三法度論

Chapter 1: VIRTUE

Knowing that birth brings immeasurable suffering,

The Good and Quiescent One turned toward peace and bliss;

Out of compassion for sentient beings,

He journeyed through many kalpas of cyclic existence.

He relinquished wondrous and excellent bodies

To expound the Dharma for all;

His universal wisdom extinguished all courses of existence—

I reverently bow to the Supremely Awakened One.

He opened these three Dharma gates,

The refuge to which merit returns,

Bringing peace and bliss to all sentient beings

And freeing them from every suffering.

First, homage to the Sugata,

To the Dharma and the unsurpassed assembly.

I shall now explain the Dharma of ultimate truth,

Three by three, according to its wondrous meaning.

The Treatise states: I shall now explain the three dharmas. May I ask the Venerable Elder: Why are three dharmas taught? What is the meaning of the three dharmas?

Answer: Based upon the Dharma, this scripture sets forth only three kinds of continuity. The three dharmas are provisional concepts.

Question: Why are the three dharmas set forth?

Answer: This Buddhist scripture is based upon innumerable concepts. Sentient beings are constantly harmed by the evil and defiled age, and their lives can be sustained only by food and drink. Because they wish to seek the true path, these concepts are revealed to them and skillfully maintained. These three dharmas are introduced because the entire world also relies upon true concepts and provisional concepts. The three dharmas are set forth in order to reveal these concepts.

Question: The reason for setting forth the three dharmas has been answered. Now, please explain the three dharmas clearly.

Answer: Virtue, Evil, and Basis—clearly knowing these is the excellent gate of the Dharma. Clearly knowing them means clearly knowing the excellent gate of the Dharma. These three dharmas are the three foundations of the scripture's three chapters; hence it is said that each chapter has three true measures.

Question: Although the three chapters may be discussed, merely presenting them in this way entails a fault. Why? Because excellence should be explained first, and only afterward should Virtue, Evil, and Basis, which must be clearly known, be explained.

Answer: What beings already delight in and aspire toward need not be explained. Here, the entire world delights in and aspires toward excellence; even insects delight in and aspire toward peace and bliss. Why? Because they require food and drink, and therefore have things they seek. Excellence means delight, affection, and goodness. Thus, the meaning is explained by analogy with excellence. Worldly beings have many delights and aspire toward peace and bliss, yet they abandon the cause of peace and bliss. Peace and bliss are the Great Nirvana.

Furthermore, freedom from illness brings much happiness. Beings aspire toward it, yet abandon its cause. Since they already delight in and aspire toward it, it need not be explained to them again. For example, if one who aspires to the path already clearly knows the path, the path need not be explained again. This case is likewise; therefore, there is no fault.

Question: Why does clearly knowing Virtue, Evil, and Basis immediately bring excellence? Has anyone ever become wealthy merely by seeing gold, or been cured of illness merely by seeing medicine? Therefore, it cannot be said that clearly knowing Virtue, Evil, and Basis brings excellence.

Answer: Although such words are spoken, their meaning is not so. The analogy of a lamp should be used. When a lamp is lit, darkness is immediately destroyed; it is not that the lamp is first lit and darkness is destroyed only afterward. Likewise, when wisdom arises, there is immediately the wisdom that knows excellence; these are one in meaning.

Question: What is called Virtue? Is it the number of sentient beings, forms, fragrances, and flavors; comparison and inclusion; or contention and subjugation?

Answer: I do not wish to delight in composing a scripture from concepts, but here Virtue means Merit, Root, and Non-evil. Merit, root, and non-evil—these three are the concepts of virtue. Pure dharmas and their fruits are what I designate by the concept of virtue. Everything is included within these three, which shall now be presented in sequence.

Question: Merit, root, and non-evil have been explained. What, then, is Merit?

Answer: Merit is Cultivation, Giving, and Morality. That which constantly abides in excellence is merit. The removal of evil persons is also described as merit. These are the three: cultivation, giving, and morality, as stated.

Question: Merit has been explained as giving, morality, and cultivation. What, then, is Giving?

Answer: Because it draws others in, giving consists of three things at the time possessions are relinquished: the aspiration, the volition, and the non-informative act (non-manifest form).

Question: How is this so?

Answer: Giving consists of Dharma, fearlessness, and material goods. These three—the gift of Dharma, the gift of fearlessness, and the gift of material goods—constitute giving. The gift of Dharma is expounding the scriptures and enabling beings to transcend the world. The gift of fearlessness comprises eight kinds, beginning with the Three Refuges. As the Blessed One said, taking refuge in the Buddha is the gift of fearlessness to immeasurable sentient beings. One bears no enmity and commits no evil deeds; the same applies toward sentient beings.

Question: If someone who has accepted the Three Refuges still kills living beings, how can it be said that giving begins with fearlessness?

Answer: This is not said of all sentient beings. Here, because wrong view is delusion, one kills living beings, steals others' property, and commits various evils. Those who accept the Three Refuges do not commit such acts, for they have attained right view.

If one accepts the Three Refuges but does not possess right view, they are not truly the Three Refuges. Therefore, in giving to immeasurable sentient beings, fearlessness comes first. When one practices material giving without stinginess, food and drink come first, for giving draws others in.

In offerings and the like, incense and flowers come first. Whether one acts oneself or joins others in acting, oneself and others together create virtue and therefore receive great karmic fruit. Here, pure giving should be extensively distinguished, as the verse states:

Just as a tree is used for its roots,

At times it is also used for its branches;

Or both may be used together—

Such things commonly occur in the world.

In this way, when skillful means are accomplished,

That giving obtains great fruit;

It arises from pure causes and conditions,

And merit is likewise.

