四阿鋡暮抄解

Āgama-mu was translated in the Qin dynasty as “Proceeding toward the path of nonexistence.”

First, I bow in reverence to the Sugata, the Dharma, and the unsurpassed assembly, who eradicate all modes of existence. (By bowing to the assembly of the Three Honored Ones, one can eliminate all fetters.)

One should explain that which is sought—the Dharma of ultimate truth—and briefly set forth its meaning. Therefore, the three dharmas will now be explained.

The disciple asked: Three dharmas are to be explained; what, then, is the meaning of these three dharmas?

The teacher replied: The Dharma is connected by means of three gateways, which constitute the sequence of practice. Therefore, the three dharmas should be contemplated and understood.

Question: What is the meaning of the sequence of the three dharmas?

Answer: The sections of the Buddha’s scriptures are connected with innumerable perceptions. Because beings are corrupted by the savor of sensual desire and anger, the conditions for diligence are destroyed. Their lives continue only through food and drink. Beings of feeble wisdom who wish to seek the noble truths gather together these perceptions; therefore, their meaning should be understood. Swift comprehension of the meaning is the skillful means for contemplating the three dharmas. Analysis constitutes their sequence. All are perceptions present in the world; according to what is desired, these perceptions are linked together. Therefore, one should contemplate and understand the operative meaning of the three dharmas.

Question: Since this is a skillful means for explaining perceptions, should the three dharmas be stated?

Answer: Merit, evil, and reliance, through which liberation is clearly understood. (The scripture says: First, Merit. Second, Evil. Third, Reliance.) Merit, evil, and reliance, through which liberation is clearly understood—this is the meaning of the passage. The three dharmas are the root statement, and each has three grades and three divisions.

Question: The statement has three divisions. First it speaks of contemplating liberation. What, then, is the meaning of liberation? Is it the merit of that liberation? Are evil and reliance understood through what corresponds to them?

Answer: Once one has entered it, it can no longer be expressed. Liberation pertains to the beings of the world, even down to ants and insects. Ants and insects also seek a life of happiness; this means that, through understanding and experience, they proceed toward liberation. One meaning of pleasant feeling in the world is that the little happiness experienced corresponds to the causes and conditions of happiness. Beings do not understand this, as in delighting in the path, delighting in nirvana, delighting in freedom from illness, and so forth. Because they do not understand that happiness exists in the path, what they seek cannot be expressed; for once one has entered the path, speech ceases, as with an infant.

Question: How is it that the eye itself knows the eye ayatana?

Answer: Because it knows itself, it cannot be expressed. Likewise, delight in what the world desires is a seeking of the path. Therefore, it is said that the meaning of what the path accomplishes is originally not evil.

Question: What is merit? If one understands and delights in liberation, is it like being unable to see gold yet becoming wealthy merely by seeing it? If, because of illness, one can neither speak nor hear, does one therefore not understand liberation?

Answer: Here it is like a bright lamp entering a room and dispelling the darkness. When the bright lamp is present, darkness is afterward absent. When that wisdom arises, there is liberation; this wisdom clearly comprehends a single meaning.

Question: What kind of dharma is merit? Does it refer to beings in profound delusion, to form, taste, and fragrance, or to what is experienced, not experienced, or already experienced?

Answer: According to external perceptions, the scripture calls it merit: the root of blessed virtue and what is not evil. (The scripture’s three expressions are blessed virtue, root, and what is not evil.) Blessed virtue, root, and what is not evil are the fruits of the pure dharmas belonging to the three kinds of merit. When I contemplate merit, all three are included within it; therefore, they are explained briefly.

Question: Blessed virtue, root, and what is not evil have been explained. What kind of dharma, then, is blessedness?

Answer: Blessedness is the merit of giving, morality, and discernment (cultivation). It is always wholesome and also restrains human evil. Thus, blessedness consists of the three practices of giving, morality, and discernment (cultivation). This is as the teacher first explained.

The practice of giving can continually produce merit. Impermanence constantly pursues the lives of beings. If one restrains and eliminates evils, this becomes a constant practice. Thus, merit is as illustrated above.

Question: Merit, giving, morality, and discernment (cultivation) have been explained. What, then, is called giving?

Answer: It is allowing others to receive one’s own possessions or even one’s own body. The recollection of giving leads one to give again. The three practices of giving are the gift of Dharma, the gift of sustenance (material wealth), and the gift of fearlessness. The gift of Dharma, the gift of sustenance (the gift of material wealth), and the gift of fearlessness are called the three kinds of giving. The gift of Dharma elucidates the worldly and the supramundane. The gift of fearlessness consists of eight practices: the Three Refuges and the Five Precepts. The Blessed One taught that taking refuge in the Buddha is a practice to be undertaken by immeasurable beings. Fearlessness means being free from jealousy, anger, and killing. The other divisions are likewise.

Question: If one who takes refuge is seen killing insects, what dharma preserves fearlessness?

Answer: I do not say this of all beings. Here, because of deluded wrong views, some kill insects, steal the property of others, and commit various evil deeds. Those who practice the Three Refuges should be free from the views of the world.

Worldly views arise from not taking refuge. Therefore, among the immeasurably wholesome gifts of sustenance (material wealth), wealth is foremost. In giving innumerable things to others, a stupa is foremost, and incense is foremost.

Whether one personally receives, or both parties receive, the two kinds of merit therefore fully yield great karmic results; this is pure giving. Thus, as my teacher previously explained, possessions are the basis for producing existence; recollection may produce existence, both may produce existence, or the meaning of producing worldly well-being may be a skillful means of purification. A small gift may yield a great karmic result because its causes and conditions are pure.

By giving little, one may likewise obtain merit.

Question: What kind of dharma is morality?

Answer: Morality means that, through body and speech, one does not harm what others receive and does not increase the harm done to others. Morality is said to have three corresponding aspects, cultivated through the joint activity of body and speech.

Question: What kind of dharma is this?

Answer: What another receives is not further diminished by others. Regarding what another receives: even when one is oneself hungry and impoverished, one personally understands not to defile or harm what another has received. Thus, one does not covet or seize another’s property, wife, or children.

Likewise, one does not cause others to receive false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, or needless speech, and one does not cling to what others receive. The seven branches do not disturb what others receive. Innumerable poor beings are assisted so that others may receive, or both parties may contemplate it together.

Merit increases and continues from that point onward, just as the thought of killing no longer arises in the mind. Meanwhile, the corresponding qualities increase further, just as acquired wealth yields the desired karmic result and knowledge arises well; receiving is like sowing grain. The branches and leaves grow until fruit is obtained.

In this way, the increase continues without cease; therefore, such growth is morality.

Question: What kind of dharma is discernment (cultivation)?

Answer: Discernment consists of the practices of dhyana, the immeasurables, and the formless attainments. Discernment is wholesome practice. Thus, discernment is like sesame oil and flowers combined in the practice of discernment; it is like a king seeking, and like those who together seek to attain the position of king—this is the practice of seeking. Discernment corresponds to the pure fruit; it is the contemplative meaning of dhyana and consists of four practices.

Question: What is that dharma like?

Answer: The meditative practice that brings an end to all craving, pleasant feeling, and painful feeling is the four dhyanas. First, one eliminates unwholesome activities such as greed and lust, skillfully creating causes and conditions that bind and hold the mind, causing it to abide securely. Second, one practices oneself, expounds, acts for oneself, and knows for oneself, abandoning the various sounds that give rise to desire; therefore, one does not engage in them.

This is personally practicing the abandonment of greed and lust, as previously explained. Craving—the three kinds of craving—is entirely ended. The mind rejoices like water welling forth; this is emptiness.

The activity of greed and lust ceases. Increase ceases. Painful feeling and pleasant feeling cease.

Pleasant feeling in body and mind no longer causes oppression. Beyond suffering, the activity of feeling is no longer accompanied by craving. The cessation of pleasant feeling and painful feeling is the four dhyanas.

Question: What Dharma is called “the immeasurables”?

Answer: The immeasurables are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity; these are the four immeasurable perceptions. Sentient beings are immeasurable, and the causes and conditions they undergo are immeasurable—that is, they cannot be calculated; hence they are called immeasurable. Loving-kindness is love for all sentient beings; it is a mental activity.

To cherish all sentient beings, with bodily mindfulness of them, is loving-kindness, and so forth. Compassion is pity for sentient beings in suffering and affliction. One cherishes them as oneself, delights in them, and keeps sentient beings in mind.

In connection with sympathetic joy and equanimity, one does not fabricate. One always remains patient toward sentient beings who engage in what is contrary to the Dharma, or who create opposition, clearly seeing the causes and conditions; therefore, one should be patient and relinquish.

Question: What kind of Dharma is the formless?

Answer: It comprises the formless attainments of infinite space, consciousness, nothingness, and the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception. “Sphere” means a basis of reliance. For sentient beings, these are four constituent spheres.

