重治毗尼事義集要

I. RULES CONCERNING ROBES^[1]

The following ten kinds of rag-robes may be used^[2]:

1) A robe chewed by cattle.

2) A robe gnawed by mice.

3) A robe damaged by fire.

4) A menstrual cloth.

5) A childbirth cloth.

6) A robe from a spirit shrine.

7) A robe from a burial ground, carried away to various places by birds or blown away by the wind.

8) A votive robe^[3].

9) A robe received upon assuming royal office.

10) A returned robe.

– A dead person’s robe found in a grave should not be used.

– A rag-robe laid out to dry on a wall or fence should not be used, for it may have been washed and set out by a layperson.

– A robe found at a place of execution should not be used. After carrying out the execution, the executioner removes the corpse’s clothing and leaves it there, and only afterward may it be taken.

– The robe of a corpse that has not yet decomposed should not be taken. One should not trample a corpse that has not yet decomposed in order to destroy it and take its robe.

– Robes piled up by others should not be taken^[4] (that is, robes removed by laypeople).

– A rag-robe without an owner belongs to whoever takes it first. If several people take it together, they should divide it among themselves.

– Ornamental robes offered at a stupa should not be taken.

– Robes cut into pieces and sewn together may be used. If such a robe has not yet been washed, one may wash it oneself or ask another person to wash it. One may obtain washing implements, a washing board, and a knife for cutting the cloth.

– A five-panel robe should be used; a six-panel robe should not be used. A seven-panel robe should be used; an eight-panel robe should not be used. Thus, up to nineteen panels, a twenty-panel robe should not be used. A robe exceeding these prescribed numbers of panels should not be kept.

– A cloth four cubits long and two cubits wide may be used to make an antaravāsaka. A cloth three cubits wide and five cubits long may be used to make an uttarāsaṅga or saṅghāṭi. (The width is the vertical dimension, and the length is the horizontal dimension.)

QUESTION: The various schools all prescribe that a bhikshu’s three robes should measure three cubits vertically and five cubits horizontally. Nowadays, are Dharma robes not made beyond these dimensions, and if they are, is an offense committed? Moreover, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya says that a saṅghāṭi should have no more than nineteen panels, while the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya says no more than fifteen panels. Only the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya permits as many as twenty-five panels. Nowadays, the twenty-five-panel robe is universally called the highest of superior robes. Is this a prescribed standard?

ANSWER: The dimensions of three cubits by five cubits must certainly not be exceeded. Therefore, the Vinaya-saṃgraha says, “Whoever exceeds these dimensions commits an offense of wrongdoing.” Nowadays, although the vertical dimension of Dharma robes may not necessarily exceed three cubits, how could their horizontal dimension not exceed five cubits? Some further argue sophistically, “It accords with local custom.” One should know that when a robe is received and maintained in this manner, every step taken while wearing it constitutes a duṣkṛta offense.

Furthermore, in the Western Regions, a robe might be a rag-robe or one presented by a donor. In some cases, the cloth received was long and broad, so it could be divided into fewer panels. In other cases, the cloth received consisted of miscellaneous scraps^[5], so it had to be divided into more panels.

Not only do the Mahāsāṅghika and Dharmaguptaka Vinayas place no value on having many panels, but the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya likewise speaks only of the first three grades, the next three grades, and the final three grades; it never calls them superior, middling, and inferior. Moreover, the Brahmā’s Net Sutra mentions only the nine-panel, seven-panel, and five-panel kāṣāyas^[6]. The robe entrusted by the Buddha to the Patriarch Kāśyapa to transmit to Maitreya was likewise merely a thirteen-panel kāṣāya made of gold-colored silk.

How much labor and material are now wasted on a twenty-five-panel robe! It is truly lamentable and absurd!

– When sewing new robes, the antaravāsaka and uttarāsaṅga should be made with one layer, and the saṅghāṭi with two layers. If the cloth is old, the antaravāsaka and uttarāsaṅga should be made with two layers, and the saṅghāṭi with four layers. If it is a rag-robe, it may have as many or as few layers as desired.

– If one receives an uncut robe^[7] of adequate length and width, but cutting it into pieces would leave insufficient cloth, one may sew overlapping leaf-shaped pieces onto it to form the prescribed number of panels.

– One should not enter a village without wearing a cut-and-sewn robe. One should not enter a village wearing a robe inside out. Outside a village, one may wear it inside out.

– One should not wear only a single robe, except when going to relieve oneself.

– One should not wear a robe of five colors; a robe made of grass, leather, tree bark, leaves, jeweled ornaments, vulture feathers, human hair, horse-tail hair, or yak-tail hair.

– A torn robe may be mended. One may wear a robe patched with many layers, applying patches according to the size and the square or round shape of the tear.

– If a layperson brings a robe and says, “This robe is for the bhikshu named...,” and the bhikshu says, “I do not need it,” the layperson should place the robe before the bhikshu and depart. In such a case, for the donor’s sake, the bhikshu may fold it with his own hands and put it away. When it is needed, he may formally receive and maintain it.

– If a valuable robe is spread on the ground, one should not tread upon it. A valuable robe should not be used to cover the ground. It may be used as a sleeping blanket, seat, pillow, or covering placed over another robe.

– It should not be made into a canopy with curtains hanging on the four sides of a room. It should not be made into eaves curtains hung around a dwelling.

One may obtain a broad, colored kāṣāya belt three finger-widths wide and wrap it three times around the waist. If the cord is too thin and easily breaks from frequent tying, a fastener should be made for securing it, but it should not be fashioned from precious materials.

– In cold weather, one may wear a warm garment made of two layers of cloth with cotton padding between them. In countries with frost and cold, one may wear socks and a warm cap.

– If one’s body is covered with foul-smelling sores, one may obtain a body towel. If one’s face is soiled, one may obtain a face towel. If an illness causes the eyes to water, one may obtain a cloth for wiping away tears.

The Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya says:

A surplus out-of-season robe should be offered to the Sangha. If one has too many robes during the proper season, half should be offered to the Sangha.

To carry only the three robes and an alms bowl is to have few desires and few concerns.

The borders and edgings sewn onto a robe should be no more than four finger-widths wide and no less than the width of a large grain of rice. A

five-panel robe should have one long section and one short section; robes of seven through thirteen panels should have two long sections and one short section; a fifteen-panel robe should have three long sections and one short section.

The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya says:

Protect the Dharma robe as you would protect your own skin. It should be washed, dyed, mended, and used according to the requirements of each occasion.

There are nine kinds of saṅghāṭi, ranging from nine to twenty-five panels. The first three kinds have two long sections and one short section; the second three kinds have three long sections and one short section; and the final three kinds have four long sections and one short section. Such robes should be sewn and worn. Any robe exceeding these numbers becomes a mere patchwork covering.

The superior type measures three cubits vertically and five cubits horizontally. The inferior type measures two and a half cubits vertically and four and a half cubits horizontally. Dimensions between these two belong to the middling type. The dimensions of the uttarāsaṅga and antaravāsaka are likewise the same as those of the saṅghāṭi. There are also two kinds of antaravāsaka:

1) Two cubits vertically and five cubits horizontally.

2) Two cubits vertically and four cubits horizontally.

The Miscellaneous Matters section says:

Sew one loop at the shoulder and another at the front of the chest. The leaf-shaped pieces have three sizes: the largest is four finger-widths across, or as wide as the spread foot of a myna bird. The smallest is two finger-widths across, or as wide as a thumbnail. Anything between these two sizes is the middling size.

One should not wear the three robes while having one’s head shaved. A separate robe should be obtained for shaving the head. Alternatively, one may cover the body with a saṃkakṣikā^[8] while being shaved.

A robe bag should be used. The robe used frequently should be placed on top, and the one used less frequently beneath it.

A mosquito net for sitting in meditation should measure twelve cubits in circumference, with a canopy sewn across the top. It should be four cubits long and two cubits wide. It should hang down to an appropriate length according to the height of the person. Suspend it from a cord so that it hangs downward. Make an overlapping entrance, and when it is hot, use a fan. At the bottom, weigh down its edge with the edge of a mat so that mosquitoes cannot crawl inside.

The Sanghati robe holds the principal place among the robes. It should not be worn indiscriminately, but should be used on such occasions as entering a settlement, going on almsround, receiving a meal, entering the assembly, paying homage to a stupa, paying homage to the Buddha and Dharma, paying homage to one’s two teachers, and meeting fellow practitioners of the holy life; on these occasions one may wear the great robe. The Uttarasaṅga robe should be worn in clean places and when eating, and so forth. The Antarvasa robe may be worn at all times.

The Muktaka states:

Property such as cloth and other goods plundered by bandits from a merchant caravan and left behind must not be taken. If the leader of the caravan freely gives it, it may be accepted. The same applies in the case of the custodian of a charnel ground or a shrine.

The Vinaya permits bhikkhus to keep the following thirteen requisites:

1) The Sanghati robe (Saṅghāṭī).

2) The Uttarasaṅga robe (Uttarāsaṅga).

3) The Antarvasa robe (Antaravāsaka).

4) Nisidana (sitting cloth).

5) Lower garment (bathing cloth).

6) Short lower garment (Nivāsana).

7) Saṅkakṣikā (undergarment).

8) Auxiliary Saṅkakṣikā (short-sleeved undergarment).

9) Face-wiping cloth.

10) Body-wiping cloth.

11) Cloth for covering sores.

12) Cloth for shaving the head.

13) Cloth for taking medicine.

Each article should be designated by its own name when formally undertaking to retain it. Before a bhikkhu, one should say: “May the Venerable One take note. This is my Sanghati robe; I now undertake to retain it.