Question: What is Morality?

Answer: Morality is the restraint of body and speech in two respects, without harming others. Morality produces benefit and has three characteristics arising from body and speech.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: It draws others in and does not harm them. Benefiting others draws them in: when sentient beings are hungry, thirsty, or deprived, they cherish their lives; therefore, one generously pardons them and does not plot to harm them. The same applies to refraining from taking the property or wives and concubines of others. This is drawing others in. Refraining from divisive speech, harsh speech, false speech, and frivolous speech is not harming others.

Furthermore, when the seven branches do not oppress others, this is not harming them. When others are afflicted by suffering and have nowhere to turn for refuge or reliance, compassionately rescuing and assisting them is drawing others in. Upholding these two dharmas, or bringing forth a continuous stream of merit, is the production of benefit.

From this day onward, when I resolve to abandon killing, benefit immediately begins to increase. It is like manufacturing useful goods, from which profit increases day by day. When the mind that accepts the precepts gives rise to goodness, its observance continues without interruption.

Just as a seed, having ceased to exist, produces a sprout when planted, so benefit is produced. If one does not relinquish the continuous practice of good, merit increases even while one sleeps and rests. This is the production of benefit, and it is called morality.

Question: What is Cultivation?

Answer: Cultivation is the cultivation of dhyana, the immeasurables, and the formless attainments. Such cultivation concerns wholesome conduct; therefore, cultivation is like a flower giving forth its fragrance. Practice is cultivation, just as one practices attending closely upon a king. For example, when a king and his ministers skillfully practice close association, there will certainly be results. Likewise, cultivation and practice will certainly yield pure fruit.

To speak of cultivating dhyana means to remain mindful of the meaning of those four kinds.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: Meditation consists of freedom from sensual desire, examination, joy, pain, and pleasure; these constitute the four dhyanas. The first is having departed from evil and unwholesome sensual dharmas. One takes the wholesome as the object, binds and holds the mind there, and abides steadily; this is freedom from sensual desire.

The second is freedom from examination. Examination is a subtle activity in relation to initial thought, like the distinct sound produced when a bell reverberates. When this is no longer present, it is called freedom from examination.

Sensual desire has already been abandoned previously. The third is freedom from joy. Joy is the mind's delight, like waves surging upon the sea.

When this is no longer present, together with sensual desire and examination, it is said to be freedom from joy. The fourth is freedom from pain and pleasure. Pleasure means that body and mind are not afflicted; pain means being afflicted.

When neither is present, together with sensual desire, examination, and joy, it is called freedom from pain and pleasure. These four are called meditation.

Question: What are the immeasurables?

Answer: The immeasurables are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. These are four conceptually designated fruits called immeasurable. Because they take immeasurable sentient beings as their objects, they are immeasurable.

Because their merits also cannot be reckoned, they are immeasurable. Loving-kindness is the mental activity of cherishing all sentient beings. When all sentient beings are constantly manifest before one's mindfulness, that is loving-kindness.

Compassion is pity for suffering sentient beings who are constantly before one's eyes, with the thought of enabling them to depart from sorrow and affliction; this is compassion. Sympathetic joy is, in relation to sentient beings who possess abundant happiness, the restraint of every excessive delight; this is sympathetic joy. Equanimity is neither craving nor becoming angry, and therefore forgiving sentient beings for their faults.

If sentient beings commit evil, one does not delight in it, but instead contemplates the individual karma of sentient beings. To forgive faults in this way is called equanimity.

Question: The immeasurables have been explained. What are the formless attainments?

Answer: The formless attainments are the bases of infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, and neither perception nor non-perception. A base is a support; there are four kinds. Space means eliminating form, seeing that one has transcended form, departing from sensual desire, and taking space as the mind's single object.

Binding and holding perception upon space constitutes the base of infinite space. Without relying upon space, there is only consciousness; taking consciousness as the object constitutes the base of infinite consciousness, which is likewise a support. Being without any support is superior, as in nothingness; this is called the base of nothingness.

Transcending perception, extinguishing perception, seeing fearfulness, and having a unified mind constitute the base of neither perception nor non-perception, which belongs to the formless realm. All of this is called merit.

Question: What are the roots?

Answer: The roots are non-greed, non-anger, and non-delusion. Non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion are the three characteristics of the roots.

Question: What kind of roots are these?

Answer: Was it not previously stated that the roots of virtue are that toward which all supreme wholesome dharmas converge? According to the meaning, when one increases, the remaining aspects follow. Thus, non-greed increases giving, non-anger increases morality, and non-delusion increases cultivation. Furthermore, non-greed increases the giving of material wealth, non-anger increases the giving of fearlessness, and non-delusion increases the giving of Dharma. These are called the three kinds of increased giving.

Furthermore, non-greed increases the gathering and guidance of others, non-anger increases refraining from harming others, and non-delusion increases the creation of benefit. These are called the three kinds of increased morality.

Furthermore, non-greed increases meditative concentration, non-anger increases the immeasurables, and non-delusion increases the formless attainments. These are called the three kinds of increased cultivation.

Furthermore, non-greed increases freedom from evil, non-anger increases patience, and non-delusion increases extensive learning. Thus, in relation to the powers, the roots are likewise such. One should therefore understand them as the roots of every wholesome practice. Non-greed means seeing no benefit in, and forming no attachment to, any existing possessions. The intention of non-anger eliminates all anger. Non-delusion severs delusion; therefore, these are called roots.

Question: What is freedom from evil?

Answer: Freedom from evil consists of patience and extensive learning. Freedom from evil, or the absence of evil persons, is a conventional conceptual designation.

