三法度論

Chapter 3: RELIANCE

Question: Virtue and evil have already been explained. What is reliance?

Answer: Reliance consists of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. These three—the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas—are reliance. Because they can serve as a basis of reliance, they are called reliance.

“Can serve as a basis of reliance” means that they provide a foundation. On the basis of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, sentient beings perform virtuous and evil actions. Therefore, one should know that these are the bases of virtue and evil.

Question: What are the skandhas?

Answer: The skandhas are form, formations, and cognition. These three—form, formations, and cognition—should be understood as the skandhas. “Skandha” has the same meaning as accumulation and aggregation.

Here, blue, yellow, red, white, coarse, subtle, long, short, square, and round are distinguished; one should know that all are collectively included in the form skandha. Within this, form consists of the four great elements and the various forms produced from the four great elements, whether visible or invisible; this is the form skandha. The four great elements and derived form are of two kinds: visible and invisible.

The visible is the object perceived by the eye. The invisible comprises sound, odor, taste, subtle tactile qualities, the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body, and the four great elements.

Question: It is said that form consists of the four great elements and the various forms produced from the four great elements. Yet even the four great elements are not understood, much less the forms produced from them. What are the four great elements?

Answer: The great elements are earth, water, fire, and wind. Earth, water, fire, and wind are provisionally called “great”; each kind of form comes together through their combination. Here, the characteristic of solidity is earth, the characteristic of moisture is water, the characteristic of heat is fire, and the characteristic of motion is wind.

Derived forms are smoke, clouds, mist, shadows, darkness, brightness, sunlight, the five forms, and the five faculties; comparable things are likewise included.

Question: The form skandha has already been explained. What are formations?

Answer: Formations are based upon body, speech, and mind. Here, because they are based upon the body, they are said to rely upon the body. Because they are based upon speech, they are said to rely upon speech.

Because they are based upon the mind, they are said to rely upon the mind. Relying upon body, speech, and mind, one produces formations and performs conditioned activities; therefore they are called formations. As the Buddha said in a sutra: “Form is a conditioned formation.” They in turn produce further things, just as a child in turn gives birth to a child.

As with form, one should understand the five skandhas in the same way. When immeasurable kinds of things have combined and been fashioned in immeasurable ways, they are called the five skandhas, just as grains are gathered into a heap. Formations are of three kinds: meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable.

These three are called formations.

Question: What is cognition?

Answer: Cognition consists of feeling, perception, and consciousness. These three are cognition and are also called factors of the path, because they are never separate from the path. As the Blessed One said: “Feeling itself is cognition.”

Question: What is feeling?

Answer: Feeling consists of pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. The nature of feeling is called feeling. Feeling has no other cause by which it is felt; feeling itself is that which can experience.

If feeling had another cause, there would have to be another life faculty that feels it. If that which can experience were itself the life faculty, then feeling would be the life faculty; but feeling is not the life faculty. Therefore, the nature of feeling is feeling.

This is a distinction in terminology. Thus, feeling is said to be of three kinds: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Each is related to the others.

In relation to pleasant feeling, there is painful feeling. In relation to painful feeling, there is pleasant feeling. In relation to both, there is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

As the Blessed One said: “Pleasant feeling is opposed to painful feeling. Painful feeling is opposed to pleasant feeling. Pleasant and painful feelings are opposed to neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.” “Opposed” means inimical.

Question: What is pleasant feeling?

Answer: Pleasant feeling arises from sensual desire, from the absence of evil, and from nonattachment. Pleasant feeling is of three kinds: that arising from sensual desire, that arising from the absence of evil, and that arising from nonattachment. Here, that arising from sensual desire means engaging in the five sensual pleasures and obtaining much enjoyment.

That arising from the absence of evil means that the absence of evil does not increase evil; it is the wholesome practice of morality free from sensual desire. With respect to morality, the mind is free from remorse and is therefore joyful. That arising from nonattachment means restraining the faculties, abandoning the five sensual pleasures, and keeping the mind undistracted.

The peace and happiness attained while practicing dhyana and the immeasurable states is called that arising from nonattachment. Nonattachment means being unbound. With respect to the faculties, it is also said to mean being undefiled.

This explains the three kinds of pleasant feeling.

Question: What is painful feeling?

Answer: Painful feeling consists of birth, aging, and death. These three—birth, aging, and death—are painful feelings. Among them, the suffering of birth is like the arising of an abscess. The suffering of aging is like an abscess that has newly erupted. The suffering of death is like an abscess that has fully erupted and penetrated deeply into the joints and bones.

Furthermore, because all suffering exists on account of birth, it is called the suffering of birth. As the Blessed One said: “Because there is birth, hands and feet may be severed,” and comparable things. The suffering of aging is the deterioration of bodily form, strength, and vigor. The suffering of death is separation from what one loves. This is called painful feeling.

Question: What is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling?

Answer: Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling pertains to the three realms. Wherever there is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, one should understand it in terms of the three realms. Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling stands in contrast to pain and pleasure.

The three realms will be explained later. If it is held that neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling pertains to the three realms, this includes the pain and pleasure discussed previously; therefore, one should understand that this does not mean that the three realms are devoid of pleasure and pain. The Desire Realm possesses all three feelings.

The Form Realm possesses two: pleasant feeling and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. The Formless Realm possesses only one: neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Therefore, neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling should be understood in terms of the three realms.

Question: For what do these feelings serve as a basis?

Answer: Pleasure serves as a basis for abundant desire. Pain serves as a basis for abundant anger. Neither pain nor pleasure serves as a basis for abundant delusion. Why is this so? There can be pleasant feeling without desire, which is capable of eliminating desire, as in the three dhyanas. There can be painful feeling without anger, as when the Blessed One suffered from a headache and an injury to his heel but did not give rise to anger. Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is experienced in the fourth dhyana and in the four formless samadhis; therein, there is no delusion, and it is capable of eliminating delusion. If understood in this way, the explanation accords with the meaning.