The absence of form supports form and supports wrong views; therefore, the mind is not defiled. The cause and condition of infinite space, following the mind, is a single concentration. Infinite space is associated with perception.

What, then, is that sphere of infinite space? Since infinite space serves as a basis, there is consciousness. Therefore, the cause and condition of consciousness is the sphere in which consciousness functions; it too is a basis of reliance.

Not relying upon liberation means that there is no object of activity. In that sphere of nothingness, the wrong perception of views ceases, and fearful views become a single mind. The sphere of neither perception nor non-perception belongs to the Formless Realm.

The contemplation of emptiness has been explained, and the analysis of the formless has been explained; this is an explanation of all merit and virtue.

Question: What kind of Dharma is a root?

Answer: The roots are non-stinginess, non-anger, and non-delusion. Non-stinginess, non-anger, and non-delusion are the three characteristics of roots.

Question: What roots are these?

Answer: They are not like the merits and virtues previously explained. Therefore, all are Dharmas that enter liberation; they are roots because, as explained regarding correspondence, they cause correspondence: first, the great; second, infinite space. Thus, generosity is non-stinginess, morality is non-anger, and discernment (cultivation) is non-delusion.

Furthermore, material generosity is non-stinginess, the gift of fearlessness is non-anger, and the gift of Dharma is non-delusion. Again, non-stinginess means not harming others. Non-anger means not harming others, and non-delusion means not causing delusion to increase; such are the three moral disciplines.

Again, dhyana is non-stinginess, the root is non-anger, and the immeasurables and the formless attainments are non-delusion; such are the three discernments. Again, the noble matter is non-stinginess, patience is non-anger, and extensive learning is non-delusion. In this way, these are roots free from evil.

Thus, all are roots of wholesome conduct. Accordingly, non-stinginess means that, wherever mindful activity is performed, there is no grasping. Where there is no activity directed toward a locus, non-anger is called the supporting power that causes hatred to be eliminated.

Non-delusion is called the supporting power that eliminates ignorance and lack of knowledge; hence these are called roots.

Question: What kind of Dharma is said to be “free from evil”?

Answer: Freedom from evil comprises patience, extensive learning, and the noble constituent. Patience, extensive learning, and the noble constituent are the three things said to be free from evil. “Free from evil” has a conventional meaning: it accords with the activities of thought and perception, or it means not fearing evil.

The Blessed One taught that practitioners completely abandon evil; this means that, in the face of evil, the power to endure suffering is increased. Humbling oneself is patience free from anger, and it increases the power to endure suffering. As the measure of evil power increases, the strength of suffering increases; hence one remains free from evil.

When the power of evil lowers itself, aversion to suffering is the meaning of patience; because one’s power increases, one remains free from evil. When the power does not increase, one may or may not be able to expound. One should only be apprehensive that sentient beings may give rise to evil.

Thus, patience is the increase of freedom from evil. One should be patient with faulty conduct; this is the meaning that must be clearly explained. Suffering means enduring all things that arise from cold, heat, hunger, thirst, and hot winds.

Suffering is so called when circumstances intensify; these are two kinds of arising that cause the body suffering and affliction. Sentient beings’ fearlessness is a cause and condition for sentient beings’ evil; hence it is called evil. Therefore, there are two bases, internal and external.

That which oppresses the body should be endured; this is patience.

Question: Patience has already been explained. What is extensive learning?

Answer: Extensive learning is listening to the Sutras, Vinaya, and Treatises. Extensive learning means that greed, anger, and delusion are all completely ended. When these are jointly present, it is extensive learning; the other constituents are not.

Of those three baskets—the Sutras, Treatises, and Vinaya—the Sutras are taught by the Omniscient One. They are the domain attained by a Buddha and clearly reveal decisive understanding of the Four Noble Truths. They reveal the light of liberation, neither within nor without.

Abhidharma (Treatises) is so called because it reveals the presently existing corresponding constituents of the Sutras. Vinaya is an exposition of purity that neither acts nor receives a lifespan. These are the three practices of extensive learning.

The Vinaya restrains and eliminates the increase of greed and lust. The Treatises restrain and eliminate anger; the Treatises explain activities that are performed and known, and therefore anger gradually becomes attenuated. When anger arises, one transgresses the precepts.

The delusive darkness of hell is abandoned. These causes and conditions are collectively called extensive learning.

Question: What is the noble constituent?

Answer: The noble constituent is equality, spiritual friends, and attainment through contemplation. Equality among spiritual friends and attainment through equal contemplation are the three noble constituents. The noble constituent does not refer to the meaning of evil; it is the spiritual friend. It comprises what is desired, wholesome assistance, the teacher, the disciple, and the friend. That is, what is desired and wholesome assistance constitute that spiritual friend, who is of three kinds: teacher, disciple, and friend.

Question: What is assistance from a teacher? What is a good disciple? What is the power of a friend? How are these enumerated and explained?

Answer: Having spoken thus, one understands their distinctions. Wholesome assistance is the characteristic of a spiritual friend. Regarding the teacher, disciple, and friend, understand that they are said to increase wholesome assistance, while the two things jointly present are branches.

Whether they assist one another or do not provide wholesome assistance should be understood and explained. It is like a father who is destitute, when both father and son are advanced in age. Some may have power but are not skillful in mindfulness; they wish to assist what is wholesome and do not support unwholesome states, like two of the Six Teachers, Makkhali and Purana.

Some may not wish to provide wholesome assistance, like a physician who clearly understands everything but, because of a prior enmity, knows the illness yet does not provide treatment. Or all three characteristics may be complete. There may be a teacher’s fault, a disciple’s fault, or a friend’s fault.

Therefore, when the three characteristics correspond, there is a spiritual friend.

Question: What kind of Dharma is contemplation?

Answer: Contemplation has as its objects the activities of calming, awakening, diligence, equanimity, and perception. Calming, awakening, diligence, equanimity, and perception have non-action as their principal constituent. Calming means that the distracted mind becomes concentrated.

Its characteristic resembles awakening and diligence applied to a mind inclined toward indolence. Instruction in being undistracted corresponds with the attainment of equanimity. It is like driving a cart: when the horse runs slowly, one urges it onward; when the ox rushes ahead, one reins it in.

Their joint operation is equanimity. The mind should be contemplated in this way. Among the immeasurable internal entrances, one is entered and one is guarded; all have as their condition the sentient beings with whom one was previously associated, and thus the mind also attains equanimity.

Question: What is being explained here? As for the mind of equanimity, if it is swift, it should be restrained. If the mind is sluggish, it should be urged onward so that equanimity may be attained.

Answer: Did I not previously say that they are contemplated together? When contemplated together, as at a time of fear, form is always associated with them. If they were different, they would not be contemplated together; therefore, they are contemplated.

Question: What is attainment?

Answer: Attainment is the complete conjunction of means and fruit. The means for entering concentration do not lie outside offerings; this is entry into association, the complete conjunction of means and fruit.

Question: What is complete conjunction?

Answer: It is as stated concerning liberation.

Question: What Dharma is called complete conjunction?

Answer: Complete conjunction consists of the various written records. Cutting off the faculties and approaching meditation are wholesome practices accumulated together. Therefore, this is called complete conjunction, like the complete conjunction of cultivation. The complete conjunction of cultivation means branches and offshoots; it is the complete conjunction of three practices: the various written records, cutting off the faculties, and approaching meditation.

Question: What Dharma is called those various written records?

Answer: The various written records refer to a bhiksu dwelling in an aranya who practices wearing a five-patched robe. The constant completeness of the various written records means growth. Craftsmen who specialize in making two kinds of images skillfully chisel and carve stone and wood, polishing and refining them until images are formed.

In producing written records, making sutras, and creating paintings, they carry out the two practices of image-making: the work of a skillful craftsman can withstand wind and rain, whereas an image, though beautiful, cannot withstand them. These two persons are the practitioner of the Way and the white-robed layperson. The practitioner of the Way constantly recollects the renunciation of relatives, and the place of renunciation is like the work of a skillful craftsman.

The white-robed layperson has wives, concubines, male servants, and female servants, and is unlike a skilled painter in his practice. The white-robed layperson successively takes delight in and cherishes them. If one must be separated from those whom one cherishes, sorrow, fear, and contention arise foremost, and one causes harm through what is contrary to the Dharma.

Some who are not practitioners of the Way make sutras and images that are not durable. The Blessed One said that, just as a peacock that delights in a blue-necked bird cannot fly away in step with a wild goose, so too a white-robed layperson is unlike a Muni bhiksu who constantly sits in meditation in the wilderness. This is what is meant by the written records.

For a bhiksu dwelling in an aranya, the practice of wearing a five-patched robe comprises three dhutanga virtues. There are twelve principal practices, while the remaining nine are their attendant practices, each of which should be explained separately.

The Blessed One went to the dwelling of Sundari and brought Nanda with him to teach the three virtues:

When, young Nanda, shall I behold you,

Dwelling free from affairs and clad in a coarse five-patched robe,

Unstained by the offerings of the faithful,

Far removed from sexual desire and able to relinquish every notion?