Furthermore, evil is that which increases evil. Because it does not increase evil, it is called freedom from evil, as has been stated. Freedom from evil refers to sublime goodness.

Patience is enduring suffering. Whether confronted by the noble or the lowly, one restrains oneself according to their power and does not become angry. Patience is enduring suffering.

According to the circumstances and the power of the noble or the lowly, one restrains oneself and does not become enraged. When afflicted by suffering, one restrains oneself; this is the meaning of striving to endure. When oppressed by the power of the wealthy and noble, one becomes angry but cannot retaliate; one might then become angry only toward an evil and inferior person.

If, when oppressed by someone of great power, one does not give rise to rage, that is patience. When harmed by the power of an inferior person, one forgives. If one can retaliate against an enemy but does not do so, that is forgiveness.

Thus, when sentient beings who have faults commit transgressions, one strives to endure them all. The meaning of this will now be explained. Suffering consists of cold, heat, wind, sunlight, toil, and affliction by various kinds of pain; one must restrain oneself amid such suffering.

From two kinds of circumstances sorrow and affliction arise: one becomes angry with sentient beings in relation to the body and forms attachments toward insentient things. Sentient beings manifest through causes and conditions. Thus, relying upon these two kinds of bodily affliction, one should strive to endure.

Question: Patience has been explained. What is extensive learning?

Answer: Extensive learning concerns the sutras, the Abhidharma, and the Vinaya. A person of extensive learning is one who can eliminate greed, hatred, and delusion. That is extensive learning; anything else is not extensive learning.

There are three kinds: sutras, Abhidharma, and Vinaya. Among them, the sutras were taught or affirmed by the Omniscient One. They reveal the paths of purity and defilement, illuminate the Four Noble Truths, and enable one to depart from immeasurable evils.

The Abhidharma treatises fully distinguish and analyze what is contained in the sutras. The Vinaya sets forth deportment and rules of conduct that bring about purity. These are called the three kinds of extensive learning.

Here, the Vinaya chiefly restrains sensual desire, while the Abhidharma chiefly restrains anger. The Abhidharma explains the nature of various karmic actions, and thereby eliminates anger. Because of anger, one gives rise to violations of morality, and because of those violations, one falls into hell.

The sutras chiefly restrain delusion. The sutras teach the twelve links of dependent origination.

Question: Why is such extensive learning freedom from evil?

Answer: Freedom from evil is the correct understanding of the reasons for properly restraining the mind. Correctly understanding the proper reasons for properly restraining the mind is called freedom from evil.

Correct understanding consists of a teacher, disciple, or fellow student capable of practicing loving-kindness and goodness. If one can practice loving-kindness and goodness, this is called correct understanding; it comprises these three kinds: teacher, disciple, and fellow student.

Question: Is it the case that loving-kindness is the teacher, goodness is the disciple, and ability is the fellow student? Can it be explained in this way?

Answer: No. Why? Because such an explanation is inappropriate. Loving-kindness, goodness, and ability are the characteristics of a true spiritual friend; they describe what should be examined in a teacher, disciple, or fellow student. Among these, the characteristic of loving-kindness is foremost, while the other two are derivative branches. One may possess loving-kindness alone but not goodness, understand the matter yet still be unable to explain it, like an aged father without virtue. One may possess ability but not goodness. Or one may possess loving-kindness but not goodness and therefore teach evil, like the group of Six Teachers and others. If all are present, the three characteristics are fulfilled; one should know that such a person is a true spiritual friend.

A teacher may be corrupted by committing faults. A disciple may commit faults. A fellow student may commit faults. Therefore, one should seek a true spiritual friend in whom all three characteristics are fully perfected.

Question: How does such a true spiritual friend properly restrain the mind?

Answer: Properly governing the mind means bringing the perception of excitation to rest; guarding—or equanimity—means bringing forceful perception to rest. Inclining toward the perception of excitation or the perception of guarding is forceful. Here, bringing to rest means stopping the heedless mind.

When the mind is deficient, one contemplates the characteristic and raises it. Bringing excitation to rest makes the mind gentle. When its strength is weak, one assists it and causes it to rise; here, this is spoken of as contemplating the characteristic.

Excitation and guarding mean maintaining the course of practice through the mind’s equipoise. It is like one skilled in driving a chariot: when it goes too slowly, he makes it hasten; when it goes too swiftly, he restrains it; when it proceeds properly, he guards it. So too is this.

Among the four immeasurables, guarding means not being partial. With regard to sentient beings, one begins with loving-kindness and proceeds to guarding; therein, guarding is mental equipoise.

Question: How is this to be understood? When the mind is deficient, is it raised; when the mind has been raised, is it restrained; and when it is balanced, is it guarded with equanimity?

Answer: Properly governing the mind does not mean merely following one’s own wishes. Therefore, here, following one’s own wishes means acting in accordance with the time and appropriate means. If there is either elevation or depression, this is not proper governance of the mind.

Question: That is proper governance of the mind, but what is a proper cause?

Answer: A proper cause is the full possession of the means leading to the fruit. A true cause is that which tends toward that path; or, when speaking of cultivation, the full possession of the means that produce the fruit is the true cause.

Question: What is full preparation?

Answer: The superior good has already been discussed.

Question: What is called full preparation?

Answer: Full preparation consists of skillful reduction, restraint of the faculties, and drawing near to meditation practice. These are provisions for wholesome practice and are therefore called full preparation, just as one undertakes a journey fully supplied with necessities. Full preparation means subsidiary factors. Here, it consists of three things: skillful reduction, restraint of the faculties, and drawing near to meditation practice.

Question: What is skillful reduction?