It has been sewn into a robe and made into an article for use.” Say this three times. All the other robes should be formally undertaken in accordance with this formula. Only for the cloth used when taking medicine should the words “on account of illness” be added.

Apart from these, if any additional kind of robe is acquired, one should declare it before the two teachers, assign it, and formally undertake to retain it. Before a bhikkhu, one should say: “May the Venerable One take note. I, the bhikkhu... possess this extra robe, which has not yet been assigned.

I now perform the proper act of assignment for it. Before the Venerable One, I assign it and entrust it to the bhikkhu... I now undertake to retain it.” Say this three times. (This concerns the formal assignment of property.)

If a robe is torn, it should be darned with thread. If it has holes, patches should be applied. If the inside is decayed, two pieces of cloth should be placed over it and sewn together. If it is too decayed to be patched, it should be torn into strips and made into lampwicks. Alternatively, it may be chopped finely, mixed with paste, and used to fill cracks and holes or to plaster walls. Using it in this way causes the merit and virtue of the donor to increase.

The Sarvastivada Treatise states:

When any of the three robes is torn, regardless of whether the hole is large or small, it must still be formally retained so long as its border remains unbroken. If an old robe has faded, it should still be retained. Dyeing it again afterward does not invalidate the formal undertaking.

Question: — It is presently handed down that when any of the three robes is torn, one is not permitted to darn or patch it oneself, and that when a bhikkhu passes away, his robes are hung upon a tree. What of these practices?

Answer: — Whatever the Vinaya permits should be practiced accordingly; whatever has not been established by the Vinaya should not be instituted on one’s own authority. To institute it oneself would be contrary to the Dharma. The prohibition against personally patching a torn robe derives from the Scripture of Five Hundred Questions^[9].

That work contains many errors, as was clearly explained in the first fascicle of this Vinaya. When a bhikkhu passes away, his three robes are given to the person who nursed him during his illness. This is clearly stated in the Vinaya; how could one act otherwise?

If one wished to avert the danger of the garuda^[10], the Dragon King would first have to come and request it. Or if one wished to tie it behind a child’s neck, the child’s parents would first have to come and request it. Hanging it high upon a tree truly serves no purpose, and no Vinaya is seen to record such a practice.

It is truly laughable! How could one avoid the offense of wasting the gifts of the faithful?

The Matrka states:

One must not keep a filthy and unclean rag robe. Upon obtaining a rag robe, one should wash, dye, mend, and properly clean it before formally undertaking to retain it.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states:

The three robes must be neither incomplete nor in excess. If they are incomplete, one commits a Dushkrita offense; if one keeps more than permitted, one commits a Nissaggiya Pacittiya offense.

Whether it is a rag robe or a robe given by a householder, it should be skillfully cut, repaired, darned, and patched, and offered as a specifically designated gift. If there is insufficient cloth for a robe, it should not be cut into sections; instead, lines should be sewn upon the surface of the cloth to form the robe’s prescribed panels: five panels, seven panels, nine panels, and so on up to fifteen panels.

The Five-Part Vinaya states:

One who wears the robe of a non-Buddhist ascetic commits a Sthulatyaya offense. If one did not know it was the robe of a non-Buddhist ascetic but it is nevertheless a kind of robe that the Buddha did not permit to be worn, it should be destroyed. If one knows that it is the robe of a non-Buddhist ascetic, it should be torn apart, spread upon the ground, and people should be told to tread upon it so that it quickly wears out.

Method of sewing: The panels on the left should overlap toward the left, the panels on the right should overlap toward the right, and the central panel should overlap toward both sides.

A mosquito net should be sewn according to the size of the bed, whether large or small.

A meditation belt should be no more than eight finger-widths wide and no less than five finger-widths narrow.

The three robes should be formally undertaken and retained. Undergarments, sleeping garments, rain-bathing garments, cloths for covering sores, mosquito nets, cloths spread upon a walking-meditation path, cloths for warding off lice, cloths spread upon small beds, sitting cloths, hand coverings, foot coverings, head coverings, body-wiping cloths, face-wiping cloths, needle-and-thread bags, bowl bags, bags for clogs and sandals, and water-strainer bags—all such cloth articles whose form resembles a robe should be formally undertaken and retained.

If one fears that the cold will cause an illness of the head, one is permitted to cover it with a robe and is also permitted to sew a cap. Once one is warm, it should no longer be worn.

Phula leggings should not be made too long; they are permitted to extend only above the ankles.

Upon receiving new cloth, one should first wash it, stretch it out and measure it, and only afterward cut, sew, and dye it, formally undertaking to retain it in accordance with the Dharma. It must not be used to wrap objects; it should be used solely to protect the delicate skin of the body.

The Samantapasadika states:

The three robes, once formally undertaken and retained, need not be formally assigned. A rain-bathing cloth may be formally retained for four months; after four months, it must be formally assigned. A Nisidana, once formally retained, need not be assigned.

A cloth for covering sores need not be assigned; once the sores have healed, it must be assigned. Bedding, once formally retained, need not be assigned. Miscellaneous small cloths, once formally retained, need not be assigned.

After relinquishing the three robes, when formally undertaking new robes, one must perform the formal assignment by body and speech before a bhikkhu. If no bhikkhu is present, one should hold the robe in one’s hand and personally recite the formula of assignment. If one recites the formula without holding the robe, the assignment is not valid.

The name of each robe should be stated when performing the assignment. Once any of the three robes has been relinquished and made into miscellaneous small cloths, those cloths should be formally assigned. Only one Nisidana may be formally undertaken and retained; one must not retain two.

As much or as little bedding as desired may be kept. Only one cloth for covering sores may be kept; several should not be kept. Two hand towels may be kept.

No offense is committed if miscellaneous small cloths, whether many or few, are declared and formally retained. Blankets, mats, and the like belong to the lodging and need not be formally assigned.

The Vinaya Compendium states:

Whenever robes are worn, three kinds of mind should be abandoned:

1) The mind that delights in admiring one’s appearance and seeking adornment.

2) The mind that uses them carelessly and contemptuously.

3) The mind that wears them while seeking fame and reputation—pretending to wear coarse and tattered robes so that others will call one virtuous and accomplished in practice.

These are the three states of mind that should not be aroused. One should seek only robes of subdued color, sufficient to protect the body, accord with the teaching of the Great Teacher, and diligently cultivate wholesome qualities. Five kinds of mind should be developed:

1) Knowing how to measure and moderate one’s use so that the robes are not damaged.

2) Knowing when to alternate them, rather than continually wearing a single robe until it becomes soiled and quickly decays.

3) Knowing how to reflect and contemplate that they were obtained only with difficulty. When using them, one should think of repaying the kindness received and refrain from unlawful conduct.

4) Knowing the proper time, using them appropriately in heat and cold.

5) Knowing the proper quantity: among the thirteen requisites, one should have only enough to

support the body; keeping many robes will foster greed and cause one to neglect the work of the Path.

II. RULES CONCERNING THE ALMS BOWL

The fourth section^[11] states:

If a bhikkhu enters the Sangha to partake of the meal but has no alms bowl, the one seated nearby should lend him one, or the Sangha of that dwelling place should lend him one.

One should not eat from an unwashed bowl.

A wooden bowl is the bowl of non-Buddhist ascetics and should not be kept. A stone bowl is the bowl of the Tathagata and should not be used. Bowls made of gold, silver, vaidurya, or the seven precious substances are bowls of laypeople and should not be used.

Bhikkhus are permitted to make bowls of tin, to keep all implements used for making bowls, and to smoke-treat their bowls.

A bowl should not be used to hold anything other than food.

One should not put away a bowl without washing it.

It is permitted to make a bag for carrying the bowl and a strap for suspending the bowl from the shoulder, with the bowl hanging beneath the armpit and its mouth facing forward.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states:

It is not permitted to make separate compartments within a bowl. If cakes or rice are used as dividers, there is no offense.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya states:

Protect the alms bowl as one protects the pupils of one’s eyes. When it needs coating, coat it; when it needs smoke-treatment, smoke-treat it.

The Sarvastivada Vinaya states:

The alms bowl represents the Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges; it should not be used to hold impure things.

The Mahisasaka Vinaya states:

After midday, one should not use the alms bowl for drinking. It is permitted to make a drinking vessel of copper, tin, or clay. It is also permitted to make a separate vessel for gruel.

III. DHARMA CONCERNING FOOD, DRINK, AND MEDICINE

The Medicine Khandhaka^[12] states:

When food permitted at the proper time^[13] is mixed with food permitted at the proper time or with food permitted outside the proper time^[14], it should be consumed as food permitted at the proper time. When food permitted outside the proper time is mixed with seven-day medicine^[15], it should be consumed as food permitted outside the proper time. When seven-day medicine is mixed with medicine permitted for the duration of one’s life^[16], it should be consumed as seven-day medicine. When medicine permitted for the duration of one’s life is mixed with medicine permitted for the duration of one’s life, it should be consumed as medicine permitted for the duration of one’s life.

One should not cook for oneself and consume it oneself. Within the boundary, one must not sleep in the same place as food or cook food for consumption. A pure kitchen should be established beside the quarters or in a secluded place for cooking.

A lay householder who owned an orchard transported various foods and drinks along the road as offerings to the Buddha and the Sangha. When passing through a vast and desolate wilderness, the food grew old, so he told someone to offer all of it to the bhikkhus. The bhikkhus reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha permitted them to bring the donor to mind and then accept it, having a kappiya attendant take it; they should not take it themselves. When needed, they could use it as appropriate.

– There are eight kinds of fruit juice:

1) Pear juice.

2) Jambu juice.

3) Jujube juice.

4) Sugarcane juice.

5) Persimmon juice.

6) Shaluka juice^[17].