From this, it is known that these three virtues are fundamental.

Furthermore, four other kinds of craving arise: there is craving for clothing, food and drink, bedding, and dwellings. Here, craving for clothing is addressed by teaching the use of the five-patched robe. Regarding craving for food and drink and craving for articles used in lying and sitting, the practice of dwelling in an aranya is taught as a virtue sufficient to eliminate these various cravings.

Some enter into two practices, enter into arrogance, or enter into self-praise. Because there is craving for clothing, food and drink, and articles used in lying and sitting, the three virtues—the five-patched robe, almsround, and dwelling in an aranya—should be used to eliminate it; together they fully assist in eliminating arrogance. Because they bring the attainment of peace and happiness, they are called dhutanga virtues.

Question: What is the five-patched robe—the rag robe?

Answer: The five-patched robe refers to the three robes obtained by a practitioner of the Way, without choosing between good and bad. This five-patched robe is one of those three kinds, such as a robe woven from wool and so forth, according to the place where one sits. If the three robes alone constituted the five-patched robe, then there should be only nine dhutanga virtues.

Would this not contradict the sutra cited above? A five-patched robe is made by gathering old, inferior, filthy, and discolored pieces of cloth from charnel grounds and roadsides, washing them clean, and sewing them together. The three robes are the sanghati, uttarasanga, and antaravasaka—the inner robe.

In some cases, one undertakes to keep only the three robes, yet on account of them strives earnestly in searching, enduring great hardship because of that craving. If many robes cannot be obtained, one should understand that three robes are sufficient and good. Craving is of two kinds: craving for fine quality and craving for great quantity.

It is like seeking the most beautiful woman of all, or seeking thousands of women who are not beautiful. The latter is craving for quantity and should be restrained through the three robes, though craving for fine quality may then arise. For people of this kind, the Blessed One taught that the three robes may be made from six kinds of material: karpasa cotton, silk floss, silk, hemp-bark cloth, cloth woven from tree bark, and hemp fiber.

One kind among these should be used. When such a person sees them, however, he develops a liking for them, and this causes much hardship. Therefore, the robe woven from wool was taught for him, so that such a person uses three woolen robes.

Whether among the Sangha or seated on a couch or seat in a white-robed layperson’s home, if he sees another fine seat and moves over to sit upon it, it is taught for such persons that they should remain with the seat upon which they have already sat and should not move merely because another is finer. If a senior elder directs otherwise, they should act as appropriate. Thus, when these three aspects are complete, it is called the five-patched robe.

Question: What is the practice of dwelling in an aranya?

Answer: The practice of dwelling in an aranya consists of sitting at the foot of a tree, sitting beneath the shade of a tree, and sitting in the open. A practitioner of the Way practices sitting upright at the foot of a tree, sitting beneath the shade of a tree, and sitting in the open. Practicing all three constitutes the practice of dwelling in an aranya.

These four practices serve to eliminate craving for dwellings. Here, for those who are diligent, faithful donors build houses, furnish various large couches and seats, and provide soft coverings, causing practitioners of the Way to become attached to them. The Blessed One recognized this and therefore taught them about this matter.

One should not abandon one’s own house only to become attached to another’s house; one should relinquish attachment and delight in the aranya. After dwelling in an aranya, if one then constructs chambers and lofty, spacious buildings, this too is something that should not be done. To delight in lofty and spacious chambers while dwelling in an aranya is like using a horse-drawn carriage while also harnessing a donkey to it.

Therefore, one should practice sitting at the foot of a tree and sitting beneath the shade of a tree. After undertaking these practices, however, one may dislike small, ugly trees and instead seek large, flourishing trees bearing abundant flowers and fruit. The Blessed One instructed such persons to undertake the practice of sitting on open ground.

Because it is a place sought by men and women and favored by brahmins, one should not be oppressed by craving. Having begun to dwell on open ground, that person may then think: “I have accomplished what is difficult to accomplish.” Because of this renunciation, he engages in proper contemplation, yet then lies on his side and sleeps until sunrise.

The Blessed One instructed that person concerning this matter: one cannot be like someone who cuts off his ears to adorn his head. Therefore, one should undertake the practice of sitting upright upon a grass mat, sitting in the full-lotus posture, and contemplating the entire world in accordance with reality, understanding that each being creates its own karma. To practice in this manner is to fulfill the practice of dwelling in an aranya.

Question: What is the practice of almsround?

Answer: Alms-round practice means eating one meal a day; after the proper time, one does not eat, nor does one drink other kinds of beverages in a charnel ground. Those who have gone forth have two ways of receiving food: receiving food with the Sangha and going on alms-round. Receiving food with the Sangha means that at the dwelling place, day after day, donors bring all manner of food in abundance as offerings.

Or, for fear that hardships and obstacles may arise, a Sangha hall is established and, once it has been built, all the requisites for taking meals are fully arranged. Going on alms-round means proceeding from house to house in succession to ask for and receive whatever quantity of food is offered, whether much or little. This is called going on alms-round; other means of livelihood are practices contrary to the Dharma.

While receiving food in one place, a person may think: “I can go to that donor’s house to receive food.” Attachment and craving then arise. For the sake of such people, the Blessed One admonished: “One should go on alms-round.” After going on alms-round, that person may continually spend a great deal of time eating and drinking, neglecting cultivation and study. The Blessed One instructed that person to take food only once a day, as the verse says:

When a person gives rise to mindfulness,

At every meal, knowing what is sufficient,

Consumption is thereby diminished,

Restrained merely to sustain life.

After taking food once a day, that person may again seek delicious food and think: “The Buddha has permitted only beverages.” He therefore seeks all kinds of beverages and thus neglects cultivation and study. The Blessed One admonished: “One should abandon drinking many kinds of beverages. When thirsty, ordinary water can also dispel thirst.

One should undertake the rule of not drinking other kinds of beverages after the proper time.” That person thus takes food once a day and does not drink other beverages after the proper time, yet may delight in bathing, rubbing the body, and adorning the body. The Blessed One taught that person: “This too is the conceit associated with the perception of consuming food.” Why is this so? Because the body is sustained by food and drink, but even if it becomes plump, it will ultimately be cast away in a burial ground.

Therefore, one should delight in dwelling there and contemplate that place, observing how food and drink lead to a body that becomes swollen, putrid, decomposed, and disintegrated, teeming with maggots, with fat and blood flowing everywhere. Having seen this, that perception of conceit is abandoned. A bhikshu who practices in this way fully accomplishes the alms-round practice.

Question: What is the method of restraining the faculties?

Answer: Restraining the faculties means not harming them, guarding them, and subduing them. One is personally able to restrain and subdue the faculties. These are the three: not harming, guarding, and subduing.

Question: What is meant by not harming?

Answer: Harming the faculties means that when the faculties arise, they cannot be controlled. Faculties that have not been tamed are like a horse that, though deprived of water and grain, will run wherever there is a path. When well fed with grain, grass, and water, the horse follows the proper road; it is then docile and runs well.

In this way, when the faculties are harmed, they cannot be controlled. Gathering in the faculties means that they can be controlled. If harming the faculties were considered control, then a blind person would thereby be able to abandon sensual desire.

Therefore, one should not harm the faculties, but should properly restrain them with regard to their objects. By gathering them in through right reflection, one is able to guard them. Or, as the teacher previously explained regarding the objects of the faculties, one abandons perceptions; one cannot harm the objects themselves but only removes defilement and attachment.

Subduing the faculties means that if one sees a woman of beautiful appearance, one immediately gives rise to the perception that she is like one’s mother. These are called the three ways of restraining the faculties.

Question: What is the method of approaching the practice of meditation?

Answer: Approaching meditation means receiving, not giving rise to perceptions, and drawing close to contemplation. Therefore, it is called approaching the practice of meditation, as previously explained regarding liberation.

Question: Since the four dhyanas were already discussed, why are they explained again?

Answer: The previous discussion of dhyana was intended for liberation from birth and death within the world. Here, it is directed toward the supramundane path, which surpasses that, through the successive contemplation of the Noble Truths. It is like a person crossing a vast plain who sees houses and gardens containing many kinds of trees laden with flowers and fruit.

That person will certainly think: “This is not a desolate, barren, famine-stricken land; a city must be near.” Likewise, a practitioner in the vast plain of birth and death, replete with the afflictions of greed, anger, and delusion, attains true knowledge and therefore reflects rightly. When contemplating the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas as impermanent, suffering, and non-self, if one aspires to it, one should cultivate patient acceptance.

As reflection deepens, the mind remains unmoved. This is like seeing something joyful in a dream or seeing an image in a mirror. Thus, the contemplative perception of suffering is the finest Dharma in the world.

Contemplation of the Blessed One is likewise. This is called the practice of meditation. The practitioner advances successively, like one awakening from a dream and feeling joyful; afterward, the practitioner attains contemplation of the Noble Truths in the same way.

The first section of the Chapter on the Merits of the Three Dharma Measures has been completed.