Question: From what do they arise?

Answer: They arise from karma, from affliction, and from the realms. Those pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feelings should be understood as arising from karma, from affliction, and from the realms; they do not arise spontaneously or by chance.

Question: There are immeasurable kinds of karma. Which karma is meant here?

Answer: “Arising from karma” means arising from meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable karma. These pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feelings arise from the three kinds of karma: meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable. According to their meaning, pleasant feeling arises from merit, painful feeling arises from wrongdoing, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling arises from imperturbable karma. Here, merit is that which can eliminate evil conduct, foremost among which are the four dhyanas. Demerit is evil conduct. The imperturbable consists of the fourth dhyana and the formless attainments.

Question: As previously stated, merit consists of giving, morality, and cultivation. Cultivation itself consists of dhyana, the immeasurable states, and the formless attainments. Why, then, is it now stated separately that pleasant feeling arises from merit?

Answer: There is no fault in stating it separately. Because many things are included within the accumulation, it is stated separately here. Dhyana is as already explained. This is analogous to distinguishing the three robes of a bhiksu. With regard to Buddhapala’s bowl, one cannot say that because Buddhapala is also a bhiksu, the three robes and bowl should therefore be given to him. Rather, the other bhiksu is distinct from Buddhapala, and the robes should be given to that bhiksu. Likewise, cultivation consists of dhyana, the immeasurable states, and the formless attainments, while merit here consists of the first three dhyanas. If the first three dhyanas were not distinguished, there would be a fault concerning cultivation, because many things are included within the accumulation.

Question: What is arising from affliction?

Answer: That which arises from affliction consists of oneself, another, and both together. Affliction gives rise to three kinds of feeling: for oneself, for another, and for both. Affliction is of two kinds: pleasure and pain. Here, “for oneself” is like stabbing oneself with a knife and afterward applying sandalwood paste or medicine. “For another” is like breaking another person’s head and then using medicine to treat it. “For both” is like telling someone to break one’s own head and then applying medicine to it. All such cases should be understood. This is called suffering arising from affliction.

Question: What is that which arises from the realm?

Answer: That which arises from the realm is season, disorder, and calamity.

Question: As previously explained, the realms are the three realms of desire, form, and formlessness. Does “realm” here refer to those realms?

Answer: Here it does not refer to realms of that kind. Apart from sentient beings, there are three kinds of conception: season, disorder, and calamity. “Realm” here is a provisional conception. Among these, “season” refers to summer, winter, and spring. Summer, winter, and spring should be understood as the three seasons. In summer, phlegm greatly increases. In winter, saliva and spittle greatly increase. In spring, wind increases. As medical treatises explain concerning the seasons, feelings of suffering and pleasure arise accordingly. These are called the three seasons.

Question: What is disorder? Does it mean unwholesome conduct—that is, craving and ignorance?

Answer: It does not damage the Dharma-body. What is spoken of here is damage to the body composed of the four great elements.

Question: Then what is disorder?

Answer: Disorder consists of wind, phlegm, saliva, and the like. These damage the body composed of the four great elements, and feelings therefore arise.

Question: What is calamity?

Answer: Calamity is that on account of which sentient beings seek to escape various disasters. Or it is that on account of which sentient beings seek to escape the suffering of birth, taking refuge in walls, forests, mountains, and mountain caves.

The causes are oneself, another, and both. This is called feeling.

Question: What is perception?

Answer: Perception consists in the distinctions contemplated as perception, non-perception, and the sphere of nothingness. Perception means apprehending distinctions among images. Here, perception, non-perception, the sphere of nothingness, and contemplated distinctions have the same meaning.

Among these, perception is apprehension based upon a shared support. Non-perception is apprehension without a shared support. For example, among many jars, someone may speak of a jar of honey or a jar of ghee; because of that conception, there is perception.

If there is neither honey nor ghee, nothing is apprehended, and there is non-perception. In the same way, there are distinctions in what is apprehended through sounds and comparisons. Or, when sounds are set aside, distinctions are apprehended through comparisons in this manner.

The sphere of nothingness: here nothing truly exists; thus, there is relinquishment.

Furthermore, desire for existence is said to involve possession. That desire for existence is said to be a sphere of liberation; once contemplated, there is nothing possessed.

Furthermore, perception is contemplation of the sphere of consciousness. Non-perception is contemplation of the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Having no support is contemplation of the sphere of nothingness.

Question: What is consciousness?

Answer: Consciousness is entry at birth, completed entry, and uncompleted entry. It can be obtained in dependence upon formations, name-and-form, and both kinds of conditions. Because consciousness differs from knowledge of categories, it is called consciousness.

Because it is knowledge of various categories, it is called consciousness. There are three kinds: entry at birth, completed entry, and uncompleted entry. That which can be obtained in dependence upon formations, in dependence upon name-and-form, and in dependence upon both kinds of conditions is threefold.

In the twelve links of dependent origination, the Blessed One taught that formations condition consciousness. He also taught that name-and-form conditions consciousness. He further taught that eye and forms condition the arising of eye-consciousness.

Here, when one enters the mother’s womb, innumerable formations produce birth, and consciousness arises together with them. This is called consciousness arising with formations as its condition. Then, within the mother’s womb, as the body gradually thickens and grows, the ayatanas are formed.

The consciousness that has arisen is consciousness conditioned by name-and-form. Furthermore, completed entry is entry into contention and non-contention, and concentration and non-concentration. Consciousness arises conditioned by the faculty together with the object of the faculty; this is dependence upon two conditions.

A condition is a support. Consciousness cannot arise without depending upon a support. This is called that which can be obtained through mutual dependence and conditions.

Question: Previously, morality, concentration, and wisdom were discussed. Why is consciousness now discussed again?

Answer: Wisdom and its support are two distinct things. This is that which depends; the other is that upon which it depends. Furthermore, just as two kinds of morality were discussed, two kinds are also discussed here. There is no fault in this.

The first part of the Chapter on Reliance in the Division of Truth has now been presented.