7) Parushaka juice^[18].

8) Grape juice.

If it does not intoxicate a person, it may be drunk outside the proper time; if it intoxicates, it should not be drunk. One should also not accept fruit juice today and keep it until the following day to drink.

One should not eat fruit that has not been made pure. The five methods of purification should be applied^[19]:

1) Purification by fire (fire purification).

2) Purification by a knife (knife purification).

3) Purification by a lesion (lesion purification^[20]).

4) Purification through being pecked and broken by a bird (bird-pecking purification).

5) Purification by being a seed that will not germinate (non-germinating-seed purification).

When purification is performed by a knife, a lesion, or a bird’s pecking, the seed should be discarded and the fruit eaten; when purification is performed by fire or the seed will not germinate, the whole fruit may be eaten.

If someone offers a fruit orchard, the Sangha should accept it and entrust its management to the residents of the sangharama or to an upasaka. If they wish to receive a share, calculate it according to the value of their labor and give them their portion. A novice may also manage it.

If one swallows a seed while eating and, after defecation, that seed grows into a tree, there is no offense.

Bhikkhus planted vegetables and fruit, sowed seeds, and transplanted plants from one place to another; afterward, all of these were permitted for consumption.

Vessels containing ghee and vessels containing oil are permitted to be covered. If there is no kappiya attendant, one may hold the cord tied to the lid but should not touch it with one’s hand. (This refers to ghee and oil belonging to the Sangha, not to the kind of medicine permitted for seven days.)

One should not eat vegetables that have not been made pure, nor should one perform the purification oneself. One should not hold them in one’s own hand while telling another person to perform the purification. They should be placed on the ground and a kappiya attendant instructed to purify them. Once purified, they should be accepted and used.

One should not deliberately touch pure food and thereby render it impure. One who touches it commits a dushkrita. If that person does not touch it, there is no offense.

If a lay householder brings food and leaves it in a bhikkhu’s care, and later either eats it himself, takes it back, or gives it to the bhikkhu, the bhikkhu is permitted to accept it. If a sick bhikkhu needs gruel, he should have a kappiya attendant fetch water, obtain and thoroughly rinse the rice, and wash his hands clean before accepting it; afterward, the bhikkhu may cook it himself until it is done.

One must not sleep in the same place as gruel within the boundary, cook gruel within the same boundary, or cook it oneself. If the gruel has grown cold, it is permitted to reheat it. (Establishing the boundary of a pure kitchen avoids the two offenses of sleeping in the same place and cooking within the same boundary.)

If one intends to accept ghee (the essence of cream) but mistakenly accepts oil, or intends to accept oil but mistakenly accepts ghee, and so forth, the acceptance is invalid in every case.

When grain and rice are scarce, bhikkhus are permitted to do eight things:

1) Sleep in the same place as food within the boundary.

2) Cook food within the boundary.

3) Cook food with their own hands.

4) Accept food with their own hands.

5) Accept food early in the morning and, after eating their fill, eat more without performing the procedure for leftover food.

6) Carry away as much food as they wish from the place where food is received.

7) Eat grapes and similar fruits.

8) Eat edible food found in water^[21].

If grain and rice become readily available again, these are no longer permitted.

One should not eat merely according to personal preference or desire. A sick bhikkhu should take medicine permitted for the duration of one’s life.

The Bhikkhuni Khandhaka^[22] states:

Bhikkhunis are permitted to accept food from bhikkhus. Food kept overnight by a bhikkhuni becomes pure when given to a bhikkhu. Bhikkhus are likewise permitted to accept food from bhikkhunis. Food kept overnight by a bhikkhu also becomes pure when given to a bhikkhuni.

The fourth section states:

Food and drink intended as offerings to a stupa should be used by novices, upasakas, or those engaged in its construction^[23]. (Food and drink offered to a stupa must possess the three virtues and six flavors^[24]; if vegetables or fruit are still fresh, they must be made pure. Nowadays, it is most strange that people cook soybeans together with both their pods and residue and do not use vegetables as offerings. Bhikkhus are not permitted to use any objects offered to a stupa. This principle is not found solely in the Esoteric tradition.)

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states:

Garlic bulbs, garlic leaves, garlic cloves, raw garlic, and cooked garlic must not be eaten. If garlic is needed to treat scabies, it is permitted for such treatment. During treatment for scabies, one must remain in a secluded place and should not stay among the assembly.

Only after the scabies has healed and one has bathed and cleansed oneself may one return to the Sangha’s quarters. During illness, one should not use garlic; if the illness does not heal, its use is permitted. After using it, for seven days one may not lie upon the Sangha’s beds or mattresses or defecate in the Sangha’s latrine.

One may not enter the Sangha’s bathhouse, warming room, lecture hall, or dining hall; accept invitations according to one’s order in the Sangha; or attend any gathering whatsoever, including Dharma discourses and the uposatha. One may not circumambulate a stupa. If the stupa stands in an open area, one may remain downwind from it, face the stupa, and pay homage.

On the eighth day, one should bathe and fumigate one’s clothing before rejoining the assembly.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya states:

If one fasts for no reason, one commits an offense of transgressing the Dharma.

(QUESTION: Venerable Fu, whom people regarded as an incarnation of Maitreya, repeatedly fasted and practiced various austerities. Bodhisattva Zhiji likewise drank only water. If later generations imitate them, do they also incur an offense?

ANSWER: Master Fu practiced austerities and abstained from food because he wished to bear suffering in place of sentient beings. Bodhisattva Jizhi reduced his food intake and drank only water because he wished to subdue habitual afflictions. Even within the Esoteric tradition, there are many methods, none of which involve abstaining from food without cause; therefore, there is no offense. However, if one uses drinking only water, fasting, and so forth as a pretext for seeking fame and gain, this belongs to the category of wrong livelihood and constitutes an exceedingly grave offense.)

The Nidana states:

A lay attendant should be told to distribute the fruit to the Sangha. If there is no lay attendant, a novice should be appointed. If there is no novice, the fruit must first be made allowable; once a bhiksu has received it, he is permitted to distribute it himself.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states:

Food and drink that are not fully cooked should be cooked again. If food is still raw, it is permitted to make it allowable by fire before cooking it. What does it mean to make it allowable by fire? It means to bring it into contact with fire.

The Introduction to the Vinaya states:

There are five circumstances in which one is permitted to eat rock sugar^[25]:

1) After returning from a long journey.

2) When ill.

3) When one has eaten little.

4) When one is unable to eat.

5) In a place where only plain water is offered.

If one does not drink water, one is not permitted to eat it.

The Five-Part Vinaya states:

One should not climb a tree to touch or pick its fruit.

When a boat or cart is transporting food and drink, if there is no lay attendant to hold the reins and guide it, or to steer it, a bhiksu is permitted to hold the reins or steer it himself.

On one occasion, while the Sangha was using a cart to transport grain, a brahmin took a handful of grain belonging to the Sangha that had not been made allowable and threw it into the cart. The Buddha said, “If possible, it should be separated out and discarded. If it cannot be separated out, remove a handful and discard it.”

Food consisting of roots (根) may be made allowable in five ways:

1) Making it allowable by peeling.

2) Making it allowable by cutting.

3) Making it allowable by breaking.

4) Making it allowable by washing.

5) Making it allowable by fire.

Food consisting of stalks and leaves (莖葉) may be made allowable in three ways:

1) Making it allowable with a knife.

2) Making it allowable by washing.

3) Making it allowable by fire.

If items are contained in a single vessel or gathered into a single heap, when one item has been made allowable, this is called making the whole allowable: when one item is allowable, all are allowable.

If unhusked grains are mixed with the rice, it is permitted to procure a mortar and pestle and ask a lay attendant to pound them.

The Sarvastivada Treatise states:

If medicine allowable during the prescribed time, and so forth, is used as an auxiliary ingredient in preparing seven-day medicine, and it is used as seven-day medicine, there is no offense. Or if seven-day medicine, and so forth, is used as an auxiliary ingredient in preparing lifetime medicine, and it is used as lifetime medicine, there is no offense. Likewise, seven-day medicine, and so forth, may be used as an auxiliary ingredient in preparing medicine allowable during the prescribed time, and it is then used as medicine allowable during the prescribed time. Its classification follows whichever ingredient is greater in quantity, the ingredients supporting one another in forming the preparation.

IV. THE PROCEDURE FOR ACCEPTING FOOD

The Khandhaka on Procedures^[26] states:

If one wishes to accept an invitation, one should go among the Sangha. At breakfast or at the midday meal, the donor should stand where he can be seen and announce, “It is time.” The senior monk, fully observing the deportments, should go first and lead the way. If one has duties concerning the Three Jewels or is caring for the sick, one should inform the senior monk before departing ahead of the others.

Or, if there is danger to one’s life or danger to the pure life, one is permitted to leave without first asking. Upon arriving at the place where the meal is to be received, one should not sit in a disorderly manner but should sit in order according to senior, middle-ranking, and junior seats. The monks should watch over one another’s deportment.

If someone is not sitting in accordance with the Dharma or has not properly covered his body, one should snap one’s fingers to alert him or ask someone else to inform him. One should not, out of a desire for honor, deliberately arrive late and cause the other bhiksus to stand up.

If a donor brings fruit and presents it to the senior monk, the senior monk should ask whether the fruit has been made allowable. If it has not, he should ask the donor to make it allowable. Once it has been made allowable, he should

ask, “To whom is this being presented?” If the donor says, “I respectfully offer it to the senior monk,” the senior monk is permitted to accept it as he wishes. If the donor says, “It is offered to the Sangha,” he should instruct that it be distributed throughout the assembly. The same applies when soup is brought.

