四阿鋡暮抄解

Question: Evil conduct has already been discussed. What, then, is craving?

Answer: Craving consists of desire (defilement), anger, and jealousy (pride); these are the three kinds of craving. It should be understood that craving is thirst, and that these three are collectively spoken of as one.

Question: What is desire (defilement)?

Answer: Defilement is attachment to sensual desire, attachment to existence, and attachment to the holy life. These are the three kinds of defilement.

Here, sensual desire means the five sensual desires: forms, sounds, odors, flavors, and tangible objects. It is by relying on these three kinds of defilement that sentient beings delight in and crave them; they are not so with other things. Here, attachment to sensual desire concerns men, women, and those who are neither fully male nor female: a woman desires a man; a man desires a woman or one who is neither fully male nor female; and one who is neither fully male nor female desires a woman or a man.

Question: Previously, attachment to the five sensual desires was discussed. Now women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female are mentioned. Is this not an error?

Answer: Women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female are mentioned again within sensual desire because each is entangled in it. This is not so with other things. As the Blessed One said: “I see no beloved form that causes such infatuation as the beloved forms of men and women, just as in the sphere of the five sensual desires.” Therefore, there is no error concerning craving. Desire is of three kinds: inferior, middling, and superior. Inferior is the desire of men. Middling is the desire of women. Superior is the desire of those who are neither fully male nor female. This is called attachment to sensual desire.

Question: What is attachment to existence?

Answer: Existence comprises existence in the Desire Realm, existence in the Form Realm, and existence in the Formless Realm. Attachment to existence is attachment to existence in the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm. This is called attachment to existence.

Question: In discussing attachment to sensual desire, women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female were separately mentioned. Why are they mentioned again under attachment to existence?

Answer: Attachment to existence is taught with reference to sentient beings. Attachment to sensual desire is taught with reference to the various fetters, or afflictions. All dharmas of the Desire Realm are called existence in the Desire Realm. If one is attached to them, this is called attachment to existence in the Desire Realm. The dharmas of the Form Realm and the Formless Realm are called existence in the Form Realm and existence in the Formless Realm. If one is attached to them, this is attachment to existence in the Form Realm and the Formless Realm. Therefore, they are discussed separately, and there is no error.

Question: What is attachment to the holy life?

Answer: Attachment to the holy life means clinging to it once it has been attained, longing for it before it has been attained, and grieving if it is lost. For this reason, it is also called attachment to existence in the Desire Realm. Once it has been attained, one clings to it; before it has been attained, one longs for it; and if it is lost, one grieves. Thus, attachment to sensual desire, attachment to existence, and attachment to the holy life each have three forms, and so they are said to number nine.

Furthermore, once one obtains a woman, one becomes infatuated with her; before obtaining her, one longs for her; and if one loses her, one grieves. In the same way, women, men, and those who are neither fully male nor female within attachment to sensual desire should also be said to constitute nine kinds. Thus, attachment to sensual desire, attachment to existence, and attachment to the holy life should be said to number twenty-seven.

Question: Can attachment to the holy life in this manner be an affliction?

Answer: Yes. This is as stated concerning the fruit of non-returning. The Blessed One also taught three kinds of seeking: seeking sensual desire, seeking existence, and seeking the holy life. Seeking, craving, defilement, and attachment have the same meaning. Furthermore, as has been said, amid sensual desire and the holy life, even after abandoning craving, one continually keeps them in mind.

Question: If this is so, then the holy life cannot be practiced. Why? Because attachment is present. According to what has been said, would not every holy life entail attachment?

Answer: It should be practiced by skillful means. One practices the holy life without being attached to the holy life. Because one has abandoned both demerit and merit, one practices the path without seeking its fruit.

One who seeks the fruit is said to cling to a self, thinking: “Through this morality, through this ascetic practice, and through this holy life, I shall be reborn in a heavenly realm or another realm.” Such practice is attachment and defilement. One longs for the time when one will attain the holy life and thereby be reborn in a good destination. If one becomes attached to the holy life in order to obtain happiness in a future life, one grasps at cherished pleasures, commits acts contrary to the holy life, and then gives rise to remorse, causing oneself to regress; this is called grieving.

Such is attachment to the holy life.

Question: What is anger?

Answer: In the world, there are oneself, enemies, and anger that has arisen. Oneself, enemies, and anger are the three kinds of anger.

Question: Why is anger discussed in the section on craving?

Answer: Anger seeks what is harmful and seeks what is unloved. Because it arises in this manner, oneself and enemies are treated within the four modes of conduct.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: For oneself and for those dear to one, if happiness has not yet been obtained, one seeks it; once it has been obtained, one strives not to lose it. If suffering has already been encountered, one wishes to cast it off; if it has not yet been encountered, one does not wish to encounter it. With respect to oneself and others, an enemy is treated in the opposite manner according to these four modes.

If an enemy has not yet encountered suffering, one wishes that the enemy might encounter it. Once the enemy has encountered suffering, one wishes that the enemy might not escape it. If the enemy has not yet obtained happiness, one wishes that the enemy might not obtain it.

Once the enemy has obtained happiness, one wishes that the enemy might quickly lose it. This is called seeking harm on account of an enemy, and it is anger. Therefore, there is no error in discussing anger in the section on craving.

Question: What does it mean to say that, on account of this, it is for oneself?

Answer: “On account of this, it is for oneself” means seeking what is disadvantageous throughout the three periods of time. The three periods are the past, present, and future, as already explained. Thinking, “That person sought what was disadvantageous to me, will seek what is disadvantageous to me, or now seeks what is disadvantageous to me,” one gives rise to anger. This is called giving rise to anger because what is disadvantageous to oneself is sought throughout the three periods of time.

Question: What is meant by one who is dear?

Answer: The case of one who is dear is likewise. Just as one gives rise to anger because what is disadvantageous to oneself is sought throughout the three periods of time, so one gives rise to anger because what is disadvantageous to someone dear to one is sought throughout the three periods of time.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: As has been said, if someone is dear to me, then anger arises because another has sought what is disadvantageous to that person, will seek what is disadvantageous to that person, or now seeks what is disadvantageous to that person. This is what is meant by one who is dear.

Question: What is an enemy?

Answer: An enemy is one who stands in opposition. It differs because one is mutually opposed to that person. Thus, thinking, “That person is my enemy; someone sought what was beneficial to that person, will seek what is beneficial to that person, or now seeks what is beneficial to that person,” one gives rise to anger. Thus, because benefit is sought for an enemy throughout the three periods of time, one gives rise to anger. These are called the nine kinds of anger.

Question: What is the difference between this anger and the anger among the three evil conducts?

Answer: Here, anger arises in dependence upon circumstantial conditions. The anger belonging to evil conduct should be understood to arise from the absence of wisdom.

Question: Are the nine kinds of anger the same in all sentient beings?

Answer: The manner in which they abide is like drawings made upon water, earth, and stone. It should be understood that anger varies according to sentient beings, just as drawings made upon water, earth, and stone do. Since sentient beings are of these various kinds, it should be understood that anger is inferior, middling, or superior.

A drawing made upon water vanishes immediately. A drawing made upon earth lasts longer and disappears only when exposed to wind and rain or trampled underfoot. A drawing made upon stone disappears only when the stone itself ceases to exist.

In the same way, sentient beings retain anger in different ways. Some, as soon as anger arises, reproach themselves: “I am in the wrong! Sentient beings are by nature subject to cessation; oppressed by immeasurable suffering, they will themselves perish.

I must not commit wrongdoing or harbor malicious intent that harms others.” Their anger then naturally ceases, like a drawing upon water.

Others give rise to anger and cannot restrain themselves. Only when a teacher or compassionate spiritual friend admonishes them does it cease, like a drawing upon earth. Still others harbor malicious intent, fail to reflect properly, and give rise to anger that even a Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, or a sravaka cannot cause to cease; it perishes only when the body perishes, like a drawing upon stone. This is called anger.

Question: What is jealousy (pride)?

Answer: Pride is the arising of the thought that one is inferior, equal, or superior. Because one relies upon such notions, it is called pride.

Furthermore, because one asserts the characteristics of oneself and others, it is called pride. There are three kinds: the thought “I am inferior,” the thought “I am equal,” and the thought “I am superior.”

If another possesses beauty, wealth and honor, and a distinguished lineage, and one thinks, “I am not like that person,” this is called the thought “I am inferior.” If another possesses beauty, wealth and honor, and a distinguished lineage, and one thinks, “That person and I are equal,” this is called the thought “I am equal.” If one possesses beauty, wealth and honor, and a flourishing lineage, and thinks, “I am superior to that person,” this is called the thought “I am superior.”