Answer: Skillful reduction means wearing rag-robes, living on alms, and dwelling in solitude. Reduction within villages is called skillful reduction. Skillful reduction means purity and simplicity.

A skilled craftsman makes images in two ways: by addition and by reduction. Reduction is the working of stone or wood. Addition is the working of clay and the application of painted decoration.

The craftsman thus forms two kinds of images. An image made by reduction can withstand wind and rain. The other, though beautiful in appearance, cannot withstand wind and rain.

The two kinds of people are likewise householders and renunciants. Renunciants have freed their minds from the entanglements of household life, relinquished all kinds of possessions, and regarded reduction as excellent. For householders, wives, children, and relatives constitute additions through which their affairs are accomplished.

Although householders possess articles that provide delicious pleasures, when separated from those they love they experience grief and lamentation, disputes, and so forth. Because these are contrary to Dharma, they are destroyed by wind and rain, and their minds cannot endure, just as a painted image is ruined by wind and rain. Such is not the state of a renunciant.

As the Blessed One said:

Just as birds of strength and vigor,

Beautiful, with blue-green necks,

Can never equal in their flight

The geese and wild swans soaring away,

So too are householders

No match for bhiksus,

Sages who have withdrawn afar

And meditate in secluded places.

This is called skillful reduction: wearing rag-robes, living on alms, and dwelling in solitude. These three pure qualities are the basis of the twelve practices; the remaining nine are their attendant factors, and thus these three are taught separately. Wishing to gladden Nanda, the Blessed One also spoke of these three:

Nanda, how is it that I see you

In rag-robes, dwelling in solitude?

Having understood, delight in the sublime;

Abandon desire and remain undefiled.

Therefore, one should know that these three are the basis.

Furthermore, four kinds of craving arise in relation to clothing, food and drink, bedding and seats, and realms of existence. Of these, because one is held by craving for clothing, rag-robes are taught. Because one is held by craving for food and drink, living on alms is taught. Because one craves bedding and seats, dwelling in solitude is taught. Accomplishing these three qualities provides the means to eliminate craving for realms of existence; hence it is skillful reduction.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of attachment: attachment to the activity of self and attachment to what is created as belonging to self. Of these, craving for clothing, food and drink, bedding and seats gives rise to attachment to what is created as belonging to self. The practitioner eliminates it by means of these three pure qualities. If this one matter is extinguished, attachment to self will necessarily be eliminated; therefore, they are called pure qualities.

Question: What are rag-robes?

Answer: Rag-robes comprise the three robes, a woolen robe, and remaining with the seat one has taken. Rag-robes are one of those three practices. The three robes, the woolen robe, and remaining with the seat one has taken are all included.

If the three robes alone constituted the practice of rag-robes, there should then be nine pure qualities. Would this not contradict the sutra? Rag-robes are made by gathering old pieces of cloth from charnel grounds and village lanes, bleaching and washing them, and sewing them together.

The three robes are the sanghati, uttarasanga, and antaravasa. Some uphold the practice of possessing only three robes, yet because of their fondness for robes, they diligently seek them out and undergo extreme hardship on account of that craving. If many robes are unobtainable, they should know that three robes are sufficient and good.

Craving is of two kinds: craving for what is fine and craving for abundance. It is like seeking the most beautiful woman of all, or seeking a thousand women who are not beautiful. Thus, possessing only three robes restrains craving for abundance but gives rise to craving for what is fine.

For such persons, the Blessed One taught that the three robes may be made from six kinds of material: karpasa cloth, silk fabric, silk, hemp-bark cloth, tree-bark cloth, and hemp fiber; one should use one of these. When a person sees such materials, however, he becomes fond of them, and this causes much hardship. Therefore, the woolen robe is taught for him, and that person thus upholds the practice of wearing three woolen robes.

Whether in the Sangha or at a seat in a household, if someone sees another fine seat and moves there to sit, then for such persons it is taught that one should remain with the seat already taken and should not move to another because it is finer. One should not conceive, on account of one’s own seniority, that others must yield their seats. Thus, the full possession of these three constitutes the practice of rag-robes.

Question: What is dwelling in solitude?

Answer: Dwelling in solitude means sitting at the foot of a tree, beneath the shade of a tree, in the open air. It also means maintaining upright sitting. Sitting at the foot of a tree, sitting beneath the shade of a tree, sitting in the open air, and maintaining upright sitting—fully practicing these four constitutes dwelling in solitude.

These four serve to eliminate craving for dwelling places. Here, when a person is diligent, faithful donors build him dwellings furnished with large beds and seats and soft coverings. The one who teaches then becomes attached to them.

Knowing this, the Blessed One taught these practices for such persons. One should not abandon one’s own house only to become attached to another’s house. One should abandon such houses and delight in solitude.

Having come to dwell in solitude, that person may then construct large rooms, towers, and lofty buildings. This too should not be done. To delight in lofty and spacious chambers while dwelling in solitude is like using a horse-drawn carriage and adding donkeys to it as well.

Therefore, one should undertake the practice of sitting beneath the shade of a tree, at the foot of a tree. Having undertaken it, that person may dislike small and unattractive trees and instead seek large, flourishing trees abundant in flowers and fruit. For such persons, the Blessed One taught that they should undertake the practice of sitting in the open air.

Your benefactor has sustained and nurtured this body; why then would you act in such a way? You should train in the ease of the seers. In the open air, you have no house or shelter and are not oppressed by craving.

Having come to dwell in the open air, that person may then think: “I have accomplished what is difficult to accomplish.” Because of that relinquishment, he considers himself rightly established and immediately lies down on his side and sleeps until sunrise.

