the characteristic of quiescent cessation.

Even while still manifest in the world, he does not fall within either existence or nonexistence; how much less so after he has entered nirvana? Sentient beings take refuge in the Buddha just as people in the world honor their parents. Furthermore, regarding your statement that “there should not be those who have cultivated the precepts for a long or a short time,” the precepts do not differ because of time.

Why is this? Because time is not real; time exists only because dharmas come together, arise, and cease. Therefore, none of the many reasons you have stated are reasonable.

CHAPTER 23: THE EXISTENCE AND NONEXISTENCE OF ALL THINGS

The author of the treatise says: Some say that all dharmas exist; others say that all dharmas do not exist. Question: For what causes and conditions is existence asserted? For what causes and conditions is nonexistence asserted?

Answer: Those who assert existence base themselves on the Buddha’s statement that the twelve ayatanas are called “all”; thus, all exists. Earth, fire, wind, space, time, direction, self, and mind are all dravyas—that is, they designate all substances. Number and the other gunas are qualities that depend upon them.

The karmas listed below are cited to clarify this. The universal characteristics and particular characteristics of dharmas, inherence, the three kinds of existence, inherent nature, and so forth are asserted to exist. Things spoken of in the world such as the horns of a hare, the hair of a tortoise, the feet of a snake, the fragrance of salt, and the color of wind are said not to exist.

Furthermore, as a sutra states: “In empty space there are no tracks; among non-Buddhists there are no śramanas; ordinary beings delight in frivolous discourse; in the Tathagata there is no such thing.” Furthermore, whatever dharmas are accepted by a school may also be called existent. Thus, the sixteen categories beginning with dravya are held to exist by the Ưu-Lầu Khê school. The twenty-five principles are held to exist by the Tăng Khê school.

The sixteen categories are held to exist by the Na-Da-Tu-Ma school. Furthermore, if something possesses a principle capable of bringing a matter to completion, it may also be called existent, as with the twelve ayatanas. Moreover, within the Buddha-Dharma, it is only as an expedient means that all things are said to exist or all things are said not to exist; this is not the ultimate truth.

Why is this? If one definitively asserts existence, one falls into the extreme of eternalism; if one definitively asserts nonexistence, one falls into the extreme of annihilationism. Freedom from these two extremes is called the noble Middle Way.

End of Fascicle Two of the Treatise on the Establishment of Truth