Question: The characteristics of conceit have already been explained as inferior, equal, and superior. How does one understand these as the true measure by which all forms of conceit are distinguished? Are there not innumerable kinds of conceit, as explained in the section on miscellaneous defilements?

Answer: Inferior conceit consists of false, unequal, and extremely low conceit. Inferior conceit is of three kinds: false conceit (deception), unequal conceit (self-disparagement), and extremely low conceit (indolence).

False conceit (deception): One commits extremely evil karma and yet gives rise to an arrogant mind.

Unequal conceit (self-disparagement): One receives another person's praise and commendation, saying: “Excellent! You possess great virtue!” Upon hearing this, one rejoices inwardly and says: “Why can I not attain the same?”

Extremely low conceit (indolence): One is lazy, delights in sleeping day and night, and gives rise to this thought: “A person cannot advance toward the supreme path.”

These are the three kinds of inferior conceit.

Question: What is equal conceit?

Answer: Equal conceit consists of self-conceit, haughty conceit, and irreverent conceit. Equal conceit is of three kinds: self-conceit, haughty conceit, and irreverent conceit.

Self-conceit: One clings to the five skandhas as the self and regards what is evil as meritorious virtue.

Haughty conceit: One accepts the offerings and service of others.

Irreverent conceit: One does not honor or respect teachers and elders.

These are called the three kinds of equal conceit.

Question: What is superior (overweening) conceit?

Answer: Superior conceit consists of great conceit, conceit within conceit, and overweening conceit.

Great conceit: Toward those who are inferior or equal, one considers oneself superior and gives rise to arrogance.

Conceit within conceit: Toward those who are superior, one considers oneself superior and gives rise to arrogance.

Overweening (immeasurable) conceit: Although one has not yet attained the supreme fruit and has not attained liberation, one considers it attained and gives rise to arrogance.

These are called the three kinds of superior conceit. All such conceit arises from craving and fear; therefore, it is said to belong to the sphere of craving.

The second section of the Chapter on Evil within the Three Measures of Dharma has now been explained.

EXPLANATION OF THE DIGEST OF THE FOUR AGAMAS, Part 6

Question: Craving has already been explained. What, then, is ignorance?

Answer: Ignorance consists of non-knowledge, wrong knowledge, and deluded knowledge. These three are ignorance. “Ignorance” is a provisional designation for delusion. It is a distinction based on terminology, establishing a name through negation. Just as one who has an evil child is said to be childless, and one who has an evil friend is said to be friendless, so this ignorance is corrupted knowledge and is therefore called ignorance.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: Non-knowledge consists of not being able to explain or understand the conditioned and the unconditioned. The conditioned, the unconditioned, and the ineffable and unknown are the three kinds of non-knowledge.

Question: The conditioned is of two kinds: that which is appropriated internally and that which is not appropriated externally. How are these to be clearly discerned here?

Answer: The conditioned comprises the appropriated, the unappropriated, and that which is associated with appropriation. When there is non-knowledge, it should be understood as delusion concerning the appropriated, delusion concerning the unappropriated, and delusion concerning both. Here, the appropriated is of two kinds: one’s own appropriation and another’s appropriation of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas.

The unappropriated, or externally appropriated, refers by comparison to trees, grass, walls, and barriers. Here, whether it is appropriated by another or is unappropriated, it should be understood as unappropriated. Each of these is obscured by delusion.

This is called non-knowledge. As the Blessed One said: “Regarding the six internal ayatanas, one who lacks knowledge neither sees nor understands.” This is extensively explained as stated in the sutra. Appropriation means taking possession.

Conditioned by karma, defilements, and mental delusion, one clings to self and what belongs to the self. This is called appropriation.

Question: The unconditioned is nirvana and is one. Why, then, are three spoken of?

Answer: The unconditioned comprises nirvana with remainder, nirvana without remainder, and both together. Although nirvana is the single unconditioned, with respect to the matter at hand it should be spoken of in two kinds: with remainder and without remainder.

With remainder means that the body has already received the effects of karma and defilements. That person has completely eliminated all defilements and has directly realized this state; therefore, it is called nirvana with remainder. This is the explanation of “with remainder.”

Without remainder means that when these appropriated skandhas are relinquished, no further body is assumed. Like the extinguishing of a lamp, this is nirvana. This is called nirvana without remainder. When each of these has entirely ceased, it is the unconditioned; not knowing this is non-knowledge.

Question: What is the ineffable?

Answer: The ineffable consists of designation through present appropriation, designation through the past, and designation through cessation. Not knowing these is called not knowing the ineffable.

Designation through present appropriation: Sentient beings appropriate the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas and cling to them as either one or different.

Designation through the past: A statement is made on the basis of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas of the past. As it was said: “At that time, I was named Quxuntu.”

Designation through cessation: When something has ceased, a statement is made on the basis of what had been appropriated. As it was said: “The Blessed One entered parinirvana.”

Furthermore, designation through the past subdues the annihilationist view of sentient beings. Designation through cessation subdues the eternalist view. Designation through appropriation subdues the view of nonexistence. Designation through non-appropriation subdues the view of existence. Not knowing each of these is called not knowing the ineffable, or non-knowledge.

Question: Non-knowledge has already been explained. What, then, is wrong knowledge?

Answer: Wrong knowledge consists of the view of a personal identity, the extreme view concerning internal appropriation, and the misappropriated view concerning what should not be accepted. These three are wrong knowledge. “Wrong,” “inverted,” “not in accordance with reality,” and “untrue” all have the same meaning.

The view of a personal identity consists of “I,” “mine,” and “mastery.” “I” is regarded in this way, “mine” is regarded in this way, and “mastery” is regarded in this way. This is the view of a personal identity.

“I” is regarded in this way: The skandhas are illusory transformations, like a mirage, an echo, or the moon’s reflection in water. Because their forms appear like the five skandhas, one clings to them as the self.

“Mine” is regarded in this way: Like a necklace provisionally borrowed or a heap of fruits gathered together, what resembles the five skandhas is grasped as belonging to the self.

“Mastery” is regarded in this way: Like the trunk of a plantain tree or various bubbles and reflections upon water, the objects of the five desires are grasped as subject to one’s mastery, though they are like an empty village. The view of a personal identity is the view that the body belongs to the self. These are called the three kinds of views of a personal identity.

Question: What is the extreme view concerning internal appropriation?

Answer: The extreme view consists of annihilationism, eternalism, and a combination of both. Annihilationism, eternalism, and both together are the three kinds of appropriated extreme views. “Extreme” means a one-sided view that is not grounded in reason.

Here, annihilationism and eternalism include the views that the world is eternal, impermanent, or neither eternal nor impermanent; that the world is finite, infinite, or neither finite nor infinite; and that sentient beings have an end, have no end, or neither have nor do not have an end. They also include views concerning whether the body is identical with the life principle, and similar comparisons.

Both together refers to combinations such as eternal and impermanent, finite and infinite, having an end and having no end, and similar comparisons. These are called the three kinds of extreme views.

Question: What is the misappropriated view concerning what should not be accepted?

Answer: Misappropriated views concern precepts, views, and their basis. Such misappropriation arises from three things: first, precepts; second, views; and third, their basis. Among these misappropriated views, precepts were explained in the first chapter. Believing that purity is attained through such precepts, one undertakes those precepts. These are called the two kinds of misappropriation of precepts. To hold, “This alone is true; all else is false and unreal,” is called the misappropriation of views. Clinging to something as true in this manner is also an explanation of the misappropriation of views.

The body is bound and serves as their basis; that is, the five skandhas are the basis of both precepts and views. Therefore, whether regarding precepts or views, one clings to the five skandhas as pure. It should be understood that the misappropriation of precepts clings to the five skandhas as foremost and not to anything else. It should be understood that the misappropriation of views depends upon this basis. These are called the three kinds of misappropriated views.

Question: What is deluded knowledge, or knowledge subject to doubt?

Answer: Deluded knowledge consists of failing to understand clearly the Jewels, the truths, and meditative concentration. That is, one does not clearly understand the Jewels, does not clearly understand the truths, and does not clearly understand meditative concentration. Failure to understand clearly means indecision through doubt and has the same meaning as uncertainty.

Question: What are the Jewels?

Answer: The Jewels are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. These should be understood as the Three Jewels: the Buddha Jewel, the Dharma Jewel, and the Sangha Jewel. The Buddha possesses omniscience, has perfected all virtues, and is free from every evil.

Question: For what reasons is the Buddha called a Jewel?

Answer: Because of the three kinds of merit described above.

Furthermore, because of great loving-kindness and great compassion; because of teaching the true Dharma; because of the untroubled body; because of being a good spiritual friend; and because of being difficult to encounter in the world, like the udumbara flower. Thus, because the Buddha has accomplished inconceivable merits, he is called a treasure.