The Blessed One instructed such a person that this should not be like one who cuts off his ears to adorn his head. Therefore, he should undertake the practice of upright sitting upon a grass mat, sitting in the full-lotus posture, contemplating the world as it truly is, and performing his own practice. Such is the full accomplishment of dwelling in solitude.

Question: Having explained freedom from affairs, what is alms-round practice?

Answer: Alms-round practice means eating one meal a day, not drinking other kinds of beverages after the prescribed time, and dwelling in charnel grounds. Those who have gone forth have two kinds of taking food: taking food with the Sangha and going on alms-round. Taking food with the Sangha means dwelling in a monastery and always practicing diligently, where food is received in full; or, again, always practicing diligently in order to eliminate the afflictions.

Outside, dwellings are constructed and various foods and drinks are distributed. Going on alms-round means proceeding successively from house to house to request and receive food, even though at times one may receive very little. This is called alms-round practice.

Other means of livelihood are wrong livelihood. One who takes food with the Sangha may think: “I can go to that donor’s house to receive food.” He then gives rise to conceit and arrogance. For the sake of such a person, the Blessed One taught: “You should go on alms-round.” After going on alms-round, that person would frequently spend much time eating and drinking and thereby neglect his practice and training.

The Blessed One taught him that he should take food only once, as the verse says:

One should bring forth the thought:

At each meal, know moderation;

Thus one reduces consumption,

Restraining it merely to sustain life.

After taking food once a day, that person became attached to food and then conceived this thought: “The Blessed One permits only beverages, so I should seek all kinds of drinks in abundance.” He thereby neglected his practice and training. The Blessed One taught him: “Since you have attained such a state of hardship, you should abandon drinking many kinds of beverages. Even ordinary thirst can be brought to an end.

You should observe the rule of not drinking other kinds of beverages after the prescribed time.” In this way, that person took little food and knew contentment, but then delighted in bathing and rubbing his body. The Blessed One taught him: “This too is the arrogance arising from the perception of taking food. Why?

Because the body is born from eating and drinking, yet however exceedingly plump it may become, it will ultimately be cast away in a charnel ground. Therefore, you should delight in charnel grounds and contemplate there how the body, produced through taking food, becomes swollen, putrid, decomposed, and disintegrated, with fat and blood flowing forth.” Having seen this, he eliminates that perception of conceit. In this way alms-round practice is complete.

This is called skillful reduction.

Question: What is restraint of the faculties?

Answer: Restraint of the faculties consists of not harming, guarding, and subduing. To restrain the faculties means being able to control them; it means subduing the faculties. These are the three: not harming, guarding, and subduing.

Question: What is not harmed?

Answer: The faculties have already been explained. Harming the faculties means being unable to control them. It is like horses: although deprived of water and grain, they will not run smoothly on any road. When fully fed with grain and water, they follow the road and run well and smoothly. Thus, harming the faculties means failing to control them. Gathering in the faculties means being able to control them. If one regarded harming the faculties as controlling them, then a blind person would be free from desire. Therefore, do not harm the faculties; simply control them properly in relation to their objects. By gathering them in through right reflection, one can guard them, as the verse says:

When the faculties encounter their objects,

One should abandon all perceptions;

The objects themselves cannot be harmed—

Only defiled attachment is cast away.

Subduing the faculties means that, upon seeing a woman of beautiful appearance, one immediately gives rise to the perception of her as one’s mother. These are called the three kinds of restraint of the faculties.

Approaching meditation: Because one takes up the perception of names and draws near to contemplation, it is called approaching meditation.

Question: What does one approach?

Answer: The supreme good previously explained.

Question: The four dhyanas were previously explained. Why are they discussed again?

Answer: Previously, dhyana was explained as leading toward transcendence of birth and death. Here, it leads toward the essential path of liberation, surpassing that, and successively contemplating the Truth. It is like a person crossing a vast wilderness for the first time who sees a pond filled with all kinds of beautiful fresh flowers, many clear springs flowing abundantly, and gardens and towers where many kinds of lovely flowering trees have been planted.

Having seen them, he thinks: “Such things could not exist within a desolate wilderness; a town or city must surely be nearby.” Likewise, a practitioner dwelling in the vast wilderness of birth and death, filled with the afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion, attains true understanding and therefore reflects rightly. While contemplating the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas as impermanent, suffering, empty, and non-self, if one aspires to and delights in this, it is called patience.

When, through right reflection, the mind remains unmoved, it is like seeing a loved one in a dream or seeing an image in a mirror. Thus, the perception that contemplates suffering is the foremost worldly Dharma. Through recollection of the Blessed One, this is called approaching meditation.

That practitioner proceeds successively, like one awakening from a dream and seeing a loved one; the subsequent attainment of contemplation of the Noble Truths is likewise.

The first section of the Chapter on Virtue within the Measure of Truth has now been presented.

Question: What is called expedient means?

Answer: Expedient means consists of morality, higher stilling, and wisdom. Expedient means is the path; because it leads toward the supreme good, it is called expedient means. It consists of the three: morality, higher stilling, and wisdom.

Question: Is this not explaining morality again?

Answer: It was explained previously. The supreme good is of two kinds: first, taking birth; second, the essential path of liberation. The morality explained previously concerned taking birth; this concerns the essential path of liberation. The meaning of morality is the meaning of cultivating practice.

Question: What is it?

Answer: Morality consists of right speech, right action, and right livelihood. These three are called morality. Right speech means abandoning divisive speech, harsh speech, false speech, and frivolous speech. Right action means abandoning killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Right livelihood means that a bhiksu receives adequate food, clothing, and medicine either with the Sangha or by going on alms-round. This is right livelihood; other means of living are wrong livelihood. Upasakas abstain from five occupations: weapons, clubs, intoxicating liquor, poisons, and the flesh of living beings. This is called right livelihood.