Question: The skandhas have been explained. What are the realms?

Answer: The realms are the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm. These three—the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm—are called realms. Because each sustains its corresponding karma, it is called a realm. Here, because karma abides therein, it is called a realm. It encompasses all sentient beings until their nirvana without remainder.

Question: What is the desire realm?

Answer: The desire realm consists of human beings, devas, and the lower destinies. Human beings, devas, and the lower destinies constitute a brief explanation of the desire realm. Here, because beings abide in desire, it is called the desire realm. Because they grasp desire, it is called the desire realm.

Question: What are human beings?

Answer: Human beings are those whose characteristics are discerned through the male faculty, the female faculty, and the faculty of life. On the four continents, there are those whose characteristics are discerned through the male faculty, those whose characteristics are discerned through the female faculty, and those whose characteristics are discerned through the faculty of life. All these should be understood as human beings. All of them also dwell upon the four continents. Among them, one possessing female characteristics is called female, and one possessing male characteristics is called male.

Question: Since those whose characteristics are discerned through the faculty of life are neither male nor female, is the faculty of life therefore mentioned separately?

Answer: Although there are those whose characteristics are discerned through the male faculty, the female faculty, and the faculty of life, a distinction is made here. One who has not yet become male does not yet possess either the male or female faculty. Among the discerned characteristics, there is only the faculty of life. The discerned characteristics abide in a thin membrane that gradually thickens; the faculty of life is present, but the male and female faculties have not yet formed. This is called the distinction.

Question: What are the four continents?

Answer: The continents are Jambudvipa, Purvavideha, Godaniya, and Uttarakuru. These are called the four continents. Among them, because the characteristics of Jambudvipa are discerned, it is called Jambudvipa. Purvavideha, Godaniya, and Uttarakuru are named according to the discerned characteristics of their respective directions. The lifespans on these continents correspond to fixed measures. Their provisions for creating happiness differ and have definite limits, each successively surpassing the preceding one.

Question: Devas are generally divided into two kinds: those born through desire and those free from desire. Which devas are being discussed here?

Answer: The devas are those whose desire arises through subtle contact, speech, and sight. When those born through desire are discussed, it should be understood that those free from desire are not being discussed. Devas born through desire are of three kinds: those whose desire arises through contact, those whose desire arises through speech, and those whose desire arises through sight.

Those whose desire arises through speech are the Nirmanarati devas. In that realm, if their minds are defiled—namely, if a deva has a defiled mind while conversing with a female deva—desire is then consummated. If only one of them has a defiled intention, desire is not consummated; there is only delight. It is like people in this realm who experience pleasure when holding one another. So it is in that deva realm as well. An undefiled intention is like that between a mother and daughter. Because they create and transform beautiful, delightful objects of desire, they are called the Nirmanarati devas, the devas who delight in creation.

Those whose desire arises through sight are the Paranirmitavasavartin devas. In that realm, if a deva and a female deva are each attached while looking at one another, desire is then consummated. If only one of them has a defiled intention, desire is not consummated; there is only delight. It is like people in this world who experience pleasure when embracing one another. An undefiled intention is like seeing another person. Because they exercise mastery over what is manifested by others (para), they are called the Paranirmitavasavartin devas, the devas who have mastery over the creations of others.

Question: The devas whose desire arises through sight have been explained. What, then, are the devas whose desire arises through contact?

Answer: Desire arising through contact means that both parties hold hands or embrace each other. Among the devas whose desire arises through contact, there are three kinds: those whose desire arises through the union of both parties, those whose desire arises through embracing, and those whose desire arises through holding hands. Of these, those whose desire arises through the union of both parties will be discussed later.

Desire arising through embracing pertains to the Yāma Heaven (the Yāma Heaven was translated during the Jin dynasty as the Heaven of the Divisions of Time). In that realm, whenever both parties are mentally defiled by attachment, desire is consummated as soon as they embrace. If only one party is attached, desire is not consummated; there is only pleasure, just as people in this world experience pleasure when embracing each other. If the mind is free from defiled attachment, the other is regarded as a stranger. Because they delight every night in speaking of bliss, they are called Yāma.

Question: What is desire arising through holding hands?

Answer: Desire arising through holding hands pertains to the Tuṣita Heaven (the Tuṣita Heaven was translated during the Jin dynasty as the Heaven of Contentment). If a deva and a celestial maiden are both mentally defiled in every respect, then desire is consummated when they hold hands. If only one party is attached, desire is not consummated; there is merely delight, just as pleasure arises when people in the world embrace. If the mind is undefiled, the other is regarded as a stranger. Because they know contentment with the objects presently available to them, they are called Tuṣita.

Question: What is desire arising through the union of both parties?

Answer: Desire arising through the union of both parties pertains to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and the realm of the Four Heavenly Kings. Because both parties jointly engage in the act, it is called desire arising through the union of both parties. All forms of desire in these realms have already been fully described above; only their distinctions need be made, and thus they are called devas whose desire arises through the union of both parties.

Like people in this world, the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three dwell upon the summit of Mount Sumeru and engage in sexual desire as humans do. In the domain of the Four Heavenly Kings, the terrestrial devas dwell in dependence upon the earth, trees, and mountains, and delight in the objects of sensual pleasure. All these are called devas who engage in sexual desire as humans do, though there is no impurity, even though bodily substance exists.

The higher their dwelling places, the more refined they become. These are called the devas of the desire realm.

Question: What are the evil destinies?

Answer: The evil destinies are the hells, animals, and hungry ghosts. These three—the hells, animals, and hungry ghosts—are the evil destinies. Because these destinies are evil, they are called evil destinies. “Evil” means undesirable.

Question: What are the hells?

Answer: The hells are the Cold Hells, Hot Hells, and Border Hells. They are called hells because there can be no peace or happiness in them. Their kinds are innumerable and will now be explained.

Question: What are the Cold Hells?

Answer: The Cold Hells are of three characteristics: those with articulate cries, those with inarticulate cries, and those without cries. The characteristics of the Cold Hells should be contemplated in this way.