If a bhiksu has not received food, the monk seated nearby is permitted to remind the donor. If no monk is seated nearby, one should give that bhiksu half of one’s own portion.

One should not begin eating immediately after receiving food but must wait until it has been announced, “Everyone has received food.” Only then may one eat.

One should not eat with one’s elbows extended, lest one obstruct those seated nearby.

One should not spit noisily. If necessary, one should spit gently.

If anything in the food must be discarded, it should be gathered beside one’s heel and taken outside for disposal when one leaves.

After the meal, one should teach the Dharma and offer aspirations for the donor, even if only by reciting a single verse. The other bhiksus should not leave beforehand. If they have duties concerning the Three Jewels or must care for the sick, they should first ask leave and then depart.

Whichever Dharma teaching the donor wishes to hear should be expounded as appropriate.

The Fourth Section^[27] states:

Two people should not eat from the same bowl.

One should not recline against a table while eating, with the body leaning on it like an ox lying down to eat. A bhiksu who is old or ill is permitted to place his bowl at the head of his bed or upon a jar while eating.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states:

People are not permitted to eat from the same bowl. If no bowls are available, they should eat from vessels made of porcelain, earthenware, or clay. If these too are unavailable, the food should be placed on leaves so that they may eat together. They must not reach down to take food at the same time. Apart from the five principal foods and the five supplementary foods, there is no offense in sharing the various other kinds of cakes, fruits, vegetables, and so forth.

One who is not ill should not lean against a chair while eating.

The senior monk should eat slowly and should not eat quickly and then sit watching, thereby causing the younger monks to hurry and not eat their fill.

The Mulasarvastivada Miscellaneous Matters states:

One must not eat while wearing only the lower robe (antarvasa). An old or ill bhiksu should wear a light, thin sanghati while eating. If he is gravely ill and eats in a secluded place, he is also permitted to wear only the lower robe.

When leftover food is universally offered to living beings, the offering should not be restricted to any single species. Rice should be moistened with water, while cakes and noodles should be torn into small pieces and scattered on the ground. The creatures should be allowed to eat as they wish and should not be prevented.

After the meal, the Dharma should be taught for the donors. Either the senior monk or the monk next in rank may teach; otherwise, whichever monk is capable should be invited beforehand.

While the Dharma is being taught and verses are being recited, one should not eat. If one waits until the recitation of the verses is finished and then eats, there is no offense.

The Five-Part Vinaya states:

When a householder invites the Sangha to a meal, one who has not been invited should not go. If one has some necessary business and does not go for the sake of receiving the meal, there is no offense. If a visiting bhiksu arrives, one should ask the donor whether he may be invited in. If the donor does not agree, one should say, “We shall divide our own portions of food and share them with him.” If the donor still refuses, each monk should receive his own portion in his bowl, carry it outside, and divide it so they may share it together. If even this is not possible, whatever food is available in the Sangha’s storeroom should be taken out and given to the visiting bhiksu.

One should not eat from the same bowl as a layperson. If one returns to the home of relatives and they say, “We are not strangers to one another, nor are we impure; why can we not eat together from the same tray and bowl?” then one is permitted to establish mindfulness before oneself and eat together with them, provided that their hands do not touch.

V. THE METHOD OF CARING FOR THE SICK

The Third Section^[28] records:

One day, while the Buddha was visiting the dwellings, he saw a sick bhiksu with no one to care for him, lying in a pool of urine and excrement. The Buddha asked:

“Why is there no one caring for you?”

The sick bhiksu replied:

“When I was not ill, I did not care for other monks who were sick. Therefore, now that I am ill, no one cares for me.”

The Buddha taught:

– Your failure to care for and make offerings to that sick person is unbeneficial and a loss. If you do not care for one another, who will care for you when you fall ill?

The Buddha then helped the sick bhikkhu sit up and wiped the filth from his body. After wiping him, the Buddha washed him clean, laundered his robe and hung it out to dry, discarded the decayed leaves used as bedding, swept the dwelling, and wiped away the water until it was clean. The Buddha laid down fresh leaves, spread a robe over them, helped the bhikkhu lie down again in his former place, and covered the sick bhikkhu with another robe before leaving the room. After the meal, on account of this matter, the Buddha told the bhikkhus:

– Permit people to visit the sick; you should not forbid people from visiting the sick. A person must be appointed to care for the sick; you should not fail to appoint one. If anyone wishes to make offerings to Me, the Tathagata, that person should make offerings to the sick. Preceptors and disciples are permitted to care for one another. If no one is available to provide care, the Sangha should appoint someone to do so. If no one is willing to provide care, people should be assigned in order. If those assigned in order refuse to accept the duty, they should be dealt with according to the Dharma. If there are no bhikkhus, then bhikkhunis, even upasakas, and so forth should provide care. When providing care, a bhikkhuni, siksamana, samaneri, or upasika should not touch the body of a bhikkhu.

A sick person possessing five qualities is difficult to care for:

1) He wishes to eat foods that he should not eat.

2) He refuses to take medicine.

3) Although his caregiver is devoted, he does not truthfully describe his condition.

4) When he should walk, he does not walk; when he should stand, he does not stand.

5) When his body is in pain, he cannot endure it. He refuses to do even small things that he is capable of doing and instead asks others to do them.

Furthermore, he cannot sit quietly and remain inwardly calm. One who is the opposite of the five qualities stated above is called easy to care for.

Only a person possessing the following five qualities is capable of caring for the sick:

1) He knows what the sick person may and may not eat, and gives him what he may eat.

2) He is not disgusted by the sick person's phlegm, saliva, feces, or urine.

3) He has a compassionate heart and does not serve for the sake of robes or food.

4) He is able to provide medicine and care thoroughly until the illness is cured or the person dies.

5) He is able to teach the Dharma to the sick person and cause him to rejoice.

A caregiver is permitted either to accept or decline invitations and to eat food that the sick person does not consume.

The fourth section, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, says:

One is permitted to eat freely together with the sick, administer medicine according to the illness, and care well for the sick.

A sick bhikkhu should not be placed in a large room on an upper story.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya says:

While the Buddha was still in the world, two bhikkhus from the southern region were traveling together to see the Buddha. One bhikkhu fell ill. After waiting for two or three days, the other bhikkhu said:

“I wish to go ahead to see the Buddha. When you regain your strength, you may follow afterward.” The sick bhikkhu said:

– Wait until I regain my strength, and then we shall go together.

The other bhikkhu said:

– I have not seen the Blessed One for a long time, and my heart yearns for him greatly. I cannot wait until you regain your strength so that we may go together.

Having spoken thus, that bhikkhu went to the Buddha. Although the Buddha knew what had happened, he nevertheless asked:

– From where have you come?

The bhikkhu related fully to the Buddha the circumstances described above. The Buddha taught:

– That was an evil deed. A bhikkhu who is heedless, indolent, lacking in diligence, who does not guard the sense faculties, and who pursues the six kinds of sensual desire does not see Me even though he is near Me, nor do I see him. A bhikkhu who guards the sense faculties, whose mind is not heedless, and who single-mindedly seeks liberation sees Me even though he is far from Me, and I also see him. Why is this? Because he accords with the Dharma-body of the Tathagata, destroys evil, abandons sensual desire, and cultivates the Dharma of quiescence. You have all gone forth together to cultivate the holy life. If you do not care for one another, who will care for you? You should return and tend and care for that sick bhikkhu.

If a bhikkhu falls ill in the wilderness while traveling with merchants, his companions should carry his robes and bowl for him, remain close by, and support him as he walks; they should not travel far from him. If he cannot walk, they should seek transportation or provisions from the merchants to assist him. He must not be transported in a vehicle drawn by a female animal.

He should be transported in a vehicle drawn by a male animal. If his illness is so grave that he is no longer conscious or discerning, it is permissible to transport him in such a vehicle; that is, no offense is incurred. If transportation cannot be obtained, one, two, or three persons capable of caring for the sick should remain behind while the others enter a village to seek transportation with which to bring him back.

Sufficient provisions should be left for those remaining behind. If no one is willing to remain in the wilderness, they must not immediately abandon him. They should build a thatched shelter, spread grass as bedding, kindle a fire, and leave firewood, water, food, medicines, medicines for daily and nightly use, seven-day medicines, and lifetime medicines, making every provision complete.

They should then say to the sick person: “Elder, remain here at ease. I shall go to the village ahead to find transportation and return to bring you in.” Upon reaching the settlement, they need not circumambulate the Stupa or ceremonially greet their two teachers, the Preceptor and the Acarya, but should immediately tell the bhikkhus in the settlement:

– There is a gravely ill bhikkhu in the wilderness. We should find a way to go and bring him back.

If those in the settlement say:

– That wilderness has many tigers, wolves, and ferocious beasts. We fear they may already have devoured him.

Even upon hearing this, they must still go and look. If he has died, they should make offerings to the corpse. If he is still alive, they should bring him back to the village and say to the resident senior bhikkhu in the settlement:

– At the dwelling place of... this sick bhikkhu was cared for and supported by me in the wilderness. I have now brought him here, and it is the Elder's turn to care for him.

If the senior bhikkhu does not care for him, he commits an offense of transgressing the Vinaya.

If there are no bhikkhus, one should say to an upasaka: “Long-lived one! There is a sick bhikkhu in the wilderness. We should find a means of transporting him back.” He should be taken to the donor's house and placed in a separate, secluded place.

If many people are present, two or three capable persons should be asked to care for the sick person. If the sick person needs many companions present to keep his spirits up, they should remain. Together they should solicit support to provide in full the earlier meal, the later meal, and even lifetime medicines.