Question: What is higher stilling?

Answer: Higher stilling consists of vigor, mindfulness, and concentration. Higher stilling means completeness and perfection. Furthermore, eliminating greed, hatred, and delusion is higher stilling. Because one proceeds toward that state and abides there, it is called higher stilling. It consists of the three: vigor, mindfulness, and concentration. Among them, vigor is strength; if vigor is spoken of, one should know that strength has been spoken of.

Furthermore, because it is capable of undertaking action, it is called vigor. Vigor is practice. Because this Dharma enables one to advance toward the supreme good, it is called vigor.

Question: What is it?

Answer: Vigor consists of faith, diligence, and non-abandonment. Faith, diligence, and non-abandonment are three provisional designations for vigor. Why? Because faith increases all wholesome practices, always stands foremost among all wholesome dharmas, and is first and supreme among all dharmas. As the verse says:

A person who practices faith

Is praised by the Noble Ones;

Delighting in liberation,

All bonds are released.

There are three kinds of faith.

Question: What are the three?

Answer: Faith consists of purity, aspiration, and resolute understanding. Purity, aspiration, and resolute understanding are faith. Among them, purity means eliminating defilement. Defilement is the evil produced by people, such as anger, arrogance, shamelessness, and lack of moral dread. Just as elephants and buffaloes muddy and disturb the water of a spring, so is defilement explained. When they are made to stop, the water becomes still and clear. Likewise, the mental disturbance produced by those who commit evil and possess anger, arrogance, shamelessness, and lack of moral dread is called defilement. The absence of defilement is called purity.

Aspiration means delighting in what is excellent. A person tormented by illness does not desire delicious food. Once the illness has been cured, he wishes to obtain delicious food. Likewise, a person oppressed by unwholesome dharmas does not delight in or wish to hear the Dharma. After encountering a good spiritual friend, he delights in the Dharma and immediately thinks: “This Dharma is exceedingly wondrous and subtle.” This is called aspiration.

Understanding means apprehending. Suppose a person is bitten by a venomous snake. When a master recites a spell against the poison, that person, with utterly sincere intent, thinks: “The spell is truly as he says.” From then on, the poison will certainly gradually diminish, and because his mind understands clearly, he seeks medicine. Likewise, human beings are bitten and wounded by the snakes of greed, anger, and delusion. Out of loving-kindness, the Blessed One teaches them the true Dharma. If their minds understand clearly, it is no different from the foregoing analogy. Their minds can then eliminate greed, anger, and delusion. Otherwise, they cannot eliminate them. This is called understanding.

Question: What is diligence?

Answer: Diligence consists of arousing, practicing, and concentrating upon the practice. Arousing, practicing, and concentrating—these three are called diligence.

Arousing means beginning to cultivate the wholesome. It is like preparing the implements needed for making fire when one is about to kindle it by friction. Practicing means acting continually. Concentrating means remaining continuously engaged, neither abandoning nor becoming distracted, causing the mind to rest upon a single object, as when extinguishing a fire burning upon one’s head. These three are called diligence.

Question: What is non-abandonment?

Answer: Non-abandonment means not stopping, not growing weary, and not withdrawing. These three are called non-abandonment.

Not stopping means never departing from the practice at any time. “I exert myself with all my strength and never neglect it”—this is not growing weary. “I am wholly diligent and do not withdraw, even though many afflictions arise over a long period”—this is not withdrawing. Whether there is a result or not, what benefit would come from abandoning it? Therefore, one does not abandon diligent effort. This is called non-abandonment. These three matters will certainly lead to the attainment of the fruit, just as a traveler delights in the destination toward which he journeys.

Question: Diligent effort has been explained. What is mindfulness?

Answer: Mindfulness means not forgetting the body, feeling, mind, and dharmas, whether internally, externally, or both internally and externally. Not forgetting the internal, the external, and both together constitutes the three kinds of mindfulness. What pertains to oneself is internal; what pertains to others is external; the two together are both.

Furthermore, internal means the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas appropriated by oneself. External means those appropriated by others. What is not appropriated is both.

Furthermore, there are three kinds of affliction: internal, external, and both. The internal is desire. The external is anger. Anger is directed toward another, rather than being anger at oneself. One might think: “Desire, too, is directed toward another.” This is incorrect. Why? Internally there is defilement; externally, another person gives rise to desire because of internal attachment, as stated in the sutra. When a person sees a woman, the inner faculties act together with delusion and darkness. Eliminating these three kinds of affliction constitutes the three kinds of mindfulness. The three kinds relating to feeling, mind, and dharmas are likewise the same as those relating to the body. Each has three, making twelve kinds of mindfulness.

Question: Mindfulness has been explained. What is concentration?

Answer: Concentration consists of emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness. These are the three kinds of concentration. That which is empty should be called emptiness.

Question: There are many kinds of emptiness, such as an empty village or an empty house. What kind of emptiness is being discussed here?

Answer: Emptiness means that neither the activity of a self nor the action of a self can be seen. When neither the activity of a self nor the action of a self can be seen, this is called emptiness.

Question: Why can the activity of a self and the action of a self not be seen? The Blessed One said: “At that time, I was the brahmin Suilam.” Elsewhere it is also said: “Bhikshus! My hand is raised in empty space.”

Answer: It is not so. “The activity of a self” and “the action of a self” are merely conventional designations. To grasp a self within the five skandhas is the activity of a self. The Blessed One does not engage in this. To conform to attachment to a self in relation to objects is called the action of a self. The Blessed One likewise does not do this. As stated in the Sutra of the Seal of the Noble Dharma, emptiness is contemplation of the world as empty. Thus, according to that explanation, both self and what belongs to self are established; therefore, there is no fault. This is called emptiness.

