海東高僧傳

Transmission

The treatise states: The Buddha’s teaching, in its nature and characteristics, abides eternally; its compassionate vows are vast and profound. It is transmitted throughout the ten directions and the three times, permeating all like rain and dew and resounding like thunder. Without going, it arrives; without haste, it is swift. Even those who have attained the five eyes^[1] cannot behold its form, and even those who have realized the four unobstructed understandings^[2] cannot fully fathom its characteristics. In essence, the teaching neither goes nor comes; in function, it arises and ceases. Therefore, our Shakyamuni Tathagata descended from a sandalwood pavilion in the Tushita Heaven^[3] and entered the womb of Lady Maya.

On the eighth day of the fourth month in the Jiayin year, during the reign of King Zhao of Zhou,^[4] the prince was born from the right side of his mother in the palace of King Shuddhodana. That night, a five-colored beam of light shone from the west upon the royal palace. King Zhao of Zhou asked the Grand Astrologer Su You about this extraordinary sign.

The Grand Astrologer Su You replied:

– In the west, a sage has appeared.

King Zhao of Zhou asked further:

– Is this omen auspicious or inauspicious?

Su You replied:

– No one in the world can equal this person. A thousand years hence, his teaching will spread throughout this realm. At first, the prince lived in the palace just like an ordinary person.

On the eighth day of the fourth month in the Jiashen year, the forty-second year of the reign, the prince crossed beyond the city walls and renounced the household life. That year, the prince had just reached the age of thirty. Seated beneath a tree, he attained the Way and turned the Dharma wheel to teach and transform sentient beings, like the udumbara flower that blooms only once after a very long time.

At first, the Buddha taught the Avatamsaka Sutra^[5]; next, he taught the Hinayana scriptures; and thereafter, in succession, the Prajnaparamita^[6], Samdhinirmocana^[7], Lotus^[8], and Nirvana^[9] sutras. He taught and transformed all sentient beings according to their capacities and levels of understanding. It was like a single wind blowing and bringing coolness everywhere, or one moon appearing distinctly in a thousand rivers. For forty-nine years, the Buddha taught and delivered sentient beings; therefore, everyone honored him as the sage of the west. At that time, Manjushri^[10] and Maudgalyayana^[11] traveled to the land of Zhendan^[12] to teach and transform its people.

On the fifteenth day of the second month in the Renshen year, during the reign of King Mu,^[13] the Buddha entered nirvana at the Sala Grove^[14], at the age of seventy-nine. At that time, twelve white rainbows appeared and remained throughout the night without ceasing.

King Mu asked the Grand Astrologer Hu Duo about this extraordinary sign.

Hu Duo replied:

– In the west, a sage has just passed into nirvana. At that time, the Venerable Ananda and the others compiled the scriptures and recorded them fully on palm leaves. From then onward, the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, together with morality, concentration, and wisdom, began to circulate widely. The Avatamsaka Sutra alone, however, continued to be expounded and was preserved in the dragon palace. At that time, heterodox doctrines ran rampant, while the Buddhist schools declined. Later, Asvaghosha^[15] appeared in the world and revived the Buddha’s teaching. Thereafter, Dignaga^[16] and Dharmapala^[17] successively exerted themselves in its propagation. They refuted heterodox doctrines and caused the true Dharma to become manifest; they expounded the meanings of the scriptures, and through their efforts the teaching spread throughout India^[18]. Later, some carried the teaching eastward.

One hundred and sixteen years after the Buddha entered nirvana, King Ashoka^[19] of Eastern India^[20] gathered the Buddha’s relics and commanded soldiers and spirit beings to build eighty-four thousand jeweled stupas throughout Jambudvipa^[21]. By the Dingwei year, the twentieth year of the later reign of King Jing of Zhou^[22] (493 BCE), the jeweled stupas had appeared everywhere. After twenty-two royal reigns, in the thirty-fourth year of Qin Shi Huang^[23] (225 BCE), he ordered all scriptures and books burned and the stupas demolished. Consequently, the stupas built by King Ashoka no longer remained.

At that time, the shramana Lifang and eighteen worthies brought scriptures to Xianyang^[24] to propagate them. Qin Shi Huang not only refused to heed them but also had them imprisoned. That night, he dreamed that a man holding a vajra club broke open the prison and led those men out. This occurred because the proper conditions had not yet arrived.

It was not until the twelfth year of the Yongping era ⁽⁶⁷⁾, during the Later Han dynasty, that Kashyapa Matanga^[25] and Dharmaratna^[26] came to China. From then onward, auspicious clouds spread over the Nine Provinces^[27], and the rain of Dharma poured across the Four Seas. However, according to the Biography of Huo Qubing^[28]: “King Xiutu^[29] made offerings to a golden image.

Later, he saw the form of a golden man, resembling the image to which he had made offerings, appear and enter the desert.” Furthermore, during the reign of Emperor Ai^[30] of the Former Han dynasty, Qin Jing^[31] went as an envoy to the Yuezhi kingdom^[32] and succeeded in bringing back a Buddha image and scriptures. Thus, it became known that the teaching had already circulated during the Former Han dynasty. Sixty-three years later, Emperor Ming^[33] dreamed of the golden man.

As for our people of Haedong^[34], during the reign of King Haemiryu, Sundo^[36] brought scriptures to Pyongyang in the kingdom of Goguryeo^[35]. Thereafter, Marananta^[37] came from the Jin state to the kingdom of Baekje,^[38] during the reign of King Chimnyu^[39]. Later came King Beopheung of Silla^[40], in the twenty-third year after his accession to the throne.

On the eleventh day of the third month in the Dingwei year, the first year of the Datong era ⁽⁵²⁷⁾ of the Liang dynasty, Ado^[41] came to reside in Ilseon County. Thereupon, those who had faith in the Three Jewels built a thatched hermitage for him to inhabit. At that time, an envoy from the state of Wu happened to pass through. Hearing of Ado’s renown, the envoy invited him into the royal palace, but the Buddha’s teaching was not yet widely propagated. Later, the palace official Yeomdok, whose face showed his sincere heart, resolved the doubts held by the people of the country concerning the Buddha’s teaching. The king asked himself:

– Alas! Which teaching should our master follow?

From then onward, masters such as Won Gwang^[42] and Jajang^[43] entered the Western Regions to receive and transmit the Dharma. Everyone reverently believed in and practiced the Buddha’s teaching, and the number of its supporters steadily increased.

By the time of the Three Han states^[44], our ancestors had long held Buddhism in the highest reverence and generally applied its teachings in governing the people. Whoever becomes king must follow the ancestors and continue their transmission without interruption; only King Taejo’s^[45] succession continued through four generations of descendants.

In the fourth month of the Yichou year, the third year of King Seon’s reign, National Preceptor Daegak^[46] boarded a ship, crossed the sea, and journeyed eastward abroad to study the Five Teachings^[47]—the Hinayana Teaching, the Initial Teaching of the Mahayana, the Final Teaching of the Mahayana, the Sudden Teaching, and the Perfect Teaching—as well as the other schools. He thoroughly mastered them all. He then returned to his country. Buddhism originated during the Zhou dynasty, entered during the Han dynasty, developed during the Jin and Wei dynasties, flourished during the Sui and Tang dynasties, continued into the Song dynasty, and was then transmitted to Haedong.

Altogether, from the Buddha’s entry into nirvana until the Yihai year, two thousand one hundred and sixty-four years had elapsed. One thousand and fourteen years after the Buddha’s nirvana, the teaching entered the Later Han dynasty; from that time until now, one thousand one hundred and fifty-one years have passed. From the time Sundo entered the kingdom of Goguryeo until now, eight hundred and forty-four years have elapsed.

Moreover, the Way cannot propagate itself but is promulgated by people. Therefore, this section on Transmission was written to explain the text that follows.

The Biographies of Eminent Monks compiled during the Liang, Tang, and Song dynasties all recorded the translation of scriptures. In our dynasty, however, scriptures were no longer translated, and therefore such matters are not recorded here.

Sundo.

Anonymous.

Uiyeon.

Tanshi.

Marananta.

A Dao.

Phap Khong.

Phap Van.

1. Śramaṇa Shundao

The Master’s native place is unknown. He possessed profound ability and virtue, compassionately delivered sentient beings, and resolved to propagate the true Dharma. He traveled throughout China but did not reside permanently in any one place; he taught others tirelessly.

In the sixth month of summer in the second year, the ren-shen year, during the seventeenth year of King Ga Jieyu’s reign in Goguryeo, Fu Jian^[48], ruler of the Qin dynasty, dispatched an envoy together with the Master to bring scriptures and images to Goguryeo for veneration. At that time, the king and officials of Goguryeo prepared ceremonial offerings and went together to Jingmen to welcome them. They placed wholehearted faith in the Dharma and propagated it. The king then sent an envoy to express his gratitude and present precious offerings.

One account states:

Master Shundao came from the Eastern Jin to Goguryeo. When the Buddha Dharma was first transmitted, before distinctions were drawn between Qin and Jin, or as to which state constituted the legitimate dynasty, the Master had already crossed into Goguryeo to propagate the Buddha Dharma of the Western Regions and reveal the wisdom of the Eastern Yi^[49]. He explained the principle of cause and effect and made clear the consequences of transgression and merit.

Thus, his renown spread far and wide, and he transformed everyone, leading them to wholesome ways. Yet at that time, people were still simple and guileless by nature; by what means could they be guided? Although the Master’s understanding was profound and his exposition extensive, most people still failed to comprehend.

More than two hundred years had passed since Kashyapa Matanga came to China during the Later Han. Four years later, Adão came from the state of Wei, whereupon the king of Goguryeo had Jingmen Monastery built as a residence for Master Shundao.

The written record states: “Jingmen was made into a monastery.” It is the present-day Xingguo Monastery. Later, its name was mistakenly written as Xiaomen. Some time afterward, the king also had Yifulan Monastery^[50] built as a residence for Adão. The ancients recorded it as Xingfu Monastery. This marked the beginning of Buddhism in Haedong. How admirable! A man of such ability and virtue ought to be recorded in books so that his virtues may be praised. Therefore, the Master’s biography is fully preserved in this account.