Those with articulate cries and those with inarticulate cries are so called because their cries are exceedingly dreadful.

Question: What are those with articulate cries?

Answer: Those with articulate cries are A-phù-đà, Nê-la-phù-đà, and A-ba-bả. These three hells—A-phù-đà, Nê-la-phù-đà, and A-ba-bả—are those with articulate cries.

+ A-phù-đà denotes a numerical quantity. In the country of Magadha, suppose there were ten granaries filled with mustard seeds, each granary holding twenty Khư-lê. If a person were to remove one mustard seed every hundred years, that quantity of mustard seeds could eventually be exhausted, but the lifespan in the A-phù-đà Hell could not be exhausted. Two thăng make one A-lặc; four A-lặc make one Độc-lung-na; sixteen Độc-lung-na make one Khư-lê; and twenty Khư-lê make one granary. Thus, the quantity contained in ten such granaries is used as a comparison for the measure of the lifespan in the A-phù-đà Hell.

Furthermore, A-phù-đà means “resembling a boil.” In the A-phù-đà Hell, the cold causes swellings like boils to arise upon the body; therefore, it is called A-phù-đà.

+ Nê-la-phù-đà: The swellings do not merely resemble boils; when the body is raised, the wind blows upon it, causing it to swell and become distended all over. Therefore, it is called Nê-la-phù-đà.

+ A-ba-bả: An extremely cold wind blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and causing them to fall away. Trembling violently, the sufferers cry out, “A ba ba!” Therefore, it is called the A-ba-bả Hell.

These three are those with articulate cries.

Question: What are those with inarticulate cries?

Answer: Those with inarticulate cries are A-trá, Hưu-trá-hưu, and Ưu-bát-la. These three are those with inarticulate cries. In A-trá and Hưu-trá-hưu, an extremely cold wind also blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and scattering them everywhere. Unable to endure the torment of suffering, the offenders, whenever they have the opportunity, cry out, “A-trá!” or “Hưu-trá-hưu!”

Ưu-bát-la: An exceedingly cold wind blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and scattering them everywhere. Because of their offenses, iron leaves arise from within their bodies and encircle and bind them, like an Ưu-bát-la flower. Because these offenders slandered noble sages, they fall into the Ưu-bát-la Hell and constantly undergo such torment.

Question: What are those without cries?

Answer: Those without cries are the four hells of Câu-mâu-đà-tu, Kiền-đề-già-phần, Đà-lê-già, and Ba-đàm-ma. In each of these four hells, an exceedingly cold wind blows, causing the entire body to swell and become like the flowers known as Câu-mâu-đà-tu, Kiền-đề-già-phần, and so forth. The offenders undergo every kind of extreme misery and can only remain groaning. Because they slandered noble sages, they fall into these four hells and must endure immeasurable torment at all times.

These are all ten Cold Hells. They are situated between the four continents, extending upward from the bases of the Iron Encircling Mountain and the Great Iron Encircling Mountain, and lie in darkness. The cold wind destroys the bodies as though they were being consumed by raging fire. Their bodies become like clumps of bamboo and reeds scorched dry, emitting confused sounds as they strike against one another and give rise to perceptions. Other sentient beings also dwell there and undergo suffering. Because they all slandered noble sages, they undergo such anguish. As the Blessed One said in verse:

Nê-la-phù numbers a hundred thousand,

A-phù-đà, thirty-five;

The utmost evil destiny—the hells—

Comes from evil wishes of mouth and mind.

These are called the Cold Hells.

Question: What are the Hot Hells?

Answer: The Hot Hells are those with many wardens, those with few wardens, and those without wardens. These three characteristics are used in contemplating their nature.

A warden is one who interrogates and beats. In some of these hells, many wardens punish sentient beings. In others, not many wardens punish them. In still others, the offenders punish themselves. In some cases, the instruments of suffering arise spontaneously because of their offenses. In others, apart from any contrivance by sentient beings, they undergo great suffering.

Question: What are the hells with many wardens?

Answer: The hells with many wardens are the Reviving Hell, the Hell of Actions, and the Black-Rope Hell. These three hells are those with many wardens.

+ The Reviving Hell: Here, the wardens use sharp knives and axes to chop, split, flay, mince, and cut apart the offending beings, as one would chop off the heads of goats. After their skin and flesh have been entirely sliced and minced, because the conditions of their offenses are not yet exhausted, a cold wind blows and they are restored to life in their former state.

Furthermore, because of their evil karma, iron claws spontaneously grow from their hands. These are sharp as knives, pointed at their tips, and shaped like crescent moons. Each one harbors resentment, thinking: “That person once oppressed me; now I shall oppress him.” Thus anger arises. They seize one another and hack and cut each other apart as though cutting bamboo and reeds. Because they died in this world with minds bound by hatred, they are born in that hell.

+ The Black-Rope Hell: The offenders are forced to lie stretched out upon the ground. Black ropes are wound tightly around them in sections, along which they are then hacked and cut apart. Because in the world they habitually used knives to hack and cut sentient beings, they are born here.

Furthermore, sheets of copper and iron are heated until red-hot and wrapped tightly around their bodies, causing their bones to shatter and blood and marrow to gush forth. In the human world, these beings habitually beat and killed living beings with whips and clubs; or, having gone forth, they accepted articles offered by the faithful—such as robes, bedding, seats, and so forth—but did not diligently cultivate the path. Therefore, they are born here. They also suffer torment in a place of utter darkness, filled with dense, blinding smoke. The bodies of the offenders are suspended upside down, forcing them to inhale that smoke. In the human world, these beings habitually used smoke to kill living beings dwelling in caves, and thus they fell into this hell.

+ The Procession Hell: The offenders are arranged in rows, like animals slaughtered and meat displayed for sale at a butcher’s shop. Their hands, feet, ears, noses, heads, necks, and so forth are severed. Formerly, they worked as butchers, and therefore they must now undergo such torments.