If a visiting bhikkhu arrives, he should not immediately be told to care for the sick person. His robes and bowl should first be received and put in their proper place. After he has eaten, drunk, and rested, one may then say: “Elder, please take my place and continue caring for him. If impermanence overtakes him, you should make offerings to his relics.”

If bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are traveling together with merchants and a bhikkhuni falls ill, the bhikkhus must not abandon her. They should ask the sisters traveling with her to take turns supporting and guiding the sick person. As the Vinaya says: “Except for embracing her. If oil must be rubbed on her body, a woman should be asked to do it.”

If impermanence overtakes her and the sick bhikkhuni possesses robes and a bowl, consideration should be given to the person who performs the cremation. If cremation cannot be carried out, they should leave. If worldly people criticize them, they should establish the perception of her body as earth and carry it to a distant place.

When a venerable bhikkhu is ill, he should be placed in a spacious, well-ventilated room, with disciples constantly attending on both sides. The room should be swept, wiped clean and kept dry; incense should be burned, and seats should be prepared. If bhikkhus come to visit the sick, they should be provided with sufficient main meals, supplementary meals, and even drinks outside the prescribed time.

If they ask any questions, the sick person should answer. If the sick person is too weak, the attendant should answer on his behalf. If upasakas come to inquire after him, one should say: “How precious it is that you, disciples of the Buddha, have come to visit!” They should be asked to remain outside, and then the following Dharma teaching should be given: “Disciples of the Buddha, your merit is very great.

As the Blessed One taught: ‘To care for and support a sick bhikkhu who upholds the precepts is no different from caring for and supporting me, the Buddha.’” If they make offerings, one should pronounce an invocation of blessing and then accept them.

If the sick person is troubled or anxious, those who come to inquire after him should not be allowed to stand there for long; they should be asked to depart.

If the sick person cannot go outside, three chamber pots should be used:

– One should be brought in for the sick person to use.

– One should be carried outside.

– One should be washed clean, rubbed with oil, and dried in the sun. These should always be kept ready so that the sick person may use them in rotation.

Someone must stand beside the door and prevent people from entering suddenly. One person should remain constantly beside the sick person and teach the Dharma in accordance with his needs.

If a young bhikkhu is ill, he should not be placed in an exposed area where foul odors may spread outside. Nor should he be placed in a cramped, secluded place, where no one would know if he died. He should be placed where other people are present.

If the sick person has a teacher and disciples, they should care for him together. If he has none, the Sangha must appoint one, two, or three persons to care for him.

If the sick person has medicine, it should be used for him. If he has none, the Sangha should make provision for it. If the Sangha has none, and the sick person possesses valuable robes and an alms bowl, they should be exchanged for ordinary robes and an ordinary bowl, and the surplus money should be used for medicine and treatment.

If the sick person is attached to his robes and bowl and refuses to exchange them, the matter should be reported to the Sangha: the sick bhikkhu, failing to contemplate impermanence, is attached to his valuable robes and bowl and refuses to exchange them. After the matter has been reported to the Sangha, the Dharma should be explained skillfully so that the sick person may understand and become open-minded. Only afterward should the exchange be made.

If even that cannot be done, money should be solicited to provide medicine and treatment for the sick person.

If food and drink cannot be obtained through solicitation, fine food should be taken from the Sangha’s meal and offered to the sick person. If that method is not possible, the caregiver should take two bowls on the alms round and select the best food to serve the sick person.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya states:

An ignorant person should not be assigned to care for the sick. Those who are inexperienced in nursing the sick must be instructed and guided. The sick person must not be allowed to suffer unreasonable harm, such as falling into water or fire, consuming poisonous food, taking hold of sharp objects, falling into pits, climbing tall trees, or eating prohibited foods. Such harms must be prevented and avoided.

Before consulting a physician, one should not hastily give medicine to the sick person.

If the sick person and the caregiver lie on the same bed while a lamp is burning, no offense is committed.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states:

A junior who cares for a sick bhikkhu may sit together with the sick person.

The Vinaya Compendium explains:

If a poor sick person has no medicine to use, his teachers, friends, and acquaintances should make provision for him; or a familiar donor may provide it; or property of the Sangha may be used; or property belonging to a stupa; or decorative implements may be sold to purchase medicine. After the sick person recovers, it should be repaid. If he is unable to repay it, there is no offense, because the disciple of the Great Teacher is the one for whose sake wealth is brought forth.

If it is for the purpose of caring for and providing for a sick bhikkhu, then, apart from acts that are inherently offenses, all other things may be done.

Question: The various Vinayas, on account of illness, make provisional allowances and establish rules for caring for the sick, thereby setting appropriate limits. Yet the Vinaya Compendium alone says: “Apart from acts that are inherently offenses, all other things may be done.” Does this mean that none of the offenses arising from prohibitory regulations are incurred?

Answer: When strict observance is required, failing to observe strictly still constitutes the offense of treating the precepts lightly. When adverse circumstances arise, however, a lack of expedient adaptation may place a person suffering from illness and pain in danger. It should therefore be understood that the statement, “Apart from acts that are inherently offenses, all other things may be done,” is an expression of the utmost latitude; it is not a license for unrestrained laxity.

VI. LODGINGS

The fourth section^[29] states:

It is permitted to construct dwellings according to need and in conformity with the Dharma.

It is permitted to build a large hall for the Uposatha ceremony, and it is permitted to make large beds.

It is permitted to build a hall for walking meditation. For aged, sick, debilitated, or extremely weak bhikkhus, it is permitted to weave cords into a litter with poles fastened at both ends so that it may be carried. If carrying it by hand causes pain in the hands, it is permitted to make handles, either from bamboo tubes or by threading cords through bamboo tubes, so that it may be carried by hand. When one becomes weary during walking meditation, it is permitted to place beds at both ends of the walking path for resting while seated.

Images of dragons or snakes should not be made on the two sides of a doorway. It is permitted to make designs of grapevines or lotus flowers. It is permitted to make designs of branches and leaves above the doorway, but images of troops and horses are not permitted.

One should not spend one’s entire life repairing and embellishing a single dwelling. If one wishes to build a large and magnificent multistory building, its construction is permitted within a period of twelve years. The roofing must be completed within six years. For buildings of other sizes, the appropriate duration should be determined accordingly.

One should not continually accept a Sangha dwelling and then repair and embellish it. When the three months of the rains retreat have ended, dwellings may be allotted according to seniority.

One should not accept Sangha dwellings everywhere, repair them, and use them for rest. One must remain in a lodging for at least ninety days before accepting another.

A person responsible for overseeing work should not reside in a crowded dwelling place.

One should not take possession of a dwelling, repair it, and live in it merely for the sake of some minor work.

If a bhikkhu responsible for overseeing work dies, the Sangha may dispose of that dwelling as it sees fit. If a bhikkhu responsible for overseeing work has someone report to the Sangha on his behalf to receive a dwelling and then dies, that dwelling likewise may be disposed of by the Sangha as it sees fit. If the messenger dies, the dwelling is assigned to the person responsible for overseeing the work.

If a bhikkhu responsible for overseeing work is absent before the dwellings have been allocated and has someone receive one on his behalf, the location of that dwelling should be clearly specified.

It is permitted to build a bathhouse and bathing room.

When a bhikkhu builds a dwelling, it is permitted for bhikkhus to reside there in turn, but the senior bhikkhu should reside there first.

During the rains retreat, after one has accepted and finished repairing a dwelling, one should not accept another dwelling.

If an old Sangha dwelling has fallen into disrepair and a layperson says, “Please entrust it to me, and I will restore it,” it is permitted to entrust it to that person by a motion followed by one proclamation.

When Venerable Rahula was staying in the Nali forest, a layman, having aroused a devout mind, built a room and offered it to him. While Rahula was traveling among the people, that layman offered the room again to the Sangha. Upon returning, Rahula reported the matter to the Buddha.

The Buddha told Rahula to go to the layman and ask: “Do you see me here? Is there anything blameworthy about me? Is there anything in me contrary to the Dharma of a samana, whether an offense committed through speech or through bodily action?” The layman replied, “No.” Rahula returned and reported this to the Buddha.

The Buddha told the bhikkhus: “If someone joyfully builds a room and offers it to one person, to several people, or to the Sangha, and afterward offers it again to another person, to several people, or to the Sangha, whether to the same school or to another school, this is all called an offering contrary to the Dharma, an acceptance contrary to the Dharma, and residence contrary to the Dharma. If someone joyfully builds a room and offers it to one person, to several people, to the Sangha, or to both Sanghas, this is all called an offering in accordance with the Dharma, an acceptance in accordance with the Dharma, and residence in accordance with the Dharma.”

In the case of a young samanera, it is permitted to partition off a place within a room for him to stay.

It is permitted to build a rear room inside, to make a door, and to construct a full or half-height partition wall.

It is permitted to make pathways from stone, bricks, or wood. It is permitted to drive piles, construct a pond, and use stone, bricks, or wood to enclose its two sides.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya says:

When beginning construction of a sangharama, first designate the finest site for the Stupa. The Stupa should be built toward the east or north. The land dedicated to the Buddha and the land where the Sangha resides must have clearly defined boundaries.

Water must not be allowed to flow from the Sangha’s land onto the Buddha’s land, but water from the Buddha’s land may flow across the Sangha’s land. The Stupa should be built on high, dry ground. Within the Stupa precinct, one must not wash, dye, air, or dry robes; wear shoes or sandals; cover the head or shoulders; or spit on the ground.

Flowers in the Stupa garden should be offered to the Stupa. If the donor says, “Offer the flowers to the Buddha and the fruit to the Sangha,” his wishes should be followed. If there are many flowers, they may be given to a garland maker, who should be told: “Make garlands for me, and tell me the value of whatever remains.” The money received should be used to purchase incense and lamps as offerings to the Buddha or to repair the Stupa.