Generally, those sent as envoys to the western regions, if they wished not to fail the king’s command, necessarily had to rely upon worthy sages to complete their mission. Thus, there were worthy sages who went abroad and began the work of propagation, accomplishing an unprecedentedly great undertaking. Had they not possessed great wisdom, skillful means, and inconceivable spiritual powers, how could they possibly have spread the teaching? From this, we know that they were extraordinary men like Dharmaratna and Kang Senghui^[51], and others.

2. Śramaṇa of Unknown Name

The Master was a native of Goguryeo. He practiced the Way with benevolence and preserved his innate nature through virtue. When others did not understand him, he did not become resentful. His reputation was known to everyone both within and beyond the kingdom. He bestowed his beneficent influence everywhere, and all who heard him received benefit. Dharma Master Zhidun^[52] of the Jin dynasty wrote a letter praising him: “The Elder is thoroughly versed in the Buddha Dharma and is a disciple of Master Liu in the Central Provinces. Upright in character, he has a great many monastic and lay followers studying under him.”

Thereafter, the Master went to reside in the capital, where he devoted himself to observing the precepts. Everyone revered him. He dedicated himself wholeheartedly to transmitting the Way and was highly regarded by Master Dun and the imperial court. He formed a close friendship with Ji Ting; both were men of extraordinary talent. Moreover, among scholars from foreign lands, none surpassed these two masters. Who could possibly have matched them in debate? Furthermore, since Buddhism had originally been transmitted from the Jin state into Haedong, there must also have been talented contemporaries propagating it during the Song and Qi dynasties, but they were not recorded in the histories. How lamentable!

A man of the Song state named Zhou Lingqi, while returning from a diplomatic mission to Goryeo and passing through Shangzhou in the state of Qi, found the alms bowl of Master Beidu^[53].

At that time, the people of Goryeo under the Qi did not clearly know when the Buddha had appeared in the world, so they asked the eminent monk Fashang^[54]. Fashang answered by citing the auspicious signs that appeared during the reign of King Zhao of Zhou. When the eminent monks heard this, they greatly admired China. Consequently, there were many who thoroughly understood the Buddha Dharma. At that time, however, there were no officials skilled in historiography, so no one recorded these matters clearly. This is truly regrettable.

Note:

In ancient times, the three kingdoms grew powerful, established their states, and proclaimed kings. Yet in those countries there were still no traces of the Buddha Dharma, nor any responsive communion with the Way. When worthy and virtuous masters arrived, kings and officials asked them about governing the state.

The masters cited the Book of Changes^[55]: “Where there is responsiveness, there is immediate communion; this is the origin of heaven and earth.” Shundao attained this principle. As soon as he arrived, he advocated measures to make the country prosper and to cultivate blessings and goodness. On this basis, these events were recorded in historical works, but there was no opportunity for them to circulate. Now, contrary to the king’s command, Master Shundao has been placed at the head of this account, and so forth.

3. Śramaṇa Yiyuan

The Master was a native of Goguryeo, but his origins are otherwise unknown. After renouncing the household life, because he skillfully observed the disciplinary rules, his wisdom became lucid, his understanding profound, and he mastered both Confucian learning^[56] and Daoist learning^[57]. He served as a refuge for monastics and laypeople of his time. He delighted in propagating the true Dharma and always wished for the teaching to spread everywhere. Although he frequently expounded the unsurpassed Dharma treasure and clarified the true Dharma, he did not yet understand the origins of Buddhism.

The Master heard that the śramaṇa Fashang of Dingguo Monastery^[58] under the Former Qi dynasty possessed profound virtue in the precepts and luminous wisdom, and was a model for sentient beings. When he went to the state of Qi and served as General Superintendent, more than two million monks and nuns came to study under him, and he held that position for over forty years. During the reign of Wenxuan, the Buddha Dharma spread and flourished; it was exalted both within and beyond the country, and monastics and laypeople alike practiced it.

His ability and virtue shone brilliantly, and his good reputation spread far and wide. At that time, Goguryeo had able and virtuous kings who possessed deep faith in the Buddha Dharma and revered the Mahayana. They wished to propagate the teaching throughout the four seas, but did not know whence Buddhism had originated.

Therefore, they journeyed arduously from west to east to record all the deeds of eminent monks throughout successive dynasties. The king afterward sent the Master by ship to China to study what was not yet known. The Master asked Fashang:

“How many years have passed since Śākyamuni Buddha entered nirvana? How many years did it take for the teaching to be transmitted from India to China? When it first reached the land of Han, during whose reign and under what era name did this occur?

When it was transmitted to the states of Jin and Chen, who were the first to follow Buddhism, and how many reigns have elapsed since then? I ask that you explain all this fully. Who composed such treatises as the Treatise on the Ten Stages^[59], the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom^[60], the Bodhisattva-bhūmi^[61], and the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā^[62], and so forth?

Are accounts concerning the origins of auspicious signs recorded in biographies and chronicles? Please resolve these doubtful points according to the evidence preserved in written records.”

Fashang replied:

“The Buddha appeared in the world in the jia-yin year, the twenty-fourth year of King Zhao of Zhou. At the age of nineteen, he renounced the household life, and at thirty he attained the Way. In the gui-wei year, the twenty-fourth year of King Mu of Zhou, the king heard that a sage had appeared in the west and immediately sent men there, but none of those dispatched ever returned. The king regarded this as a miraculous sign.”

The Buddha taught the Dharma for forty-nine years. From the time of his nirvana until the Bingshen year, the seventh year of the Wuping era under the Qi dynasty ⁽⁵⁶³⁾, one thousand four hundred and sixty-five years had elapsed. Thereafter, it was not until the Yongping era ⁽⁵⁸⁾ under Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty that the scriptures were transmitted to China, and they continued to be transmitted from the Wei dynasty through the Jin dynasty.

In the tenth year of the Chiwu era ⁽²⁴⁸⁾, during the reign of Sun Quan of Wu, Kang Senghui arrived in the land of Wu and began propagating the Buddha-Dharma. The Treatise on the Stages of the Bodhisattva was received by the bhikshu Asanga^[63] from the bodhisattva Maitreya^[64]. During the Feng'an era under Emperor An of the Jin dynasty, Dharmakshema^[65] translated this treatise at Guzang for Juqu Mengxun, the Prince of Hexi.

The Mahayana Treatise was composed by the bodhisattva Nagarjuna. During the Feng'an era of the Jin dynasty, Kumarajiva^[66] came to Chang'an and translated it for Yao Xing. Treatises such as the Stages of the Bodhisattva and the Vajra Prajnaparamita were composed by Sengqiedipo-soupantou (Vasubandhu).

It was not until the reign of Emperor Xuanwu of the Wei dynasty that Bodhiruci^[67] translated them. The evidence and sources presented by Dharma Master Fashang were exceedingly numerous, but only a brief account of the essentials is given here.

Yiyuan deeply admired Fashang's lucid exposition, profound understanding, fluent argumentation, and coherent reasoning. All the doubts he had harbored in the past were now dispelled. At present, the subtle meaning has been revealed: in the West, the sun of wisdom is perpetuated, while in the East, the wellspring of Dharma is poured forth. May the true teaching reach all beings, and may the wondrous Dharma be transmitted without end. It is said that, in crossing the sea of suffering and taking the Dharma gate as the guiding pillar, there is none but our master!

Afterward, the master returned to his country, where he expounded the Tathagata's teaching and instructed those who were deluded. His understanding penetrated both antiquity and the present, and his excellent reputation spread everywhere. Had he not possessed innate brilliance and received assistance in both the Dharma and worldly affairs, how could he have reached such consummate attainment? The historical records do not relate everything, and so it is impossible to set it all down in writing.

Notes:

Accounts generally disagree concerning the day, month, and year of the Buddha's birth. However, Master Yiyuan personally heard Fashang's account and compared it with the evidence in the Treatise on the Discernment of Truth^[68], compiled by the monk Falin^[69] of the Tang dynasty. Wherever the accounts agreed, he took that as his guiding standard. Yet renowned Confucian scholars of the Wu period cited ancient texts and composed separate treatises of their own. Even if someone were to raise questions and offer explanations with all manner of citations, none of them would be sufficient as conclusive evidence.

4. Shi Tanshi

The master was a native of Guanzhong^[70]. From the time he first entered monastic life, many extraordinary signs attended him. His feet were whiter than his face, and though he walked through mud or waded through water, they never became wet.

For this reason, people commonly called him the White-Footed Venerable. Around the end of the Jin dynasty, during the Taiyuan era of Emperor Xiaowu, the master brought several dozen collections of sutras and Vinaya texts to Liaodong to teach and transform its people. There, he taught according to their capacities, transmitting the doctrine of the Three Vehicles and conferring the Three Refuges and Five Precepts.

According to the Biographies of Eminent Monks of the Liang Dynasty: “The master was the first person to bring the teaching into Goguryeo.” This occurred in the fifth year of the reign of King Kaidu; the forty-first year of King Naemul of Silla; and the fifth year of King Asin of Baekje. It was twenty-five years after Fu Jian of the Former Qin, during the Eastern Jin dynasty, had sent envoys bearing scriptures and images to Goguryeo.

Four years later, Faxian^[71] journeyed westward to India in search of the Dharma. Two years after Faxian departed for India, Kumarajiva arrived in China, and Dharma Master Xuangao arrived in Goguryeo. At the beginning of the Yixi era of the preceding Jin dynasty ⁽⁴⁰⁵⁾, Xuangao returned to Guanzhong and established teaching halls in the Three Capital Districts^[72].

At that time, there was a man in Chang'an^[73] named Wang Hu, whose uncle had been dead for several years. One day, Wang Hu suddenly dreamed that his uncle appeared and led him through the various realms of hell, showing him the corresponding karmic retributions. As Wang Hu took his leave to return to the human world, his uncle said to him: “Now that you clearly understand your own causes and effects, you must revere the White-Footed Venerable and perform wholesome deeds.”