The Dharma consists of skillful means and the fruit of skillful means. Here, only nirvana is spoken of as the Dharma Treasure. It is above all dharmas, as stated in the sutras. Among all conditioned and unconditioned dharmas, that unconditioned nirvana is foremost. This treasure cannot be destroyed; it completely eliminates all suffering, is utterly blissful, difficult to attain, and inexhaustible. By such comparisons it is called a treasure.

The Sangha, as explained above in the section on the shravakas, is a treasure because of its vast merit, because it does not contravene the teaching of the Blessed One, because it is the unsurpassed field of merit, because it is praised by the Blessed One, because it cannot be destroyed, and because it always remains harmonious and free from contention. By such comparisons concerning the immeasurable merits it has accomplished, it is called a treasure.

Question: What is truth?

Answer: Truth consists of conventional truth, characteristic truth, and ultimate truth. These are the three kinds of truth. Because truth is truly existent, genuine, not false, and suchness itself, it is called truth.

Conventional truth: This comprises what is designated by regional convention, what is designated by clan or lineage, and what is designated by the training rules. These are called the three kinds of conventional truth.

What is designated by regional convention means that its meaning is necessarily so and that this matter has been accepted: that matter and that name, just as water fills and overflows. Such comparisons concerning what has thus been designated are called conventional truth.

What is designated by clan or lineage is the family tradition of one's own lineage.

What is designated by the training rules concerns conduct according to deportment and regulations, together with examining and comprehending the sutras.

Question: What is characteristic truth?

Answer: Characteristic truth consists of the truth of suffering, the truth of its arising, and the truth of the path. These are the three characteristic truths. Because truth is contemplated through its characteristics, they are called characteristics. The characteristics of truth refer to birth, aging, and impermanence. A characteristic is spoken of as a distinguishing mark. Among these, the characteristic of oppression is the truth of suffering. The characteristic of evolving into being is the truth of arising. The characteristic of essential deliverance is the truth of the path. Cessation is without characteristics and will be discussed separately here.

Question: What is ultimate truth?

Answer: It is the complete cessation of deeds, words, and thoughts. This is called ultimate truth.

Deeds are bodily karma. Words are verbal karma. Thoughts are mental karma. When these three attain complete quiescence, that is called ultimate truth, which is the meaning of nirvana.

Question: Truth has been explained. What, then, is concentration?

Answer: Concentration consists of form-realm concentration, formless concentration, and undefiled concentration. These are called concentration.

The meaning of concentration is the stabilization of the activities of mind. Here, form-realm concentration comprises the immeasurable meditations and the spheres of mastery of the Form Realm, the first, second, and third liberations, and the first all-encompassing sphere.

Formless concentration consists of the four formless attainments and two of the all-encompassing spheres.

Undefiled concentration consists of emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness.

Undefiled meditation is undefiled. Formless concentration is undefiled.

The first five perceptions, together with concentration that severs attachment to the realms—all such states are unable to resolve doubts and remain uncertain. This is called deluded cognition, or cognition accompanied by doubt. It is also the delusion that doubts whether suffering is suffering or not suffering, whether arising is arising or cessation, and whether the path is the path or not the path. The four truths as they pertain to the three realms—the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm—constitute twelve kinds. Regarding this deluded cognition, it is as explained in the section on craving. In the section on ignorance, erroneous cognition and wrong view are also discussed. They were explained above among the unwholesome actions of the mind.

Furthermore, craving is also abandoned through cultivation.

Thus the ninety-eight latent tendencies have been distinguished and explained.

The third section of the chapter on Evil in the Threefold Dharma Classification is now complete.

COMMENTARY ON THE EXCERPTS FROM THE FOUR AGAMAS, Part 7

Question: Merit and Evil have been explained. What, then, is the Basis?

Answer: The Basis consists of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. These three—the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas—are the Basis. Because they can serve as a basis, they are called the Basis.

To serve as a basis means to provide an established foundation. On the basis of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, beings perform meritorious and evil actions. Therefore, one should know that these are the basis of merit and evil.

Question: What are the skandhas?

Answer: The skandhas are form, formations, and cognition. These three—form, formations, and cognition—should be understood as the skandhas. The term skandha has the same meaning as accumulation and aggregation.

Here, forms of blue, yellow, red, and white; coarse and subtle; long and short; square and round; and other comparable forms should be understood collectively as the form skandha. Within this, form consists of the four great elements and the forms derived from the four great elements, whether visible or invisible. This describes the form skandha.

The four great elements and derived form, these two categories, may be visible or invisible. The visible is that which is perceived by the eye. The invisible comprises sound, smell, taste, tangibility, the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body, and the four great elements.

Question: Form has been explained as the four great elements and the things derived from them. What, then, are the four great elements?

Answer: The four great elements are earth, water, fire, and wind. Earth, water, fire, and wind are provisionally called the four great elements; they are the forms in which each of these qualities is combined.

Here, the characteristic of solidity is earth. The characteristic of moisture is water. The characteristic of heat is fire. The characteristic of movement is wind.

Derived forms are smoke, clouds, mist, darkness, brightness, sunlight, the five sense objects, and the five faculties.

Question: The form skandha has been explained. What are formations?

Answer: Formations are based upon body, speech, and mind. Here, because they are based upon the body, they are said to depend upon the body. Because they are based upon speech, they are said to depend upon speech.

Because they are based upon the mind, they are said to depend upon the mind. Because formations are produced by relying upon body, speech, and mind, and because conditioned formations are thereby produced, they are called formations. As stated in the sutras: Form is a conditioned formation.

Such formations in turn produce further formations, as a child in turn begets a child. As with form, the five skandhas should be understood in the same way. These immeasurable kinds are combined and produced; they are called the five skandhas, like accumulated grain or firewood.

Formations are of three kinds: meritorious, non-meritorious, and imperturbable. These three describe formations.

Question: What is cognition?

Answer: Cognition consists of feeling, perception, and consciousness. These three are cognition. They are also called the dharmas of the path, because they are never separate from the path. As the Blessed One said: Feeling itself is cognition.

Question: What is feeling?

Answer: Feeling consists of pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. The nature of feeling is called feeling. Feeling has no other cause by which it is experienced.

Feeling is precisely that which can experience; thus it is life itself. Yet feeling is not life, and therefore the nature of feeling is feeling. This is a distinction made in terminology.

Thus feeling is said to be of three kinds: pleasant feeling, painful feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Each is conditionally related to the others. Conditioned by pleasant feeling, painful feeling arises.

Conditioned by painful feeling, pleasant feeling arises. Conditioned by both, neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling arises. As the Blessed One said: Pleasant feeling stands opposed to painful feeling.

Painful feeling stands opposed to pleasant feeling. Pleasant and painful feelings stand opposed to neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Here, opposition means mutual antagonism.

Question: What is pleasant feeling?

Answer: Pleasant feeling is born of sensual desire, born of the non-evil, or born of non-attachment. Pleasant feeling is of three kinds: that born of sensual desire, that born of the non-evil, and that born of non-attachment.

That born of sensual desire is the abundant pleasure obtained through engagement with the five sensual desires.

That born of the non-evil means not increasing evil; it is wholesome conduct grounded in precepts and free from sensual desire. With regard to the precepts, the mind is free from remorse and is therefore joyful.

That born of non-attachment arises when one restrains the faculties, leaves the five sensual desires behind, and, with an undistracted mind, practices meditation and the immeasurable states, thereby attaining happiness. Non-attachment means being unbound. In relation to the faculties, it is also described as being undefiled. This explains the three kinds of pleasant feeling.

Question: What is painful feeling?

Answer: Painful feeling is birth, aging, and death. These are the three kinds of painful feeling. Here, the suffering of birth is like the arising of an abscess. The suffering of aging is like an abscess that has just erupted. The suffering of death is like an abscess that has erupted and penetrated deeply into the joints and bones. Furthermore, because birth entails every kind of suffering, it is called the suffering of birth. As the Blessed One said: Because there is birth, hands and feet may be severed. Comparisons should be understood in this manner. The suffering of aging is the deterioration of robust physical strength. The suffering of death is separation from what one loves. This is called painful feeling.

Question: What is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling?

Answer: Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling pertains to the three realms. If there is neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, it should be understood in relation to the three realms. These three realms will be discussed in a later section.

If it is said that neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling pertains to the three realms, this already encompasses the painful and pleasant feelings discussed previously; thus it should be understood that the three realms are not characterized solely by pleasure or pain. The Desire Realm possesses all three feelings. The Form Realm possesses two feelings: pleasant feeling and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.