If a large amount is received, it should be placed in the Buddha’s perpetual requisites fund. The same applies to flowers in the Stupa pond. In the Stupa pond, one must not wash robes, bathe, wash the hands or face, or wash alms bowls.

At the point where the water finally flows out, however, it may be used as desired.

Latrines must not be built toward the east or north. A screen must be placed between them so that those on either side cannot see one another.

The Mulasarvastivada Miscellaneous Matters says:

A latrine should be built in the northwestern corner behind the monastery.

Spittoons should be placed beneath the pillars at the four corners of the monastery for spitting out phlegm and saliva.

The Sarvastivada Vinaya says:

If perfumed water is available, it should be sprinkled throughout the dwelling, on the beds, on the walls, and upon the ground. Garlands donated to the Sangha should be hung from nails on the walls so that the rooms are fragrant with flowers; the donor thereby gains merit.

The Mahisasaka Vinaya says:

It is permitted to plaster the rooms with mud inside, outside, and above. The Sangha should procure a complete set of hammers, chisels, knives, saws, ladders, and other tools for constructing dwellings.

VII. RULES CONCERNING BEDDING

The Fourth Section^[30] says:

It is permitted to make a mattress from fine wool or kapok. A mattress may be stuffed, and if there is concern that it may become soiled, it should be covered externally with felt.

It is permitted to make pillows that are square, round, or triangular.

Bedding belonging to the Sangha must not be taken for personal use. It is permitted to mark it for identification. One must not use one’s personal belongings as markers for the Sangha’s property. It is permitted to dye a personal article to mark it, such as making a design resembling a stream flowing over the ground or a wheel to distinguish it.^[31]

Bedding that has been permanently assigned to one room must not be moved to another room or another place.

Two people must not sleep together on one bed, except in the case of a sick person. Two people must not lie together beneath a single blanket. If there is only one blanket, both are permitted to do so provided that they wear undergarments.

The Mulasarvastivada Miscellaneous Matters says:

When a fine bed or chair is offered, the Sangha may accept it, but an individual may not.

The Mahisasaka Vinaya says:

It is permitted to use one of the ten robes as a covering blanket. Goat hair, horsehair, cotton, or even various kinds of soft grass may be used as stuffing to make a padded mattress. Such a mattress may be no more than eight finger-widths thick.

VIII. RULES CONCERNING UTENSILS

The Third Section^[32] says:

It is permitted to keep copper pots, tin pots, earthenware pots, copper vessels, tin vessels, ceramic vessels, pans for cooking cakes, copper cooking vessels, and ladles. It is permitted to make racks with hooks for hanging robes.

It is permitted to light lamps and to make lamps from tin.

Elderly or sick bhikkhus are permitted to keep a chamber pot and a spittoon in their rooms.

In crowded places, lice must not be caught and thrown onto the ground. It is permitted to make a copper tube in which to place them.

It is permitted to procure a razor for shaving the head and to keep a receptacle for collecting hair.^[33]

Tweezers for plucking nose hairs and a knife for cutting fingernails are permitted. A copper tube may be made to hold them, together with a stopper or lid to close it. It should not be made from precious materials.

One should not carry a large and beautiful round parasol. One should not hold the kind of large round fan used by a king. If such a finished object is received, it is permitted to accept it, but it should be transferred to the Stupa.

One should not keep a fan woven from birds’ tail feathers.

It is permitted to procure a fly whisk.

It is permitted to accept articles produced by potters. Three kinds of objects should not be kept: ceramic sitting beds, ceramic measuring vessels, and ceramic chairs.

It is permitted to procure a tongue scraper, a toothpick, and an ear pick.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya says:

One should not personally keep a copper bowl. If it is given to a kappiya and then borrowed for use, there is no offense.

The Mulasarvastivada Miscellaneous Matters says:

It is permitted to use three bags: one for the alms bowl, one for medicines, and one for other articles. Objects should be placed in the bags in proper order, with their lengths appropriately matched, and arranged spaciously and neatly. The inside should be lined with something soft and secured with cords so that the objects do not bend.

When a faithful layperson offered bowls and dishes, the Buddha permitted them to be accepted on behalf of the assembly and stored in the storeroom, although meals continued to be eaten from alms bowls. The donor wondered whether he gained only the merit of making the offering but not the merit arising from its use. The Buddha said: “It is permitted to use them for the donor’s sake.”

There are two kinds of fans: one made from bamboo and one made from leaves. The Sangha is permitted to accept fans adorned with brilliant paintings.

There are five kinds of dusting whisks (fly whisks for removing dust):

1) Made from splayed goat hair.

2) Made from hemp cord.

3) Made from strips of fine cloth.

4) Made from pieces of worn-out material.

5) Made from tree branches.

If one is made from precious materials, its use entails an offense of wrongdoing.

There are two circumstances in which riding in a vehicle is permitted:

1) When one is old, weak, and debilitated.

2) When one is ill and has lost one’s strength.

When water must be drawn from a well, the rope may be at most 150 cubits long and at least 10 cubits long. Lengths between these two are of medium measure.

It is permitted to procure and keep razors for shaving the heads of members of the Sangha, together with other miscellaneous necessities.

The Mahisasaka Vinaya says:

During the cold season, it is permitted to make a brazier. The fire should be kindled outside the dwelling and brought inside only after the smoke has dissipated. The brazier may be made from copper, tin, clay, or stone.

It is permitted to keep three sewing needles.

It is permitted to keep scales and measuring vessels. It is not permitted to possess fields, land, shops, or commercial establishments. If a donor makes such an offering, the Sangha is permitted to accept it and entrust it to a lay steward for supervision. It is not permitted to store many small bronze bowls. It is not permitted to store a large bronze bowl. If one stores a vessel holding more than one sheng, one commits a duṣkṛta offense.

The Saṅgraha Vinaya says:

A bhikshu may keep a small knife and a small seal. Knives are of three kinds: the large kind is six finger-widths long and one finger-width wide; the small kind is four finger-widths long; one between these two sizes is the medium kind. Their shape should resemble a chicken’s wing or a bird’s wing. Seals are of four kinds: white bronze, red bronze, stone, and wood. None should be made from precious materials.

IX. THE RULES CONCERNING THE RINGED STAFF

The Mūlasarvāstivāda Miscellaneous Matters says:

A ringed staff should be made, with a circular ring the size of the mouth of a bowl suspended from its top. Small rings should be attached so that they make a sound whenever the staff is moved, serving as a warning. The ringed staff should not be used to strike dogs; it should merely be raised to frighten them. If a dog becomes enraged and charges, one should place a few grains of rice on the ground for it to eat. If one shakes the staff two or three times and no one comes out to inquire, one should leave.

The Daśabhāṇavāra Vinaya says:

One should make the staff sound to drive away venomous creatures.

The Vinaya-mātṛkā Sūtra says:

In frightening places at night, it is permitted to make the ringed staff sound so that vicious and venomous creatures will keep away.

Question: According to the Sūtra of the Ladder to Attainment of the Way^[34], the making of the ringed staff chiefly concerns dignified conduct, yet it is extremely difficult to safeguard properly. Why does this conflict with the intent of the Vinaya?

Answer: In the Vinaya, the ringed staff is primarily intended for use when crossing rivers, whereas in the sūtra it primarily symbolizes the True Dharma. Symbolizing the Dharma has its own particular purpose and orientation, while its use in crossing rivers is directed toward practical benefit. As for people today carrying both a ringed staff and a water flask, this practice originally belongs to the Esoteric tradition and has nothing to do with the Vinaya school.

Yet that sūtra also says that, because of old age and illness, one may keep a staff. Although this accords with the Vinaya, the text nevertheless contradicts itself from beginning to end. It should be understood that the name of that sūtra’s translator has been lost, and the text may be classified among works of doubtful authenticity.

X. THE RULES CONCERNING THE MONASTIC COMMUNITY

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya says:

Venerable Dhaniṣṭha, that is, Dhanika, thought: “I built a room, but the elder told me to yield it to him, forcing me to leave. The same happened with the second and third rooms, and I again had to leave my own quarters. Next, I built a house of bricks and tiles, but the Blessed One ordered the bhikshus to tear it down.

Afterward, I took the king’s timber to build a house and was again rebuked by the Blessed One. I have continually endured hardship, one trouble after another! From now on, I wish to put an end to these hardships by living just as the Sangha lives, merely passing my days accordingly.” Dhaniṣṭha then adopted a life free from affairs.

Practicing sincerely day and night and devoting himself wholly to cultivation of the path, he attained the meditative concentrations, realized the fruit of the path, developed the six superknowledges, and personally knew and realized his attainment. Filled with joy, he spoke these verses:

– If one wishes to gain the joy of non-self,

One must follow the Dharma of a bhikshu;

The body dwells within the pure monastery,

As a snake lodges in a crab’s burrow.

– If one wishes to gain the joy of non-self,

One must follow the Dharma of a bhikshu;

Clothing and food sustain the four great elements—

Fine or coarse, poor or tasty, accept whatever comes ... (following the community).

– If one wishes to gain the joy of non-self,

One must follow the Dharma of a bhikshu;

Throughout one’s life, always know contentment,

And devote oneself to cultivating the unconditioned path.

The Daśabhāṇavāra Vinaya says:

A bhikshu who oversees the affairs of the Sangha should make this aspiration: “May bhikshus who have not yet arrived come here, and may those who have arrived be provided with robes, food and drink, bedding, and medicines, lacking nothing.” If someone is capable of fulfilling such an aspiration, the Sangha should entrust duties to him in accordance with his wishes. If he needs food, he should be provided, according to his wishes, with fine food as well. If he needs rooms, dwellings, or bedding, these too should be supplied according to his wishes.