Furthermore, the ground is made of red-hot iron. The wardens hook the offenders to iron carts of fire, glare at them, shout and roar deafeningly, and then drive the carts recklessly onward. In the human world, these offenders used horses and elephants to transport goods and constantly abused them, causing them continual hardship and exhaustion; therefore, they fell into this place. Offenders who formerly committed adultery with the wives of others are driven into a forest of sword-leaved trees, where they are spontaneously burned by fire and undergo such torment. This is called a hell governed by wardens. Because the wardens arise through the conditions of karma, they are not burned by the fire. The workings of karmic retribution are inconceivable.

Question: What are the hells governed by few wardens?

Answer: The hells governed by few wardens are the three hells of Crushing Together, Great Wailing, and the Iron Enclosure.

+ The Crushing Together Hell: The offenders here are terrified of the hell wardens. Countless hundreds of thousands of offenders rush toward the mountains. Once they enter, fierce fires spontaneously arise before and behind them, blocking their way. After being hemmed in by fire both before and behind, the two mountains close together upon them, crushing them as though between millstones. Their blood consequently pours forth like rivers, and their flesh and bones are pulverized. In the human world, these offenders delighted in tormenting and persecuting living beings.

Furthermore, within a great iron mortar, fierce flames blaze. The hell wardens pound the offenders with pestles for hundreds of years. Because of the conditions created by their offenses, their lifespans do not come to an end. In the human world, these offenders habitually used mortars and pestles to crush and kill small, weak living beings.

+ The Great Wailing Hell: Here, a great iron mountain is engulfed everywhere in fierce flames, and all four sides are sealed off with no way of escape. The cruel and wicked hell wardens, utterly devoid of compassion, angrily shout at the offenders: “Where do you think you are going?” Even when there is nothing to be done, they find some task for them, and then beat them with red-hot iron pestles, smashing their heads. In the human world, these offenders habitually brought suffering upon multitudes of people, and therefore they are born in the Great Wailing Hell.

+ The Iron Enclosure Hell: The ground here is red-hot iron. The offenders are driven into that place and roasted dry until thoroughly cooked. Once cooked, they are driven outside, where vicious dogs bite and tear them apart, devouring all their flesh. When a wind arises, the offenders revive and become as they were before, only to be driven back into that place. In the human world, these offenders raised silkworms and then roasted them; therefore, they are born in this realm. These are called the hells governed by few wardens.

Question: What are the hells governed by no wardens?

Answer: The hells governed by no wardens are the Wailing, Roasting, and Unremitting hells.

+ The Wailing Hell: Here, iron is heated until it glows red like a tortoise shell. In an extremely confined place, the offenders are packed together and imprisoned, and an iron lid is lowered over them, causing them to endure innumerable torments. In the human world, these offenders habitually set broad fields ablaze and used fire and smoke to kill living beings dwelling in caves; therefore, they fell into this place.

+ The Roasting Hell: Here, a great iron mountain blazes with fierce fire and seizes the offenders. They are scraped and sliced with iron scrapers, while fire surrounds and increasingly scorches them. As soon as one side is cooked, the iron scraper turns them over, repeatedly flipping them from side to side. In the human world, these offenders habitually stabbed, impaled, and killed people; therefore, they are born in this hell.

+ The Unremitting Hell: The ground here is made of iron, surrounded by red-hot flames. It extends for one hundred yojanas and has four gates like a city. A thin sheet of copper covers it from above, while fire surges and burns without cease. The offenders within are heaped together like firewood. Fierce flames burn everywhere without obstruction, reducing their bodies to pieces, so that no form of suffering is absent. In the human world, they killed their fathers or mothers, killed True Persons, maliciously attacked a Buddha and caused the Buddha’s body to bleed, created schism and turmoil within the Sangha, or continually intensified the ten unwholesome courses of karma. Therefore, they fell into this realm. These are called the hells governed by no wardens.

Question: What are the peripheral hells?

Answer: The peripheral hells are hells situated in bodies of water, mountains, and broad fields, where beings individually undergo the retribution of their evil karma. These are called the peripheral hells.

Question: The hells have now been explained. What, then, are animals?

Answer: Animals are all creatures that move upon the land, through the water, or through the air, whether they have no legs, two legs, or many legs. Those that move upon the land, through the water, and through the air constitute the three classes of animals.

Those that move upon the land: Elephants, horses, buffaloes, cattle, goats, donkeys, mules, and camels are foremost among them.

Those that move through the water: Makara fish, Thất-thâu fish, and Ma-lại fish are foremost among them.

Those that move through the air: Birds, mosquitoes, flies, bees, cicadas, and so forth.

All these creatures have no legs, two legs, or many legs.

Those without legs: Serpents are foremost among them.

Those with two legs: Birds are foremost among them.

Those with many legs: Cattle, goats, horses, bees, and centipedes are among them.

All these various kinds of animals are born among such creatures because they committed gravely unwholesome karma. These are called animals.

Question: Animals have now been explained. What, then, are hungry ghosts?

Answer: Hungry ghosts are the ghosts without wealth, the ghosts of little wealth, and the ghosts of great wealth. These three classes are hungry ghosts.

Question: What are the ghosts without wealth?

Answer: The ghosts without wealth are of three kinds: ghosts with mouths like flaming torches, ghosts with mouths like needles, and ghosts with foul-smelling mouths. These three classes are ghosts without wealth.

+ Ghosts with mouths like flaming torches: As soon as they close their mouths, fierce flames issue from them and burn their own bodies, like a wildfire burning a tala tree. In the human world, these beings were predominantly greedy and miserly; therefore, they are born among such ghosts and undergo torment.

+ Ghosts with mouths like needles: These ghosts have bellies as large as mountain caves, but throats as narrow as the eyes of needles. Even if they obtain abundant food, they are still unable to eat it.

+ Ghosts with foul-smelling mouths: Their mouths are putrid and decayed, stinking like excrement in a latrine, and they themselves belch forth foul odors. Having no stomachs, they cannot consume anything at all and constantly undergo such suffering. These are called ghosts without wealth.