Heeding his uncle's instruction, Wang Hu awoke and made inquiries throughout the Sangha, but he found that only the master's feet were whiter than his face. Wang Hu therefore devoted himself wholeheartedly to serving the master.

Around the end of the Jin dynasty, the northern Xiongnu, led by Helian Bobo^[74], swept southward in a surprise attack, seized Guanzhong, and slaughtered countless people indiscriminately. The master was also attacked, but swords and spears could not harm him. Seeing this, Bobo was filled with admiration for the master and immediately ordered that all sramanas be spared and that not a single one be killed.

From that time onward, however, the master withdrew into the mountains and devoted himself to the secret practice of dhutanga austerities. Not long afterward, Tuoba Tao^[75] again seized Chang'an and became overlord of the Guanluo region. At that time, there was Cui Hao of Boling^[76], who had studied heterodox teachings since childhood and had always been deeply hostile to Buddhism.

Later, Hao held the office of Grand Councillor of Wei and enjoyed Tuoba Tao's great confidence. Taking advantage of this, he said to the Celestial Master Kou Qianzhi: “Tuoba Tao's use of the Buddha's teaching not only brings no benefit to the world but also harms the interests of the people! We should persuade Tao to abandon Buddhism.”

As expected, Tao was deceived by their slanderous accusations.

In the seventh year of the Taiping era ⁽⁴⁴⁹⁾ under the Northern Wei dynasty, Tao ordered the destruction of Buddhism. He sent soldiers throughout the land to plunder and burn monasteries and forced all monks and nuns in the country to renounce the religious life and return to lay life. If anyone fled, men were sent in pursuit to capture and behead them, displaying their heads upon trees. Consequently, throughout the region of Guan and Luo, not a single śramaṇa remained to be seen. At that time, Master Xuankao and others were all put to death. The biography records:

“At that time, Master Tanshi concealed himself in remote mountains and secluded valleys, places that soldiers could not reach, and dwelt there in seclusion awaiting the proper occasion. It was not until the end of the Taiping era that he knew the time had come to teach and transform Bạt Đào. On New Year’s Day, the master descended from the mountain, holding an iron staff in his hand, and went directly to the royal palace.

The gatekeeper reported to the king: ‘A barefoot practitioner is proceeding straight into the palace, and his bearing is most extraordinary.’ Hearing this, Tao immediately ordered an executioner to behead the master. The executioner struck him with all his might, yet inflicted no injury whatsoever. Seeing this, Tao became exceedingly enraged, drew the sharp sword at his side, and struck the master himself.

Yet the master’s body remained unharmed; where the blade had struck, there was only a slight mark as fine as a drawn thread.

“At that time, a pen of tigers was kept north of the imperial garden. Bạt Đào ordered the master to be thrown to the tigers, but when he was placed in their enclosure, all the tigers withdrew and dared not approach him. Bạt Đào then had the Celestial Master brought near the tiger pen. The ferocious tigers roared deafeningly and sprang forward, seeking to seize and devour the Celestial Master. Only then did Bạt Đào understand that the awe-inspiring spiritual power of Buddhism was beyond comparison with the Way of Huang-Lao.^[77] Seeing this, the king invited the master into the hall, bowed at his feet, and repented of his transgressions.

“Thereupon, the master explained to Bạt Đào that the retribution of cause and effect never errs. He taught him with a clarity like that of pointing to an object in the palm of one’s hand, and then manifested spiritual powers. Bạt Đào became utterly terrified and abandoned evil to practice good.

Yet because his evil karma had ripened, he contracted leprosy. Kou Qianzhi and Cui Hao likewise contracted dreadful illnesses. As he was about to die, Bạt Đào said: ‘I have suffered this calamity because those two men committed offenses; they cannot be forgiven.’ The king then ordered the extermination of both their clans.

At the same time, he commanded that Buddhism be restored throughout the country. Once more, the ringing of monastery bells and the chanting and recitation of sutras resounded everywhere. Later, when Tôn Thư ascended the throne, he severely purged Ân Giám and ardently propagated the Buddha-Dharma.

The system of issuing ordination certificates began in the time of Helian Bobo. No one afterward knew where the master passed away.”

Note:

When fierce fire blazes along the slopes of Mount Kunlun, both precious jade and common stones are consumed. When frost blankets the grasslands, grasses and flowers alike wither. The master’s endurance of hardship was truly awe-inspiring!

Even the ordeals of felling trees and paring one’s heels would not suffice as comparisons. Yet, according to the needs of the time, the master would either remain hidden or appear: at times concealing himself in remote mountains and secluded valleys to escape mortal peril, and at other times venturing into towns and marketplaces to save those sinking and drifting in suffering. Thus did the Dharma flourish.

A bodhisattva who protects and upholds the true Dharma must act in this way. After the master had arrived in the region of Gutang and completed his work of teaching and transformation, he followed his former aspiration and went to Goguryeo.

5. Śākya Mālānanda.

The master was a native of India. He possessed spiritual powers and transformations, but the stage of realization he had attained is unknown. He delighted in traveling from place to place to teach and transform beings and did not reside permanently anywhere. According to ancient records, the master came from India and dwelt in China. He sheltered his body with wood and sent up smoke to seek companions; crossing dangers and enduring hardships, he went wherever karmic affinities existed, and there was no place through which he did not pass.

At that time, in the fourteenth year of King Chimnyu of Baekje, when the king had been on the throne for nine years and nine months, the master arrived from the Jin state. The king traveled more than one hundred li beyond the royal city to welcome him, invited him into the palace, reverently made offerings to him, and listened to him expound the Dharma. Above, he was cherished by the king and officials; below, he was admired by the people.

Through this, the Buddha-Dharma spread widely, and all who heard it praised and practiced it. The king also ordered the news to be proclaimed everywhere. In the spring of the second year, the master established a monastery at Hansan and ordained ten monks.

He was honored as a Dharma Master. From that time onward, the Buddha-Dharma first began to flourish in Baekje and Goryeo. Counting backward, more than two hundred and eighty years had passed since Master Kāśyapa Mātaṅga came to China during the Later Han dynasty.

Earlier scholars wrote:

“The founding ancestor of Goguryeo, named Jumong, married the daughter of the king of Goryeo, and they had two sons named Biryu and Onjo. Later, the two traveled south together to Hansan and established a kingdom, in the region now known as Gwangju.”

In ancient times, because one hundred households crossed the river, the country was named Baekje. Later, successive kings established their capital in Buyeo Commandery in Gongju. In the southeastern region of the Three Han states lay the country of Wa, namely Japan. Northeast of Wa lay the country of the Hairy People. Northeast of the country of the Hairy People lay the country of the Tattooed People. More than two thousand li east of the country of the Tattooed People lay the country of Great Han. Twenty thousand li east of Great Han lay the country of Fusang.

During the Song dynasty, five monks from India traveled there to teach and propagate the Buddha-Dharma. However, they resided only in the coastal region. It was not until monks from Japan arrived that they crossed the sea and reached that country. Beyond this, the other circumstances remain unclear.

The Three Han states were Mahan, Byeonhan, and Jinhan.

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasure Storehouse^[78] records:

– “In the northeast lies the country of Cīnasthāna, also called Cīna, which in Chinese is translated as ‘Much Reflection,’ because the people of that country contemplate a hundred matters. This is the Great Tang realm. Yet the Three Han states lie northeast of Jambudvīpa and are not islands in the sea. The Buddha-Dharma first began to flourish in this country more than six hundred years after the Buddha entered nirvana. Holy beings dwell in its mountains. One mountain, named Danh-thất-lê-mẫu-đát-lê,^[79] is lofty and majestic. Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara dwells in a palace upon its summit, which is Mount Nguyệt Nhạc. The places where holy beings reside are too numerous to record fully.” Thus, Baekje is another name for Mahan.

The Song Biographies of Eminent Monks^[80] records:

– “Mālānanda attained the ‘illusion-like samādhi.’ Entering water, he was not wetted; entering fire, he was not burned. He could transform stone into gold and manifest transformations without limit. This occurred during the Jianzhong era (1101).” Since the dates recorded differ, it is feared that these were not the deeds of the same person.

Note:

Those who live in exile abroad are mostly unruly by nature, neither obeying the king’s commands nor complying with the laws of the land. Yet once they heard what they had never heard before and saw what they had never seen before, they immediately changed, abandoned evil, practiced good, cultivated the true path, and accorded with principle and truth.

The chronicles record:

“When excellent words are spoken, even people a thousand li away respond—is this not indeed true? Yet the path of teaching and transformation must accord with beings’ capacities and be propagated at the proper time. Therefore, only a little effort was expended, but its effect was very great.”

6. Śākya Ado.

One account says that the master was a native of India; another says that he came from the state of Wu; still another says that he traveled from Goguryeo into the territory of Wei and afterward returned to Silla. It is unknown which account is correct. The master possessed a dignified and imposing bearing, and his spiritual powers and transformations were unfathomable. He always took teaching and transforming beings as his purpose. Whenever he expounded the Dharma, precious flowers rained down from the heavens.

At first, during the reign of King Nột Kì of Silla, there was a dark-complexioned Indian who came from Goguryeo to Nhất Thiện Commandery to teach and transform those with whom he had affinities. In that commandery was a man named Mao Lễ, who dug a chamber beneath his house for the Indian to dwell in. At that time, the Liang dynasty sent an envoy bearing gifts, silks, and a kind of incense, but the king and his officials knew neither the name of the incense nor how it was to be used.

The king therefore ordered people to take the fragrant substance and inquire among people throughout the kingdom and beyond. As soon as the Indian saw it, he gave the name of that incense and said: “When this incense is burned, its fragrance pervades the air. It is a means of expressing reverence toward sacred beings, yet among all that is sacred, nothing surpasses the Three Jewels.

The Three Jewels are Buddha^[81], Dharma^[82], and Sangha^[83]. If this incense is burned and a vow is made, there will surely be a miraculous response.”

At that time, the king’s daughter was gravely ill. The king ordered the Indian to burn the incense and pray on his behalf. As soon as the king had finished praying, his daughter’s illness immediately abated.