A person charged with duties at a dwelling place is permitted to spend nineteen coins to provide for visiting members of the Sangha without first informing the Sangha. If more is required, he must inform the Sangha before he is permitted to spend it.

In carrying out the office of karmadāna, one should know the proper times and which task belongs to each hour; know how to strike the gaṇḍī; know how to sweep, clean, and repair the lecture hall and dining hall; know how to arrange beds and benches successively in their proper order; know how to instruct others in making vegetables and fruit pure; know how to inspect sour and bitter foods for insects; know the proper times for eating and drinking and how to distribute water; and, when the assembly becomes noisy and disorderly, know how to snap one’s fingers to make them silent.

The Third Section^[35] says:

When the Sangha in residence receives many robes and other goods, it is permitted, through a motion and second-act karma, to establish the boundary of a storehouse, and through a motion and second-act karma to appoint a custodian. If a bhikshu is unwilling to serve as custodian of the Sangha’s property, he should be given an additional allowance, such as an extra portion of gruel. If he deliberately refuses, he should be allotted two shares of all the goods received. If he still refuses to serve as custodian, he should be disciplined in accordance with the Dharma.

The Samantapāsādikā Vinaya says:

From offerings received from outside, the bhikshu serving as storekeeper receives two shares. If a bhikshu practices the dhūta austerities and, although residing within the monastery, does not live in the Sangha’s quarters or eat the community’s food, and a donor has personally built a room for him, the Sangha may not appoint him as karmadāna or administrator. Bhikshus devoted to recitation, teaching, and expounding the Dharma frequently obtain offerings that benefit the Sangha; the Sangha may not appoint them to administer its affairs. When there are rooms, dwellings, robes, and bowls, these items should first be offered to them; they should also receive additional portions of food and fruit.

When someone comes to the monastery, regardless of whether that person is noble or humble, good or bad, one should inquire after their health. If they need something and one possesses it, one should provide it. If the item belongs to the Sangha, one must first inform the Sangha and may give it only if the Sangha consents. If a malicious person comes and forcibly demands something, the custodian of the Sangha’s property, in order to protect the dwelling place, has the authority to give that person whatever he deems appropriate. After he has given it, the Sangha may not rebuke him.

The Fourth Section^[36] says:

There are four kinds of persons who adjudicate matters:

1) One who has little learning and lacks a sense of shame and moral dread.

2) One who has much learning but lacks a sense of shame and moral dread.

3) One who has little learning but possesses a sense of shame and moral dread.

4) One who has much learning and possesses a sense of shame and moral dread.

Of these, when one who has little learning and lacks a sense of shame and moral dread, or one who has much learning but lacks a sense of shame and moral dread, speaks before the Sangha in adjudication of a matter, the Sangha should employ every means to reprimand him firmly, so that such a shameless person will not perform that duty again.

If a person who possesses a sense of shame and moral dread but has little learning speaks before the Sangha in adjudication of a matter, the Sangha should support him in clarifying the issue, allowing this conscientious person to continue adjudicating matters for the Sangha. When a person who possesses a sense of shame and moral dread and has much learning carries out an adjudication before the Sangha, the Sangha should permit him to speak and then praise him, so that this conscientious person will continue in the future to speak before the Sangha in adjudication of matters.

The Third Section^[37] says:

A visiting bhikkhu who wishes to enter a monastery should, upon reaching the gateway, push the door open with his hand. If the door is barred or locked, he should open it. If he cannot open it, he should knock gently so that those inside may hear.

If no one hears, he should knock loudly. If no one opens the door, he should go beneath the wall or fence and find a way to enter and open it; he should not go around the left side of the Stupa. He should ask: “I am of such-and-such seniority; is there a room available for me?” He should also ask: “Is anyone staying in this room?

Is it fully furnished with such necessities as blankets, other articles, bedding, and robes?” If told that it is, and he wishes to accept it, he should say: “I shall accept this room.” Having accepted it, he should go to the room and open the door. If there are insects or snakes, he should drive them out, sweep, wash, and dry the room, rearrange the bed and seat, and ensure that there are sufficient vessels for clean water, washing water, and drinking water.

He should ask: “Where are the places for defecation and urination? Which is the pure ground, and which is the impure ground? Where is the Buddha’s Stupa?

Where are the stupas of the shravakas? Where is the room of the foremost elder? And where are the rooms of the second, third, and fourth elders?” He should pay respects and offer greetings in due order.

He should ask where the midday meal is taken, where the morning meal is taken, where the evening assembly is held, where the precepts are recited, and who has been appointed by the Sangha to receive food offered by donors on the eighth, fifteenth, and first days of the month. Where is the meal offered by a donor on the following day to be taken? Is there any donor against whom the Sangha has performed the act of overturning the bowl?

Who is a trainee? Where are there fierce dogs, and where are the good people? Where are the bad people?

When a resident bhikkhu hears that a visiting bhikkhu has arrived, he should go out to welcome and escort him inside, carry his robe and bowl, invite him to sit, and give him a ladle for washing his feet together with warm water. He should ask: “Venerable sir, how many years of seniority do you have?” When the visitor states his seniority, the resident should say: “This is your room; this is the corded bed, the wooden bed, the blanket, pillow, ground-cloth, spittoon, and urinal. This is the place for defecation and urination; this is the pure ground; and so forth, up to: this is where the good people are, and this is where the bad people are.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya says:

When a visiting bhikkhu arrives, he should pay homage to the four elders. If there is an opportunity to meet them, he should pay homage; if he cannot meet them because they are occupied, he need not do so.

The Five-Part Vinaya says:

Ring the bell, beat the drum, blow the conch, and proclaim three times: “The time has come.” A novice or the garden keeper should be instructed to sound the gandhi. If there is no novice, a bhikkhu may also sound it.

If a bhikkhu has left a robe in safekeeping and does not return to claim it for twelve years, the Sangha should assemble, assess its value, and make it property of the Sangha of the four quarters. If that bhikkhu later returns and demands it, property of the Sangha of the four quarters should be used to compensate him. It is best if he does not accept compensation.

If grain or rice is offered to the Sangha of the four quarters, when members of the Sangha of the four quarters perform work, they are permitted to use it as they wish.

Apart from stupas of Buddhas and pratyekabuddhas, any surplus property belonging to other stupas may be used as property of the Sangha of the four quarters. If that stupa later requires it, property of the Sangha of the four quarters should be used to repay it.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya says:

A bhikshu should assist with construction work at the monastery, but he should not work throughout the entire day. In the cold season, he should work after midday. In the hot season, he should work before midday. According to the length of the day, he should cease work early. The person responsible for overseeing the work, knowing that people will work that morning, should arrange a morning meal for them. If they work after midday, he should procure an afternoon drink permitted outside the proper time and oil for anointing their hands and feet. Otherwise, he commits an offense of transgressing the Dharma.

A load that an ordinary person carries in one burden should be divided into two loads for a bhikshu.

The Miscellaneous Matters says:

The Sangha should not establish regulations contrary to the Dharma. (Regulations not established by the Buddha are called regulations contrary to the Dharma, such as the Yuan court’s appended compilation of the Baizhang Pure Rules, and so forth.)

The person managing the work should be allowed to use the monastery’s property.

The Nidana says:

One who discards hair, fingernails, and so forth on the pure ground of the Sangha commits an offense of wrongdoing.

When making an image of a bodhisattva, only bracelets and earrings are excluded; all other ornaments are permitted.

The Vinaya Compendium says:

A stupa of the Tathagata should be made perfectly round and complete. If it is a stupa of a pratyekabuddha, it should have no treasure vase at the summit. If it is a stupa of an arhat, four wheel-emblems should be erected^[38]. For each of the other three fruits, one wheel should be removed successively. If it is for a wholly virtuous bhikkhu, there should be no wheel at the summit; this is called a “flat-topped caitya.”

The Muktaka says:

When constructing a stupa, if it is small, it may be enlarged; if it is large, it should not be reduced. If a layperson is capable of making it larger, that is even better. If the layperson cannot do so, bhikshus should encourage donations and assist in its construction.

If it becomes damaged after many years, it should be repaired. If a Buddha image made of clay, white silk, or another material has deteriorated, or if one wishes to enlarge it or make a similar image, one may do so as desired. If painted images are no longer bright and dignified, they should be erased and new images made.

If Buddhist scriptures written on leaves or paper have become worn, damaged, and old, the old copies should be erased and new ones printed. One who thoroughly understands the Sutra Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, or Abhidharma Pitaka should not be assigned as an administrator of the Sangha.

Fields may be accepted on behalf of the Sangha, and the produce harvested from them may be used. Those who cultivate such fields must be compensated in accordance with the laws of the state.

A bhikkhu responsible for supervising and managing affairs should first report to a senior elder in the monastery before lending anything to others, and he should prepare a written contract or guarantee setting forth the terms clearly.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya says:

Land belonging to the Sangha must not be leased out or sold outright, nor may it be used privately. If there is good farmland or a fine garden that an evil person wishes to seize, the donor may be told: “You should take heed of this land.” If the donor says: “This is good farmland and a fine garden; why must I take heed of it?” he should be told: “Although this farmland and garden are good, an evil person wishes to seize them. The donor may exchange them as he sees fit.”

If the Sangha has vacant land and someone comes to ask the Sangha for permission to build Sangha dwellings there, the necessary conditions should first be stated, such as: “How long will the construction take?” If he says it will be completed within a certain period, he should be told: “If it is not completed within that time, or if you do not undertake the work, the land will be assigned to someone else.”