Question: What are the ghosts of little wealth?

Answer: The ghosts of little wealth are of three kinds: ghosts whose body hair resembles needles, ghosts whose body hair is foul-smelling, and ghosts with goiters on their necks. These three classes are ghosts of little wealth. Because these ghosts may occasionally obtain a small amount of impure matter to eat, they are called ghosts of little wealth.

+ Ghosts whose body hair resembles needles: Their body hair is extremely hard and long, with tips sharp as needles. It covers their entire bodies in layer upon layer, each hair standing apart from the others. They have great difficulty moving about because the sharp hairs turn back and pierce their own bodies, like sharp arrows striking deer and antelopes. They undergo immense torment, though at times they may obtain a small amount of food.

+ Ghosts whose body hair is foul-smelling: The hair on the bodies of this kind is extremely foul-smelling and covers them entirely; moreover, the hairs themselves pierce directly into their bodies. Their bodies stink, and when the wind blows, the odor rises, causing them to become angry, so they pull out their own hair. Thus they undergo tormenting suffering.

+ Ghosts with goiters on their necks: Because of the karmic retribution for offenses they themselves committed, such tumors arise. They then burst them open themselves, causing blood and pus to flow forth abundantly, which they take as food. These are called ghosts of little wealth.

Question: What are ghosts of great wealth?

Answer: Ghosts of great wealth are the following kinds of ghosts: Khí, Thất, and those of great power. These three kinds are ghosts of great wealth.

+ Khí ghosts: Because these beings practiced giving in a previous lifetime, they obtain leftover food. Throughout their lives, they obtain food through sacrificial offerings and are therefore at ease and joyful.

+ Thất ghosts: Throughout their lives, these beings obtain food at crossroads of major roads, along narrow paths and alleys, consuming food that has fallen or been discarded there; therefore, they too experience happiness.

+ Ghosts of great power: These are the yakshas, rakshasas, and pishacas. These three kinds of ghosts are ghosts of great power. Their realm is like that of the devas.

Because they possessed merit and virtue in former lives, they sometimes obtain delicious food. Yet when they are about to eat, countless hungry ghosts gather around them, and upon seeing them, they suffer. Just as a person in prison suffers upon seeing their relatives, so too do these ghosts suffer when they see the multitude of hungry ghosts surrounding them.

Because of this suffering, their food turns into pus. They must undergo such affliction; therefore, they are called ghosts of great power. They may have the forms of animals, humans, or devas.

These are hungry ghosts with animal forms, human forms, or the forms of devas, according to the power of their karma.

This is called the desire realm.

Question: The desire realm has been explained. What is the form realm?

Answer: The form realm consists of that which possesses joy, that which is without joy, and equanimity. The form realm is free from desire. Through meditation alone, anger is eliminated, and one obtains a beautiful form like refined pure gold. This realm includes joy, absence of joy, and, when both suffering and pleasure have been abandoned, equanimity. Because joy is accompanied by pleasure, it is called possessing joy. When joy has been abandoned, there is no joy together with pleasure, and this is called being without joy. Suffering is abandoned, and that pleasure is brought to an end, just as a horse is no longer harnessed to a cart.

Question: What is possessing joy?

Answer: Possessing joy consists of possessing initial thought, being without initial thought, and having little sustained examination.

Because it is accompanied by initial thought, it is called possessing initial thought. Because initial thought has been abandoned, it is called being without initial thought. Because there is little sustained examination, it is called having little sustained examination. Pleasure and detachment refer to meditation. Here, possessing initial thought is the first dhyana. Being without initial thought is the second dhyana. The meditation of sustained examination is the first intermediate state. Those who cultivate this meditation are born in the form realm. To speak of sentient beings is to speak of the realm; to speak of the realm is to speak of meditation.

Question: Who, through cultivation, is born in the meditation possessing initial thought?

Answer: Those possessing initial thought are born among the Brahma-purohitas, Brahma-kayikas, and Brahma-parishadyas. Those who cultivate the meditation possessing initial thought are born in those realms. These three heavenly realms possess initial thought. One is born in the lower or middle realm accordingly.

The Great Brahmas are born through little sustained examination. The meanings of initial thought and sustained examination are as explained above.

Question: What is being without initial thought?

Answer: Being without initial thought refers to the heavens of Lesser Light, Immeasurable Light, and Radiant Light. Those who cultivate the meditation without initial thought, corresponding with joy and pleasure, are born in these three realms. Lesser Light, Immeasurable Light, and Radiant Light are designations that may be either provisional designations or causal designations.

Furthermore, in the Lesser Light heaven, when beings speak, a small amount of light issues from their mouths. Because their light is slight, it is called Lesser Light. Because their light is abundant, it is called Immeasurable Light. Because their light is pure and boundless, it is called Radiant Light.

Question: Possessing joy has been explained. What, then, is being without joy?

Answer: Being without joy refers to the heavens of Lesser Purity, Immeasurable Purity, and Universal Purity. Those who cultivate the meditation without joy, corresponding with pleasure, are born in these three heavenly realms. Lesser Purity means that there is not much. Those who engage in few preparatory practices corresponding to this meditation are born in the Lesser Purity heaven and experience peace and happiness. Those whose preparatory practices are moderate are born in the Immeasurable Purity heaven. Those whose preparatory practices are superior and surpassing are born in the Universal Purity heaven.

Question: The pleasure without joy has been explained. What is equanimity?

Answer: Equanimity comprises three corresponding kinds: possessing perception, being without perception, and corresponding with awakened intention. This equanimity comprises the heavens of Abundant Fruit, Non-Perception, and the Pure Abodes. Because those who cultivate the meditation of equanimity corresponding with pleasure are born in these realms, it is called equanimity. These are the three heavenly realms of Abundant Fruit, Non-Perception, and the Pure Abodes.

Here, Abundant Fruit: Those who cultivate the lower, middle, and higher levels of the fourth dhyana are born in the Abundant Fruit heaven.