Question: What is wishlessness?

Answer: Wishlessness means taking no delight in establishing anything in the past, present, or future. Wishlessness means non-establishment. What falls within the three times—past, present, and future—is all conditioned.

As stated in the Sutra on the Exposition of the Bases, if one forms the thought that the self and nirvana are the same, then that dharma is not included within the three times. Here, however, this is not the case. Why?

Because one refers to emptiness, while the other refers to meaning. Nirvana transcends the world and is entirely without an object. Within that Dharma there is no notion of self, and apart from the three times there is no such dharma; therefore, it cannot be expressed.

Thus, one takes no delight in establishing anything within the three times. This is called wishlessness.

Question: What is signlessness?

Answer: Signlessness means being free from things and their fabrication. To be free from things and their fabrication—to be free from all these—is signlessness. As stated elsewhere, it is separation from all conditioned phenomena. “All” refers to things together with their fabrication. What can be fabricated is the thing; that which fabricates is the fabrication. For example, conditioned by ignorance, meritorious, demeritorious, and imperturbable formations fabricate karmic formations. As a continuation conditioned by them, consciousness arises; this is the thing. Ignorance and formations are the fabrication. Likewise, with respect to all conditioned phenomena, freedom from these is called signlessness.

Furthermore, as stated in the Sutra of the Seal of the Noble Dharma: “Signlessness means not perceiving the sign of form.” The same is taught regarding all such things: the three matters—the thing, its fabrication, and freedom from them. All of these have three meanings, merely expressed differently. It is like speaking of a river as being without water or saying that no water is seen: the meaning is one, though the expressions differ. Emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are likewise so. This is called concentration.

Question: What is wisdom?

Answer: Wisdom is the object of practice on the grounds of seeing, cultivation, and no-more-learning. Wisdom means knowing, and there are three grounds: the ground of seeing, the ground of cultivation, and the ground of no-more-learning. Here, because one sees and knows, it is called seeing.

Question: What is called seeing and knowing?

Answer: It is seeing and knowing what has never before been seen or known, such as the faculties, powers, factors of awakening, factors of the Path, and the truths of the noble ground. Cultivation means repeated practice. It is like washing a robe with pure ash. Although the dirt has been removed and the robe has become clean and white, the smell of ash still remains; afterward, it is perfumed with various fragrant flowers, such as sumana blossoms. Likewise, on the ground of seeing, the mind in meditation is purified, and immeasurable concentrations eliminate all the fetters through great effort. This is called cultivation.

On the ground of no-more-learning, greed, anger, and delusion have been completely extinguished. This is called the ground of no-more-learning.

Question: What kinds of wisdom belong to the ground of seeing?

Answer: The ground of seeing consists of Dharma-knowledge, contemplative knowledge, and knowledge of the unknown. These are the wisdoms of the ground of seeing. Among them, Dharma-knowledge means direct knowledge.

Suppose a skilled physician recognizes that a boil has ripened. He therefore cuts it open with a sharp knife and excises it; afterward, he uses his hands to stitch the incision together without damaging the other vessels, and the boil has been removed. A practitioner who cultivates the practice is likewise.

Through right reflection, when contemplating suffering in the Desire Realm, the practitioner eliminates the afflictions abandoned through seeing suffering; afterward, a second knowledge arises. Just as the Desire Realm is suffering and impermanent, so too are the Form and Formless Realms. Thereupon, inferential knowledge eliminates the afflictions of the Form and Formless Realms.

These are called the three knowledges of seeing suffering. Craving in the Desire Realm is the cause of suffering; its Dharma-knowledge is precisely contemplative knowledge. Likewise, the knowledge of the unknown regarding the Form and Formless Realms makes up the three knowledges of seeing origination.

The cessation and ending of suffering in the Desire Realm—its Dharma-knowledge is precisely contemplative knowledge. Likewise, the knowledge of the unknown regarding the Form and Formless Realms makes up the three knowledges of seeing cessation. The Path extinguishes the suffering of the Desire Realm; its Dharma-knowledge is precisely contemplative knowledge.

Likewise, the knowledge of the unknown regarding the Form and Formless Realms makes up the three knowledges of seeing the Path. These twelve kinds of knowledge are extensively expounded on the ground of seeing; this should be understood.

Question: What is the ground of cultivation?

Answer: The ground of cultivation consists of knowledge of characteristics, knowledge of practice, and knowledge of kinds. These three constitute the ground of cultivation.

Question: What are characteristics?

Answer: Characteristics are arising, abiding, and disintegration. Arising is birth. Abiding is maturation. Disintegration is decay.

Question: In the extensive discussion concerning sentient beings, there is doubt regarding nirvana. Do sentient beings and nirvana also possess such characteristics? If they do, this is a grave error, for they would then be impermanent. If they do not, then this scripture is at fault; should it not say that arising, abiding, and ceasing are the characteristics of the conditioned?

Answer: Sentient beings, in relation to characteristics, constitute a distinct category and cannot be spoken of. If they were different, they would be permanent. If so, they would be impermanent. These two errors cannot be spoken of. Nirvana is likewise. Therefore, distinctions must be made. One should know that these characteristics are entirely characteristics of the conditioned.

Question: Now you speak of merit. Why are those characteristics merit?

Answer: We are now speaking of wisdom. The wisdom within those three is merit, not the characteristics themselves.

Question: What is practice?