EXPLANATION OF THE DIGEST OF THE FOUR AGAMAS, Part 2

Question: What Dharma is called Skillful Means?

Answer: Skillful Means consists of morality, upasi (elimination), and wisdom. Skillful Means means the path, with liberation foremost as its aim, and comprises the three groups of morality, elimination, and wisdom.

Question: Why is morality discussed again?

Answer: Previously, it was not stated that morality is of two kinds: mundane and supramundane. The former discussion concerned mundane morality. This concerns supramundane morality. Morality means the practice to be cultivated.

Question: What is it like?

Answer: Morality consists of right speech, right action, and right livelihood. These are the three groups of morality.

Right speech means abandoning false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech. Right action means abandoning killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. Right livelihood means that a bhikshu receives through alms-round or meals at the dwelling place together with the Sangha the necessary robes, bedding, and medicines for treating illness. This is right livelihood; other ways of living are wrong livelihood. Lay followers abandon five kinds of livelihood involving weapons, clubs, intoxicants, poisons, and the flesh of living beings. This is called right livelihood.

Question: What is the Dharma of Elimination?

Answer: Elimination consists of diligence, mindfulness, and concentration. Elimination means extinguishing everything, such as eliminating greed, anger, and delusion, and proceeding toward and abiding in the other shore. Therefore, it is called elimination. It consists of the three: diligence, mindfulness, and concentration.

Diligence is called the power of exertion. Thus, when the strength of earnest effort is spoken of, it should be understood that diligence has been explained. If one is able to practice and attain liberation, that is diligence.

Question: What is this Dharma like?

Answer: Diligence consists of faith, practice, and non-abandonment. Faith, practice, and non-abandonment are the three dharmas of diligence. Faith causes all wholesome practices to increase. It always stands foremost among all wholesome dharmas and is first and supreme among all dharmas. As the verse says:

A person who practices faith

Is praised by the noble ones;

Delighting in liberation,

All bonds are released.

There are three kinds of faith.

Question: What are the three kinds?

Answer: Faith consists of purity, joyful practice, and resolute understanding.

Purity means removing turbidity. Turbidity refers to the evil deeds committed by people, such as anger, jealousy, shamelessness, and lack of moral dread. It is like cattle and swine muddying and disturbing the water of a spring; this illustrates turbidity. When they are made to stop, the water becomes still and clear. Likewise, when a person commits evil, anger, jealousy, shamelessness, and lack of moral dread are compared to a disturbed mind; this is turbidity. Removing turbidity is called purity.

Joyful practice means delighting in liberation. It is like a person afflicted and tormented by illness who therefore does not desire fine food. Once the illness has been cured, that person will certainly wish to obtain delicious food. A person oppressed by unwholesome dharmas does not delight in hearing the Dharma. Upon encountering a good spiritual friend, that person immediately becomes joyful. Afterward, the person thinks: “This Dharma is supreme.” This is called joyful practice, or aspiration.

Attaining liberation means being able to retain it. It is like a person bitten by a snake: when a mantra master pronounces an invocation against the venom, if that person’s mind is utterly sincere, the poison thereafter gradually subsides; understanding this, one should seek medicine. In the same way, people are bitten and wounded by the snakes of greed, hatred, and delusion. The Buddha, out of compassion for sentient beings who do not know the path to follow, or his disciples, out of compassion for them, expound the true Dharma. If their minds understand it clearly, this is no different from the analogy above: they can thereby eliminate greed, hatred, and delusion. This is called attaining liberation (liberation).

Question: What is called practice (exertion)?

Answer: Practice consists of diligence, arousal, and constant mindfulness. Diligence, arousal, and constant mindfulness are the three factors of practice. Arousal means beginning to cultivate the wholesome, just as when kindling a fire by friction, one must prepare the materials for the fire, such as wood shavings and cow dung. Diligence means seeking continually. Constant mindfulness means mindfulness without distraction, cultivating a single causal condition, like extinguishing a fire burning the hair on one’s head, which must be beaten out with one’s hands. These three are called practice.

Question: What is non-abandonment?

Answer: Non-abandonment means not withdrawing, not becoming weary, and not stopping. These are the three aspects of non-abandonment. Not stopping means never ceasing at any time. “I exert myself to the utmost and do not neglect my effort”—this is not becoming weary. “I remain wholly diligent, though over a long period many afflictions arise”—this is not withdrawing. Whether there is a result or no result, if one abandons the practice, it will have no efficacy at all. Therefore, one does not abandon diligence; this is called non-abandonment. These three factors will certainly lead to the attainment of the fruit, like a traveler who delights in the destination toward which he is journeying.

Question: Diligence and practice have already been explained. What, then, is mindfulness?

Answer: Mindfulness means not forgetting the body, feeling, mind, and dharmas, whether internally, externally, or both internally and externally. Not forgetting internally, externally, or both constitutes the three kinds of mindfulness. Oneself is internal, others are external, and both together are both.

Alternatively, internal means the appropriated skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. External means those appropriated by others. What is unappropriated is both.

Alternatively, the three fetters (afflictions) are internal, external, and both. Sensual desire is internal. Anger is external, for anger is directed toward another and is not anger at oneself.

One might think: “Sensual desire, too, is directed toward another.” This is incorrect. Internally there is defilement; although sensual desire arises externally in relation to another, it is due to internal attachment, as the Blessed One has taught. When a person sees a woman, the deluded internal faculty acts in conjunction with that perception.

If these three kinds of fetters are eliminated, this constitutes the three kinds of mindfulness. Feeling, mind, and dharmas each likewise have three kinds, just as explained regarding the body. Thus, there are twelve practices of mindfulness.

Question: What kind of Dharma is samadhi (concentration)?

Answer: Concentration consists of emptiness, signlessness, and wishlessness. These are the three kinds of samadhi. Emptiness means that all possessions are empty.

Question: There are many kinds of emptiness, such as an empty village or an empty house. What kind of emptiness is being discussed here?

Answer: Emptiness means that the activity of a self and the agency of a self cannot be perceived. Neither the activity of a self nor the agency of a self can be perceived; this is emptiness.

Question: Why can the activity of a self and the agency of a self not be perceived? The Blessed One said: “At that time, I was the brahmin Tilamạt” (this is the activity of a self). Elsewhere it is said: “Bhiksu! I raise My hand into empty space” (this is the agency of a self). What kind of Dharma, then, is this?

Answer: It is not so. “The activity of a self” and “the agency of a self” are merely conventional designations. Grasping a self within the skandhas is the activity of a self. The Blessed One does not engage in this. When there is craving and attachment toward an object and the self follows after it, this is called the agency of a self. The Blessed One does not engage in this either. As stated in the Sutra of the Seal of the Noble Dharma, emptiness is contemplating the world as empty. Likewise, according to the explanation given here, both self and what belongs to the self are established as merely conventional. Therefore, their imperceptibility is emptiness.

Question: What is wishlessness?

Answer: Wishlessness means that one does not undertake any corresponding fabrication regarding the past, present, or future. Wishlessness means non-establishment. It means that among the three temporal spheres of past, present, and future, nothing conditioned that corresponds to them is established or abides.

As stated in the Sutra on the Exposition of the Bases, if one were to form the thought concerning that Dharma, “the self and nirvana,” that Dharma would not be included within the three times. Here, however, it is not so. First, there is emptiness; second, there is meaning.

Nirvana is apart from the world and has no causal conditions. In that Dharma there is no thought of a self. Apart from the three times, no such Dharma exists; therefore, it cannot be spoken of.

Because one takes no delight in establishing anything within the three times, this is called wishlessness.

Question: What is signlessness?

Answer: Signlessness means being apart from things and their formations, and apart from perceptions of things and their formations. Being free from all these is signlessness. As stated elsewhere, it means being apart from all conditioned phenomena.

“All” refers to things together with formations. What can be acted upon is a thing; that which acts is formation. For example, because of ignorance, formations that are meritorious, non-meritorious, and imperturbable are produced.

In the ensuing continuum conditioned by them, the consciousness that arises is the thing; ignorance and formations are the producers. Thus, being apart from all those conditioned phenomena is called signlessness. As stated in the Sutra of the Seal of the Noble Dharma, signlessness means not perceiving the characteristics of form.

It is being apart from all the formations just described and relinquishing perceptions. “All” also conveys these three meanings. Emptiness, wishlessness, and signlessness are likewise so.

This is called concentration.

Question: What kind of Dharma is wisdom?

Answer: Wisdom is associated with three stages: the stage of seeing, the stage of discernment (cultivation), and the stage beyond training. Wisdom means knowing; it is that which abides in those three stages. Here, because one sees and knows, it is called seeing.

Question: What is called seeing?

Answer: It is seeing and knowing what one has never before seen or known, such as the faculties, powers, factors of awakening, and the path. Discernment (cultivation) means repeated practice. It is like washing a robe with pure ash: although its dirt has been removed and the robe has become clean and white, the smell of ash still remains. Afterward, it is perfumed with various fragrant flowers. In the same way, at the stage of seeing, the mind in dhyana is purified, and the immeasurable right attainments eliminate the fetters through great effort. This is called cultivation.

