三法度論

Chapter 1: VIRTUE (continued)

Question: Previously, the causes were explained as Endowment, Means, and Fruit. Of these, Endowment and Means have already been explained. What, then, is the Fruit?

Answer: The Fruit consists of a Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, and a sravaka. These three—Buddha, pratyekabuddha, and sravaka—are the Fruit.

Question: Of what is it the Fruit?

Answer: It is the higher morality, cessation, and wisdom.

Question: We are now discussing the causes, and the causes constitute the path. Why, then, is the Fruit also the path?

Answer: The Fruit spoken of here is that with remainder. What was spoken of previously is that without remainder. That without remainder is parinirvana; therefore, there is no error.

A Buddha has relinquished every obstruction, realized the ten powers, attained the four fearlessnesses, and fully penetrated all Buddha-Dharmas. The morality, concentration, and wisdom of Buddhas are unerring.

Pratyekabuddha: One who awakens by himself and not through another is called a pratyekabuddha because he awakens on his own.

Sravaka: One who awakens through the teaching of another.

Furthermore, complete liberation is of two kinds: the first arises from compassion, and the second from disenchantment. One who, through compassion, fully attains the path is a Buddha. Complete disenchantment is of two kinds: the first is attained by oneself, and the second is attained through another. If it is attained by oneself, one is a pratyekabuddha. If it is attained through another, one is a sravaka.

Furthermore, one who knows universally and exhaustively, is endowed with all virtues, and has relinquished every kind of evil is a Buddha. Although a pratyekabuddha has relinquished every kind of evil, he is not the same with respect to the other qualities. A sravaka depends upon another to relinquish every kind of evil.

Question: How is it known that Buddhas are unerring? Is it also so with sravakas?

Answer: Sravakas are either free from desire or not yet free from desire. There are distinctions among sravaka arhats; they discern characteristics, and with faith foremost among the five faculties, they have supports that are inferior, intermediate, or superior. Therefore, sravakas differ throughout all the stages.

Question: What does it mean to be free from desire?

Answer: Freedom from desire consists of liberation through faith, attainment through vision, and bodily realization. Because faith is foremost in crossing over, it is called liberation through faith. Because wisdom is foremost in crossing over, it is called attainment through vision. When both are attained together, it is called bodily realization. These are of innumerable kinds, which will now be set forth. Liberation through faith comprises the upward-stream, parinirvana with effort, and parinirvana without effort. Thus, upward-stream parinirvana, parinirvana with effort, and parinirvana without effort—these three are liberation through faith.

Upward-stream: Attachment to the Dharma of that realm leads one upward.

Furthermore, “stream” means the path. Because that Dharma, while one is in the Desire Realm, is about to bring one to a higher state, it is called the upward-stream.

Parinirvana with effort: “Effort” means the conditioned. Through many means, together with the path, one takes the conditioned as a condition and reaches the unconditioned; therefore, it is called parinirvana with effort.

Parinirvana without effort: “Without effort” means the unconditioned. Through few means, together with the path, one takes the unconditioned as a condition and reaches the unconditioned; therefore, it is called parinirvana without effort. These are called the three kinds of liberation through faith.

Question: What is attainment through vision?

Answer: Attainment through vision consists of intermediate parinirvana, parinirvana upon birth, and also the upward-stream attainment through vision. It, too, has three kinds: intermediate parinirvana, parinirvana upon birth, and upward-stream parinirvana.

Intermediate parinirvana: One dies here and attains the path before being born elsewhere. Intermediate parinirvana is like a small flame that flares up and is extinguished before falling to the ground. Its meaning is likewise.

Parinirvana upon birth: It is like a flame that burns brightly all around and is extinguished as soon as it falls to the ground. In the same way, immediately after being born, one successively attains the path and enters parinirvana.

The upward-stream is as previously explained. It is likewise in the Formless Realm. These three are attainment through vision.

Question: What is bodily realization?

Answer: Bodily realization comprises parinirvana with effort, parinirvana without effort, and parinirvana upon birth. These have already been explained.

Question: Have these not been explained a second time?

Answer: No. Because the realms differ, one is free from the Desire Realm and also free from the Form Realm. In these two cases, the intermediate existence is completely excluded, for there is no intermediate existence in the Formless Realm. Furthermore, what was previously described did not possess liberation. Bodily realization possesses liberation. Liberation will be explained later.

Question: Freedom from desire has been explained. What does it mean not yet to be free from desire?

Answer: Those not yet free from desire are the eighth person, the stream-enterer, and one established on the attenuated stage. These three—the eighth person, the stream-enterer, and one established on the attenuated stage—are not yet free from desire.

Question: What is the eighth person? If this refers to numerical order, that person should be the first, not the eighth. The first is one proceeding toward the fruit, and the last is the arhat. Why, then, would the arhat be here?

Answer: This should not be regarded as though there were eight separate persons. Among those eight children, one is not called the eighth because he is the eldest, but because he is the youngest. Likewise, the Blessed One has eight children of virtue. The arhat is the eldest, having exhausted the outflows. The first, who is proceeding toward the fruit, is the youngest; hence, that person is called the eighth.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: The eighth person possesses both faith and wisdom. While still an ordinary person, one of this lineage possesses faith and wisdom in this manner. Either faith predominates and wisdom follows; or wisdom predominates and faith follows; or both together give rise to the knowledge of the Dharma.

One who proceeds through faith has dull faculties; one who proceeds through the Dharma has intermediate faculties; and one who proceeds through both has sharp faculties. These three are the eighth person. After seeing the truths, if faith predominates, one is a seven-times-at-most returner.

If wisdom predominates, one is intermediate. If both predominate, one goes from family to family. This is the stage of vision.

Upon ascending to the stage of cultivation, one is established on the attenuated stage. If faith predominates, one is a once-returner. If wisdom predominates, one is intermediate.

If both predominate, one has but one more birth. If one is free from desire of the Desire Realm, then if faith predominates, one is liberated through faith; if wisdom predominates, one attains through vision; and if both predominate, one is free from the Form Realm and attains bodily realization. If all outflows have been exhausted, then if faith predominates, one is liberated through wisdom; if wisdom predominates, one is liberated in both ways and attains both liberations; and if both predominate, one likewise attains both liberations.