Non-Perception: Because perception is extinguished, beings are born in the Non-Perception heaven. In this realm, feeling, perception, and consciousness are extinguished. Because there is no desire for perception, they are extinguished together. Only the form skandha and the formations skandha remain; upon the arising of even the slightest perception, it is immediately extinguished.

Question: What are the Pure Abodes?

Answer: The Pure Abodes are the heavens of Clear Manifestation, Clear Vision, and Purity. These three realms are the Pure Abodes. The Pure Abodes are dwelling places where all afflictions have been completely eliminated.

Question: There are five levels of the Pure Abodes. Why are only three mentioned here?

Answer: The Purity heaven encompasses the heavens of No Affliction, No Heat, and the Ultimate Form Realm. No Affliction, No Heat, and the Ultimate Form Realm—these three realms constitute the characteristics of the realm of Purity. This accords with the intention of the person who transcribed the sutra.

Question: The form realm has been explained. What, then, is the formless realm?

Answer: The formless realm was explained earlier in the section concerning cultivation. Practitioners who cultivate right concentration in the world are born in the formless realm; thus both the path and its fruit are set forth together.

The second part of the chapter on Reliance in the Truth Analysis has now been explained.

Question: The skandhas and dhatus have been explained. What, then, are the ayatanas?

Answer: The ayatanas are the ayatana of contact, the ayatana of crossing over, and the ayatana of liberation. These three are the characteristics of an ayatana. An ayatana is a basis of reliance, like a celestial shrine.

Question: What enters into these ayatanas?

Answer: Virtue and evil enter them. Here, the ayatana of liberation is the basis of virtue. The ayatana of crossing over is the basis of evil. The ayatana of contact is the basis of both. A defiled mind gives rise to evil. A pure mind gives rise to virtue.

Question: What is the ayatana of contact?

Answer: The ayatana of contact comprises a proximate object, a non-proximate object, and no object. An object is a condition serving as a sphere of cognition. Whatever one engages with in dependence upon that condition is that object. A proximate condition is called a proximate object. A non-proximate condition is called a non-proximate object. The absence of a condition is called having no object.

Question: What is a proximate object?

Answer: The proximate objects pertain to the ayatanas of the nose, tongue, and body. That is, the nose ayatana, tongue ayatana, and body ayatana—these three have proximate objects.

A fragrance must reach the nose before it can be smelled; if it does not reach the nose, it cannot be smelled. Although a flower may be extremely far away, its fragrance separates from the flower and travels to the nose, where it is smelled. Fragrance is of the nature of form. Thus, when a north wind blows, the fragrance travels southward and not northward. Therefore, the fragrance separates from the flower, reaches the nose, and is smelled. Taste is likewise. Taste is known through the tongue, not through the vessel and not through the hand. Touch is likewise. Eight qualities are known by the bodily faculty: hardness and softness, lightness and heaviness, roughness and smoothness, cold and heat. They are known only after contact occurs. Therefore, these three have proximate objects.

Question: What is a non-proximate object?

Answer: Non-proximate objects pertain to the ayatanas of the eye, ear, and mind. That is, the eye ayatana, ear ayatana, and mind ayatana—these three ayatanas have non-proximate objects.

Question: The eye also sees nearby objects that are small and do not press against it. The ear is likewise; even when a mosquito is inside the ear, one can hear its buzzing. The mind is formless, so how can it be known to have a non-proximate object?

Answer: For this very reason they are said to have non-proximate objects. If an object does not press against the faculty, it is nevertheless apprehended as an object.

Question: At what distance is an object considered non-proximate?

Answer: Here there is no fixed measure. One may see the sun and moon from forty thousand yojanas away, or one may not see them. One may see forms from one yojana away, or from ten miles away, according to the strength of the faculty.

Therefore, it is said that the object-field is not near, but it is not said that the object-field is far; nevertheless, apprehension of an object-field is not compulsory. It is not that one sees only when an object reaches the place of seeing; one may see it while separated from it. The ear is likewise.

It is not only through necessary proximity that hearing occurs. Although a mosquito may be inside the ear, it does not reach the place of hearing; hearing sounds likewise depends upon the strength of that faculty. The mind is formless and has neither proximity nor distance.

Therefore, it is said that its object-field is not near, but it is not said to be far.

Question: What is the non-object-field?

Answer: The non-object-field is external: what is experienced by oneself, experienced by others, or not experienced.

What is external is the non-object-field. Forms, sounds, odors, tastes, tangibles, and dharmas are conventionally designated within this teaching as external: they are experienced by oneself, experienced by others, or not experienced. This non-object-field is merely the object-field of another. The five faculties do not take it as their object; yet because the dharmas that are objects of others should be distinguished, and because there are many shared non-object-fields, it is called the non-object-field.

Question: The Contact Entrance has been explained. What is the Entrance of Modes?

Answer: The Entrance of Modes concerns attributing causation to a single factor, attributing causation incorrectly, and asserting no cause. The meanings of these three are immeasurable, but they are briefly described as the three Entrances of Modes.

Here, attributing causation to a single factor is a manner of speaking. For example, the banner of Indra is raised and carried forth by many people, yet someone may say that Devadatta carried it. Devadatta is indeed among their number, but Devadatta alone did not perform this task. Thus, although many people did it, only one is mentioned. Attributing causation to a single factor is likewise. A result is accomplished through the combination of three things: karma from a former life, what one presently does, and the assistance of others. Although these three things accomplish the result, only one is mentioned.

Attributing causation incorrectly is a manner of speaking. Regarding that banner of Indra, someone may say that it was carried neither by one person nor by two people. Although a cause is present here, it is incorrectly stated.

Asserting no cause is a manner of speaking. For example, one may say that the banner of Indra arrived without a cause.

Question: What is attribution to a single factor?

Answer: The single factors are karma, oneself and others, and effort. One is said to have acted for oneself in two ways: either one acted in a former life, or one acts in the present. Here, if one acted in a former life, that is called karma.