At the stage beyond training, greed, hatred, and delusion have been completely eliminated, and no causal conditions for them remain. This is the stage beyond training.

Question: What wisdoms belong to the stage of seeing?

Answer: The wisdoms of the stage of seeing are Dharma, contemplation, and the not-yet-known—that is, Dharma-wisdom, contemplation-wisdom, and wisdom of the not-yet-known. These are the three wisdoms of the stage of seeing.

Dharma-wisdom and contemplation-wisdom have the meaning of direct wisdom. It is like a skilled physician who recognizes that an abscess has ripened and therefore uses a sharp knife to open and excise it, then sutures the wound by hand without injuring the other vessels; thus the abscess is removed. A practitioner who cultivates the path is likewise.

Through right reflection, while contemplating suffering in the Desire Realm, one eliminates the afflictions abandoned through seeing suffering; afterward, the second wisdom arises. Just as the Desire Realm is suffering and impermanent, so too are the Form Realm and the Formless Realm. Thereafter, comparative wisdom eliminates the afflictions of the Form Realm and the Formless Realm.

These are called the three wisdoms of seeing suffering. Craving in the Desire Realm is the cause of suffering. Here, Dharma-wisdom is contemplation-wisdom.

Likewise, the wisdom of the not-yet-known concerning the Form Realm and the Formless Realm completes the three wisdoms of seeing origination. The cessation and ending of suffering in the Desire Realm is contemplated by that Dharma-wisdom, which is also contemplation-wisdom. Likewise, there is the wisdom of the not-yet-known concerning the Form Realm and the Formless Realm.

These are called the three wisdoms of seeing cessation. That path brings the suffering of the Desire Realm to cessation; this Dharma-wisdom is itself contemplation-wisdom. Likewise, there is the wisdom of the not-yet-known concerning the Form Realm and the Formless Realm.

These are called the three wisdoms of seeing the path. These twelve wisdoms constitute the detailed explanation of the stage of seeing.

Question: How many wisdoms are included in the stage of discernment (the stage of cultivation)?

Answer: The stage of discernment comprises knowledge of characteristics, knowledge of conduct, and knowledge of kinds—that is, characteristic-wisdom, conduct-wisdom, and kind-wisdom. These are the three wisdoms of the stage of discernment, as explained above.

Question: What are characteristics?

Answer: Characteristics are arising, abiding, and decay. Arising means coming into correspondence. Abiding means continuing in an appropriate sequence. Decay means disintegration.

Question: In the extensive discussion of sentient beings and nirvana, a doubt arises: Do sentient beings and nirvana also possess such characteristics? If they do, this is a grave error, for they would then be impermanent. If they do not, this scripture is at fault. Therefore, should it be said that arising, abiding, and ceasing are the characteristics of the conditioned?

Answer: With respect to sentient beings, their relation to characteristics is distinct and cannot be expressed. If they are different, sentient beings would be permanent. If they are not different, sentient beings would be impermanent. Because both alternatives entail errors, this cannot be expressed. Nirvana is likewise. Therefore, a distinction must be made. One should know that characteristics belong entirely to the conditioned.

Question: We shall now discuss qualities. Why are those characteristics considered qualities?

Answer: We shall now discuss wisdom. Among those three, wisdom is a quality, not a characteristic.

Question: What is practice?

Answer: Practice is impermanence, suffering, and non-self. Practice means comprehensive knowledge; this is the meaning of practice. That these characteristics are known through this practice is the meaning of practice. The skandhas are impermanent; what is impermanent is suffering, and what is suffering is not under one's control and is therefore non-self. Impermanence means not abiding for long and is therefore like foam upon water. Suffering means being oppressed, like an arrow piercing the body. Non-self means not being under one's control and is therefore like borrowed articles used to adorn the body. This is called practice.

Question: What is the category?

Answer: The category consists of gratification, danger, and deliverance.

Question: What does this mean?

Answer: It refers to the conditioned. Here, gratification means defiled attachment; danger means evil; and deliverance means the complete cessation of both. Alternatively, the pleasures of gods and humans are gratification; suffering in the three evil destinies is danger; and freedom from both demerit and merit is deliverance. Contemplating in this manner is a quality of right view and therefore leads to liberation. This is the category. This is the wisdom of the stage of discernment, the stage of cultivation.

Question: What is the wisdom of the stage beyond training?

Answer: The stage beyond training comprises higher knowledge, supernormal powers, and analytical knowledge. These are the three kinds of wisdom belonging to the stage beyond training.

Question: What kind of dharma is higher knowledge?

Answer: Higher knowledge consists of the knowledge of recollecting former lives, the knowledge of places of rebirth, and the knowledge of the exhaustion of the taints. Higher knowledge means clear understanding. Here, the knowledge of recollecting former lives is the recollection and knowledge of the volitional activities performed in the past. The knowledge of places of rebirth is knowledge of the fruits of karmic actions. The knowledge of the exhaustion of the taints will be discussed later.

Alternatively, the afflictions, or fetters, are of three kinds with respect to the past, present, and future. Those concerning the past are the eighteen views. Those concerning the future are the forty-four views. Those concerning the present abide in the view of a self in the body. On this basis, the present arises and is distinguished from the past and future.

Question: What is the knowledge of the exhaustion of the taints?

Answer: The knowledge of the exhaustion of the taints comprises the knowledge of exhaustion, the knowledge of non-arising, and the knowledge arising from resolve. Contemplating thus, “All my fetters, or afflictions, have been completely extinguished,” is the knowledge of exhaustion. Knowing that there will be no further rebirth is the knowledge of non-arising.

It is like a skilled physician treating the bite of a venomous snake: clearly recognizing it and then removing the venom is the first knowledge; not allowing the previously present poisonous vapor to infect the person is the second knowledge. The knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising are likewise. As for the knowledge arising from resolve, if a sravaka uses the knowledge of recollecting former lives, he himself recollects and fully knows the succession of his lives.

Through resolve, he also knows the lives of others. This is the knowledge arising from resolve.

Question: What are supernormal powers?

Answer: Supernormal powers are miraculous travel, or the bases of spiritual power; penetrating hearing, or the divine ear; and knowledge of others’ thoughts, or mind-reading. These three are supernormal powers. The bases of spiritual power will be discussed later.

Penetrating hearing, or the divine ear, arises through the power of concentration: within a single object, the four great elements become developed and purified. Thus, from the realms of humans and gods down to the evil destinies, one hears sounds according to the capacity of this power, just as the eye sees either near or far according to the power of sight. In this manner, the divine ear is attained according to one's concentration.

Knowledge of others’ thoughts, or mind-reading, means that, upon seeing sentient beings or hearing their voices, one knows their thoughts and intentions.

Question: What is miraculous travel, or the bases of spiritual power?

Answer: The bases of spiritual power comprise traveling through space, transformation, and noble mastery. Mastery in traveling through space, mastery in transformation, and noble mastery are the three kinds of bases of spiritual power. Spiritual power means mastery.

Mastery in traveling through space means being able to enter water, penetrate the earth, and tread upon empty space. One passes unobstructed through cliffs and walls and can even touch and grasp the sun and moon. This is called mastery in traveling through space.

Mastery in transformation means being able to manifest the forms of humans, birds, horses, carriages, trees, mountains, forests, cities, rivers, lakes, and so forth.

Noble mastery means being able to transform one's lifespan, turn water into clarified butter, emit rays of light from between the eyebrows, and so forth. Such manifestations are called the bases of spiritual power, which are developed and cultivated by noble ones. The bases of spiritual power, the divine ear, and knowledge of others’ thoughts are called supernormal powers. Together with the knowledge of former lives and the knowledge of rebirth and death, they constitute the five supernormal powers attainable by ordinary beings.

Question: What is analytical knowledge?

Answer: Analytical knowledge concerns Dharma, meaning, appropriate expression, and differentiation, or terminology. It is skillful knowledge of Dharma, skillful knowledge of meaning, skillful knowledge of appropriate expression, and skillful knowledge of differentiation, or terminology. These are the four kinds of analytical knowledge.

Knowledge of Dharma is knowledge of the combinations of names, phrases, and sentences. Knowledge of meaning is knowledge of their actual nature, as when fire is said to have heat as its characteristic. Knowledge of differentiation, or terminology, is knowing how a passage is arranged in its proper sequence. Knowledge of appropriate expression is presenting words and sentences without inversion or error. This is called analytical knowledge. The wisdom belonging to the stages of training and beyond training has thus also been extensively explained.

Question: Just as morality is accompanied by concentration, both morality and concentration can also be attained in the stages of training and beyond training. Why, then, are three kinds not mentioned?

Answer: In the absence of morality, when morality is further developed, this is not training, as in abstaining from killing. Those beyond training guard sentient beings to the utmost. Were this not so, then anyone in training who abstained from killing would thereby be beyond training. Because this would be erroneous, three kinds are not mentioned.

