重治毗尼事義集要

I. THE PRACTICE OF THE ARANYA

The third section[1] states:

Early in the morning, wash the hands, take up the robe and shake off the dust, put on the outer robe, and cover the head or drape it over the shoulders. Wash the bowl and place it in its bag. Take the sandals and carry the staff. Bring the key out of the room, close the door, and push against it to see whether the lock is secure. If it is not secure, lock it firmly; once it is secure, tie it from within with a cord. Look in all four directions; if no one is watching, hide the door key somewhere. If someone is watching, hide it elsewhere or carry it along. While traveling, one should constantly contemplate wholesome Dharma. Upon meeting anyone, one should greet them first and wish them blessings.

Before entering a village, set the alms bowl on the ground, put on the outer robe, remove the sandals, and leave the staff at the edge of the village. When entering the village, take note of alleyways, open ground, markets, gateways, heaps of refuse, and other landmarks, so as not to take the wrong road when leaving. When entering a layperson’s house, take note of each doorway, from the first through the seventh.

If one wishes to adjust one’s robe, one should turn toward a wall. Hold the bowl in the left hand and the staff in the right. One should not stand in the middle of the road, nor in a secluded place, nor reach out to seize food.

If someone calls, one should approach. Dry and moist foods should not be placed together. If there is only one bowl, use something to separate them, such as a leaf, a piece of bark, a partition within the bowl, a broken bowl, or a small bowl.

Cakes and noodles should be covered with a hand cloth. One should not select wealthy households from which to beg, nor importune anyone until food is obtained. If one knows that food will be received, one should wait.

After completing the alms round and leaving the village, stand by the roadside, set the bowl on the ground, fold the outer robe, and cover the head or drape it over the shoulders. While traveling, contemplate wholesome Dharma. Upon seeing anyone, greet them first and wish them blessings. On reaching a suitable place, sweep the ground clean before eating. Prepare all necessities: a water vessel, a food vessel, a seat, a stone for washing the feet, a water dipper, a cloth for drying the feet, and so forth.

If a bhikkhu from another aranya arrives, one should go out to the gateway to welcome him, receive his alms bowl, invite him to sit, and offer him a water vessel and the other requisites, up to bean powder for washing his hands. If food remains and a band of robbers arrives, one should give them food and then offer them water to drink. Next, the aranya bhikkhu should serve food to the visiting bhikkhu. While he eats, one should observe and provide whatever is needed: salt, beans, vegetables, water, and a fan. If it is nearly past noon, they should eat together.

After eating, wash the bowl and the hands. If food remains, place it separately in a clean place, or give it to others, nonhuman beings, and so forth. Wash any vessels that contained leftover food, return the seats and other articles to their former places, and sweep clean the ground where the meal was eaten. If a band of robbers arrives, one should say: “Here is water, here is water for washing the feet, and here is food. It has been set apart and kept clean for you; if you need it, please use it.” An aranya bhikkhu should know the divisions of the night and the directions indicated by the stars. He should not spread out fine bedding for sleep. During the first and last watches of the night, he should keep his mind vigilant in contemplation.

While a bhikkhu is eating, if a human or nonhuman being comes, he should give them food, even if it is only a single handful or morsel.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya states:

The sons of the Sakya who had gone forth became engrossed in gain, wealth, and miscellaneous possessions and were unable to see the true nature of things. The Buddha told the bhikkhus: “I wish to spend the three-month rains retreat here. During these three months I shall remain in seclusion. Do not allow any bhikkhu to see me, except the attendant who brings my meal and on the observance day.” The bhikkhus reverently accepted the Buddha’s instruction. Within the Sangha they established this regulation together: “No one may go on his own authority to see the Blessed One. Whoever violates this regulation commits an offense requiring confession.”

At that time, a bhikkhu named Little Army entered the earlier rains retreat in Rajagriha, while the Blessed One entered the later rains retreat. Thus, after Little Army had completed the three-month retreat, performed the invitation ceremony, and finished sewing his robes, he took up his robes and bowl and, following the dhutanga practices, proceeded directly with his disciples—dignified in bearing and orderly in deportment—to the Buddha’s dwelling and gently knocked on the door. The Buddha permitted the door to be opened. Little Army entered, paid homage to the Buddha, and sat down. The Buddha kindly asked him:

“Little Army, with what intention have you adorned yourself and become surrounded by such a dignified assembly?”