Furthermore, when faith predominates, the faculties are dull. When wisdom predominates, the faculties are intermediate. When both predominate, the faculties are sharp. In this way, one progresses successively to the highest state.

Question: The eighth person has been extensively explained as gradually bringing forth a forest of virtues, but it is still unclear how this occurs. Please elucidate it.

Answer: A stream-enterer is either a seven-times-at-most returner, an intermediate returner, or one who goes from family to family. Stream-enterers are of three kinds: they abide in the first fruit and seek the second fruit. “Stream-enterer” refers to the path.

Because one proceeds upward by the path, one is called a returner. Identity view, attachment to precepts and observances, and doubt have been severed, and the evil destinies have been permanently ended. Those of dull faculties delight in taking birth among gods and humans no more than seven times, aspiring to parinirvana.

One who goes from family to family also abides in the first fruit and has permanently severed the three fetters. Having severed a small portion of what is abandoned through cultivation, one is born among those families and passes from family to family before entering parinirvana. The intermediate returner is between these two: such a person does not invariably pass from family to family before entering parinirvana, nor does such a person invariably take birth among gods and humans as many as seven times before entering parinirvana, but enters parinirvana in between.

Question: The stream-enterer has been explained. What, then, is the attenuated stage?

Answer: The attenuated stage comprises the once-returner, the one with but one more birth, and the intermediate returner. Because one abides with the fetters of the Desire Realm gradually attenuated, it is called the attenuated stage. These three are the once-returner, the one with but one more birth, and the intermediate returner. A once-returner, after completing the present life, is born once among the gods and then takes birth once more before entering parinirvana. One with but one more birth undergoes one further existence and then enters parinirvana, and thus that person's virtues increase. The intermediate returner partakes of both of these.

These three are called those not yet free from desire.

Question: What is an arhat?

Answer: Arhats are of sharp, dull, or intermediate faculties. “Arhat” is a designation referring to one worthy of offerings. Because one is able to receive offerings, one is called an arhat.

Question: Why is such a person able to receive them?

Answer: Because it is for the sake of all sentient beings that such a person is called an arhat. Arhats are of three kinds: those of sharp faculties, those of dull faculties, and those of intermediate faculties.

Question: What are those of sharp faculties?

Answer: Those of sharp faculties are abiding in the Dharma, advancing in the Dharma, or immovable in the Dharma. Those abiding in the Dharma, advancing in the Dharma, and immovable in the Dharma should be understood as possessing sharp faculties.

Abiding in the Dharma: Because one has relinquished expedient means and eliminated the afflictions, this is called abiding in the Dharma.

The dharma of advancement: It is the removal of the afflictions and the seeking of the supreme excellence that can be attained; therefore, it is called advancement. Excellence means attainment, penetration, and eloquence.

The immovable dharma: Having attained the excellent fruit, one's eloquence cannot be disturbed by any debate. This is called sharp faculties.

Question: What are dull faculties?

Answer: Dull faculties consist of the dharma of regression, recollection, and guarding. The dharma of regression, the dharma of recollection, and the dharma of guarding—these three are dull faculties.

The dharma of regression: One may fall into error and therefore regress from the Noble Truths; hence it is called the dharma of regression. Or one may regress from the stage of cultivation. Cultivation means repeated practice. It is said that regression occurs through failing to practice; this is called regression. For example, after studying a sutra, one forgets it through not continually practicing it. Likewise, through failing to practice, one regresses from the stage of cultivation. Illness, karma, recitation, and disputes cause one to abandon contemplative practice and thus regress. Therefore, it is called the stage of cultivation.

The dharma of recollection: Having attained arhatship, when one's practice and physical strength are weak, one then thinks: “What I had to do has already been done; how am I to remain?” Such is reflective recollection. Recollection has many varieties. One may also think about possessions, sewing, and robes, but here it refers to contemplating the relinquishment of one's bodily life.

The dharma of guarding (relinquishment): One neither regresses nor engages in such contemplation, but only relinquishes the most strenuous means. It is like a poor person who obtains wealth through many expedients and then safeguards it. These are dull faculties.

Question: What are middling faculties?

Answer: Middling faculties comprise liberation through wisdom and the complete and incomplete forms of dual liberation. Attainment of liberation through wisdom is inferior. Dual liberation has two kinds: the first is complete liberation, and the second is incomplete liberation. Dual liberation consists of faith and wisdom. Because both have been attained, it is superior.

Question: What is liberation?

Answer: Liberation consists of liberation from desire, liberation from form, and cessation. Liberation from the Desire Realm and the Form Realm, cessation wherein the mind abides constantly, and exhaustion of the three realms—these are the three kinds of liberation. Because one is liberated from the afflictions, it is called liberation.

Question: What is liberation from desire?

Answer: Liberation from desire consists of the internal perception of form, the internal perception of formlessness, impurity, and purity. “Internal” means within oneself. There are two kinds: the perception of form and the perception of decaying form.

Here it means the internal perception of decaying form. In a charnel ground, one examines flesh rotting and decomposing piece by piece: the eyes bulge, the belly bursts, the intestines spill out, and all manner of impurities flow from the passages of excretion. Countless worms writhe and crawl upon the corpse, while crows and other birds contend to devour it.

The hands, feet, and skull each lie in separate places. Having seen this, one becomes free from desire and then reflects: “On account of this body, beings become angry, quarrel, engage in litigation, grow conceited and arrogant, and give rise to immeasurable evil.” Having contemplated in this way, one is liberated, evil ceases, and the mind becomes concentrated. This is called the internal perception of form and liberation through impurity; it is the second, the internal perception of decaying form.

Because of concentration, it is as though there were no form. Having established contemplation in this way, one contemplates the bodies of others in the same manner as above. This is called the internal perception of formlessness and liberation through impurity.

Liberation through purity concerns the colors blue, yellow, red, and white, taking flowers, robes, and so forth as objects. By arousing the intention to contemplate them, the mind abides unmoving; this is liberation through purity. These three constitute liberation from desire.

Question: What is liberation from form?