The second section of the Chapter on Qualities in the Three Dharma Categories has now been completed.

EXPLANATION OF THE ABRIDGED FOUR AGAMAS, Part 3

Question: Previously, it was explained that the causal basis comprises Endowment, Means, and Fruit. Of these, the first two have already been explained. What, then, is the Fruit?

Answer: The Fruit comprises the sravaka, the pratyekabuddha, and the Buddha. Buddha, pratyekabuddha, and sravaka—these three ranks are the Fruit.

Question: Of what are they the fruit?

Answer: They are the fruit of morality, eradication, and wisdom.

Question: We are now discussing the causal basis, and the causal basis is the path. Why, then, is the Fruit also called the path?

Answer: The Fruit spoken of here is nirvana with remainder. What was spoken of previously was nirvana without remainder. The Blessed One taught that nirvana without remainder is parinirvana. Therefore, there is no error.

A Buddha is one who has been liberated from all fetters, or afflictions; realized the ten powers; attained the four fearlessnesses; and mastered all Buddha-dharmas. The morality, concentration, and wisdom of the Buddhas are free from error.

A pratyekabuddha is self-awakened. Because he awakens by himself and not through another, he is called a pratyekabuddha.

A sravaka awakens through the teaching expounded by another.

Furthermore, complete liberation is of two kinds: first, compassion; second, disenchantment. One who, through compassion, fully attains the path is a Buddha. Complete disenchantment is of two kinds: first, attainment through oneself; second, attainment through another. One who attains it through oneself is a pratyekabuddha. One who attains it through another is a sravaka.

Furthermore, one who knows comprehensively, is endowed with all qualities, and has abandoned every kind of evil is a Buddha. Although a pratyekabuddha has abandoned all kinds of evil, his qualities are fewer. A sravaka must rely upon another in order to abandon evil.

Question: How is it known that the Buddhas are free from error? Is the same also true of sravakas?

Answer: Among sravakas, some have eradicated the fetters and some have not. Even sravaka arhats are subject to error and make distinctions concerning characteristics. Faith is foremost among the five faculties, and its bases may be inferior, middling, or superior. Therefore, distinctions exist among sravakas at every stage.

Question: What is the Dharma for eradicating the fetters, or freedom from desire?

Answer: Those who have severed the fetters are the faith-liberated, those who have attained through seeing (those who have reached seeing), and bodily witnesses. Because faith is foremost in the Perfections, they are called faith-liberated. Because reflection (wisdom) is foremost in the Perfections, they are called those who have attained through seeing (those who have reached seeing).

Those who attain both are bodily witnesses. Because these comprise numerous modes of practice, they are explained distinctly. The faith-liberated comprise those who attain parinirvana by the higher path, those who attain parinirvana without exertion—that is, parinirvana by the higher path—those who attain parinirvana with exertion, and those who attain parinirvana without exertion.

These three kinds are the faith-liberated.

The higher path: It means delighting in that Dharma, which leads to a higher state.

Furthermore, that path is called beneficial because it enables one to attain the supreme path; hence it is called the higher path.

Parinirvana with exertion: “Exertion” means the conditioned. Through many means, together with the path, one takes conditioned phenomena as conditions and reaches the unconditioned; hence it is called parinirvana with exertion.

Parinirvana without exertion: “Without exertion” means the unconditioned. Through few means, together with the path, one takes the unconditioned as a condition and attains the unconditioned; hence it is called parinirvana without exertion. These are called the three kinds of faith-liberated ones.

Question: What is the state of one who has attained through seeing (one who has reached seeing)?

Answer: Those who have attained through seeing attain parinirvana in the intermediate state, upon birth, or by the higher path. That is, parinirvana in the intermediate state, parinirvana upon birth, and parinirvana by the higher path.

Parinirvana in the intermediate state: One dies here and attains the path before being born elsewhere. Parinirvana in the intermediate state is like a small flame that flares brightly and is extinguished before falling to the ground.

Parinirvana upon birth: It is like a flame that burns brightly all around and is extinguished as soon as it falls to the ground. In the same way, immediately upon birth, one successively attains the path and parinirvana.

Parinirvana by the higher path is as explained above. It is likewise in the Formless Realm. These three are those who have attained through seeing (those who have reached seeing).

Question: What is a bodily witness?

Answer: Bodily witnesses attain parinirvana with exertion, without exertion, or upon birth, as already explained.

Question: Why is this stated again?

Answer: It is not the same. Because the realms differ, liberation from the Desire Realm and liberation from the Form Realm are two kinds that entirely exclude the intermediate existence, for there is no intermediate existence in the Formless Realm. Furthermore, previously it was said that there was no liberation. Bodily witnesses possess liberation. Liberation will be discussed later.

Question: What is the state of one who has not severed the fetters (has not yet become free from desire)?

Answer: Those who have not severed the fetters comprise the eighth person, the stream-enterer, and one who abides on the attenuated ground. These three—the eighth person, the stream-enterer, and one who abides on the attenuated ground—have not yet become free from desire.

Question: What is the state of the eighth person? If counted in sequence, this person should be the first, not the eighth. The first is one on the path of approach, and afterward comes the arhat. Why, then, is the arhat mentioned here?

Answer: This should not be regarded as one would regard a person with eight children. Among those children, it is not that the eldest is the eighth; rather, the youngest is the eighth. Likewise, the Blessed One has eight children of merit. The arhat is the eldest, for all his taints have been exhausted. Thus the first, the one on the path of approach, is the youngest; for this reason, that person is called the eighth.

Question: How is this so?

Answer: The eighth person may be one of faith, one of reflection (wisdom), or one who possesses both. While still an ordinary person, one of this spiritual lineage possesses faith and reflection (wisdom) in this manner. In that person, either faith is predominant and wisdom follows it, or wisdom is predominant and faith follows it, or both are present together, giving rise to knowledge of phenomena.

One who has already become a faith-follower has dull faculties; one who has become a Dharma-follower has middling faculties; and one who follows both has sharp faculties. These three are the eighth persons. After seeing the truths, one in whom faith predominates is one who has at most seven more lives.

One in whom wisdom predominates is the intermediate type. One in whom both predominate is one who goes from family to family. This is the ground of seeing.

If one ascends to the ground of discernment (the ground of cultivation), one is on the attenuated ground. One in whom faith predominates is a once-returner. One in whom wisdom predominates is the intermediate type.

One in whom both predominate is one with only one seed of rebirth. If one becomes free from desire in the Desire Realm, one in whom faith predominates is faith-liberated. One in whom wisdom predominates has attained through seeing (has reached seeing).

One in whom both predominate becomes free from the Form Realm and attains bodily witness. If all the taints are exhausted, one in whom faith predominates is liberated through wisdom. One in whom wisdom predominates is liberated in both ways and attains both liberations.

One in whom both predominate is likewise liberated in both ways.

Furthermore, one in whom faith predominates has dull faculties. One in whom wisdom predominates has middling faculties. One in whom both predominate has sharp faculties. In this manner, they progress successively to the highest state.

Question: The eighth person and the gradual arising of the web of merit have been extensively explained, but it is still unclear how this occurs. Please expound it.

Answer: A stream-enterer undergoes at most seven more rounds of birth and death, or goes from family to family. Stream-enterers are of three kinds: those abiding in the first fruit and seeking to attain the second fruit. “Stream-enterer” means one on the path; the path ascends, and therefore it is called “returning.” Identity view, attachment to precepts and observances, and doubt have been severed, and the evil destinies have been ended forever.

Those of dull faculties undergo at most seven more births, gladly taking birth in the realms of devas and humans, and aspire to attain parinirvana. Those who go from family to family possess sharp faculties. They too abide in the first fruit and have permanently severed the three fetters.

Having eliminated a small portion of what is to be severed through cultivation, they take birth there and attain parinirvana after passing from family to family. The intermediate type stands between these two: such persons do not invariably attain parinirvana after passing from family to family, nor do they invariably undergo as many as seven more births among devas and humans before attaining parinirvana; rather, they attain parinirvana at an intermediate point.

Question: The stream-enterer has been explained. What, then, is one on the attenuated ground?

Answer: Those on the attenuated ground comprise the once-returner, the one with only one seed of rebirth, and the intermediate type. Because the fetters of the Desire Realm have gradually become attenuated and they abide in this state, it is called the attenuated ground. These three are the once-returner, the one with only one seed of rebirth, and the intermediate type. A once-returner completes a birth in the deva realm, is born once more, and then attains parinirvana. One with only one seed of rebirth takes birth in one more existence and then attains parinirvana; thus that person’s merits increase. The intermediate type possesses characteristics of both. These three have not severed the fetters (have not yet become free from desire).

Question: What is an arhat?

Answer: Arhats may have sharp, dull, or middling faculties. “Arhat” means one worthy of offerings. Because such a person is able to receive offerings, that person is called an arhat.