The king was overjoyed, entertained the Indian, and bestowed lavish gifts upon him. When the Indian returned, he gave all the gifts bestowed by the king to Mao Lễ in gratitude for his kindness. He then said: “I have matters that require me to take my leave and return.” The moment he finished speaking, he suddenly disappeared.

During the reign of King Tì Xứ, the Venerable A Đạo and three disciples likewise came to stay at Mao Lễ’s house, and his bearing resembled that of the former Indian. After dwelling there for several years, A Đạo passed into quiescence without having suffered any illness. The three disciples remained there reciting the sutras and Vinaya; those who came to listen gave rise to faith and practiced accordingly.

However, according to ancient records: On the eleventh day of the third month in the first year of the Datong era of the Liang dynasty ⁽⁵²⁷⁾, when Master A Đạo arrived in Nhất Thiện Commandery of Baekje, heaven and earth trembled. In his left hand he held a golden ring and a khakkhara staff; in his right arm he cradled a jade bowl. His body was clad in a patchwork robe^[84], and his mouth recited sutras and mantras.

He first went to the home of Mao Lễ. Mao Lễ came out to meet him and said in alarm: “Long ago, a great monk from Goguryeo came to our country. The king and his officials regarded him as strange and considered his arrival an inauspicious omen, so they conspired together to kill him.

Later, another monk named Diệt Cấu Tì came from Goguryeo to Baekje and was also killed like the monk before him. What more do you seek by coming here? Quickly go inside, lest the people around us see you.” Mao Lễ led the master down into a secret chamber and continually made offerings to him without cease.

Just then, an envoy from the state of Wu brought five kinds of incense to offer to King Nguyên Tôn. The king, however, did not know how to use them and therefore had inquiries made throughout the kingdom. The envoy brought them to ask the Dharma master.

The master said: “Light them with fire as an offering to the Buddha!” Afterward, the master went to the capital, and the king instructed the Dharma master to receive the envoy. As soon as the envoy saw the master, he bowed in reverence and said: “Why did the great monk not come to that country, so that through this matter its king might come to understand that the Three Jewels are worthy of reverence?” From that time onward, the king permitted the Buddha-Dharma to be widely propagated in the country.

Furthermore, according to the work Cao Đắc Tướng Thi Sử: “The Liang emperor sent an envoy named Nguyên Biểu to bring agarwood incense, scriptures, and images to Baekje. But the king of Baekje did not know what they were used for. The king had inquiries made everywhere, and the master thereby encountered the occasion to propagate the Buddha-Dharma.”

Some say: “A Đạo faced an attempt upon his life, but because the master possessed supernormal powers, he escaped death and hid himself in Mao Lễ’s house. Therefore, the envoys from Liang and Wu did not clearly know his whereabouts.”

Furthermore, the traces of Master A Đạo’s life largely resemble those of the former Indian. Why is this so? From the Yongping era ⁽⁶⁷⁾ to the Dingwei year of the Datong era ⁽⁵²⁷⁾, more than four hundred and ten years had passed. By then, the Buddha-Dharma had already been present in Goguryeo for more than one hundred and fifty years and had been transmitted in Baekje for more than one hundred and forty years.

According to the work Phác Dần Lượng Thù Dị Truyện: “The master’s father was a man of the state of Wei named Quật Ma, while his mother was a woman of Goguryeo named Cao Đạo Ninh. Quật Ma, acting under imperial command, went as an envoy to Goguryeo, where he secretly had relations with the master’s mother, and then returned to Wei. Consequently, Đạo Ninh conceived and gave birth to the master.

When the master reached the age of five, extraordinary signs appeared. His mother said: ‘No blessing could be greater for you than becoming a monk!’ Following his mother’s words, the master left the household life that very day. At the age of sixteen, he traveled to Wei to visit his father.

He then studied under the Venerable Huyền Chương for nineteen years. Afterward, he returned to live with his mother. His mother said: ‘The conditions in this country have not yet ripened, and it is difficult to propagate the Buddha-Dharma here.

Only in the land of Silla, though the Teaching is not yet present, will a wise ruler appear in a little more than thirty months to protect and uphold the true Dharma. At that time, Buddhism will flourish. Moreover, within the capital of that country are seven places where the Buddha-Dharma abides: first, Kim Kiều Thiên Cảnh Lâm, now Hưng Luân Monastery; second, Tam Xuyên Kì, now Vĩnh Hưng Monastery; third, Long Cung Nam, now Hoàng Long Monastery; fourth, Long Cung Bắc, now Phân Hoàng Monastery; fifth, Thần Du Lâm, now Thiên Vương Monastery; sixth, Sa Xuyên Vĩ, now Linh Diệu Monastery; and seventh, Tế Thỉnh Điền, now Đàm Nghiêm Monastery.

The reason the Buddha-Dharma will not perish in these places is that in a former kalpa they were the grounds of monasteries^[85]. Would it not be good for you to go to that country, propagate the Buddha-Dharma, establish monasteries, and become its founding patriarch?’ Following his mother’s words, the master crossed into Silla and stayed in a village west of the royal palace, at the site of what is now Nghiêm Trang Monastery.”

At that time, in the Guiwei year, the second year after King Vị Trâu ascended the throne, the master requested permission to propagate the Buddha-Dharma. Because the people of that country had never before seen Buddhist monks, they regarded him as a strange apparition and consequently intended to kill him. The master therefore temporarily took refuge in the home of Mao Lễ in Tục Thôn, now Thiện Châu.

He remained in hiding for three years. Then the queen of that country fell gravely ill, and repeated treatments failed to cure her. The king sent envoys everywhere in search of someone who could heal her.

When the master heard the news, he entered the palace and cured the queen’s illness. Overjoyed, the king asked what the master desired. The master replied: “If I may build a monastery in Thiên Cảnh Lâm, my wish will be fulfilled.” The king consented.

Yet the people of the time were obstinate by nature and could not be brought to believe, so the master converted an empty house into a monastery. Only seven years later did someone who wished to become a monk come to request ordination and undertake the religious life and study. Mao Lễ’s younger sister, named Lady Sử, also requested ordination as a nun.

The master then built another monastery in Tam Xuyên Kì, naming it Vĩnh Hưng, as a residence for the nuns.

After King Vị Trâu died, the succeeding king did not revere the Buddha-Dharma and intended to destroy the monasteries. The master returned to Tục Thôn, built a tomb for himself, entered it, closed the door, and passed into quiescence. Consequently, the Buddha-Dharma was not widely propagated in that country.

More than two hundred years later, Wonjong finally revived Buddhism, and everything occurred exactly as Lady Daoning had foretold. From King Michu to King Beopheung, eleven reigns elapsed. Thus, there are discrepancies concerning the period in which the master appeared. Since these are all ancient historical records, none can be discarded in favor of another. Yet during the reign of King Michu, there was already benefit from the propagation of the Buddhadharma; this would place him in the same period as Master Sundo, mentioned above. After the Buddhadharma had been suppressed, it was not until the Datong era ⁽⁵²⁷⁾ of the Liang dynasty that it was revived. Hence there appeared the Indian monk, Wonpyo, and others. I present this here for consideration.

Note:

Ever since Buddhism gradually spread eastward, some people have revered and believed in it, while others have sought to destroy it. Whenever the Buddhadharma is proclaimed, there must be people who continue its transmission. Master Ado and that Indian monk both manifested and disappeared freely through the formless Dharma-body; in their earlier and later activities, there were both similarities and differences.

People wished to find them, yet no one could discover the master’s whereabouts. First the king granted his approval, and only afterward did the master act; he first took refuge from calamity and later achieved success, just as Lifang in the Qin dynasty and Matanga in the Han dynasty did nothing otherwise. The Book of Changes states: “A person of ability knows how to await the proper time.” This refers precisely to Master Ado.

7. Thích Pháp Không

The master was the twenty-third ruler of the kingdom of Silla, bearing the title King Beopheung and the personal name Wonjong. He was the eldest son of King Jijeung and Queen Yeonje. The king stood seven feet tall and was benevolent, generous, talented, virtuous, wise, and forthright toward the people.

In the third year after he ascended the throne, an auspicious dragon appeared and a poplar tree grew within a well. In the fourth year, he first established the Ministry of War. In the seventh year, he promulgated laws and prescribed official garments according to rank.

From the time he first ascended the throne, the king had always cherished the aspiration to revive the Buddhadharma. Yet because his ministers argued noisily about the matter, he found it difficult to resolve. Recalling Master Ado’s aspiration, the king summoned all his ministers and asked them: “Our holy ancestor Michu and Master Ado established the Buddhadharma, but before their work was brought to completion, they passed away.

Consequently, the teaching of the Able and Benevolent One was obstructed and could not spread. We are deeply grieved by this. We should now construct many monasteries and restore Buddha images; only then may we hope to reestablish the legacy of the former king.

If any of you disagree, speak your minds frankly.”

The great ministers, including Gongyeol and others, remonstrated: “Your Majesty! In recent years, harvests have repeatedly failed and the people have suffered greatly. Moreover, raiders have caused disorder along the frontier, and warfare still continues. Why, then, should we needlessly compel the people to endure the hardship of constructing these useless buildings?”

Hearing this, the king became exceedingly sorrowful, knowing that his close ministers did not believe in the Three Jewels. He lamented: “Because We lack the virtue to have inherited the throne, heaven and earth are out of harmony and the people are not at peace; therefore, Our ministers disobey Our commands and refuse to heed Us. Who can employ some skillful means to guide these foolish people to understanding?” The king issued this appeal, but for a long time no one came forward to assist him.

Then, in the sixteenth year of his reign, an official of the inner court named Pak Yeomchok—also called Ichadon or Geochadon—who was only twenty-six years old, suddenly came forward. He was upright and honest, deeply learned, loyal, courageous, and righteous. Wishing to help fulfill the king’s great aspiration, he secretly memorialized the king, saying:

– If Your Majesty wishes to promote Buddhism, please allow me to falsely transmit a royal command to the district and county offices, declaring that the king wishes the Buddhadharma to be propagated. On hearing this, the ministers will remonstrate. At that time, Your Majesty should issue a declaration saying: “We gave no such command. Who has falsely transmitted this order?” The officials will then accuse me of the offense, and I shall present the matter in such a way that they will be compelled to submit.