The Formless Realm possesses only one feeling: neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling. Therefore, neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling should be understood in relation to the three realms.

Question: For what does this feeling serve as a basis?

Answer: Pleasure is the basis for abundant desire. Pain is the basis for abundant anger. Neither pain nor pleasure is the basis for abundant delusion. Why is this so? There can be pleasant feeling without desire, capable of eliminating desire, as in the three dhyanas. There can be painful feeling without anger, as when the Blessed One suffered a headache and was also wounded in the heel, yet in neither case did anger arise. Neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling is experienced in the fourth dhyana and the four formless concentrations; within them there is no delusion, and they are capable of eliminating delusion. Thus, according to the meaning, these matters may be explained.

Question: From what do they arise?

Answer: They arise from karma, from affliction, and from the realm. These three kinds of feeling should be understood as arising from karma (formations), from affliction (causes and conditions), and from the realm (realm); they do not arise spontaneously or accidentally.

Question: There are immeasurable kinds of karma. Which karma is being discussed here?

Answer: Arising from karma means arising from meritorious, non-meritorious, and imperturbable karma. These pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feelings arise from the three kinds of karma: meritorious, non-meritorious, and imperturbable. According to their meaning, pleasant feeling arises from merit, painful feeling arises from wrongdoing, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling arises from the imperturbable. Here, merit is that which can eliminate unwholesome conduct, foremost among which are the four dhyanas. Non-merit is unwholesome conduct. The imperturbable is the fourth dhyana together with the formless attainments.

Question: As stated previously, merit consists of giving, morality, and cultivation (discernment). Cultivation means dhyana, the immeasurable states, and the formless attainments. Why, then, is it now separately stated that pleasant feeling arises from merit?

Answer: There is no error in stating it separately. Because there are many accumulated categories, it has been stated separately here. Dhyana is as already explained. It is like distinguishing a bhiksu’s three robes from the Buddha-raksita bowl: one cannot say that because Buddha-raksita is also a bhiksu, he should therefore be given both the three robes and the bowl. Yet that bhiksu is distinct from Buddha-raksita, so the robes should be given to that bhiksu. Likewise, cultivation comprises dhyana, the immeasurable states, and the formless attainments. Merit refers to the three dhyanas. If the three dhyanas were not distinguished, an error would arise regarding cultivation because there are many accumulated categories.

Question: What does it mean to arise from affliction?

Answer: Arising from affliction means that the three kinds of feeling arise through oneself, through others, or through both afflicting one. That is, they arise because of oneself, because of others, or because of both. Affliction is of two kinds: pleasure and pain. Here, “because of oneself” is like stabbing oneself with a knife and afterward applying sandalwood paste or medicine to the wound.

“Because of others” is like breaking another person’s head and then treating it with medicine.

“Because of both” is like telling another person to break one’s own head and then applying medicine to it. All such cases should be understood accordingly. This is called pain arising from affliction.

Question: What does it mean to arise from the realm?

Answer: Arising from the realm means: season (time), illness (affliction), and calamity (encounter).

Question: The realms have been described as the three realms of Desire, Form, and Formlessness. Does “realm” here refer to those realms?

Answer: Here, it does not refer to realms of that kind. Apart from sentient beings, there are three kinds of designation: season, illness, and calamity. “Realm” here is a provisional designation. Among these, season (time) refers to summer, winter, and spring; these should be understood as the three seasons. In summer, phlegm greatly increases. In winter, saliva and spittle greatly increase. In spring, wind increases. As medical treatises explain concerning the seasons, painful and pleasant feelings may therefore occur. These are called the three seasons.

Question: What is illness (affliction)? Does it mean unwholesome conduct, namely craving and ignorance?

Answer: It does not mean injury to the Dharma body. Here, it means injury to the body composed of the four great elements.

Question: What, then, is illness?

Answer: Illness is wind, phlegm, saliva, and the like. These injure the body composed of the four great elements, and feelings therefore arise.

Question: What is calamity (encounter)?

Answer: Calamity is that on account of which sentient beings seek to escape various disasters. Or it is that on account of which sentient beings seek to escape the suffering of birth, relying upon such things as walls, mountains, forests, and mountain caves.

The cause is oneself, others, or both. This is called feeling.

Question: What is perception?

Answer: Perception is perception, non-perception, and the contemplation of the place of non-perception as distinct. Perception means the apprehension of distinct characteristics. Here, perception, non-perception, and the contemplation of the place of non-perception as distinct have the same meaning. Among these, perception is mutual dependence. Non-perception is the absence of mutual dependence. It is like having many jars. Someone may call one a honey jar or a ghee jar; because of that perception, it is perceived accordingly. If it contains neither honey nor ghee, nothing is apprehended, and this is an empty perception. Thus, with the perception of sounds, distinctions are apprehended by comparison. Or, when sounds are excluded, apprehension is likewise made by comparison.

The place of non-perception: This has no substantial existence; it is relinquishment.

Furthermore, perception is the contemplation of the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness. Non-perception is the contemplation of the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception. The place of non-perception is the contemplation of the Sphere of Nothingness.

Question: What is consciousness?

Answer: Consciousness is the entrance into birth, the entrance into formation, and the entrance into non-formation (the gateway of arising, formation, and non-formation). It may be obtained through formations, through name-and-form, and through both supporting conditions. These are the three: the entrance into birth, the entrance into formation, and the entrance into non-formation.

They may be obtained by relying upon formations, relying upon name-and-form, and relying upon both kinds of conditions. In teaching the twelve links of dependent origination, the Blessed One said that formations condition consciousness. He also said that name-and-form conditions consciousness.

He further said that dependent upon the eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. Here, the numerous formations produce birth; when one enters the mother’s womb, consciousness arises together with them. This is called consciousness arising with formations as its condition.

Then, within the mother’s womb, as the embryo gradually grows and the sense bases form, the consciousness that has arisen has name-and-form as its condition.

Furthermore, the entrance into formation is the entrance into contention and non-contention, and concentration and non-concentration. Consciousness arises conditioned by a faculty and the object of that faculty; this is reliance upon two conditions. A condition is a support. Consciousness cannot arise without a support. This is called being obtainable through mutual dependence and conditions.

Question: As morality (morality), concentration (cessation), and wisdom (wisdom) were discussed previously, why is consciousness discussed again?

Answer: Wisdom and that upon which it depends are two things. This is the dependent, and that is its support. Furthermore, just as two kinds of morality were discussed, so too there is no error in discussing two kinds here.

The first section of the Chapter on Reliance within the Three Dharma Methods has been completed.

EXPLANATION OF THE EXCERPTS FROM THE FOUR AGAMAS, Part 8

Question: The skandhas have been explained. What are the realms?

Answer: The realms are the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm. These three are the realms. Because each sustains its respective karma (formations), it is called a realm. Here, because karma abides therein, it is called a realm; it encompasses all sentient beings until they attain nirvana without remainder.

Question: What is the Desire Realm?

Answer: The Desire Realm consists of human beings, devas, and the evil destinies (animal realm). This is a brief explanation of the Desire Realm. Here, because beings abide in desire, it is called the Desire Realm. Because beings grasp desire, it is called the Desire Realm.

Question: What are human beings?

Answer: Human beings are male and female, and the life faculty has been contemplated according to its characteristic. With reference to the four continents in the four directions, the male faculty has been contemplated according to its characteristic, the female faculty has been contemplated according to its characteristic, and the life faculty has been contemplated according to its characteristic. It should be known that all these are human beings, all dwelling throughout the four continents. Among them, one possessing the female characteristic is called female, and one possessing the male characteristic is called male.

Question: Is the life faculty, contemplated according to its characteristic, neither male nor female? Is this why the life faculty is spoken of separately?

Answer: Although the male faculty, female faculty, and life faculty have been contemplated according to their characteristics, a distinction is made here. Before a being becomes male, neither the male nor the female faculty is present. Among the characteristics contemplated, there is only the life faculty. When the characteristic contemplated abides in a thin membrane that gradually thickens, the life faculty is present, but the male and female faculties have not yet formed. This is called the distinction.

Question: What are the four continents in the four directions?

Answer: The four continents are: Jambudvipa (Diêm-phù-đề), Purvavideha (Phất-bà-tỳ-đề), Godaniya (Cù-đà-ni), and Uttarakuru (Uất-đát).

Because Jambudvipa has been contemplated according to its characteristic, it is called Jambudvipa. The other three continents are likewise described according to the characteristics contemplated in their respective directions. The lifespans on the continents vary according to their respective measures; the things that produce happiness differ, have their limits, and successively become superior.

Question: Devas are generally said to be of two kinds: those born through desire, who engage in sexual conduct, and those free from desire, who have abandoned the fetters. Which devas are being discussed here?