Question: From whom are offerings received?

Answer: From all sentient beings; hence such a person is called an arhat. Arhats are of three kinds: those with sharp faculties, those with dull faculties, and those with middling faculties.

Question: What are those with sharp faculties?

Answer: Those with sharp faculties comprise those who abide in the Dharma for the duration of their lives (Dharma-abiders), those whose state of existence can be transformed by the Dharma (those capable of advancement), and those who are free from uncertainty (the immovable).

Dharma-abiders: Having relinquished further means and eliminated the afflictions, they are called Dharma-abiders.

Those capable of advancement: Having eliminated the afflictions, they seek a superior state and are able to attain it; hence they are called capable of advancement. “Superior” means attainment, penetrative understanding, and eloquence.

The immovable: Having attained the surpassing fruit, their eloquence cannot be disturbed by any discourse. These are called those with sharp faculties.

Question: What are those with dull faculties?

Answer: Those with dull faculties comprise those subject to decline (those subject to regression), those who maintain their state through mindfulness, and those who maintain their state through guarding. These three have dull faculties.

Those subject to decline (those subject to regression): Because they may err, they regress; this regression does not concern the Noble Truths, and hence they are called those subject to regression. Or they may regress on the ground of discernment (the ground of cultivation). Cultivation means repeated practice. It is said that because they do not repeatedly practice, they regress. It is like studying a sutra and then failing to practice it continually, thereby forgetting it. Likewise, because they do not repeatedly practice, they regress on the ground of cultivation.

Those who maintain their state through mindfulness: Having attained arhatship, because their practice is inferior and they also possess an inferior body, they immediately form the thought: “What I had to do has been done; how can I remain?” In this way, they reflect. Mindfulness has many categories. One may also reflect upon persons, the world, and various kinds of wealth and possessions. Here, however, it means reflecting upon relinquishing the body and life.

Those who maintain their state through guarding (relinquishment): They do not regress and do not engage in reflective mindfulness, but only relinquish exceedingly great means. It is like a poor person who, by many means, acquires wealth and then guards it. These are those with dull faculties.

Question: What are those with middling faculties?

Answer: Those with middling faculties comprise those liberated through wisdom and those whose liberation is either complete or incomplete. Attaining liberation through wisdom is the lesser state. Liberation in both ways is of two kinds: first, attaining complete liberation; second, attaining incomplete liberation. “Liberation in both ways” refers to faith and wisdom. Because one has attained both, this is the superior state.

Question: What is liberation?

Answer: Liberation is liberation from the Desire Realm and the Form Realm, the cessation of the mind abiding in the higher states, and the exhaustion of all three realms. These are the three practices of liberation. Because one is liberated from the fetters (afflictions), it is called liberation.

Question: What is liberation from desire?

Answer: Liberation from desire consists of internally having perceptions of form or formlessness, and of impurity or purity. “Internal” means within oneself. There are two kinds: the perception of possessing form and the perception of the dissolution of form.

Here it refers to the internal dissolution of form. This means contemplating the impurity of a corpse decaying and disintegrating in a charnel ground. Having contemplated in this way, one is liberated, evil ceases, and the mind becomes concentrated.

This is called the internal perception of form, impurity, and liberation; it is the second perception, the internal dissolution of form. Through concentration, one abides as though without form. When contemplation is thus established, the bodies of others are likewise contemplated as above.

This is called the internal perception of formlessness and the liberation through impurity.

Liberation through purity consists of the colors blue, yellow, red, and white, with flowers, garments, and so forth as objects. By arousing directed thought, the mind abides unmoving. This is liberation through purity. These three constitute liberation from desire.

Question: What is liberation from form?

Answer: Liberation from form is formlessness. Having departed from form and desire, there are four states in which the mind abides, which are still conditioned by outflows. This is called liberation from form. This has been explained previously.

Question: What is liberation through complete cessation?

Answer: It is the conjoint cessation of the mind and its perceptions, the undefiled right attainment of an arhat. This is called liberation through complete cessation.

The third section of the Chapter on Meritorious Qualities concerning the three Dharma classifications has now been explained.

EXPLANATION OF THE EXTRACTS FROM THE FOUR AGAMAS, Part 4

Question: The Chapter on Meritorious Qualities concerning the three Dharma classifications has been explained extensively. What, then, is evil?

Answer: Evil consists of formations, craving, and ignorance. The evil of formations, craving, and ignorance is a concise explanation of evil and should be understood as such. Because this evil defiles wholesome conduct, it is called evil. It also defiles people, making them defiled persons. Their minds delight in evil, just as pigs delight in impurity. Here, first are the evil actions of body, speech, and mind. These evils come first: the three kinds of evil action of body, speech, and mind.

Question: What are the evil actions of the body?

Answer: The evil actions of the body are killing living beings, stealing, and sexual misconduct. These should be understood as the three kinds of bodily evil action.

Question: The three kinds of bodily evil action are now known. What, then, is killing living beings?

Answer: Killing living beings comprises intention, instruction, and action. Intention, instruction, and action describe the three aspects of killing living beings. The remaining offenses are likewise. Just as the bodily evil action of killing living beings has the three aspects of intention, instruction, and action, so too do stealing and sexual misconduct. The same applies to verbal karma.

Question: It is understood that the remaining offenses are likewise, but intention is not yet understood. What is intention?

Answer: Intention is the desire to act, the desire to have another act, and rejoicing when another acts. Intention is called thought and comprises these three states of mind: wishing to act, wishing to cause another to act, and rejoicing when another acts. For example, intending to kill a living being is the mind that wishes to act. Intending to have another kill is wishing to cause another to act. Delighting after another has killed is rejoicing when another acts. These are called the three kinds of intention.

Question: What is instruction?

Answer: Instruction consists of teaching, commanding, and assent. These are the three kinds of instruction.

Teaching: This is like adherents of other paths saying, “Kill pigs and goats as sacrifices to heaven.” This is teaching.

Commanding: This is like a king commanding an official, “I have an enemy; you must go and kill him.” This is commanding.

Assent: This is like someone saying, “That man is my enemy. Can you kill him?” and the other person immediately agreeing. This is assent.

These are the three kinds of instruction.

Question: What is action?

Answer: Action consists of perceiving a living being, abandoning restraint, and severing life. Action means carrying out the deed. In regard to what is called killing living beings, it should be understood that teaching, commanding, and assent are involved. Evil actions of the mind are likewise. Here, perceiving another as a living being, abandoning restraint toward that living being, and severing that living being’s life are the three factors completing the action. If a patient dies while a physician is cutting out an abscess, the physician has not killed a living being, because there was no intention to kill. If these three factors are not all present, it is not killing a living being. These are called the three aspects of action.

Question: What is stealing?

Answer: Stealing consists of an object belonging to another, recognizing it as such, and forming the intention to take it by stealth. An object belonging to another, recognition of it, and the arising of the intention to steal it are the three factors completing theft. Why is this so? Suppose there is an object belonging to another, but one takes it without any intention to steal because one believes oneself permitted to do so; because of this resemblance, it is not theft. If an object belongs to another but there is no intention to steal it, there is no theft, as when one takes an acquaintance’s object. These three factors must all be present for it to constitute stealing.

Question: What is sexual misconduct?

Answer: Sexual misconduct concerns one accepted by another, one bound by a Dharma observance, and an improper way. These three kinds of transgression concern one accepted by another, one bound by a Dharma observance, and conduct that is not the proper way.

Question: Sexual activity, as stated in the sutras, is the basis. For what reasons is it called sexual misconduct?

Answer: There are two kinds of people: those who have entered the Path and gone forth, and white-robed householders. Here, sexual activity by one who has gone forth is described as evil conduct. Sexual activity by a householder is not evil conduct, but deviant sexual activity is evil conduct. If sexual activity by a householder were evil conduct, then a stream-enterer who engaged in sexual activity should fall into hell. Since this is not so, it is sexual misconduct that constitutes evil conduct. Thus, the sutra speaks of two kinds that are without fault.

Question: What is one accepted by another?

Answer: One accepted by another means one under the guardianship of a master, relatives, or the king. One accepted by a master, accepted by relatives, or accepted by the king—all these are persons accepted by another.

There are two kinds of guardianship by a master: lifelong and for an interim period. Lifelong guardianship is determined according to the locality and family custom. A woman belongs to a master; if one has sexual relations with that woman, then according to those various circumstances it is sexual misconduct. Interim guardianship means that if a woman has received goods from another for a fixed period, then having sexual relations with that woman is sexual misconduct according to those various circumstances.

Guardianship by relatives means that parents, brothers, sisters, aunts, or uncles are raising the woman. Or someone may have undertaken to support the woman and then abandoned her.

Accepted by the king means that if she has no relatives and no master, she comes under guardianship by royal decree. These are the three kinds of persons accepted by another.

Question: What is one bound by a Dharma observance?