Answer: Practice consists of impermanence, suffering, and non-self. Practice is the wisdom of exhaustion; this is the meaning of practice. That these characteristics are known through this practice is the meaning of practice. The skandhas are impermanent. What is impermanent is suffering. What is suffering is not under one’s control and is therefore non-self. Impermanence means not abiding for long and is thus like a bubble of water. Suffering means being afflicted and is thus like an arrow lodged in the body. Non-self means not being under one’s control and is thus like a borrowed jeweled necklace. This is called practice.

Question: What is the category?

Answer: The category consists of gratification, peril, and relinquishment. The category is gratification, peril, and relinquishment.

Question: What does this mean?

Answer: It concerns the conditioned. Within it, gratification is what is wondrous and good. Peril is what is evil. Relinquishment is the complete abandonment of both. Here, the pleasures of humans and devas are gratification. The sufferings in the three evil destinies are peril. Relinquishing both demerit and merit is relinquishment. Contemplation in this manner is the merit of right view, through which liberation is attained; this is the category. This is the wisdom of the stage of training.

Question: What is the wisdom of the stage beyond training?

Answer: The stage beyond training consists of penetrating wisdom, superknowledges, and analytical knowledge: namely, penetrating wisdom, the wisdom of superknowledge, and analytical wisdom. These are the three kinds of wisdom of the stage beyond training.

Question: What is penetrating wisdom?

Answer: Penetrating wisdom consists of the knowledge of past lives, the knowledge of death and rebirth, and the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows. Because it can penetrate, it is called penetrating wisdom. Penetration means knowing.

Among these, the knowledge of past lives is the recollection and knowledge of actions performed in the past. The knowledge of death and rebirth is knowing the fruits obtained from karma. The knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows will be explained later.

Furthermore, there are three kinds of afflictions concerning the past, future, and present. Those concerning the past are the eighteen views. Those concerning the future are the forty-four views.

Those concerning the present abide in the view of a self in the body. Hence, they arise in the present and make discriminations concerning the past and future. Here, one who attains the knowledge of past lives does not disparage the past.

One who attains the knowledge of death and rebirth is not deluded concerning the future. One who attains the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows does not cling to the present.

Question: What is the knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows?

Answer: The knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows consists of the knowledge of exhaustion, the knowledge of non-arising, and the knowledge born of aspiration. Contemplating, “My afflictions have been completely exhausted,” is the knowledge of exhaustion. Knowing that there will be no further rebirth is the knowledge of non-arising.

It is like a master who treats snakebites: knowing and then eliminating the venom is the first knowledge; preventing the previously present poisonous vapor from entering the person is the second knowledge. The knowledge of non-arising is likewise. As for the knowledge born of aspiration, if a sravaka uses the knowledge of past lives to recollect and fully know the succession of his own lives, that is the knowledge born of aspiration; through aspiration, he also knows the lives of others.

This is called the knowledge born of aspiration.

Question: What are the superknowledges?

Answer: The superknowledges are the bases of psychic power, the divine ear, and the knowledge of others’ minds. These three—the bases of psychic power, the divine ear, and the knowledge of others’ minds—are superknowledges. The bases of psychic power will be explained later.

The divine ear arises through the power of concentration: focused upon a single object, the four great elements become increasingly purified. Through it, one hears the sounds of humans and devas, and even those in the evil destinies, according to the strength of its functioning. Just as the eye sees what is near or far according to the strength of one’s eyesight, so the divine ear is attained according to the power of concentration.

The knowledge of others’ minds means that, upon seeing sentient beings or hearing their voices, one knows their thoughts to be such and such.

Question: What are the bases of psychic power?

Answer: The bases of psychic power consist of traveling freely through space, transformation, and the noble mastery. Because one attains psychic power as one wishes, they are called psychic power. “As one wishes” means mastery. Traveling freely through space, mastery of transformation, and noble mastery are called the three kinds of bases of psychic power.

Traveling freely through space means walking upon water, treading through empty space, entering the earth, passing unhindered through stone walls, and touching and grasping the sun and moon. This is called traveling freely through space.

Mastery of transformation means manifesting the forms of humans, elephants, horses, carts, mountains, forests, cities, and fortresses, all of which one can conjure into appearance.

Noble mastery means being able to transform the length of one’s life, transform water into ghee or milk, and transform earth and stones into gold and silver. Such things are called the bases of psychic power, which are cultivated and developed by noble ones. The bases of psychic power, the divine ear, and the knowledge of others’ minds are called superknowledges. Together with the knowledge of past lives and the knowledge of death and rebirth, these constitute the five superknowledges attainable by ordinary beings.

Question: What is analytical knowledge?

Answer: Analytical knowledge consists of Dharma, meaning, expression, and responsiveness. Skillfully knowing the Dharma, skillfully knowing meanings, skillfully knowing expressions, and skillfully knowing how to respond—these four are analytical knowledge. Knowing the Dharma means knowing names, phrases, and syllables. Knowing meanings means knowing their true nature. For example, fire is said to have heat as its nature; one is not deluded regarding the meaning contained therein. Knowing expressions means knowing the proper sequence of literary expression. Knowing how to respond means setting forth sentences without inversion or error. This is called analytical knowledge. The wisdom of the stage of training has also been extensively explained here.

Question: Just as moral discipline and concentration are present in the stage of training, moral discipline and concentration may also be attained in the stage beyond training. Why, then, are these not each explained as threefold?

Answer: There is no distinction in moral discipline; moral discipline is not classified as belonging either to training or beyond training. For example, in abstaining from killing, sentient beings are protected to the utmost by those beyond training. It is not the case that when one in training abstains from killing, that person thereby becomes one beyond training. Therefore, because there is no confusion concerning this, these are not explained as threefold.

The second part of the Chapter on Virtue within the Section on Truth has now been completely presented.

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