The king said:

– Those men are obstinate by nature, conceited, and arrogant. Even if you are put to death, how can we be certain that they will submit?

The official of the inner court said:

– The teachings of the Great Sage are reverently followed by celestial beings and spirits alike. If the sacrifice of one minor official can bring about a great transformation, it should be done. If such a transformation truly occurs, who would dare oppose it or remain conceited and arrogant?

The king said:

– We wish to foster what is good and put an end to what is evil. Must traitorous men and loyal ministers alike suffer harm?

The official of the inner court said:

– I shall sacrifice myself to fulfill the principles of human conduct and establish a model for the ministers and the people. How much more so when the sun of the Buddha’s wisdom shines perpetually, enabling the royal throne to endure even longer? The day of my death will be like the year of my birth.

The king praised him exceedingly, saying: “Though you are an ordinary man, your mind is remarkably enlightened.” The king and Yeomchok then joined together in making a great vow. The king immediately issued an order to build a monastery in the district of Heavenly Mirror, and the official in charge respectfully received the royal decree and began construction. When news of this reached the ministers, they immediately remonstrated.

The king said:

– We issued no such order.

Yeomchok said:

– I deliberately did this. If the Buddhadharma is allowed to flourish, the nation will be peaceful, the people will enjoy happiness, and it will benefit the governance of the country and the welfare of the age. Have I committed an offense by making the nation prosper?

The king then convened all the ministers to question them about the matter. They all said: “Today we see members of the Sangha shaving off their hair and beards and wearing robes of subdued colors. The people discuss this among themselves, saying that it is strange and that this path is not something we have commonly seen.

If we hastily follow it, we fear that we shall regret it later. Even under penalty of death, we, your ministers, dare not comply with this decree.” Yeomchok boldly declared: “The ministers’ arguments are incorrect. Only when there is an extraordinary person can there afterward be an extraordinary deed.

I have heard that the Buddhadharma is profound and wondrous; therefore, it must be propagated. Moreover, how could swallows and sparrows ever comprehend the lofty aspirations of swans and wild geese?”

The king said:

– The views of the multitude are firmly held and cannot be altered. Only you speak differently; We shall follow neither side.

The king immediately ordered that Yeomdok be put to death. Yeomdok looked up to heaven and vowed: “I am losing my life for the sake of the Buddha-Dharma. May this righteous deed bring abundant benefit; if the Buddha possesses spiritual powers, then when I die, many wondrous signs will appear.” When he was beheaded, his head flew to Diamond Mountain and fell there.

White milk spurted from it to a height of several tens of fathoms; the sunlight suddenly grew dark, precious flowers rained from the sky, and the earth trembled. The king, officials, and all the people were terrified by these celestial transformations, and, grieving that an official who revered the Dharma had lost his life, they wailed and wept bitterly. In accordance with the king’s command, the ministers took his body to Diamond Mountain and performed the burial rites.

Upon arriving there, the king and officials vowed: “From this day forward, we shall serve the Buddha and take refuge in the Sangha. Whoever violates this vow shall be struck dead by heavenly spirits and demonic beings.” The noble-minded say: “The Great Sage responds to the destined cycles of hundreds of thousands of years. When a compassionate heart gives rise to blessings and a righteous deed is transformed into an auspicious sign, nothing fails to evoke a response: heaven and earth become harmonious, and yin and yang stir even ghosts and spirits—how much more so human beings!

Whenever people have faith in the Way, heaven and earth cannot but respond; thus merit will be accomplished and the undertaking will flourish. When something good is at stake, one may, for the sake of righteousness, regard one’s life—though weighty as Mount Tai—as lightly as a goose feather. How heroic!

He died precisely as he wished.” That year, the king issued a decree prohibiting the taking of life. (This account is based on the National History and the Comparative Deliberations on the Ancient Various Biographies.)

In the twenty-first year, the king ordered trees in the Celestial Mirror Forest to be felled for the construction of a monastery. While the site was being cleared, a stone block serving as a pillar base, stone niches, and steps were discovered beneath the ground. Indeed, in ancient times there had already been the foundation of an old temple here, and its pillars and rafters had all been made from timber from this forest.

When the craftsmen had completed the monastery, the king handed the throne to another and then left home to become a monk, changing his name to Beopgong. He constantly kept the three robes and alms bowl in mind; his aspiration was lofty, and he was endowed with both compassion and wisdom. The temple was therefore named Great King Heungnyun Monastery, because the great king resided there.

This was the first monastery established in the kingdom of Silla. The queen also revered the Buddha-Dharma and left home to become a nun at Yeongheung Monastery. From then onward, the Buddha-Dharma spread widely.

The king’s posthumous title was Beopheung, “Flourishing Dharma,” and this was no empty praise. Thereafter, every memorial anniversary of Yeomdok was observed at Heungnyun Monastery. The king posthumously elevated Yeomdok to a rank equal to that of royal descendants of ancient times.

The prime minister, Kim Ryang, had faith in the Buddha-Dharma and sent his two daughters, named Hwabo and Ryeonbo, to serve in this monastery. Moreover, the officials who had opposed the king, regardless of whether their rank was high or low, and those two classes of lowly persons still remain in service to this day. When I traveled to the Eastern Capital and ascended the summit of Diamond Mountain, I saw the desolate grave and was so deeply moved that I could not restrain myself.

That day, the mountain recluses had gathered for a meal. I asked them, “Why are you holding this feast?” They replied: “Today is the memorial anniversary of an official who died long ago. Remembering the profound kindness we owe him, we have prepared this feast.” According to the inscription of Master Ado, when King Beopheung left home, his Dharma name was Beopun and his Dharma style-name was Beopgong.

Here, following the National History and the Biographies of Extraordinary Events, the material has been divided into two biographies. Those who delight in ancient accounts are asked to examine this carefully.

Note:

Generally speaking, when a king establishes a religious policy for his subjects, his essential purpose is to bring them well-being. No king fails first to consider his people and examine whether the matter will benefit them or not and whether it is worthy of belief or not. Thus, although Wonjong wished to inaugurate Buddhism, obstacles at court delayed its propagation.

Yet, relying upon the power of his vows and his exalted position, and aided by the exhortations of a worthy minister, he was finally able to bring what was good to benefit all under heaven. He may be compared with Emperor Ming of Han. How magnificent!

Why, then, was the remonstrance made: “It is inappropriate to compare him with Emperor Wu of Liang”? Emperor Wu of Liang, although he occupied the position of lord over the myriad people, behaved very much like a servant of the monasteries, and thus his imperial enterprise came to an end. Beopgong, by contrast, transmitted the throne to his successor and himself left home to become a sramana—what difficulty could this present to us?

Yeomdok once maintained that a king and a bhiksu differ only in outward appearance, while their fundamental nature is one. It was as though a hand swept away the obscuring clouds, allowing the wisdom-sun of the nature of emptiness to shine forth—all through the merit of Yeomdok.

8. Bhiksu Beopun

The master’s secular name was Gongneungjong, and his posthumous title was Jinheung. He was the son of King Galmun and also the nephew of King Beopheung. His mother belonged to the Kim clan.

He ascended the throne at the age of seven. He was benevolent and magnanimous, possessed right faith, served the Three Jewels, respected the worthy and virtuous, eliminated evil, and destroyed falsehood. Seven years after he ascended the throne, the construction of Heungnyun Monastery^[86] was completed, and he permitted people to leave home and become monks and nuns.

In the eighth year, he ordered Daea and Japchan Geochilbu to compile all the documents of the kingdom and compose a national history. In the twelfth year, the Liang emperor dispatched an envoy, and the monk Gakdeok^[87], who had studied abroad, brought relics of the Buddha back to the kingdom. The king of Goguryeo sent his ministers ahead along the road to reverently escort them to Heungnyun Monastery.

In the fourteenth year, the king ordered the governor to construct a new palace east of Wolseong. A yellow dragon^[88] suddenly appeared on the land designated for the palace, so the king had misgivings and instead had a monastery built there, naming it Yellow Dragon Monastery. In the twenty-sixth year, the Chen emperor sent the envoy Liu Si and the monk Mingguan, who brought seven hundred fascicles of sutras and treatises to Goguryeo.

In the twenty-seventh year, the two monasteries of Jetavana and True Reality were completed. At the same time, Yellow Dragon Monastery was also completed. In the tenth month of the thirty-third year, the king held an Eight Precepts Assembly outside the monastery for the warriors who had fallen in battle; it lasted seven days before being concluded.

In the thirty-fifth year, the king had a Buddha image sixteen feet tall cast at Yellow Dragon Monastery.

Some traditions also relate: “King Ashoka’s ship carried pure gold to Tỳ Phố and contributed it toward casting that statue.”^[89] This account is recorded in the Biography of Từ Tạng. In the thirty-sixth year, that Buddha image, sixteen feet tall, shed tears that flowed down to its feet. In the thirty-seventh year, on the first day of the first month, Nguyên Hoa was presented as the First Lang.

At first, the king and his ministers were troubled because they did not know whom to select. They wished to send groups of people everywhere to seek persons possessing such a bearing and recommend them for important service. Eventually, they selected two beautiful young women, one named Nam Vô and the other Tuấn Trinh.

Before a gathering of more than three hundred people, the two women contended over which of them was the more beautiful. At that time, Tuấn Trinh led Nam Vô away, forced her to drink until thoroughly intoxicated, and then pushed her into a river and killed her. Indignant at this deed, everyone dispersed.

Not long afterward, they selected a handsome young man, applied powder and rouge to his face, and installed him as a Hwarang. People assembled around him; some studied the principles of the Way, while others joyfully sang together and wandered among mountains and rivers, leaving no place unvisited. In this way, the uprightness or perversity of each person became known.