Answer: Being bound by a Dharma observance comprises a training precept, a fasting observance, and family custom. If one has undertaken the Dharma of training, one is bound by the Dharma of training. If one has undertaken the Dharma of fasting, one is bound by the Dharma of fasting. If one has undertaken the Dharma of family custom, one is bound by the Dharma of family custom.

Being bound by the Dharma of training means that if the master first consented to the training and one later transgresses it, that is misconduct. This is called being bound by the Dharma of training.

Being bound by the Dharma of fasting means that if the master first consented to the observance of a fast and one later transgresses it, that is misconduct. This is called being bound by the Dharma of fasting.

Being bound by the Dharma of family custom is as explained above concerning guardianship by relatives. However, because the compiler of the scripture wished to complete the set of three dharmas, being bound by family custom is stated again. One’s mother, sisters, wife, and women of the same clan are all persons with whom one must not transgress; to transgress with them is misconduct.

Question: What is conduct that is not the proper way?

Answer: Conduct that is not the proper way concerns a woman who has recently given birth, a male who is not fully male, and is called improper conduct. If one violates a woman soon after she has given birth, it is conduct that is not the proper way. If one uses force to violate an unmarried woman, it is conduct that is not the proper way. Having sexual relations with a male who is not fully male is likewise conduct that is not the proper way. These are the three kinds of conduct that are not the proper way.

Question: This explanation is incomplete. Why? Because there are other kinds of sexual misconduct among these matters. How can those be encompassed by what has been explained here? If they are not encompassed, then the explanation here is incomplete.

Answer: This explanation is complete. Why? Because it was previously said to abstain from a woman at the time of childbirth. When “woman” is mentioned, it should be understood that female animals are also included. When abstention at the time of childbirth is mentioned, it should be understood that other kinds of conduct are also included. Therefore, the explanation is complete.

Question: From where do these various evil and unrighteous actions arise?

Answer: They all arise from greed, hatred, and delusion. All those various things should be understood as arising from greed, hatred, and delusion.

Question: Why are killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct said to comprise all of them?

Answer: It is not merely so. If it is stated only in this way, this is due to the scripture’s copyist. It should have been said that these alone encompass all of them; therefore, the original scripture should be consulted. All evil actions of body, speech, and mind should be discussed separately.

Question: Why is it said here that they arise from the three evils? There is an error here, because they do not arise simultaneously with pleasant sensation and painful sensation. Nor does pleasant sensation cause anger. Sexual misconduct means taking pleasure in practicing sensual desire; why, then, is anger spoken of here?

Answer: It is not said that anger arises from sexual misconduct. What is spoken of here is a prior intention. Because one cherishes even the teeth and hair, anger arises, leading to killing. Thus anger first arises: “That man violated my wife, so I shall retaliate against him.” Later, sexual activity gives rise to attachment, but the prior intention arose from anger. Desire arises from those various things; therefore, there is no error. The other cases are likewise.

Question: Evil bodily actions have been explained. What, then, are evil verbal actions?

Answer: Evil verbal actions are untruth, non-falsity, and speech lacking essential meaning, or frivolous speech. There are four kinds of evil verbal action, but only three dharmas are presented here; these three dharmas also reveal all four kinds.

Question: What is untruth?

Answer: Untruth means avoiding the truth for one’s own sake, for the sake of others, or for the sake of gain. If untruth is an evil verbal action, it means that, for one’s own sake, for the sake of others, or for the sake of gain, one intends to avoid the truth. Avoiding the truth means concealing one’s intention. Having understood something in one’s mind, one says something different with one’s mouth. The three kinds are: for one’s own sake, for the sake of others, and for the sake of gain.

For one’s own sake: This concerns one’s own life.

For the sake of others: This concerns one’s relatives.

For the sake of gain: This concerns various goods and possessions.

These are called the three kinds. As the Blessed One said: “For the sake of one’s relatives, because of oneself, because of others, or because of gain, one knowingly tells a lie.”

Question: Untruth has been explained as an evil verbal action. How, then, is non-falsity an evil verbal action?

Answer: Non-falsity consists of acting without loving-kindness, acting to cause separation, and acting in both ways. “Acting” means deliberately acting without loving-kindness. Such conduct is called harsh speech. Speaking angrily out of loving concern is not harsh speech. Harsh speech arises for one’s own sake. If it were otherwise, the Blessed One too would have spoken harshly, for, out of compassion, the Blessed One became angry upon hearing what Devadatta said. Therefore, deliberately acting without loving-kindness constitutes harsh speech. For example, one might angrily call a blind person “blind.” Although the words are true, they are spoken with an evil intention; therefore, acting without loving-kindness is called evil conduct.

Acting to cause separation: Although the words may be true, because they are spoken to cause separation, they constitute divisive speech. If one does not deliberately act to cause separation, even though separation may result, it is not divisive speech. If it were otherwise, the Blessed One too would have spoken divisively, for, out of compassion toward the followers of other teachings, the Blessed One converted them and made them his disciples. Therefore, deliberately acting to cause separation is evil.

Acting in both ways: This means that, in those two matters, one acts with both untruth and non-falsity. Thus harsh speech is harsh speech and is also called divisive speech.

Question: What is frivolous speech?

Answer: Frivolous speech is speech that is untimely, untrue, or meaningless. Speaking at an improper time, speaking untruthfully, and speaking without meaning are the three kinds of frivolous speech; if distinguished in detail, they are innumerable.

Speaking at an improper time: This means failing to speak when one should speak and speaking when one should not. For example, during a joyful wedding gathering, someone might say, “My friends! All gatherings ultimately end in dissolution. All things are impermanent; after flourishing, they must decline.” Such words are praised by Buddhas, pratyekabuddhas, and sravakas, but because they are spoken at an improper time, they constitute frivolous speech.

Speaking untruthfully: This means speaking erroneously while imagining something to be true. For example, followers of other teachings say, “The self is omniscient.” Although they imagine this to be true, it is merely frivolous speech. Why? Because the self is not omniscient; they merely imagine it to be so.

Speaking without meaning: This means speaking about joking, singing and dancing, or sorrow and anxiety.

These are called evil verbal actions.

Question: What are evil mental actions?

Answer: Evil mental actions are greed, hatred, and wrong view. Because these are the sphere of evil mental activity, they are called evil mental actions.

Greed is the desire to obtain the various possessions and goods belonging to others.

Question: If desiring to obtain the various things belonging to others is greed, this is repetitive and therefore erroneous. In the section on Intention, it was said: “Intention is the mind’s desire; desire causes one to act, and when another acts, one rejoices.”

Answer: There is no error of repetition here. Intention means that the mind desires something in this way and wishes to act. Here, one does not wish to act but wishes to seize the various goods of others. Greed seeks to make those goods and possessions one’s own. Thus the mind is defiled and attached to the possessions and goods of others. Greed is directed toward the goods of others; hatred is the malicious intention to afflict others.

Question: What is wrong view?

Answer: Wrong view consists of contrariety regarding actions, contrariety regarding results, and absence of understanding and vision. These, in brief, are the three kinds of wrong view. If distinguished in detail, they are innumerable. Here, heterodox views are wrong views.

Question: What is contrariety regarding actions, or karma?

Answer: Contrariety regarding karma consists of:

1. A pure intention regarding what is impure.

2. An impure intention regarding what is pure.

3. An intention that regards them as the same.

These are the three kinds of contrariety regarding karma.

+ A pure intention regarding what is impure: This means believing that wholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma produces an unwholesome result.

+ An impure intention regarding what is pure: This means believing that unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma produces a wholesome result.

+ An intention that regards them as the same: This means believing that wholesome and unwholesome bodily, verbal, and mental karma produce wholesome and unwholesome results alike. Just as karma is distinguished in this way, its results are likewise distinguished. To compare suffering in the heavenly realms with suffering in nirvana is to regard a pure result with an impure intention. To compare happiness in the lower realms with happiness in samsara is to regard an impure result with a pure intention. To compare suffering in the lower realms with non-suffering is to regard them with an intention that treats them as the same.

Question: What is absence of understanding and vision?

Answer: Absence of understanding and vision consists of:

1. Not understanding or seeing actions, or karma.

2. Not understanding or seeing results.

3. Not understanding or seeing sentient beings.

These are the three kinds of absence of understanding and vision.

+ Not understanding or seeing karma: This means holding that there is no giving, no observance of fasting precepts, no teaching, no skillful means, and no creation of wholesome or unwholesome karma.

+ Not understanding or seeing results: This means holding that wholesome and unwholesome deeds bear no karmic results, and that there are no hells, hungry ghosts, animals, or heavenly realms.

+ Not understanding or seeing sentient beings: This means holding that there are no fathers or mothers, no spontaneously born beings, and no true sramanas or brahmins in the world. These are called the innumerable varieties of wrong view.

These are the three kinds of evil mental action among their innumerable varieties. All causes of evil that are created are contrary to all causes of good that are created, as explained previously in the section on Precepts.

The first section of the Chapter on Evil in the Three Dharmas has now been explained.

END OF VOLUME 1