Suppose two people ask to undertake the construction. One says: “I shall build a one-story building for the Sangha.” The other says: “I shall build a two-story building.” The Sangha should assign it to the person who will build two stories. The same principle applies up to seven stories. If both say that they will build seven stories, it should be assigned to the person capable of completing it. If both are capable of completing it, it should be assigned to the one with the larger retinue. If the necessary conditions are not stated before assigning it to them, an offense of transgressing the Vinaya is committed.

The proper conduct of a resident bhikkhu is that he must not himself occupy a good room with a good bed, mattress, and pillow while providing a visitor with articles that are inferior, damaged, and filthy.

The Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago says:

The clothing of bhikshus is generally provided by the resident Sangha, either from surplus produce of the fields and gardens or from the yield of fruit trees; each year, a portion is used for clothing. This is because the donors’ original intention in offering land was to provide support and relief for the Sangha. How could it be intended solely for food and drink, but not for clothing? Apart from food and drink, what harm is there in using it for clothing?

This is a matter that the Sangha in the Western Regions discussed extensively and vigorously. Moreover, at monasteries in the Divine Land^[39], there are places that both provide robes and receive food, for monastics and laypeople alike; this depends upon the donor’s original intention and vow. As for the provision of food and drink for the Sangha, there is truly nothing about which to be concerned. If the original intention was boundless and unobstructed, then although the offering was made to the monastery, it actually encompassed everything therein. If it is to be used only for food and not for anything else, this is because the donor stipulated this distinction at the outset.

When a monastery cultivates fields, it must arrange to share the harvest with a kappiya. The Sangha provides the oxen and land but does not concern itself with the other work. If, out of greed, the Sangha does not enter into such an arrangement with laypeople but personally hires workers and oversees the planting and plowing, then bhikshus who uphold the precepts should not consume such food.

When members of the Sangha labor themselves and sustain their lives through wrong livelihood, directing hired workers, anger is difficult to avoid. They destroy seeds, plow up the earth, and harm insects and ants. Although one eats no more than a sheng each day, who must bear the hundred transgressions?

Practitioners of integrity should avoid such entanglements. Those who carry the staff and bear the alms bowl should remain far from worldly paths, dwell alone in remote and tranquil forests, live among birds, beasts, deer, and stags, sever themselves from the clamor of fame and profit, and cultivate the quiescent extinction of nirvana. If one conducts business and seeks profit for the sake of the Sangha, this is permitted by the Vinaya; but how could the teachings sanction plowing the earth and taking life?

Harming insects obstructs the work of the Path and brings error, wrongdoing, and guilt upon oneself.

ESSENTIAL COMPENDIUM OF THE MEANINGS OF VINAYA MATTERS, REVISED AND EDITED

END OF FASCICLE FOURTEEN

Notes:

1 Here, “robe” should be understood to mean cloth.

2 Four-Part Vinaya 39, third section, Robe Khandhaka, p. 850a24, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

3 Vowed robe: Cloth collected from a charnel ground and divided among the bhikshus according to a prior agreement. (Note: Four-Part Vinaya, translated by Most Venerable Thích Đỗng Minh.)

4 Four-Part Vinaya 39: A large number of laypeople gathered at a burial ground, removed their garments, and left them in a pile in order to bury the deceased. A bhikshu who gathered rag-robes saw them, thought they were discarded cloth for rag-robes, and therefore took them away.

5 Patchwork robe 雜碎衣Â: It is so named because it is sewn from the greatest number of cut pieces. This explanation, however, is not entirely satisfactory; it should mean a new robe sewn together from many collected scraps of torn cloth, namely, a rag-robe.

6 Kāṣāya 袈裟履: Pāli: kāsāya; a yellowish-brown robe, a robe of subdued color.

7 Plain robe 縵衣Â: Skt. Patta; a plain robe that is not cut into sections.

8 Saṅghāṭi: See note 40, Revised and Edited, fascicle 9 (Vietnamese edition).

9 Sutra of Five Hundred Questions: 1. The Buddha’s Discourse on the Five Hundred Matters of Minor and Major Importance in Maudgalyāyana’s Questions Concerning the Precepts and Vinaya (one fascicle), translator unknown, p. 972, Taishō 24, no. 1483; 2. The Buddha’s Sutra on the Five Hundred Matters of Minor and Major Importance in Maudgalyāyana’s Questions Concerning the Precepts and Vinaya (two fascicles, alternate edition), translator unknown, p. 983, Taishō 24, no. 1483.

10 Golden-Winged Bird 金翅鳥: The most excellent among the species of golden-winged birds. Because of its karmic retribution, this bird is able to eat nāgas.

11 Four-Part Vinaya 51 and 52, fourth section, Miscellaneous Khandhaka, pp. 945a21 and 951c21, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

12 Four-Part Vinaya 42, third section, Medicine Khandhaka, p. 870b25, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

13 Timely medicine 時藥: This refers to staple foods—grains, fish, and meat—which may not be stored for consumption after midday.

14 Untimely medicine 非時藥: It may be stored and consumed after noon.

15 Seven-day medicine 七日藥ß: Medicine permitted to be stored and used only for seven days.

16 Lifelong medicine 盡形?壽藥: Medicine that may be stored and used until the end of one’s life.

17 Śālūkapāna 舍樓伽: Pāli: Sālūkapāna. Samantapāsādikā 17, Medicine Khandhaka, p. 795b17, Taishō 24, no. 1462: Śālūka is made by crushing the rhizomes of blue lotuses (Uppala) and white lotuses (Kumuda), then filtering out the clear liquid; this is called Śālūka (lotus-rhizome juice).

18 Phārusaka 婆樓師Å: Pāli: Phārusaka. Samantapāsādikā 17: Phārusaka resembles the amba fruit (Pāli: Amba—mango).

19 Four-Part Vinaya 43, third section, Medicine Khandhaka, p. 875a18, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

20 Purification for a wound 瘡淨.

21 Four-Part Vinaya 43, p. 876b12: At that time, after the bhikshus had eaten, they received a drink containing lotus rhizomes, lotus roots, and other edible substances, and they went to bhikshus who had performed the procedure for leftover food. Those bhikshus ate part of it or all of it. The bhikshus thought: “When grain is costly, may the Blessed One permit us, after we have eaten, to receive a drink containing food such as this and consume it without performing the procedure for leftover food.” They reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha said: “When grain is costly, after eating, if one receives a drink containing food such as this, one may consume it without performing the procedure for leftover food.”

22 Four-Part Vinaya 49, third section, Bhikshuni Khandhaka, p. 928a, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

23 Master Zhixu’s citation of this passage is incomplete (Essential Compendium of the Meanings of Vinaya Matters, Revised and Edited 14, p. 456c14, Manji 40, no. 719). Four-Part Vinaya 52, fourth section, Miscellaneous Khandhaka, p. 957a1, Taishō 22, no. 1428: “…Some did not know who should receive and consume food after it had been offered at a stupa. The Buddha said: ‘Bhikshus, śrāmaṇeras, upāsakas, or the builders may eat that offered food.’”

24 Three qualities and six flavors: The three qualities are softness, purity, and conformity with the Dharma. The six flavors are bitter, sour, pungent, sweet, salty, and bland.

25 Rock honey: Skt. Phāṇita; cane sugar or sugarcane molasses.

26 Four-Part Vinaya 49, third section, Dharma Khandhaka, p. 934c24, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

27 Four-Part Vinaya 52, fourth section, Miscellaneous Khandhaka, p. 594c03, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

28 Four-Part Vinaya 41, third section, Robe Khandhaka, p. 861b21, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

29 Four-Part Vinaya 50, fourth section, Lodgings Khandhaka, p. 937a28, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

30 Four-Part Vinaya 50, fourth section, Lodgings Khandhaka, p. 937b06, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

31 In the passage cited by Master Zhixu, characters are missing, so the translator’s rendering is unclear. Essential Compendium of the Meanings of Vinaya Matters, Revised and Edited 14, p. 459b14, Manji 40, no. 719: 作幖幟作如水灑地標識(幖幟),作輪幖幟. Four-Part Vinaya 50, p. 938a01: “…permission was given to make it like a drop of water fallen upon the ground, like a ball of cow dung, or like a wheel…” 聽作如水渧灑地幖幟,作牛屎摶幖幟,作輪幖幟.

32 Four-Part Vinaya 41, third section, Robe Khandhaka, p. 859b, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

33 Beginning with this passage is the fourth section, Miscellaneous Khandhaka, Four-Part Vinaya 51, p. 945a27, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

34 The Revised and Edited edition incorrectly printed the title of this sutra (Essential Compendium of the Meanings of Vinaya Matters, Revised and Edited 14, p. 460a08, Manji 40, no. 719). Correction: Sutra of the Staff as a Ladder to Attainment of the Path 得道梯橙錫杖經, one fascicle, translator unknown, p. 724a22, Taishō 17, no. 785.

35 Four-Part Vinaya 41, third section, Robe Khandhaka, p. 864a06, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

36 Four-Part Vinaya 58, fourth section, Numerical Classification of the Vinaya, p. 999b06, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

37 Four-Part Vinaya 49, fourth section, Dharma Khandhaka, p. 930c19, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

38 Spire rings 相輪: Also called wheel emblems; these are the nine rings at the summit of a stupa. “Emblem” means a distinguishing mark; a mark that rises prominently above is called an emblem.

39 Divine Land 神d州Ý: Zou Yan (鄒衍—approximately 305–240 BCE), a thinker of the Warring States period, proposed the theory of the “Nine Great Continents” (nine great regions of land). He held that China was divided into nine provinces and that these nine provinces together were called the “Red County, Divine Land” (赤縣神d州Ý), reflecting the contemporary conception of world geography. Consequently, later generations called China the Divine Land.