From among them, talented persons were then selected and recommended to the royal court. Thus, the Great Questions on the Affairs of the Golden Age records: “The worthy assisted loyal ministers, and from among them talented men and capable generals emerged.” In his preface to the stele of Nallang, Choe Chiwon wrote: “Within the country there is a wondrous Way called ‘Pungnyu.’ This Way encompasses all Three Teachings^[90] and transforms sentient beings.

To be filial toward one’s parents at home and loyal to the country abroad is the essential teaching of the Master of Lu’s Hill^[91]. Regarding the unconditioned Dharma, to act without speaking is the doctrine of the Scribe of the Zhou Pillar^[92]. To commit no evil and practice every good is the transforming instruction of the Prince of India^[93].”

Furthermore, the Record of the Kingdom of Silla by Linghu Cheng of the Tang states: “They selected handsome sons and younger brothers of noble families, applied rouge and powder, adorned them, and installed them under the name Hwarang. All the people of the country honored such a person. This was the king’s method of moral transformation.

From the First Lang until the end of Silla, there were more than two hundred such men, among whom were four immortals of outstanding virtue.” Moreover, the Chronicles records: “The king ascended the throne while still young and devotedly honored and served the Buddha-Dharma. In old age, he shaved his head, renounced household life, and became a śramaṇa. Wearing Dharma robes, he styled himself Beopun, strictly observed the precepts, and purified the three kinds of karma.

When his life ended, the people of the country performed his funeral rites on the mountain north of Aigong Monastery.” That year, Dharma Master Anham^[94] arrived from the Sui realm and began to propagate the Buddha-Dharma widely.

Notes:

Customs are of great importance to the people of the world. For a king to transform the people of his time is as easy as water flowing downward. When a current flows strongly, who can obstruct it?

At first, King Jinheung greatly revered the Buddha-Dharma, and so he established the Hwarang. All the people of the country delighted in emulating them, as though seeking a place filled with jewels or ascending the Terrace of Spring. They necessarily relied upon them to abandon evil and practice good, wholeheartedly following the principles of the teaching and gradually advancing toward the Great Way.

Emperor Ai of the Han merely delighted in physical beauty; therefore, Ban Gu said: “Beauty unsettles the human will, and this does not pertain only to women, for men too may be beautiful.” Consequently, when discussing these matters, they cannot be regarded as identical.

Annotations:

^[1] Five Eyes 五目 (also called the five kinds of vision): 1. the fleshly eye, 2. the divine eye, 3. the wisdom eye, 4. the Dharma eye, and 5. the Buddha eye.

^[2] Four Unobstructed Understandings 四無礙解 (S. catasraḥ pratisaṃvidaḥ): four kinds of ability to understand principles—that is, discerning wisdom—and to express them in language—that is, eloquence—freely and without impediment. Because all four have wisdom as their essence, they are called the Four Unobstructed Wisdoms; when spoken of in terms of the capacity for understanding, they are called the Four Unobstructed Understandings.

^[3] Tuṣita Heaven 兜率天 (S. Tuṣita): a heaven within the Desire Realm, situated between the Yāma Heaven and the Heaven of Delight in Transformation. This heaven is divided into two parts: the Inner Court is the Pure Land of Bodhisattva Maitreya, while the Outer Court is a place of enjoyment for the celestial hosts.

^[4] King Zhao of Zhou 周昭王: (995 BCE–977 BCE)

^[5] Avataṃsaka Sūtra 華嚴經 (S. Buddhāvataṃsaka-mahāvaipulya): an important scripture of Mahayana Buddhism and also the Dharma teaching of the Tathagata’s own inner realization, which he expounded to eminent bodhisattvas such as Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī and Bodhisattva Samantabhadra after attaining enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree.

^[6] Prajnaparamita Sūtras 般若經 (S. Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra): scriptures that expound the principles of the perfection of wisdom.

^[7] Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra 解深密經 (S. Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra): a scripture in five fascicles, translated by Xuanzang during the Tang dynasty in China and included in volume 16 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This scripture belongs to the middle period of Mahayana Buddhism. Its contents are divided into eight chapters.

^[8] Lotus Sūtra 法華經: a scripture in seven or eight fascicles, comprising twenty-eight chapters, translated by Kumārajīva during the Later Qin dynasty and included in volume 9 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. Its principal content is the revelation that enables sentient beings to awaken to and enter the Buddha’s knowledge and vision—that is, it advocates the teaching that the Three Vehicles converge in the single Buddha Vehicle. This scripture harmonizes the views of the Lesser Vehicle and the Mahayana and employs numerous skillful means to reveal the wondrous Dharma of the Buddha.

^[9] Nirvana Sūtra 涅槃經 (S. Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra): comprising forty fascicles, translated by Dharmakṣema in 421 during the Northern Liang dynasty in China and included in volume 12 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This scripture expounds such teachings as the eternal abiding of the Tathagata, that all sentient beings possess Buddha-nature, and that icchantikas attain Buddhahood…

^[10] Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī 文殊菩薩 (S. Mañjuśrī): a bodhisattva deeply connected with the Prajnaparamita scriptures and one of the four great bodhisattvas of Chinese Buddhism.

^[11] Maudgalyāyana 目犍連 (S. Mahāmaudgalyāyana; also called Mahā-Maudgalyāyana): one of the Buddha’s ten great disciples, foremost in supernormal powers.

^[12] Zhendan 震旦: the name by which India called China in ancient times.

^[13] King Mu 穆王: King Mu of the Zhou dynasty. (976 BCE–922 BCE)

^[14] Qionglin 瓊林: refers to a forest. The ancients regarded it as a Buddha-land whose magnificent scenery resembled a celestial realm.

^[15] Aśvaghoṣa 馬鳴 (S. Aśvaghoṣa): the twelfth patriarch entrusted with the Dharma treasury; also a great treatise master and Buddhist poet. Born into a Brahmin family, he came from the city of Sāketa in the kingdom of Śrāvastī in Central India.

^[16] Dignāga 陳那 (S. Dignāga, Dinnāga): a great Indian treatise master who lived during the fifth and sixth centuries and brought the Buddhist science of logic in India to its full development. He came from the region of Hương Chí in southern India and was born into a Brahmin family.

^[17] Dharmapāla 護法 (S. Dharmapāla): an eminent Indian monk who lived around the sixth century. A native of Kāñcīpura, he was the son of a chief minister of the kingdom of Drāviḍa in southern India and was one of the ten great treatise masters of Yogācāra.

^[18] India 印度 (S. Indu): a large peninsula situated south of the Himalayas, extending southward from the center of the Asian continent.

^[19] King Aśoka (Aśoka-rāja 阿育王, S: Aśoka): the third king of the Maurya dynasty in Magadha, Central India. He was born around the third century BCE, unified India, and was the figure who made the greatest contribution to the protection and support of Buddhism.

^[20] Eastern India 東天竺國: one of the five regions of India.

^[21] Jambudvīpa 閻浮提 (S: Jambu-dvīpa): the realm where many jambu trees grow and where Jambūnada gold is produced. Jambudvīpa originally referred to India and later came to refer generally to the human world.

^[22] King Jing of Zhou 周敬王: (519 BCE–476 BCE)

^[23] Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇: (259 BCE–210 BCE), whose personal name was Ying Zheng, is regarded as the first emperor in Chinese history because he conquered the fragmented vassal states of the Warring States period, unified them, and established a great empire.

^[24] Xianyang 咸陽: a province in China.

^[25] Kāśyapa Mātaṅga 迦葉摩騰 (S: Kāśyapa Mātaṅga): the first eminent monk to transmit Buddhism to China. He was from Central India, was born into a brahmin family, and thoroughly understood many Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures.

^[26] Zhu Falan 竺法蘭: an eminent Indian monk who went to China to translate scriptures during the Eastern Han dynasty. He recited tens of thousands of chapters of sutras and treatises and was a master among the scholars of India.

^[27] The Nine Provinces 九州: in ancient times, China was divided into nine provinces: Ji Province, Gun Province, Qing Province, Xu Province, Yang Province, Jing Province, Yu Province, Liang Province, and Yong Province.

^[28] The Biography of Huo Qubing 霍去病傳: a biography from the Han dynasty. Its contents recount that the King of Xiutu made offerings to a golden image whose appearance resembled a golden Buddha image.

^[29] King Xiutu 休屠王: the title of a king of the Xiongnu.

^[30] Emperor Ai 哀帝: an emperor of the Han dynasty (Liu Xin, died 1 BCE).

^[31] Qin Jing 秦景: Qin Jing was one of Wang Zun’s twelve disciples. He traveled through the country of the Yuezhi, copied the Sutra in Forty-Two Sections, and brought it back to his country.

^[32] The country of the Yuezhi (Yuezhi Kingdom 月氏國; also called Rouzhi): located west of India.

^[33] Emperor Ming 明帝: an emperor of the Han dynasty (Liu Zhuang, 29–75/76).

^[34] Haedong 海東: the region comprising three countries: 1. Silla, 2. Baekje, 3. Goguryeo.

^[35] Goguryeo 高句麗: the name of an ancient kingdom, now Korea.

^[36] Shundao 順道: an eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He vowed to propagate the teachings and employed the power of loving-kindness and patient endurance to liberate sentient beings. He traveled throughout the country, tirelessly teaching people. In 372, at the command of King Fu Jian of the Former Qin, he accompanied envoys carrying Buddha images and scriptures to Pyongyang, in the kingdom of Goguryeo.

^[37] Mālānanda 摩羅難陀 (S: Mālānanda): an eminent Indian monk and the first person to transmit the Buddha-Dharma to the kingdom of Baekje. In 384, when King Chimnyu, the fifteenth ruler of Baekje, ascended the throne, Mālānanda came from China to that kingdom to propagate the Buddha-Dharma.

^[38] The kingdom of Baekje 百濟國: the name of an ancient kingdom, now Korea.

^[39] King Chimnyu 枕流王: a king of Baekje; in 384, King Chimnyu, the fifteenth ruler, ascended the throne.

^[40] Silla 新羅: refers to the ancient Korean kingdom.