Answer: Liberation from form consists of the formless attainments. Having left form and desire behind, the four kinds of abiding of the mind are nevertheless still conditioned. This is called liberation from form. This has already been explained above.

Question: What is liberation through cessation?

Answer: The mind and the perceptions belonging to the various states of mind are brought to cessation. This is called liberation through cessation.

The third section of the Chapter on Virtue in the Degree of Truth has now been fully presented.

Chapter 2: EVIL

Question: The Chapter on Virtue in the three Degrees of Truth has been extensively explained. What is Evil?

Answer: Evil consists of the evils of formations, craving, and ignorance. These three—the evil of formations, the evil of craving, and the evil of ignorance—should be understood. This evil defiles wholesome conduct and therefore is called evil. It also defiles people, making them defiled persons. Their minds delight in evil, just as swine delight in filth. Here, first are the evil actions of body, speech, and mind. These evils come first: the three kinds of evil action of body, speech, and mind.

Evil action: Because it is an action performed by an evil person, it is called evil action.

Furthermore, because the action itself is evil, it is called evil action. An evil deed performed by the body is an evil bodily action. The same applies to speech and mind.

Question: What is evil bodily action?

Answer: Evil bodily action consists of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Evil bodily actions should be understood as these three: taking life, stealing, and sexual misconduct.

Question: It is known that evil bodily action has three kinds. What, then, is taking life?

Answer: Taking life consists of intention, instruction, and execution. Intention, instruction, and execution are the three aspects of taking life. The remaining actions are likewise. Just as evil bodily action is so classified, stealing and sexual misconduct also each have the three aspects of intention, instruction, and execution. The same applies to verbal karma.

Question: It is understood that the remaining actions are likewise, but intention is not yet understood. What is intention?

Answer: Intention consists of the mind desiring to act, desiring to cause another to act, and rejoicing when another acts. Intention means thought, and it has three forms: the mind desires to perform the act, desires to cause the act to be performed, or rejoices when another performs it. For example, intending to kill a sentient being is desiring to act. Intending to have the being killed is desiring to cause the act to be performed. Rejoicing in one's mind after another has killed is rejoicing when another performs the act. These are called the three kinds of intention.

Question: What is instruction?

Answer: Instruction consists of teaching, commanding, and consenting. Teaching, commanding, and consenting are the three kinds of instruction.

Teaching: This is like adherents of non-Buddhist paths saying that pigs and sheep should be killed as sacrifices to the gods. This is teaching.

Commanding: This is like a king commanding an official: “I have an enemy; you must go and kill him.” This is commanding.

Consenting: This is like someone asking: “That man is my enemy. Will you go and kill him?” and the person immediately agrees. This is called consenting.

These three constitute instruction.

Question: What is execution?

Answer: Execution consists of perceiving a sentient being, abandoning that being, and severing the being's life. Execution means carrying out the deed. As stated regarding taking life, instruction should be understood as teaching, commanding, and consenting.

The same applies to evil mental action. Here, perceiving another sentient being, abandoning that sentient being, and severing the sentient being's life are the three factors constituting complete execution. If a physician does not properly understand how to lance an abscess and the patient dies while it is being lanced, this does not constitute the physician's taking of life, because the physician had no intention to kill.

If these three factors are not all present, it is not taking life. These are called the three aspects of execution.

Question: What is stealing?

Answer: Stealing consists of an object belonging to another, the perception that it belongs to another, and the arising of an intention to steal it. These three—an object belonging to another, the perception that it belongs to another, and the arising of an intention to steal it—constitute complete stealing. Why? Suppose an object belongs to another, but one takes it without any intention to steal, believing, “I have permission,” because it resembles one's own; this is not stealing. If an object belongs to another but there is no intention to take it furtively, it is not stealing, as when one takes an acquaintance's property. If these three factors are not all present, it is not stealing. Only when all are present is it stealing. These are called the three aspects of stealing.

Question: What is sexual misconduct?

Answer: Sexual misconduct concerns another's partner, one protected by law, and an improper passage; such conduct is sexual misconduct. The three kinds of violation are violation involving another's partner, violation involving one protected by law, and violation through an improper passage.

Question: Sexual intercourse has been spoken of as the basis. For what reasons is it called sexual misconduct?

Answer: There are two kinds of people: monastics and householders. Here, sexual intercourse by a monastic is said to be evil action. Sexual intercourse by a householder is not evil action, but deviant sexual conduct is evil action. If sexual intercourse by a householder were evil action, then a stream-enterer who engaged in sexual intercourse ought to fall into hell. Since this is not so, sexual misconduct is the evil action; therefore, the sutra speaks of two kinds that are without fault.

Answer: What is one received by another?

Answer: Those accepted by another are [accepted by] a master, by relatives, or by a king. Those accepted by a master, accepted by relatives, or accepted by a king are all persons accepted by another. There are two kinds of masters: permanent and temporary. A permanent master is one to whom a woman belongs by residence or family law. If one engages in sexual intercourse with such a woman, then according to those provisions it is sexual misconduct. As for a temporary master, if a woman receives material support from him for a fixed period, then engaging in sexual intercourse with that woman is, according to those provisions, sexual misconduct.

Acceptance by relatives refers to a woman being supported by her parents, brothers, maternal uncles, or others, or to someone undertaking to support a woman who has been abandoned.

Acceptance by a king means that, if she has no relatives and no master, she is accepted under the king’s decree.

Question: What is acceptance according to Dharma?

Answer: Acceptance according to Dharma comprises acceptance through training, through observance of the fast, and through clan law. If one undertakes the rules of training, this is acceptance through training. If one undertakes the rules of the fast, this is acceptance through the fast. If one undertakes the laws of the clan, this is acceptance through clan law. These may all be discussed here.

Acceptance through training means that if her master first consents to her undertaking the training, and afterward someone violates her, it is misconduct. This is called acceptance through training.

Acceptance through the fast means that if her master first consents to her undertaking the fast, and afterward someone violates her, it is misconduct. This is called acceptance through the fast.

Acceptance through clan law is as previously explained under acceptance by relatives. However, because the compiler of the scripture wished to complete the three dharmas, acceptance through clan law is stated again.