Answer: The devas are those of contact, speech, and sight.

When those born through desire are spoken of, it should be known that those free from desire are not being discussed. Devas born through desire are of three kinds: those whose desire arises through contact, those whose desire arises through speech, and those whose desire arises through sight.

Those whose desire arises through speech, meaning sexual activity through the mouth, are the devas of Enjoying Emanations. In that realm, if a deva has a defiled mind and converses with a celestial maiden who also has a defiled mind, their desire is then consummated. If only one of them has a defiled intention, their desire is not consummated, and there is only delight. It is like people in this realm who experience pleasure when they grasp one another; so it is in that deva realm. An undefiled intention is like that between a mother and daughter. Because they create and transform beautiful objects and delight in sensual pleasure, they are called the devas of Enjoying Emanations.

Those whose desire arises through sight, meaning sexual activity through seeing, are the devas of Mastery over Others’ Emanations. In that realm, if a deva and a celestial maiden each become attached and defiled while looking at one another, their desire is then consummated. If only one of them has a defiled intention, their desire is not consummated, and there is only delight, like people in this world who experience pleasure when embracing one another. An undefiled intention is like seeing an unrelated person. Because they freely enjoy what others have emanated, they are called the devas of Mastery over Others’ Emanations.

Question: The devas whose desire arises through sight have already been explained. What are the devas whose desire arises through contact, meaning sexual activity through physical grasping?

Answer: Desire arising through contact occurs when the two parties hold hands or embrace one another. Devas whose desire arises through contact are of three kinds:

1. Those whose desire arises through the union of both parties.

2. Those whose desire arises through embracing.

3. Those whose desire arises through holding hands.

The first of these, desire arising through the union of both parties, will be explained below.

Those whose desire arises through embracing are the devas of the Yama Heaven, translated in the Jin dynasty as the Heaven of the Divisions of Time. In that realm, both parties have defiled and attached intentions in every such act. When they embrace, their desire is then consummated. If only one party is defiled and attached, their desire is not consummated, and there is only pleasure, like people in this world who experience delight when embracing one another. If their intentions are undefiled and unattached, they regard each other as unrelated persons. Because they rejoice every night and speak of bliss, they are called Yama devas.

Question: What are those whose desire arises through holding hands?

Answer: Those whose desire arises through holding hands are the devas of the Tushita Heaven, translated in the Jin dynasty as the Heaven of Contentment. If a deva and a celestial maiden both have defiled intentions in each act, then when they hold hands, their desire is consummated. If only one party is defiled and attached, their desire is not consummated, and there is only joy, as people in this world experience pleasure when embracing one another. If their intentions are undefiled and unattached, they regard each other as unrelated persons. Because they themselves know contentment with the objects presently available to them, they are called Tushita devas.

Question: What are those whose desire arises through the union of both parties?

Answer: Those whose desire arises through the union of both parties are the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three and the terrestrial devas of the Four Great Kings. Because both parties engage in the act together, it is called desire arising through the union of both parties. All sensual activity in these realms is as fully described above; only the distinction need be made, and thus they are called devas whose desire arises through the union of both parties.

As with human beings in this world, the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three dwell on the summit of Mount Sumeru and engage in sexual activity like humans. Within the domain of the Four Kings are terrestrial devas who dwell in dependence upon lands, trees, and mountains and delight in the objects of sensual pleasure. All of these are called devas who engage in sexual activity as in the human realm, although they have no impurity, despite possessing physical substance.

The higher their dwelling place, the more exalted they become. These are called the devas of the Desire Realm.

Question: What are the evil destinies?

Answer: The evil destinies are the hells, animals, and hungry ghosts. These three are the evil destinies. Because these destinies are evil, they are called evil destinies. Evil means undesirable.

Question: What are the hells?

Answer: The hells are the Cold Hells, the Hot Hells, and the Border Hells, also called the Circumstantial Hells. The hells are places where there can be no happiness. They are of many kinds, which will now be explained.

Question: What are the Cold Hells?

Answer: The Cold Hells are:

1. Those with articulate cries (capable of speech).

2. Those with inarticulate cries (incapable of articulate speech).

3. Those without cries (incapable of speech).

These are the three characteristics contemplated with regard to the Cold Hells. Because the beings there utter exceedingly dreadful cries, these are called the Crying Hells.

Question: What are those with articulate cries, capable of speech?

Answer: Those with articulate cries comprise three hells: 1. Arbuda (Át-phù-đà). 2. Nirarbuda (Ni-lại-phù-đà). 3. Atata (A-ba-ba). These three hells are those with articulate cries.

+ Arbuda: This refers to a numerical measure. In the land of Magadha, suppose there were ten granaries filled with mustard seeds, each granary holding twenty kharis. If a person were to remove one mustard seed every hundred years, the quantity of mustard seeds could eventually be exhausted, but the lifespan in the Arbuda Hell could not be exhausted. Two sheng make one alaka. Four alakas make one drona. Sixteen dronas make one khari. Twenty kharis make one granary. Thus, the contents of ten granaries are used as a comparison for the measure of the lifespan in the Arbuda Hell.

Furthermore, arbuda means something resembling a boil. Because of the cold in this hell, swellings resembling boils arise upon the body; hence it is called Arbuda.

+ Nirarbuda: This does not resemble a boil. Rather, when the body is raised, the wind blows upon it and causes it to swell all over; hence it is called Nirarbuda.

+ Atata: An extremely cold wind blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and causing them to fall away. Trembling violently, the beings cry, “A-ba-ba!” Hence it is called the A-ba-ba Hell.

These three are those with articulate cries.

Question: What are those with inarticulate cries?

Answer: Those with inarticulate cries comprise three hells: 1. A-tra (A-trá). 2. Hưu-trá-hưu (Hưu-trá-hưu). 3. Utpala (Ưu-bát).

+ A-tra and Hưu-trá-hưu: An extremely cold wind likewise blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and scattering them everywhere. The sinners cannot endure it, and whenever they are able, they cry out, “A-trá! Hưu-trá-hưu!”

+ Utpala: An exceedingly cold wind blows, stripping the skin and flesh from the body and scattering them everywhere. Because of the sinners’ offenses, iron petals arise from within their bodies and encircle and bind them, like an utpala flower. Because these sinners slandered the noble sages, they fall into this hell and continually undergo such torment.

Question: What are those without cries?

Answer: Those without cries comprise four hells: 1. Kumuda (Câu-vật-độ). 2. Saugandhika (Tu-kiền-đề). 3. Pundarika (Phân-đà-lê). 4. Padma (Bát-mộ).

In these four hells, winds blow with an exceedingly bitter cold, causing the bodies to swell all over and making them resemble various flowers such as the Kumudasu and Gandhikabhanda flowers. The offenders undergo every kind of extreme suffering and dwell there groaning. Because they slandered sages and noble ones, they fall into these four hells and must endure immeasurable torment at all times.

These constitute all ten Cold Hells. They lie between the four continents, at the foot of the Iron-Ring and Great Iron-Ring Mountains, extending upward toward the inhabited regions, yet remaining perpetually in darkness. Cold winds ravage the body like fierce flames consuming it.

The bodies resemble clumps of bamboo and reeds scorched dry, giving forth a confusion of sounds as they strike against one another and give rise to perceptions. All the offenders undergo such suffering because they reviled sages and noble ones. As the Blessed One said in verse:

Nirarbuda numbers a hundred thousand,

Arbuda, thirty-five;

The utmost reaches of the evil destinies and hells

Are for those whose speech and thought both aspire to evil.

These are called the Cold Hells.

Question: What are the Hot Hells?

Answer: The Hot Hells comprise:

1. Those with administering wardens (Punitive Examination).

2. Those with few administering wardens (Lesser Punitive Examination).

3. Those without administering wardens (No Punitive Examination).

These three are distinguished through examining their characteristics. “Administering” means interrogating, examining, and beating.

Question: What are the hells with administering wardens (Punitive Examination)?

Answer: The hells with administering wardens comprise three hells: 1. Revival (Restoration to Life). 2. Rows (Display). 3. Black Rope (Black Line).

+ The Revival Hell: In this place, the hell wardens constantly use sharp knives and axes to hew, split, flay, mince, and hack the offenders, as though slaughtering goats. After their skin and flesh have been completely sliced and minced, because the conditions of their offenses have not yet been exhausted, a cold wind blows and they are reborn just as before.

Moreover, because of their evil deeds, iron claws naturally grow from their hands, keen and sharp like pointed blades and shaped like crescent moons. Each one harbors resentment, thinking: “That person once tormented me; now I shall torment him in return.” Anger consequently arises. They seize and hack one another again, as though cutting down bamboo and reeds. Because they died in this world with minds bound by hatred, they are born in this hell.