^[41] Ado 阿道: an eminent monk of the Eastern Jin dynasty. According to some accounts, he was either a native of India or of Goguryeo. His bearing was extraordinary, and his miraculous transformations were exceedingly wondrous; while he preached the scriptures, flowers would often rain down. In 374, during the Eastern Jin dynasty, he went to Goguryeo. The following year, King Sosurim built Yibullan Monastery and invited him to serve as its abbot. From that time onward, Buddhism began to spread widely throughout Korea.

^[42] Wongwang 圓光: (532–630), an eminent monk of Silla belonging to the Shelun school, whose family name was Park. At the age of twenty-five, he traveled by ship to Jinling. In 589, he arrived in Chang’an, at a time when the Shelun doctrine was beginning to flourish. He therefore studied this treatise to its utmost depths, and his renown spread ever farther. Hearing of his reputation, the king of Silla issued an edict inviting him to return to his country. In his later years, he served as abbot of Hwangnyong Monastery and propagated the Dharma. He passed away in 630 at the age of ninety-nine.

^[43] Jajang 慈藏: an eminent monk of Silla whose family name was Kim. Born into the Silla royal clan, he developed the aspiration to leave the household life at an early age. After both his parents died, he bade farewell to his wife and children and built Eomnyeong Monastery on the grounds of his garden. At that very time, the king conferred upon him the office of Daebu. In 634, he led ten disciples, including Seungsil, to China.

^[44] The Three Han 三韓: during the Han dynasty, the state of Mahan was situated in southern Korea, as was Jinhan. During the Three Kingdoms period, there was also the state of Byeonhan; collectively, they were called the Three Han.

^[45] Taizu 太祖: the first person to found a dynasty.

^[46] State Preceptor Daegak 大覺國師: see the stele inscription of State Preceptor Daegak. While serving as crown prince, he requested permission to enter monastic life. Only after he reached the Song realm did he penetrate the teachings of five schools: Xianshou, Bodhidharma, Tiantai, Ci’en, and Nanshan. He later went to Sizhou to venerate the stupa of Sengqie and to Tianzhu Monastery to venerate the image of Avalokitesvara; both emitted light.

^[47] The Five Teachings 五教: five categories into which the teachings preached by the Buddha throughout his lifetime are divided. According to the system established by Master Xianshou, they are: 1. the Hinayana Teaching, 2. the Initial Mahayana Teaching, 3. the Final Mahayana Teaching, 4. the Sudden Teaching, and 5. the Perfect Teaching. There are also many other differing explanations…

^[48] King Fu Jian 符堅王: king of the Former Qin during China’s Eastern Jin period, whose courtesy names were Yonggu and Wenyu. He was widely learned and highly talented, possessed lofty aspirations, and was tolerant and magnanimous. He had profound faith in the Three Jewels, treated eminent monks generously, and delighted in hearing the Dharma preached. He once dispatched people to convey Buddhist scriptures and Buddha images to Goguryeo, initiating the propagation of the Buddha-Dharma in that country and in Japan. Even when he was about to be killed, he first arranged his robes and paid homage to the Buddha before dying.

^[49] Eastern Yi 東暆: China.

^[50] Yibullan Monastery 伊弗蘭寺: a monastery in Pyongyang, Korea, built in 375 when King Sosurim, the seventeenth ruler of Goguryeo, ascended the throne. This monastery and Chomun Monastery were the first Buddhist monasteries constructed by Goguryeo. Master Ado, who lived during China’s Jin dynasty, served as its first abbot.

^[51] Kang Senghui 康僧會: a renowned Vietnamese monk from Jiaozhi whose ancestors came from Kangju (northern Xinjiang), who went to China to translate scriptures during the Three Kingdoms period. He was intelligent and diligent in cultivation and study; his knowledge surpassed that of others. He was thoroughly versed in the Buddhist Tripitaka, Confucianism, Daoism, astronomy, geography, and even the construction of mechanical devices. He was proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese and was gifted in preaching and debate; consequently, many people took refuge under him and received his teachings. In 280, he passed into nirvana. His disciples erected a stupa in his honor, and the king conferred upon him the posthumous title “Chan Master of Transcendent Transformation.”

^[52] Dharma Master Zhi Dun 支遁法師: an eminent Chinese monk and scholar. His family name was Guan, his courtesy name was Lin, and he was a native of Chenliu, Kaifeng County, Henan Province. Another account states that he was from Linlü, Hedong (Zhangde, Henan).

Later, his master changed his surname to Zhi, and people called him the Daoist Zhi and Zhi Daolin. His family reverently believed in the Buddha Dharma. He understood the principle of impermanence from an early age and lived in seclusion on Mount Yuhang in Kuaiji, devoting himself to the study of scriptures belonging to the Prajnaparamita tradition.

At the age of twenty-five, he entered monastic life and went to the capital, Jiankang. Whenever he lectured on a sutra, he clearly set forth its central purport and was therefore praised by renowned scholars. In 362, Emperor Ai invited him to serve as abbot of Dong’an Monastery in the imperial capital and lecture on the Dao Xing Prajnaparamita Sutra.

In 366, he passed away at Mount Yuyaowu at the age of fifty-three. His writings included the Treatise on the Profound Meaning of the Four Forms, the Treatise on the Inability of the Sage to Discern Knowledge, the Guide to the Dao Xing, and the Admonitions for Studying the Way, among others.

^[53] Beidu 杯渡: a Chinese Chan master who lived during the Jin dynasty and was a native of Jizhou. He often sat upon a wooden bowl to cross rivers; therefore, people called him Venerable Beidu and Chan Master Beidu.

^[54] Fashang 法上: an eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Northern Dynasties. His family name was Liu, and he was a native of Chaoge (present-day Qi County, Henan Province). At the age of nine, reading the Nirvana Sutra inspired in him the aspiration to transcend worldly life.

At the age of twelve, he entered monastic life under Chan Master Daoyao and devoted himself wholeheartedly to cultivation. His spirit was pure and lofty, and he thoroughly comprehended doctrinal principles, so people called him the holy novice. He later received full ordination under Vinaya Master Huiguang.

Because he had mastered doctrinal meanings, he lectured upon and composed commentaries on sutras and treatises such as the Treatise on the Sutra of the Ten Grounds, the Lankavatara Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra. Throughout the Wei and Qi dynasties, he served as Sangha Administrator of the Zhaoxuan Bureau, managing the affairs of the monastic community for nearly forty years and overseeing more than forty thousand monasteries and over two million monks and nuns.

He passed away in 580 at the age of eighty-six.

^[55] The Book of Changes 經易: a very ancient Chinese classic. It describes the philosophical and cosmological system of ancient China. Its fundamental philosophical thought is based on balance achieved through opposition and change or transformation. In the West, many people understand the Book of Changes merely as a system of divination, but in essence it is an expression of the knowledge, understanding, and philosophy of the ancient Chinese.

^[56] Confucian learning 儒學: the teachings of the Confucian scholars; those who follow the way of Confucius and Mencius.

^[57] Daoist learning 道學: the teachings of Daoism.

^[58] Dingguo Monastery (Dingguo-si 定國寺): a monastery in Zhangde, Henan Province, China, built by Gao Huan during the Eastern Wei dynasty to commemorate his victory over Erzhu Rong. Eminent monks such as Daoqin of the Northern Qi dynasty and Lingyu of the Sui dynasty once resided at this monastery.

^[59] Treatise on the Ten Grounds 十地論 (S: Daśabhūmikasūtra-śāstra; also called: Treatise on the Sutra of the Ten Grounds): a treatise in twelve fascicles composed by Vasubandhu of India and translated by Bodhiruci and Ratnamati during the Northern Wei dynasty. It is included in volume 26 of the Taisho Tripitaka. Its contents explain the stages of bodhisattva cultivation and maintain that the ten grounds encompass all virtuous dharmas. Of these, the first three grounds concern worldly virtuous dharmas; the next four concern the characteristics of cultivation in the Three Vehicles; and the final three concern the teaching of the One Vehicle.

^[60] Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom 大智度論 (S: Mahāprajñāpāramitaśastra): a work in one hundred fascicles composed by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna and translated by Kumarajiva during the Later Qin dynasty in China. It is included in volume 25 of the Taisho Tripitaka. This treatise explains the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra.

^[61] Treatise on Upholding the Grounds 地持論 (S: Bodhisattva-bhūmi; also called: Sutra on the Bodhisattva Grounds): a scripture in ten fascicles, or eight fascicles, translated by Dharmaksema during the Northern Liang dynasty in China. It is included in volume 30 of the Taisho Tripitaka. The scripture clearly sets forth the means of cultivation for Mahayana bodhisattvas.

^[62] Treatise on the Diamond Prajnaparamita 金剛般若論 (S: Vajracchedikā-prajñāpāramitopadeśa; also called: Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra): a treatise in three fascicles composed by Bodhisattva Vasubandhu and translated by Bodhiruci during the Northern Wei dynasty. It is included in volume 25 of the Taisho Tripitaka. This work is a commentary on the verses of Venerable Asanga’s treatise on the Diamond Prajnaparamita Sutra.

^[63] Asanga 阿僧伽 (S: Asaṅga; also called: Wuzhu): the great treatise master who founded the Yogacara school of Indian Mahayana Buddhism. He lived around the fourth or fifth century and was a native of Purusapura in Gandhara, northern India.

^[64] Bodhisattva Maitreya 彌勒菩薩 (S: Maitreya): the bodhisattva bound to one more birth whom the Buddha predicted would attain perfect enlightenment in the future.

^[65] Dharmaksema 曇無懺 (S: Dharma-rakṣa): an eminent monk from central India who went to China and translated scriptures during the Northern Liang dynasty. He was born into a Brahmin lineage. At first, he practiced the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle and the five fields of knowledge. His explanations were penetrating, and his replies were fluent. Later, he met the White-Headed Chan Master and studied the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. At the age of twenty, he could recite more than two million words from Mahayana and Hinayana scriptures. He passed away at the age of forty-nine.