One’s mother, sisters, wife, and women of the same clan are all persons whom one must not violate. To violate them is misconduct.

Question: What constitutes conduct contrary to the proper way?

Answer: Conduct contrary to the proper way refers to intercourse with a woman who has recently given birth, with a male who is not fully male, and the like. If a woman has just given birth and one afterward violates her, this is conduct contrary to the proper way. If one uses force to violate an unmarried woman, this is conduct contrary to the proper way. Engaging in sexual intercourse with a male who is not fully male is likewise such conduct. These are the three forms of conduct contrary to the proper way.

Question: This explanation is incomplete. Why? Because there are still other forms of sexual misconduct included here. How does what has been stated encompass them? If it does not encompass them, then what is stated here is incomplete.

Answer: What has been stated is complete. Why? Because it was previously said that one should abstain from a woman at the time of childbirth. When “woman” is stated, one should understand that animals have also been included. When abstention at the time of childbirth is stated, one should understand that other forms of conduct have also been included. Therefore, the explanation is complete.

Question: From where do these evil and unrighteous acts arise?

Answer: They all arise from greed, hatred, and delusion. One should understand that all those acts arise from greed, hatred, and delusion.

Question: Why are all of them described as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct?

Answer: It is not limited to these alone. If only these are stated, that is due to the compiler of the scripture. It should be said that these merely encompass the whole; therefore, one should consult the original scripture. All evil actions of body, speech, and mind should be explained separately.

Question: Why is it said here that they arise from the three evils? There is a fault here. Why? Because pleasant feeling and painful feeling do not arise at the same time, nor does pleasant feeling cause anger. Sexual activity is said to be a pleasurable practice. Desire is sexual passion. Why, then, is it said here to be anger?

Answer: It is not said that anger arises from sexual passion. What is spoken of here is the original intention. Because of attachment even to the teeth and hair, anger arises and leads to killing. Thus, anger first arises: “That person violated my wife, so I shall retaliate against him.” Afterward, when one engages in sexual intercourse, attachment arises; nevertheless, the original intention arose from anger. Desire arises from that other act, and therefore there is no fault. The other cases are likewise.

Question: It was previously said that all arise from greed, hatred, and delusion. Evil bodily action has now been explained, but it is still unclear what evil verbal action is.

Answer: Evil verbal action consists of untruth, non-false speech, and frivolous speech. Evil verbal action has four kinds, but only three dharmas are listed; therefore, they should be understood as three. These three dharmas also reveal all four.

Question: What is untruth?

Answer: Untruth means avoiding and concealing the truth for one’s own sake, for the sake of another, or for gain. If untruth is an evil verbal action, it is when, for one’s own sake, for the sake of another, or for gain, one intentionally avoids and conceals the truth. Avoiding and concealing the truth means intentionally covering it up. One knows one thing in one’s mind but says something different with one’s mouth. The three reasons stated are: for one’s own sake, for the sake of another, and for gain.

For one’s own sake means for the sake of one’s own life. For the sake of another means for the sake of a relative. For gain means for goods and wealth. These are called the three. As the Blessed One said: “Because of one’s kin, because of oneself, because of another, or because of gain, one knowingly tells a lie.”

Question: Evil verbal action as untruth has been explained. How, then, is non-false speech an evil verbal action?

Answer: Non-false speech comprises causing displeasure, causing separation, and acting in both ways. Non-false speech refers to conduct that causes displeasure, conduct that causes separation, and conduct combining both. Conduct here means intentionally causing displeasure.

Such conduct is called harsh speech. If one speaks angry words out of affection, it is not harsh speech. Were this not so, there would be nothing that was not harsh speech.

Harsh speech arises for one’s own sake. Otherwise, even the Blessed One would be guilty of harsh speech. Out of compassion, the Blessed One became angry upon hearing what Devadatta said.

Therefore, intentionally causing displeasure is harsh speech. For example, if one angrily calls a blind person “blind,” although the statement is true, it is spoken with an evil intention. Therefore, intentionally causing displeasure is called evil conduct.

Conduct causing separation means that although the words may be true, because they are intended to cause separation, they constitute divisive speech. If one does not intend to cause separation, even though separation may result, it is not divisive speech. Were this not so, the Blessed One himself would also be guilty of divisive speech. Out of compassion for followers of other teachings, the Blessed One converted them and made them his disciples. Therefore, intending to cause separation is what makes the act evil.

Acting in both ways means combining those two matters, producing both untruth and non-false speech. Thus, harsh speech is harsh speech and may also be called divisive speech.

Question: What is frivolous speech, also called embellished speech?

Answer: Frivolous speech is speech that is untimely, insincere, or meaningless. Speaking at an improper time, speaking insincerely, and speaking without meaning are the three kinds of frivolous speech; their distinctions are innumerable.

Speaking at an improper time means failing to speak when one should speak and speaking when one should not. For example, at a wedding gathering, when people are rejoicing, someone may say: “My friend! Every gathering ends in dissolution. All things are impermanent. Having flourished, they must decline. You should quickly abandon this affair.” Such words are praised by Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas, and sravakas; yet because they are spoken at an improper time, they constitute frivolous speech.

Speaking insincerely means speaking falsely while imagining it to be true. For example, followers of other teachings say, “I am omniscient.” Although they imagine this to be true, it is merely frivolous speech. Why? Because they are not omniscient; it is only their imagination.

Speaking without meaning refers to talk of joking and laughter, singing and dancing, and sorrowful lamentation.

This is called evil verbal action.

Question: What is evil mental action?

Answer: Evil mental action consists of covetousness, anger, and wrong view. Because these are the sphere of evil mental action, they are called evil mental actions. They are the three: covetousness, anger, and wrong view.

Covetousness is the desire to obtain another person’s wealth and possessions.

Question: If desiring to obtain another person’s wealth and possessions is covetousness, then this is repetitive and thus faulty, because it was already stated under volition. Volition is the mind’s desire: the desire to act, or rejoicing when another person acts. Is that not so?

Answer: This is not repetitive. The meaning is as follows: volition is the intention and desire to act. Here, however, one does not desire to perform an act, but desires to seize another person’s possessions. Covetousness seeks to make that wealth and those possessions one’s own. Thus, the mind is defiled and attached to another person’s wealth and possessions. Covetousness is directed toward another person’s possessions. Anger is the malicious intention to afflict another person.