+ The Black Rope Hell: The offenders are made to lie stretched out upon the ground. Black ropes are wound tightly around them, marking off section after section, and they are then hacked apart. Because those offenders habitually used knives to cut down living beings in the world, they are born in this hell.

Furthermore, the hell wardens wrap countless sheets of red-hot copper and iron tightly around the offenders’ bodies, shattering their bones and causing blood and marrow to gush forth. In the human world, these offenders constantly beat living beings with whips and clubs and killed them. Also born here are monastics who accepted articles offered by the faithful—such as robes, bedding, seats, and other requisites—but did not diligently cultivate and falsely appeared to observe the precepts.

The offenders also suffer torment in a place of utter darkness filled with dense, choking smoke. Their bodies are suspended upside down, forcing them to inhale and swallow the smoke. In the world, these offenders habitually smoked living beings out of the caves and dens where they dwelt in order to kill them, and thus they fall into this hell.

+ The Hell of Rows: The offenders are laid out in rows, like animals at slaughterhouses and inns where flesh and bones are displayed for sale. Their hands, feet, ears, noses, heads, and necks are severed. Because they formerly worked as butchers, they must now undergo such torments.

Furthermore, the ground is made of hot iron. The wardens hook the offenders to iron carts ablaze with fire, glare at them, and shout thunderously before driving the carts heedlessly onward. In the world, these offenders used horses and elephants to transport goods and constantly abused them, causing them ceaseless toil and suffering; therefore, they fall into this place.

Offenders who formerly committed sexual misconduct with others’ wives are driven up into forests of sword-bladed trees, where fire spontaneously burns them and they undergo innumerable sufferings. Such are the hells with administering wardens. Because of the conditions of their actions, the hell wardens are not burned by the flames; the karmic consequences of such actions are inconceivable.

Question: What are the hells with few administering wardens (Lesser Punitive Examination)?

Answer: The hells with few administering wardens comprise three hells: 1. Crushing Together (Great Convergence). 2. Great Wailing (Great Lamentation). 3. Iron Vat (Roasting).

+ The Crushing Together Hell: The offenders here are greatly afraid of the wardens. Countless offenders rush toward the mountains. Once they enter, fierce flames naturally arise both before and behind them, blocking their way. Thus hemmed in by fierce flames in front and behind, they are crushed when the mountains on both sides close together like millstones grinding grain. Their blood consequently flows like rivers, and their flesh and bones are pulverized. In the world, these offenders delighted in tormenting and cruelly abusing living beings.

Furthermore, in a great iron mortar filled with fiercely blazing fire, the hell wardens use pestles to pound and grind the offenders for five hundred years. Because of the conditions of their offenses, the offenders’ lives do not end. In the world, they habitually used mortars to pound and kill small and vulnerable living beings.

+ The Great Wailing Hell: Here, a great iron mountain blazes fiercely on every side, and all four directions are blocked, leaving no way of escape. The ferocious wardens shout at the offenders: “Where do you think you are going? If you have no task, we shall give you one!” They then beat them with red-hot iron pestles and smash their heads. Because these offenders constantly brought suffering upon multitudes of people in the world, they fall into the Great Wailing Hell.

+ The Iron Vat Hell: The ground here is red-hot iron. The offenders are herded into it, roasted dry until thoroughly cooked, and then driven outside, where savage dogs tear at them and devour all their flesh. When a wind arises, the offenders revive just as before, only to be driven back into that place. In the world, these offenders raised silkworms and then roasted them; therefore, they are born in this realm.

These are called the hells with few administering wardens.

Question: What are the hells without administering wardens?

Answer: The hells without administering wardens comprise three hells: 1. Wailing (Lamentation). 2. Roasting. 3. Uninterrupted (Without the Division of a Grain of Rice).

+ The Wailing Hell: Here, iron is heated until it glows red, forming something like a tortoise shell. Offenders are packed into an extremely confined space, and an iron lid is lowered over them, causing them to undergo innumerable torments. In the world, these offenders habitually set fire to fields and burned or smoked out the caves and holes inhabited by living beings; therefore, they fall into this realm.

+ The Roasting Hell: A great iron mountain here blazes fiercely and envelops the offenders. Iron scrapers cut and slice them, while flames encircle and roast them ever more intensely. As soon as one side is cooked, the iron scrapers turn them over, rolling and reversing them in succession. In the world, these offenders habitually stabbed, impaled, and killed people; therefore, they are born in this hell.

+ The Uninterrupted Hell: The ground here is made of iron, and towering flames burn all around it. It extends for hundreds of yojanas and has four gates like a city. Thin sheets of copper cover it from above, and the fires burn continuously. The offenders within are heaped together like firewood. Fierce flames consume every place, burning their bodies to pieces and subjecting them to every kind of suffering. Because in the world they killed their fathers or mothers, killed arhats, maliciously attacked the Buddha and caused the Buddha’s body to bleed, created schism and turmoil within the Sangha, or committed the ten evil deeds, they fall into this realm.

These are called the hells without administering wardens.

Question: What are the Border Hells (Hells Arising from Conditions)?

Answer: The Border Hells are hells situated in regions of rivers and waters, mountains and forests, and open wildernesses, where beings individually undergo the results of their evil karma.

Question: The hells have now been explained. What are animals?

Answer: Animals are creatures that move upon the land, beneath the water, and through the air. All such creatures are either footless, two-footed, or many-footed.

+ Those moving upon the land: Such as elephants, horses, buffaloes, cattle, goats, donkeys, mules, camels, and so forth.

+ Those moving beneath the water: Such as makara fish, Shishou fish, Malai fish, and so forth.

+ Those moving through the air: Such as birds, flies, mosquitoes, bees, cicadas, and so forth.

All are species that are footless, two-footed, or many-footed.

+ Footless: Such as snakes.

+ Two-footed: Such as birds.

+ Many-footed: Such as buffaloes, cattle, goats, and horses, as well as centipedes.

All those animals are born among such species because of karmic deeds involving grave offenses. They are therefore called animals.

Question: What are hungry ghosts?

Answer: Hungry ghosts comprise three kinds of ghosts:

1. Those without wealth (without food).

2. Those with little wealth (little food).

3. Those with abundant wealth (much food).

Question: What are ghosts without wealth?

Answer: Ghosts without wealth comprise three kinds: 1. Ghosts whose mouths are like blazing torches. 2. Ghosts whose mouths are like needles. 3. Ghosts whose mouths are foul-smelling.

+ Ghosts whose mouths are like blazing torches: Whenever they close their mouths, flames flare up and issue from them, burning their own bodies, like a bronze-melting fire burning a tala tree. Because these beings mostly practiced greed and miserliness while in the human world, they are born among such ghosts and undergo immeasurable suffering and anguish.

+ Ghosts whose mouths are like needles: These ghosts have bellies as vast as mountain caverns, but their throats are as narrow as the eye of a needle. Even if they possess abundant food, they cannot eat it.

+ Ghosts whose mouths are foul-smelling: The mouths of these ghosts are putrid and decayed, stinking like excrement in a latrine. They belch forth foul odors themselves, and, having no stomachs, they cannot eat anything at all. They constantly undergo such torment. These are called ghosts without wealth.

Question: What are ghosts with little wealth (little food)?

Answer: Ghosts with little wealth comprise three kinds: 1. Those whose body hair is like needles. 2. Those whose body hair is foul-smelling. 3. Those with goiters on their necks.

These ghosts may sometimes obtain a small amount of impure matter to eat, and hence they are called those with little wealth, meaning that they possess only a few provisions.

+ Ghosts whose body hair is like needles: The hair upon their bodies is extremely hard and long, with tips as sharp as needles, covering their entire bodies. They move about only with great difficulty, for the sharp hairs turn inward and pierce them, like sharp arrows striking deer. They undergo great torment and may only occasionally obtain a little food.

+ Ghosts whose body hair is foul-smelling: The hair upon the bodies of these beings is extremely foul and covers them entirely; it also turns inward and pierces their bodies. Their bodies are filthy, and when the wind causes the stench to rise, they become angry and tear out their own hair. They constantly undergo such torment.

+ Ghosts with goiters on their necks: Because of the karmic retribution for offenses they themselves committed, such tumors grow upon them. They then rupture the tumors themselves, causing blood and pus to flow profusely, and take this as their food. These are called ghosts with little wealth.

Question: What are ghosts with abundant wealth (much food)?

Answer: Ghosts with abundant wealth comprise three kinds: 1. Discard-eating ghosts (vomit-eating ghosts). 2. Remnant-eating ghosts (leftover-eating ghosts). 3. Ghosts of great power (great soaring ghosts).