^[66] Kumarajiva 鳩摩羅什 (S: Kumārajīva): an eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty. A native of Kucha, he was one of the four great translators of Buddhist scriptures. Intelligent from childhood, he asked his mother for permission to enter the Buddhist path at the age of seven.

He later traveled to India and studied extensively under renowned and virtuous masters. Broadly learned and endowed with a retentive memory, his excellent reputation spread throughout the five regions of India. At that time, when King Fu Jian heard of the Master’s virtue, he dispatched General Lü Guang with an army to invite him.

Lü Guang conquered the kingdom of Kucha and invited Kumarajiva to return to Former Qin. Halfway there, however, he heard news concerning King Fu Jian, and Lü Guang proclaimed himself king in Hexi. The Master was detained in Liangzhou for sixteen to twenty-seven years.

In 401, when King Yao Xing defeated the Lü clan, the Master was finally escorted to Chang’an. King Yao Xing honored him as National Preceptor and had him reside in Xiaoyao Garden, where he devoted himself to translating scriptures. After residing in Chang’an for twelve years, he passed away at the age of seventy.

This occurred during the Jin dynasty, in 413; another account gives the year as 409.

^[67] Bodhiruci 菩提留支 (S: Bodhiruci): an eminent monk of the Northern Wei dynasty and a native of northern India. He was a scholar of the Mahayana Yogacara tradition. Naturally intelligent, he mastered the Tripitaka, was proficient in mantra arts, and early aspired to propagate the Dharma.

In 508, during the reign of Emperor Xuanwu of the Northern Wei dynasty, he arrived in Luoyang. The emperor held him in great esteem and invited him to reside at Yongning Monastery to undertake the translation of Sanskrit scriptures into Chinese. He translated thirty-nine works in 127 fascicles, including the Treatise on the Sutra of the Ten Grounds.

Later, he ceased translating and devoted himself solely to Chan contemplation. In 727, he went to reside at Zhangshu Monastery in Luoyang. In the ninth month of 727, he abstained from food and took no medicine, yet his countenance remained normal.

On the fifth day of the eleventh month, he quietly passed away at the age of 166; another account says 156. The emperor posthumously conferred upon him the office of Grand Minister of State Ceremonial and bestowed on him the posthumous title Tripitaka Master Kaiyuan, Omniscient One. He was an accomplished translator of Buddhist scriptures during the Tang dynasty.

^[68] Treatise on Discerning the Correct 辨正論: a work in eight fascicles composed by the monk Falin during the Tang dynasty. Its contents compare Confucianism with Buddhism.

^[69] Falin 法琳: an eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Tang dynasty. His secular surname was Chen, and he was a native of Yingchuan, now part of Xuchang, Henan Province. He entered monastic life at an early age, studied widely, and investigated Confucianism, Buddhism, and the thought of the Hundred Schools, being especially proficient in the three essential principles of the Three Treatise school.

During the Sui dynasty, in 601, he went to Chang’an to study Daoist arts. In 617, he exchanged his monastic robes for Daoist robes and took up residence in a Daoist temple. In 618, during the Tang dynasty, he returned to Buddhism.

In 636, by imperial command, he became abbot of Longtian Monastery and served as a recorder in the translation of scriptures. In 639, because of the slanderous accusations of Qin Shi’ang, he was imprisoned. After being released, he fell ill and passed away while traveling to Yibuzeng Monastery, at the age of sixty-nine.

He left behind works comprising more than thirty fascicles.

^[70] Guanzhong 關中: the name of a region in ancient times. It is now a branch of the Wei River in Shaanxi, China.

^[71] Venerable Faxian 法顯: an eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty. A native of Wuyang in Pingyang, now in Shanxi Province, China, his secular surname was Gong. He entered monastic life at the age of three and received the full precepts at the age of twenty. In 399, together with the Venerables Huijing, Daozheng, Huiying, Huiwei, and others, he departed from Chang’an, crossed the desert region and the Congling Mountains, and reached India in search of the Dharma.

^[72] Sanfu 三輔: the region near the imperial capital.

^[73] Chang’an 長安: the name of an ancient imperial capital. In the seventh year of Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty (200 BCE), the capital was established there.

^[74] Helian Bobo 赫連勃勃: a surname of the Xiongnu people. When the Xiongnu forces advanced southward, one of their men married the daughter of a Han Chinese family. His descendants adopted Liu as their surname. By the time of Liu Hu, his mother was a Xianbei, and northerners called those whose father was Xiongnu and whose mother was Xianbei “Tiefu.” Liu Hu therefore adopted Tiefu as his designation. In the third year of the Yixi era of the Eastern Jin dynasty ⁽⁴⁰⁷⁾, Liu Hu’s son Bobo, also called Quzi, proclaimed himself the Heavenly King of Great Xia. Ashamed to hear his family called “Tiefu,” he changed the surname to “Helian,” conveying the meaning “gloriously united with Heaven.”

^[75] Tuoba Tao 拓跋燾: a member of the Tuoba imperial clan during the Northern Wei dynasty.

^[76] Cui Hao of Boling 博陵崔浩: a chief minister during the Northern Wei dynasty. He was a native of Qinghe, now in Shandong Province, and his courtesy name was Boyuan. He studied the classics, histories, and the teachings of the Hundred Schools under his father.

He followed the practical sociopolitical thought of the Confucian school. In the eighth year of the Taichang era ⁽⁴²³⁾, after Emperor Taizong passed away, he received an official appointment. He subsequently formed an association with the Daoist master Kou Qianzhi, and both men gained the esteem of Emperor Taiwu.

Together they urged Emperor Taiwu to follow the Daoism of the Celestial Masters school. Cui Hao also counseled the emperor to eradicate Buddhism. In the seventh year of the Taiping Zhenjun era ⁽⁴⁴⁶⁾, Emperor Wu issued an edict ordering the eradication of Buddhism.

^[77] Huang-Lao 黃老: a collective designation for the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. Later Daoists revered them as founding patriarchs.

^[78] Sutra of the Miscellaneous Precious Treasury 雜寶藏經 (S: Saṃyukta-ratna-piṭaka-sūtra): a scripture in ten fascicles, or alternatively eight or thirteen fascicles, jointly translated by Kekaya and Tanyao during the Yuan Wei dynasty in China. It is included in volume 4 of the Taishō Canon. Its contents recount events concerning the Buddha and his disciples, as well as various circumstances arising after the Buddha entered nirvana.

^[79] Mingshilimudali 名室梨母怛梨: called Mount Three Seals during the Tang dynasty.

^[80] Song Biographies of Eminent Monks 宋高僧傳: a biographical collection in thirty fascicles, compiled by the Venerable Zanning (919–1002) during the Song dynasty in China and included in volume 50 of the Taishō Canon. It collects the biographies of eminent monks who lived over the span of 343 years, from the middle of the Zhenguan era (627–649) of the Tang dynasty through the year 988.

^[81] Buddha 佛陀 (S: Buddha): the general designation for all Buddhas of the three times and ten directions.

^[82] Dharma 達摩 (S: Dharma): the Dharma; the teachings or a method.

^[83] Sangha 僧伽 (S: Saṃgha): the disciples of the Buddha who have entered monastic life and cultivated the path, fully attaining morality, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge and vision of liberation, and who abide in the stages of the four approaches and four fruits; or a community of four or more bhikshus living harmoniously in the spirit of the Vinaya; or, in general, the sevenfold assembly of monastic and lay followers within the Buddhist community.

^[84] Patchwork robe 百衲衣: a robe worn by members of the Sangha, sewn together from many scraps of old, tattered cloth of various colors.

^[85] Saṃghārāma 伽藍 (S: Saṃghārāma; full Chinese transliteration: Tăng-già-lam-ma): a garden where the Sangha resides, commonly called a monastery.

^[86] Heungnyun Monastery 興輪寺: a monastery in Gyeongju City, North Gyeongsang Province, Korea. In 527, an official of the舍輪 rank named Pak Yeomchok was sentenced to death. At his execution, extraordinary signs appeared, causing the ministers to develop reverence for the Buddhadharma. After his death, the people performed his funeral rites and at the same time founded a monastery named Thích Thu. Between 534 and 544, a great monastery was completed and renamed Great Heungnyun Monastery. Later, King Jinheung and the queen entered monastic life and resided at this monastery, so the king bestowed upon it the title Great Royal Heungnyun Monastery. It was the first monastery of the kingdom of Silla.

^[87] Gakdeok 覺德: an eminent Silla monk who lived in the sixth century and once traveled to China to study the Dharma. In 549, together with envoys of the Liang dynasty, he brought relics of the Buddha from China back to the kingdom of Silla.

^[88] Yellow Dragon 黃龍: the name of a kind of animal found in ancient legends. Practitioners of apocryphal prophecy regarded it as an auspicious omen for a king.

^[89] King Aśoka (Aśoka-rāja 阿育王, S: Aśoka): the third king of the Maurya dynasty in the kingdom of Magadha in central India. He was born around the third century BCE, unified India, and was one of the figures who contributed most greatly to the protection and support of Buddhism.

^[90] Three Teachings 三教: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism.

^[91] Minister of Justice of Lu 魯司寇: Confucius held the office of Minister of Justice in the state of Lu.

^[92] Archivist of Zhou 周柱史: Laozi held the office of Archivist in the Zhou dynasty.

^[93] Crown Prince of India 竺乾太子: Buddha Śākyamuni.

^[94] Anham 安含: an eminent monk of the kingdom of Silla whose secular surname was Kim. From birth, he possessed awakening; his character was lofty and pure, and he delighted in traveling widely, observing the particular customs of each place and teaching accordingly. In the twenty-second year of King Jinpyeong’s reign, he and Hyesuk crossed the sea toward China, but dangerous winds and waves forced them to return.

The following year, he was selected as a monk to study abroad and accompanied an envoy by ship across the sea to China, where he met Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty. The emperor granted him residence at Daxingsheng Monastery. In approximately five years, he thoroughly mastered the scriptures and teachings.

In the ninth year of Queen Seondeok’s reign, he passed away at the Manseon practice center, at the age of sixty-two.