Question: What is wrong view?

Answer: Wrong view consists of regarding karma and its results as contrary, and of not seeing or knowing. Regarding karma as contrary, regarding results as contrary, and not seeing or knowing—these summarize the three kinds of wrong view. If distinguished in detail, they are innumerable. Here, divergent views are wrong views.

Question: What does it mean to regard karma as contrary?

Answer: Regarding karma as contrary means regarding a pure intention as impure, an impure intention as pure, or both as having the same intention. Regarding a pure intention as impure, an impure intention as pure, and both as having the same intention are the three ways of regarding karma as contrary.

Regarding a pure intention as impure means holding that wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma has an unwholesome result.

Regarding an impure intention as pure means holding that unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma has a wholesome result.

Regarding both as having the same intention means holding that wholesome and unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma have wholesome and unwholesome results. The same applies to results. Just as karma is distinguished in this way, results are distinguished likewise. To maintain that the heavens are suffering or that nirvana is suffering, and comparable views, is to regard a pure result as arising from an impure intention. To maintain that the evil destinies are pleasant or that samsara is pleasant, and comparable views, is to regard an impure result as arising from a pure intention. To maintain that the suffering of the evil destinies is not suffering, and comparable views, is to regard both as having the same intention.

Question: What is not seeing or knowing?

Answer: Not seeing or knowing means not seeing or knowing the karma, results, and sentient beings. Not seeing or knowing karma, not seeing or knowing results, and not seeing or knowing sentient beings are the three kinds of not seeing or knowing.

Not seeing or knowing karma means holding that there is no giving, no observance of fasting precepts, no teaching, no skillful means, and no performance of wholesome or unwholesome karma.

Not seeing or knowing results means holding that the performance of wholesome or unwholesome deeds brings no resultant retribution, and that there are no hell beings, hungry ghosts, or animals.

Not seeing or knowing sentient beings means holding that there are no parents, no sentient beings born into the world, and no true śramanas or brahmins. These are called the innumerable kinds of wrong view.

These are the three kinds of evil mental conduct in their innumerable forms. All the evil causes that are created are contrary to all the wholesome causes that are created, as explained previously in the section on moral discipline.

The first section of the Chapter on Evil in the Division of Truth has now been presented in full.

Question: Evil conduct has been explained. What, then, is craving?

Answer: Craving consists of attachment, anger, and conceit. Attachment, anger, and conceit should be understood as the three kinds of craving. Craving is seeking; these three kinds are collectively spoken of as one.

Question: What is attachment?

Answer: Attachment is clinging to sensual desire, existence, and the holy life. Clinging to sensual desire, clinging to existence, and clinging to the holy life are the three kinds of attachment.

Here, sensual desire refers to the five sensual pleasures: forms, sounds, odors, flavors, and tangible objects. Depending on these three categories, sentient beings each take delight in and become attached to them, whereas they do not do so with other things. Here, clinging to sensual desire concerns women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female. A woman desires a man, a man desires a woman or one who is neither fully male nor female, and one who is neither fully male nor female desires a woman or a man.

Question: Previously, clinging to the five sensual pleasures was discussed. Now women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female are mentioned. Is this not an error?

Answer: Women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female are mentioned again within the five sensual pleasures because each becomes attached in a particular way. This is not so with other things. As the Blessed One said: “I do not see any beloved form that causes attachment as does the form of a man or a woman, just as with the objects of the five sensual pleasures.” Therefore, there is no error in this account of craving. Sensual desire is of three degrees: inferior, middling, and superior. The sensual desire of a man is inferior. The sensual desire of a woman is middling. The sensual desire of one who is neither fully male nor female is superior. This is called clinging to sensual desire.

Question: What is clinging to existence?

Answer: Clinging to existence means clinging to existence in the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm. Clinging to existence in the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm is called clinging to existence.

Question: Here, clinging to sensual desire was previously discussed separately in relation to women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female. Why, then, is it discussed again under clinging to existence?

Answer: Clinging to existence is explained with reference to sentient beings, whereas clinging to sensual desire is explained with reference to afflictions. All dharmas of the desire realm are called existence in the desire realm. If one clings to them, that is clinging to existence in the desire realm. The dharmas of the form realm are called existence in the form realm. If one clings to them, that is clinging to existence in the form realm. The dharmas of the formless realm are called existence in the formless realm. If one clings to them, that is clinging to existence in the formless realm. Therefore, they are discussed separately, and there is no error.

Question: What is clinging to the holy life?

Answer: Clinging to the holy life concerns gaining, not yet gaining, and losing; it consists of attachment, desire, and anxiety. With regard to the holy life, once it has been attained, one clings to it; when it has not yet been attained, one longs for it; and if it is lost, one becomes anxious. For this reason, clinging to sensual existence is also described in this way: once something has been gained, one clings to it; when it has not yet been gained, one longs for it; and if it is lost, one becomes anxious. Thus, clinging to sensual existence and clinging to the holy life each have three aspects, making nine in all.

Furthermore, once a woman has been obtained, one becomes infatuated with her; when she has not yet been obtained, one longs for her; and if she is lost, one becomes anxious. Thus, with regard to women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female, clinging to sensual desire should likewise be described as having nine kinds. In this way, clinging to sensual existence and clinging to the holy life should be said to comprise twenty-seven kinds.

Question: Can clinging to the holy life in this way truly be an affliction?

Answer: Yes. As the Blessed One said, there are three kinds of seeking: seeking sensual desire, seeking existence, and seeking the holy life. Seeking, craving, attachment, and clinging have the same meaning.

Furthermore, as has been said, one continually keeps sensual desire and the holy life in mind while apart from craving.

Question: If that is so, the holy life cannot be practiced. Why? Because there is clinging. Moreover, according to what has been said, would not every practice of the holy life necessarily involve clinging?

Answer: It should be practiced with skillful means, as the Śākyans practiced it. The Śākyans practiced the holy life without clinging to the holy life. Because they had left merit and wrongdoing behind, they practiced the path without seeking its results.