+ Discard-eating ghosts: Because these beings practiced generosity in previous lives, they obtain surplus food. Throughout their lives, these ghosts obtain food from sacrificial offerings and thereby enjoy ease and happiness.

+ Remnant-eating ghosts: Throughout their lives, these beings obtain food at the intersections of major roads, in alleys and side paths, where food has been dropped or scattered; thus they, too, experience happiness.

+ Ghosts of great power: These are of three kinds: yakshas (Yuesha), rakshasas (Luosha), and pishacas (oppressive ghosts). Their realm resembles that of the devas. Because they possessed merit and virtue in former lives, they may obtain delicious food. Yet when they eat, innumerable hungry ghosts surround them, and the sight causes them suffering. Just as a person in prison suffers upon seeing relatives, so too do these ghosts suffer when they see the multitude of hungry ghosts surrounding them. Because of this suffering, their food turns into pus. They must undergo such anguish. These are called ghosts of great power. According to the force of their karma, they possess the bodily forms of animals, humans, or devas. This is called the Desire Realm.

Question: What is the Form Realm?

Answer: The Form Realm consists of having joy, being without joy, and equanimity (together with mindfulness, without mindfulness, and equanimity).

The Form Realm is free from sensual desire. Through dhyana alone, anger is eliminated, and one obtains a beautiful complexion like refined pure gold. This realm includes joy, the absence of joy, and equanimity—the state beyond suffering and pleasure. Because joy is accompanied by pleasure, it is called having joy. Because one has left joy behind and has neither joy nor pleasure, it is called being without joy. One has left suffering behind and brought that pleasure to an end, like horses no longer harnessed to a cart.

Question: What is having joy (together with mindfulness)?

Answer: Having joy comprises having initial thought (self-awareness), being without initial thought (without activity), and having little examination (without initial thought).

Because it is accompanied by initial thought, it is called having initial thought. Because initial thought has been left behind, it is called being without initial thought. Because there is little examination, it is called having little examination. Pleasure is seclusion; this refers to dhyana. Here, having initial thought is the first dhyana, and being without initial thought is the second dhyana. Having little examination is the first intermediate state. Those who cultivate this dhyana are born in the Form Realm. To speak of sentient beings is to speak of the realm; to speak of the realm is to speak of dhyana.

Question: Who, through cultivation, is born in the dhyana with initial thought?

Answer: The realm with initial thought (self-awareness) comprises: Brahma-phu-lau (Brahma-phu-toan), Brahma-ca-di (Brahma-ca-di), and Brahma-ba-san (Brahma-ba-li-sa). Those who cultivate the dhyana with initial thought are born in those realms. These three heavenly realms possess initial thought. Beings are born there according to the lower and middle grades of cultivation.

The Great Brahmas are born through little examination. The meanings of initial thought and examination are as explained previously.

Question: What is being without initial thought (without activity)?

Answer: Being without initial thought comprises the following heavenly realms:

1. Lesser Light (Lesser Light).

2. Immeasurable Light (Immeasurable Light).

3. Radiant Light (Light-Sound).

Those who cultivate the dhyana without initial thought and are associated with joy and pleasure are born in these three realms. This perception may be either a provisional perception or a causal perception.

Furthermore, in the Lesser Light heaven, when beings speak, a small amount of light issues from their mouths. Because the light is slight, it is called Lesser Light. Because the light is abundant, it is called Immeasurable Light. Because the light is pure and boundless, it is called Radiant Light.

Question: Having joy has already been explained. What is being without joy (without mindfulness)?

Answer: Being without joy comprises three heavenly realms:

1. Lesser Purity (Lesser Purity).

2. Immeasurable Purity (Immeasurable Purity).

3. Pervasive Purity (Pervasive Purity).

Those who cultivate the dhyana without joy, accompanied by pleasure, are born in these three heavenly realms.

Lesser Purity means that the purity is not abundant. Those associated with few skillful means in this dhyana are born in the Lesser Purity heaven and experience ease and happiness. Those whose skillful means are likewise moderate are born in the Immeasurable Purity heaven. Those whose skillful means are superior and excellent are born in the Pervasive Purity heaven.

Question: What is equanimity?

Answer: Equanimity is of three kinds: associated with perception, without perception, and associated with awakened mind. Those who cultivate the dhyana of equanimity and are associated with pleasure are born in three heavenly realms:

1. Fruition (Fruition).

2. Without Perception (Without Perception).

3. Pure Abodes (Pure Abodes).

Here, Fruition means that those who cultivate the lower, middle, or higher grade of the fourth dhyana are born in the Fruition heaven.

Without Perception: Because perception is eliminated, beings are born in the Without Perception heaven. In this realm, the skandhas of feeling, perception, and consciousness cease. Because there is no perception of desire, these cease together; only the form skandha and formations skandha remain. Upon entering that birth, a slight perception arises and immediately ceases.

Question: What are the Pure Abodes?

Answer: The Pure Abodes comprise the following heavenly realms:

+ Good Manifestation (Good Vision).

+ Good Vision (Excellent Vision).

+ Purity (Complete Purity).

These three heavenly realms are the Pure Abode heavens. The Pure Abodes are dwelling places where all afflictions have been completely eliminated.

Question: There are five levels of the Pure Abodes; why are only three stated here?

Answer: The Pure Abode heavens comprise three:

+ Free from Affliction (Untouched).

+ Free from Heat (Free from Heat).

+ Ultimate Form (Sole Ultimate).

These three realms are characteristics of the Pure Realm.

Question: What is the Formless Realm?

Answer: The Formless Realm was already discussed in the preceding section concerning cultivation and analysis. When practitioners in the world cultivate right attainment (samadhi), they are born in the Formless Realm; thus both the path and its fruit are set forth together.

The second section of the chapter on Reliance within the Three Dharma Categories has now been completed.

COMMENTARY ON THE FOUR AGAMAS COMPENDIUM, Part 9

Question: The skandhas and dhatus have already been discussed. What, then, are the ayatanas?

Answer: The ayatanas are of three kinds:

1. The contact ayatana.

2. The heterodox-teaching ayatana.

3. The liberation ayatana.

These three are the characteristics of an ayatana. Ayatana means a basis or place of reliance, as in the expression “heavenly abode.”

Question: What enters into these ayatanas?

Answer: Merit and evil enter into them. Here, the liberation ayatana is the basis of merit. The heterodox-teaching ayatana is the basis of evil. The contact ayatana is the basis of both. A defiled mind gives rise to evil; a purified mind gives rise to merit.

Question: What is the contact ayatana?

Answer: The contact ayatana is of three kinds:

+ A proximate sphere of activity.

+ A non-proximate sphere of activity.

+ No sphere of activity.

A sphere of activity is the supporting condition. Whatever one engages in according to that condition is called its sphere of activity. A proximate condition is called a proximate sphere of activity. A non-proximate condition is called a non-proximate sphere of activity. The absence of a condition is called no sphere of activity.

Question: What is a proximate sphere of activity?

Answer: A proximate sphere of activity comprises the nose, tongue, and body ayatanas—that is, the olfactory, gustatory, and bodily ayatanas. These three are proximate spheres of activity.

A fragrance must reach the nose before it can be smelled; if it does not reach the nose, it cannot be smelled. Although a flower may be very far away, its fragrance separates from the flower and travels to the nose, where it is smelled. Fragrance has the nature of form.

Thus, when a north wind blows, the fragrance travels southward and not northward. Therefore, the fragrance separates from the flower and travels to the nose, where it is smelled. Taste is likewise.

Taste is known through the tongue, not through the vessel and not through the hand. Touch is also like this. The bodily faculty cognizes eight qualities: hardness and softness, lightness and heaviness, roughness and smoothness, cold and heat.

Only after contact is made with these qualities are they cognized. Therefore, these three are proximate spheres of activity.

Question: What is a non-proximate sphere of activity?

Answer: A non-proximate sphere of activity comprises the eye, ear, and mind ayatanas—that is, the visual, auditory, and mental ayatanas. These three ayatanas are non-proximate spheres of activity.

Question: The eye also sees things that are near, provided the object is small and does not press against it. The ear is likewise. Even when a mosquito is inside the ear, its buzzing can be heard. The mind is formless; how can it be known as a non-proximate sphere of activity?

Answer: For precisely this reason, it is called a non-proximate sphere of activity. When an object does not press against the faculty, the faculty receives its sphere of activity.

Question: At what distance is something considered a non-proximate sphere of activity?

Answer: There is no fixed measure here. One may see the sun and moon at a distance of forty yojanas, or one may not see them. One may see forms at a distance of one yojana or ten miles, according to the strength of the faculty.