Elsewhere, it may also be said that a deity acted. These three factors accomplish a result, as previously explained. Of these three, one may speak of karma, effort, or the assistance of others.

Attribution to a single factor means speaking only of karma. Such a person disregards the labor of others, knows no gratitude or obligation, and cannot work together with others. If one originally created it oneself, then whether one seeks it or not, the conditions converge and one obtains it by oneself.

Attributing causation to a single factor entails errors such as these.

Question: What is attributing causation incorrectly?

Answer: Attributing causation incorrectly means speaking of sentient beings, dharmas, and the conception of a root cause. Attributing causation incorrectly refers to three kinds of claims concerning sentient beings and dharmas, together with the conception that sentient beings and dharmas are root causes. It is claimed that sentient beings create beauty and ugliness. Or it is said that dharmas create them. Or it is said that sentient beings and dharmas together create them. These are the three kinds of incorrect attribution of causation. Yet they are created neither by sentient beings, nor by dharmas, nor by both together.

Question: What is the conception that a sentient being is the root cause?

Answer: The sentient beings are Brahma, Y-nhiếp-phi-la, and what is called Sử-nậu. It is said that a sentient being created the world: Brahma is the creator and lord; Y-nhiếp-phi-la is the creator and lord; and Sử-nậu is the creator and lord. Those without wisdom hold such views.

The claim that Brahma is the creator says that Brahma Heaven created space; space created wind; wind created water and earth; and water and earth created hills, mountains, trees, and grasses. In this way the world came into being. All such doctrines contain errors. Why? If Brahma Heaven created space and earth, in what place did he abide while creating space and earth? If he abided within them while creating them, this is untenable. Thus, the doctrine is erroneous. The doctrines concerning Y-nhiếp-phi-la and Sử-nậu are likewise.

Question: What are dharmas?

Answer: The dharmas are time, vital energy, and spontaneous creation—that is, creation by time, creation by vital energy, and spontaneous creation. These three are called dharmas conceived as root causes. Here, concerning time, it is said:

Time brings forth all things;

Through time all things are formed;

Through time all things are destroyed;

All worlds are created by time.

This doctrine contains errors, as explained previously in the section on attribution to a single factor. A person may be able to seek something yet not seek it, or may be unable to seek it yet seek it. If what is obtained is created by time rather than by conduct, it should not be claimed that this doctrine is free from error. Why? Because time is empty. If it cannot create things, then that doctrine is untenable. Thus, all such claims contain errors.

Vital energy likewise cannot create;

Vital energy is insentient.

It is neither a real thing nor an effective act;

This vital energy possesses no life faculty.

If things arise spontaneously, the notion of spontaneity is meaningless.

If they do not, then they are without a cause. Or, if all things arise without a cause and their arising is likewise spontaneous, where would there be any error? If it is claimed that they are eternally existent, what error would that doctrine have? Yet they are not eternally existent, for they decay and perish. Thus, upon examination, this is an error; it should not be said to be faultless.

Question: What is the assertion of no cause?

Answer: The assertion of no cause concerns inherent nature, chance, and nonexistence. Three things are taught concerning the assertion of no cause: inherent nature, chance, and nonexistence.

Inherent nature means the claim that the myriad things arise from their own inherent natures and are not caused by anything else. Why? For example, a thorn may prick sharply or may not be sharp. All things are explained in this manner.

Chance means the claim that the myriad things arise by chance. It is like grasses falling into the source of a great stream and coming together in one place; this is said to occur by chance. That wind happens to blow toward them, or blows throughout the east, west, south, and north. The arising of the myriad things is said to be likewise.

Nonexistence means that, upon careful examination, there is nothing whatsoever here. Why do things arise? From what do they arise? In what place do they arise? Nothing whatsoever exists. All those doctrines contain errors. Why? If the myriad things arose from inherent nature, then when sprouts of rice and grain arose, there would be no need to plow the fields or bring in water. Yet without these activities, sprouts of rice and grain ultimately do not arise. Therefore, the myriad things do not arise from inherent nature. Each such doctrine should accordingly be abandoned.

Question: The Entrance of Modes has been explained. What is the Entrance to Liberation?

Answer: The Entrance to Liberation consists of contemplation, meditation, and extensive learning. These three—contemplation, meditation, and extensive learning—are entrances to liberation.

Liberation means becoming liberated through the eradication of evil. By relying upon these three entrances, one attains liberation. Contemplation means taking something as an object. By relying upon a Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, or a śrāvaka, one attains liberation. Meditation is as explained in the first chapter. One should contemplate this meaning, and by relying upon it one also attains liberation.

Question: What is extensive learning?

Answer: Extensive learning consists of expounding, listening, and reading and reciting.

Expounding means speaking in accordance with what one has heard.

Listening means hearing what has been expounded.

Reading and reciting means reading and reciting according to what one has heard.

Question: Regarding extensive learning, the preceding section on being learned spoke of the sutras, Abhidharma, and Vinaya. What distinction is there here, where expounding, listening, and reading and reciting are again taught?

Answer: The three kinds spoken of previously constitute extensive learning; therefore, one should receive and retain them in three ways: receiving and retaining while speaking, receiving and retaining while listening, and receiving and retaining while reciting. Among the four assemblies of disciples of the Blessed One, there is the domain in which truth is accomplished, the domain in which giving is accomplished, the domain in which calm abiding is accomplished, and the domain in which wisdom is accomplished.

The accomplishment of these various things constitutes skillful means. By listening attentively to the truth, one attains liberation. The domain of giving refers to calm abiding; the domain of calm abiding accords with meditation; and the domain of wisdom accords with recitation and reading.

These are called the domains of liberation. The right contemplation of these Three Dharma Measures is unobstructed. The intention is to enable one to see the true path and, step by step, attain liberation.

Because liberation is attained, the wise study the Dharma of the Blessed One.

The third section of the chapter Reliance upon the Measure of Truth has now been fully presented.

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