One who seeks results is said to cling to a self, thinking: “Through these precepts, through this ascetic practice, and through this holy life, I shall be reborn in heaven or in another realm.” Such practice is attached and defiled. One longs, thinking: “When shall I attain the holy life so that I may be reborn in a good destiny?” If one clings to the holy life in order to obtain happiness in a future life, one has grasped pleasurable craving.

If one commits conduct contrary to the holy life, remorse arises, and one thinks: “I have regressed.” This is called anxiety. Such is called clinging to the holy life.

Question: What is anger?

Answer: Anger concerns oneself, enemies, and the arising of wrath. Oneself, enemies, and wrath are the three kinds of anger.

Question: Why is anger discussed in the section on craving?

Answer: Anger is the seeking of harm and the seeking of what is disagreeable. Because it already exists, conduct toward oneself and toward enemies proceeds through four approaches.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: For oneself and for those dear to one, if happiness has not yet been obtained, one seeks it; once it has been obtained, one seeks to prevent its loss. If suffering has already been encountered, one wishes to cast it off; if it has not yet been encountered, one does not wish it to occur. Thus, for oneself and those dear to one, the opposite of these four applies to enemies.

If an enemy has not yet encountered suffering, one wishes suffering to befall them; once they have encountered it, one wishes them to remain unable to escape it. If they have not yet obtained happiness, one wishes them not to obtain it; once they have obtained it, one wishes them to lose it quickly. This is called seeking harm on account of an enemy, and it is anger. Therefore, there is no error in discussing anger in the section on craving.

Question: What does anger on account of oneself mean?

Answer: Anger on account of oneself means anger arising from another’s seeking one’s harm during the three periods of time. The three periods are the past, present, and future, as previously explained. Anger arises because one thinks: “That person sought my harm in the past, will seek my harm in the future, or seeks my harm now.” This is called anger on account of oneself, arising because another seeks one’s harm during the three periods of time.

Question: What does anger on account of those dear to one mean?

Answer: It is likewise. Just as anger arises because another seeks one’s own harm during the three periods of time, so anger arises because another seeks the harm of those dear to one during the three periods of time.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: As has been said, if someone is dear to me, anger arises because another person sought that person’s harm in the past, will seek that person’s harm in the future, or seeks that person’s harm now. This is called anger on account of those dear to one.

Question: What is anger on account of an enemy?

Answer: Enmity means mutual opposition; hostile parties differ from one another, as already explained. For example, I am hostile toward another because that person sought benefit in the past, will seek benefit in the future, or seeks benefit now, and anger arises. Thus, because an enemy seeks benefit in the three periods of time, anger arises. These are called the nine kinds of anger.

Question: How does this anger differ from the anger among the three evil practices?

Answer: This anger arises based on its contributing conditions. As for the anger belonging to evil practice, one should know that it is wrath arising from ignorance.

Question: Are the nine kinds of anger the same in all sentient beings?

Answer: Their persistence is like writing upon water, earth, or stone. One should know that anger varies according to sentient beings, like writing upon water, earth, or stone. Because sentient beings are of so many kinds, one should know that their anger may be inferior, middling, or superior.

Writing upon water vanishes immediately. Writing upon earth remains for a short while and disappears only when erased by wind, rain, or other conditions. Writing upon stone remains as long as the stone endures and disappears only when the stone itself ceases to exist.

In the same way, the various kinds of anger among sentient beings are not alike. Some, as soon as anger arises, immediately reproach themselves: “I am in the wrong. Sentient beings are phenomena that naturally perish; oppressed by immeasurable suffering, they will themselves come to an end.

I am blameless and have no malicious intention to harm another.” Thus, their anger subsides by itself, like writing upon water. Others, when anger arises, cannot restrain themselves; it subsides only when a teacher or a compassionate good friend admonishes them, like writing upon earth. Still others harbor malicious intentions, fail to reflect correctly, and give rise to anger.

Even a Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, or a shravaka cannot cause it to cease; it perishes only together with their body, like writing upon stone. This is called anger.

Question: What is pride?

Answer: Pride is the arising of the notion of being inferior, equal, or superior, on account of which one becomes self-reliant and presumptuous; therefore, it is called pride. Furthermore, because it designates the characteristics of oneself and others in various ways, it is called pride. It consists of three kinds of notions: the notion “I am inferior,” the notion “I am equal,” and the notion “I am superior.”

If another possesses beauty, wealth and honor, or distinguished lineage, and one thinks, “I am not like that person,” this is called the notion “I am inferior.” If another possesses beauty, wealth and honor, or distinguished lineage, and one thinks, “I am equal to that person,” this is called the notion “I am equal.” If another possesses beauty, wealth and honor, or a flourishing lineage, and one thinks, “I am superior to that person,” this is called the notion “I am superior.”

Question: The characteristics of pride have been explained as inferior, equal, and superior. How can one recognize this as the true classification that distinguishes all forms of pride, since pride is of immeasurably many kinds, as stated in the Miscellaneous Section?

Answer: Inferior pride comprises perverse pride, unequal pride, and utterly abject pride. Thus, inferior pride is of three kinds: perverse pride, unequal pride, and utterly abject pride. Perverse pride means that, although one has committed extremely evil karma, one still gives rise to an arrogant attitude.

Unequal pride means that one receives praise and commendation from others, who say, “Excellent! You possess great virtue!” Having heard this, one rejoices inwardly and thinks, “Why should I not deserve this?”

Utterly abject pride means that, being indolent, one gives rise to this thought: “A person cannot advance toward the supreme path.” These are the three kinds of inferior pride.

Question: What is equal pride?

Answer: Equal pride comprises self-pride, haughty pride, and irreverent pride. Thus, equal pride is of three kinds: self-pride, haughty pride, and irreverent pride.

Self-pride means clinging to the five skandhas as a self and regarding what is evil as meritorious.

Haughty pride means accepting the offerings and service of others.

Irreverent pride means failing to revere one’s teachers and elders.

These are called the three kinds of equal pride.

Question: What is superior pride?

Answer: Superior pride comprises great pride, the pride beyond pride, and pride of superior attainment.

Great pride means becoming arrogant by regarding oneself as superior to those who are inferior or equal.