Therefore, it is called a non-proximate sphere of activity; it is not called a distant sphere of activity, for the reception of an object does not require a fixed distance. Seeing does not occur only when an object comes to the place of the eye; rather, an object is seen while remaining apart from it. The ear is likewise.

Hearing does not require an object to be pressed close. Although a mosquito may be within the ear canal, it does not reach the place where hearing occurs. Sounds are also heard according to the strength of the faculty.

The mind is formless and has neither nearness nor distance. Therefore, it is called a non-proximate sphere of activity, not a distant sphere of activity.

Question: What is no sphere of activity?

Answer: No sphere of activity comprises: what is external, what is experienced by oneself, what is experienced by others, and what is experienced by neither.

What is external is no sphere of activity. Form, sound, fragrance, taste, touch, and dharmas are provisionally designated here as external. What is experienced by oneself (principally form and so forth), what is experienced by others (form, sound, fragrance, taste, and touch), and what is experienced by neither are all no sphere of activity. This no sphere of activity is merely another’s sphere of activity. These five spheres are not taken as conditions, but since the dharmas that are the objects cognized by others must be distinguished, and since there are also many kinds of no sphere of activity, it is therefore called no sphere of activity.

Question: The contact ayatana has already been discussed. What is the heterodox-teaching ayatana?

Answer: The heterodox-teaching ayatana consists of:

An assertion concerning a single cause.

An assertion concerning an improper cause.

An assertion that there is no cause.

The meanings of these three are immeasurable, but they are briefly described as the three heterodox-teaching ayatanas.

+ An assertion concerning a single cause: This is a manner of speaking. For example, many people together raise and carry Indra’s banner, yet someone says that Devadatta carried it there. Devadatta was among them, but Devadatta did not perform this task alone. Thus, although many people were involved, only one is spoken of. An assertion concerning a single cause is likewise. A result is accomplished through the conjunction of three factors: karma from a previous life, what one presently does, and assistance received from others. Although the result is produced by these three factors, only one is mentioned.

+ An assertion concerning an improper cause: This is a manner of exposition. Regarding that banner of Indra, someone says that it was brought neither by one person nor by two people. Here, although there was a cause, it is stated improperly.

+ An assertion that there is no cause: This is a manner of exposition. It is like saying that Indra’s banner arrived without a cause.

Question: What is a single cause?

Answer: A single cause refers to karma, oneself or others, and effort.

The statement that one has produced something oneself has two meanings:

1. It may have been produced in a previous life.

2. It may have been produced in the present.

Here, if it was produced in a previous life, this is called karma.

Elsewhere, it is said that it was produced by a deity. These three factors jointly produce a result, as explained above. Although a result is produced by these three factors, it may be said to arise from karma, from effort, or from assistance received from others. A single-cause assertion speaks only of karma. A person who holds such a view disregards the efforts of others, fails to recognize kindness and obligation, and cannot cooperate with others. If something was originally produced by oneself, one seeks it; yet because attainment may accord even with not seeking, one may obtain it oneself. An assertion concerning a single cause has such faults.

Question: What is an improper cause?

Answer: An assertion concerning an improper cause speaks of three things:

1. A sentient being as the cause of dharmas.

2. Sentient beings together as the cause.

3. The conception that a fundamental dharma is the cause.

It may be said that good and bad sentient beings created things. Or it may be said that dharmas created them. Or it may be said that sentient beings and dharmas created them together. These are the three assertions concerning improper causes. Yet they were not created by sentient beings, not created by dharmas, and not created by both together.

Question: What is the conception that a sentient being is the fundamental cause?

Answer: The sentient beings referred to are Brahma and Y-nhiếp-phi-la, that is to say, Sử-nậu. It is said that a sentient being created the world: Brahma is the creator, Y-nhiếp-phi-la is the creator, or Sử-nậu is the creator. Those without wisdom maintain such views.

To say that Brahma created the world is to say that Brahma-deva created empty space, empty space created wind, wind created water and earth, and water and earth created hills, mountains, trees, and grasses. In this way, the world came into existence. All such theories are faulty. Why? If Brahma-deva created empty space and the earth, in what place did he abide while creating them? If he already abided within them while creating them, this proposition is untenable. Thus, the theory is faulty. The same applies to Y-nhiếp-phi-la, that is, Sử-nậu.

Question: What are dharmas regarded as causes?

Answer: These dharmas are: creation by time, creation by circumstance, and creation by inherent nature. These three are called fundamental dharmas regarded as causes. Here, the assertion concerning time is:

1. Time produces everything.

2. Everything is brought to completion by time.

3. Everything is destroyed by time.

4. Everything in the world is created by time.

This theory is faulty, as explained previously in the discussion of a single cause. A person may be capable of seeking but not seek; or one may be incapable of seeking yet still seek. If one obtains something, it is said to have been created by time and not by one’s actions. It should not be thought that this theory is faultless. Why? Because time is empty. If it does not create things, then this proposition is untenable. Thus, all such theories are faulty.

Nor can a vessel create. A vessel is insentient. It is a non-entity. A vessel has no life faculty of this kind.

If things arose spontaneously, the notion of spontaneity would be meaningless.

If there were no cause, or if the causeless produced everything, and arising were likewise spontaneous, then where would the error lie? If existence were permanent, what fault would there be in that doctrine? Yet existence is not permanent; it undergoes destruction. Thus, when examined comparatively, the error is evident; one should not say that there is no error.

Question: What is meant by causelessness (the meaning of non-causation)?

Answer: Causelessness refers to inherent nature (spontaneity), chance (fortuitous concurrence), and nonexistence (having nothing whatsoever). Thus, the doctrine of causelessness speaks of three things: inherent nature, chance, and nonexistence.

+ Inherent nature (spontaneity): This means that the myriad things arise from their own inherent nature and not through causes other than themselves. Why? It is like the thorns of a thorn tree, which may prick sharply or may not be sharp. In this manner, the doctrine is applied to everything.

+ Chance (fortuitous concurrence): This means that the myriad things arise by chance. It is like the source of a great stream, into which grasses, trees, branches, and leaves fall and gather together in one place; this is said to occur by chance. A wind may chance to blow there, or it may blow throughout various places. The arising of the myriad things is said to be the same.

+ Nonexistence (having nothing whatsoever): This means that, upon careful examination, nothing whatsoever is found here. Why does something arise, from what does it arise, and in what place does it arise? Nothing whatsoever can be found. All those doctrines are erroneous. Why? If the myriad things arose from their inherent nature (spontaneously), then when shoots of rice and grain arose, there would be no need to plow or harrow the fields, nor any need to bring in water. Yet without these activities, shoots of rice and grain ultimately do not arise. Therefore, the myriad things do not arise from inherent nature. Thus, each of these doctrines should be abandoned.

Question: The Entrances of Deliverance have already been explained. What are the Entrances of Liberation (places of liberation)?

Answer: The Entrances of Liberation (places of liberation) are:

1. Recollection (Recollection).

2. Meditation (Meditation).

3. Extensive Learning (Recitation).

These three are the Entrances of Liberation.

Liberation means being freed through the eradication of evil. By relying upon these three entrances, one attains liberation.

Recollection means taking an object as a condition. By taking the Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, or a sravaka as the object, one attains liberation.

Meditation is as explained in the first chapter. One should contemplate that meaning and, relying upon it, attain liberation.

Question: What is Extensive Learning (Recitation)?

Answer: Extensive Learning comprises:

1. Exposition (Speaking).

2. Attentive Listening (Listening).

3. Reading and Recitation (Reading and Reciting).

+ Exposition: This means speaking in accordance with what one has heard.

+ Attentive Listening: This means listening to what is expounded.

+ Reading and Recitation: This means reading and reciting what one has heard.

Question: In the preceding section on extensive learning, the Sutras, Abhidharma, and Vinaya were discussed. What distinction is there here that exposition, attentive listening, and reading and recitation are again discussed?

Answer: The three previously mentioned constitute extensive learning, and they should be received in three ways: received while being spoken, received while being heard, and received while being recited.

Among the four assemblies of disciples of the Blessed One, there is the place in which the Truth is accomplished, the place in which generosity is accomplished, the place in which serenity is accomplished, and the place in which wisdom is accomplished. The means by which these are accomplished are the appropriate methods. By attentively listening to and comprehending the Truth, one attains liberation. The place of generosity refers to serenity. The place of serenity accords with meditation. The place of wisdom arises from reading and recitation. These are called the places of liberation.

Through these Three Dharma Deliverances, right contemplation proceeds without obstruction, with the intention of enabling one to behold the true path and attain liberation step by step. Because liberation can be attained, those who possess wisdom should study the Dharma of the Blessed One.

The third section of the chapter on Reliance upon the Three Dharma Deliverances is now complete.

END OF VOLUME 2