The pride beyond pride means becoming arrogant by regarding oneself as superior even to those who are superior.

Pride of superior attainment means becoming arrogant by regarding oneself as having attained a supreme fruit that one has not yet attained.

These are called the three kinds of superior pride. All such forms of pride arise from attachment to what is pleasing and from fear; therefore, they are discussed under the sphere of craving.

The second part of the Evil Chapter in the True Classification has now been fully explained.

Question: Craving has been explained. What is ignorance?

Answer: Ignorance consists of non-knowledge, wrong knowledge, and deluded knowledge. These three—non-knowledge, wrong knowledge, and deluded knowledge—constitute ignorance. “Ignorance” is a provisional designation for delusion. It is a distinction made in words, naming something through a term that negates it. Just as a person who has an evil child may be called childless, so this ignorance is an evil form of knowledge and is therefore called ignorance.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: Non-knowledge concerns the conditioned, the unconditioned, and the inexpressible, which one does not know. Not knowing the conditioned, the unconditioned, and the inexpressible constitutes the three kinds of non-knowledge.

Question: The conditioned is of two kinds: appropriated and unappropriated. How are these distinguished here?

Answer: The conditioned comprises the appropriated, the unappropriated, and what is both appropriated and unappropriated. In terms of non-knowledge, these should be understood as delusion concerning the appropriated, delusion concerning the unappropriated, and delusion concerning both. Here, the appropriated is of two kinds: what is appropriated by oneself and what is appropriated by another among the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas.

The unappropriated refers by comparison to trees, grasses, walls, and partitions. Here, whether something is appropriated by another or is entirely unappropriated, it should be understood as unappropriated. Each of these is obscured by delusion.

This is called non-knowledge. As the Blessed One said: “With regard to the six internal ayatanas, one who lacks knowledge neither sees nor knows.” It is explained extensively in this manner, as stated in the sutras. “Appropriated” means taken up.

Through karma and the afflictions, the deluded mind clings to self and what belongs to self. This is called appropriation.

Question: The unconditioned is nirvana, and it is one. Why, then, are three kinds spoken of?

Answer: The unconditioned comprises nirvana with remainder, nirvana without remainder, and what pertains to both. Although nirvana is the single unconditioned, according to the circumstances it is spoken of as two kinds: with remainder and without remainder. “With remainder” means that the body received through karma and the afflictions remains; therefore, it is called “with remainder.” Such a person has completely eliminated all afflictions and has realized the truth, yet a remainder still exists; hence it is called “with remainder.”

“Without remainder” means that when these appropriated skandhas are relinquished, no further continuity occurs, just as a lamp is extinguished. This is nirvana and is called “without remainder.” Not knowing each of these individually or their common cessation is non-knowledge of the unconditioned.

Question: What is the inexpressible?

Answer: The inexpressible comprises designation concerning what is appropriated, designation concerning the past, and designation concerning cessation. If one does not understand designation concerning what is appropriated, designation concerning the past, or designation concerning cessation, this is called non-knowledge of the inexpressible.

Designation concerning what is appropriated means that sentient beings take the appropriated skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas to be either one or different.

Designation concerning the past means speaking on the basis of past skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. As it has been said: “At that time, I was named Kusunda.”

Designation concerning cessation means speaking on the basis of what was appropriated when it has ceased. As it has been said: “The Blessed One entered parinirvana.”

Furthermore, designation concerning the past is taught to subdue sentient beings who cling to annihilation. Designation concerning cessation is taught to subdue belief in eternal existence. Designation concerning appropriation is taught to subdue belief in nonexistence. Designation concerning the unappropriated is taught to subdue belief in existence. Not understanding each of these is called non-knowledge of the inexpressible.

Question: Non-knowledge has been explained. What is wrong knowledge?

Answer: Wrong knowledge comprises the view of a self in the body, extreme views, and appropriated views. These three—the view of a self in the body, extreme views, and appropriated views—constitute wrong knowledge. “Wrong,” “inverted,” “not in accord with reality,” and “untrue” all have the same meaning.

The view of a self in the body comprises the notions “This is self,” “This belongs to that self,” and “This is under its mastery.” The fixed notions that this is self, that this belongs to that self, and that this is under its mastery constitute the view of a self in the body.

“This is self” means that the skandhas are like illusions, mirages, echoes, and the moon’s reflection in water; yet because their forms resemble a fivefold aggregate, one clings to them as a self.

“This belongs to that self” means that things are provisionally assembled like a jeweled necklace or a tree laden with fruit and resemble the five skandhas; yet one clings to them as possessions of the self.

“This is under its mastery” means that things are like a plantain trunk or various kinds of foam and bubbles, resembling the objects of the five desires; yet one clings to them as being under one’s mastery, like an empty village. The view of a self in the body is the view that the body is possessed by a self. These are called the three forms of the view of a self in the body.

Question: What are extreme views?

Answer: Extreme views are annihilationism, eternalism, and the combination of annihilationism and eternalism; together these are the three kinds of extreme views that are entertained. An extreme is that which is not in accord with principle; it is adherence to one side. Here, annihilationism and eternalism comprise: the world is eternal; the world is impermanent; the world is neither eternal nor impermanent. The world is finite; the world is infinite; the world is neither finite nor infinite. Sentient beings have an end; sentient beings have no end; sentient beings neither have an end nor have no end. The body is identical with the life-principle. Comparisons such as these apply.

The combination comprises: eternal and impermanent; finite and infinite; having an end and having no end. Comparisons such as these apply. These are called the three kinds of extreme views.

Question: What is appropriation of views?

Answer: Appropriation of views consists of precepts, views, and reliance. This appropriation of views arises from three things: first, precepts; second, views; third, reliance. Among these forms of appropriation of views, precepts were discussed in the first section of the Division of Truth. Because purity is attained through such precepts, one undertakes those precepts. These are called the two kinds of appropriation of precepts. To hold, “This alone is true; everything else is false and unreal,” is called appropriation of views. To cling to something as true and necessarily so is likewise said to be appropriation of views.

The body is bound and relies upon them: that is, if one relies upon precepts and views, these are the five skandhas. Therefore, whether through precepts or views, one clings to the five skandhas as pure. One should know that the appropriation of precepts regards the five skandhas as foremost and nothing else. One should know that appropriation of views relies upon them. These are called the three kinds of appropriation of views.

Question: What is cognition subject to delusion?

Answer: Cognition subject to delusion is the failure to understand clearly the Jewels, the truths, and concentrations. One does not clearly understand the Jewels, does not clearly understand the truths, and does not clearly understand concentrations. Not understanding clearly means failing to reach a decision because of doubt; it has the same meaning as hesitation.

Question: What are the Jewels?

Answer: The Jewels are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha. The Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, and the Sangha Jewel should be known as the Three Jewels. The Buddha possesses universal knowledge, has perfected all virtues, and has abandoned every evil.

Question: On account of what is the Buddha called a Jewel?

Answer: On account of those virtues.

Furthermore, it is because of his great loving-kindness and great compassion, because he teaches the true Dharma, because his body is free from affliction, and because he is difficult to encounter in the world, like the udumbara flower. Thus, because he has perfected incalculable virtues, he is called a Jewel.

The Dharma consists of the means and the fruit of those means. Here, only nirvana is spoken of as the Dharma Jewel. It stands above all dharmas, as stated in the sutra: “If there are conditioned and unconditioned dharmas, that unconditioned nirvana is foremost.” This Jewel cannot be destroyed; it eliminates all suffering, is ultimately blissful, is difficult to attain, and can never be exhausted. For reasons such as these, it is called a Jewel.

The Sangha, which was discussed earlier in the section on the sravakas, is a Jewel because its merit is vast and great, it does not contravene the teaching of the Blessed One, it is the unsurpassed field of merit, it is praised by the Blessed One, it cannot be destroyed, and it is always harmonious and free from contention. Because it has perfected immeasurable virtues such as these, it is called a Jewel.

Question: The Jewels have been explained. What, then, are the truths?

Answer: The truths are conventional truth, truth of characteristics, and truth of the ultimate meaning. Thus, conventional truth, truth of characteristics, and truth of the ultimate meaning are the three kinds of truth.

Truth is that which truly exists, genuine truth, truth that is not false, and truth that accords with reality; therefore, it is called truth.

Conventional truth consists of established local customs, clan conventions, and rules of training. That is, established local customs, established clan and family conventions, and established rules of training are called the three kinds of conventional truth. Because one conducts innumerable affairs by means of them, they are called conventional truths. Conducting innumerable affairs is the function of cognition. Here, an established local custom means that its import is necessarily so. “This matter has been accepted by me.” That matter and that designation are like water filling and overflowing its bounds. Established conventions such as these are called conventional truths.

Established clan conventions are the domestic customs of one’s own family.

Established rules of training are modes of conduct and regulations that govern one’s actions, together with examining and comprehending the sutras. Furthermore, one takes food during the day and does not take food at night; one does not cut down trees or plants; and during the rainy season one does not travel. Practices such as these are called conventional truths.

Question: What is truth of characteristics?

Answer: Truth of characteristics comprises suffering, its origin, and the path. Thus, the truth of suffering, the truth of origin, and the truth of the path are the three truths of characteristics. Because they are truths and are contemplated, they are characteristics. The characteristics of truth refer to birth, aging, and impermanence. “Characteristic” means a distinguishing emblem. Among them, the characteristic of oppression is the truth of suffering; the characteristic of arising and development is the truth of origin; and the characteristic of essential deliverance is the truth of the path. Cessation is without characteristics and will be discussed separately here.

Furthermore, the truth of suffering comprises the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. The truth of origin comprises greed, hatred, and delusion. The truth of the path comprises morality, concentration, and wisdom. These are called truths of characteristics.

Question: What is the truth of the ultimate meaning?

Answer: It is the ultimate cessation of action, words, and all thought. The ultimate cessation of action, words, and all thought is called the truth of the ultimate meaning. Action is bodily karma. Words are verbal karma. Thought is mental karma. When these three reach ultimate quiescence, this is called the truth of the ultimate meaning, which is the meaning of nirvana.

Question: As the Buddha said in verse:

There is one truth, not two;

If, life after life, one dwells in delusion,

Nanda contemplates the truths—

This is not what the ascetics proclaim.

Since there are four truths, why is it said that there is one?

Answer: This refers to the truth of the ultimate meaning; hence it is said that nirvana is not twofold. As stated in this verse:

Nanda contemplates the truths—

This is not what the ascetics proclaim.

From this half-verse, one can understand that it does not speak of any other truth; therefore, there is no error.

Question: The truths have been explained. What, then, is concentration?

Answer: Concentration consists of concentration of the form realm, concentration of the formless realm, and uncontaminated concentration. Thus, concentration of the form realm, concentration of the formless realm, and uncontaminated concentration are called concentration.

Concentration means that the activity of the mind is stabilized. Here, concentration of the form realm comprises the immeasurable states, the bases of mastery belonging to the dhyanas of the form realm, the first, second, and third liberations, and the first totality-base among all the totality-bases.

Concentration of the formless realm comprises the four formless attainments and two of the totality-bases.

Uncontaminated concentration comprises emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness.

Uncontaminated dhyana is uncontaminated. Formless concentration may also be uncontaminated. Regarding the preceding five perceptions, the concentrations that cut off the realms, and all such states, one fails to reach a decision because of doubt and remains hesitant.

This is called cognition subject to delusion. It also comprises delusion as to suffering and what is not suffering, origin and cessation, and the path and what is not the path. The Four Truths in the three realms of desire, form, and formlessness thus make twelve kinds.

Regarding this cognition subject to delusion, it is as explained in the section on craving. In the section on lack of wisdom, false cognition and wrong view are also discussed. They were explained earlier among the unwholesome actions of mind.

The appropriation of views is likewise so. Personality view and extreme views pertain to suffering in the three realms. Appropriation of precepts pertains to suffering and the path in the three realms.

Furthermore, craving is also abandoned through cultivation. Thus, the ninety-eight latent tendencies have been distinguished and explained.

The third section of the Chapter on Evil in the Division of Truth has now been fully presented.

END OF THE MIDDLE FASCICLE