Little Army replied:

“Venerable Sir, whenever someone comes seeking to go forth, I immediately tell him: ‘Good man, you should dwell in an aranya, go on alms rounds, possess only the three robes, wear robes made from discarded cloth, and sit beneath trees.’ I praise such practices. If that person says, ‘I can practice them,’ I admit him to the monastic life. If he says, ‘I cannot practice them,’ I tell him that he is free to leave. If anyone wishes to receive full ordination, seek dependence, learn recitation, study in accordance with principle, apply his mind in seeking understanding, or contemplate silently, and comes to request guidance from me, I instruct him in the same manner. Because of these causes and conditions, my own bearing is dignified, and so is that of my disciples.”

The Buddha said:

“Excellent, excellent, Little Army! You are able to guide immeasurable numbers of humans and devas and bring boundless benefit and happiness. You enable the various kinds of sentient beings who come seeking the True Dharma to attain peace and happiness. Little Army, you should know that to praise the merit of the dhutanga practices is to praise the body of the Tathagata. To disparage the merit of the dhutanga practices is to disparage the body of the Tathagata. Why is this? Throughout the round of birth and death, the Tathagata has extolled this essential means of transcending the world. Nevertheless, you should not violate a command of the Sangha.”

Little Army said to the Buddha:

“I truly did not know what command the Sangha here had issued.”

The Buddha explained the matter to him. Nevertheless, he taught:

“Whether one is a visitor or a resident, all must comply with regulations established by the Sangha. However, because bhikkhus dwelling in the aranya bring great benefit, they need not comply with this particular regulation of the Sangha. Whenever they wish to see me, the Tathagata, they may come as they please, regardless of the time.”

Having heard this, Little Army rejoiced and respectfully put the teaching into practice. He paid homage to the Buddha and withdrew.

The Group of Six bhikkhus then went to Little Army and questioned him closely concerning the offense he had committed. Little Army fully related everything the Buddha had taught. At that time, all the sons of the Sakya who had gone forth thought: “When Little Army went to see the Blessed One, he was immediately admitted and directly questioned the Tathagata. Yet we who are staying here cannot do so. Because we are exceedingly covetous, the Buddha has excluded us. We should regard all surplus robes, bowls, and other possessions as diseases, as cancers, and as things ablaze, and we should cast them all away.” They immediately brought those articles to Venerable Ananda.

Venerable Ananda reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha told Venerable Ananda to accept everything, place it in a large room, and tell the bhikkhus that anyone who lacked something could freely take and use it. After the Sakyan bhikkhus had relinquished their robes and other possessions, they went to the Buddha.

The Buddha taught them the Dharma, enabling five hundred Sakyan monks, while still seated there, to attain perfect realization for themselves, tear apart the net of ignorance, exhaust the outflows of the three realms, and attain arhatship. They acquired the Three Knowledges and Six Higher Powers and accomplished the eight liberations[2]. They knew and understood in accordance with reality: “My birth is ended, the holy life has been established, what had to be done has been done, and there will be no further rebirth.” Their minds were unobstructed, as though grasping and touching empty space with the hand or cutting fragrance with a knife.

Neither attachment nor aversion arose in them again. They regarded gold and earth as equal, without the slightest distinction. How, then, could they fail to cast aside fame and gain?

All the devas, including Sakra and Brahma, paid them reverence.

The Vinaya Compendium states:

A foolish person is not fit to dwell in an aranya. Even one who is not greatly learned may dwell in an aranya, provided that he clearly understands the characteristics of the precepts.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states:

An aranyaka bhikkhu, when someone comes, should first converse with them with an upright mind and a cheerful countenance. He should not scowl, but should say, “Welcome.” He should keep fire and fire-making implements; food and food containers; water and water vessels; water for washing the feet and vessels for that water; a vessel for clean water; and a vessel for water in regular use, always keeping them filled with water.

He should understand all affairs, know the days and months, know the times, and know the constellations. He should recite the sutras, Vinaya, and treatises, and should understand their meanings. He should know the four dhyanas and the four fruits.

If he has not yet attained them, he should know how to read and recite the teachings concerning them. He should not keep sun-jewels or moon-jewels (precious gems). He should not dwell in a frightening, uninhabited place deep in the forest.

The Preface to the Vinaya says:

A bhikkhu dwelling alone is permitted, by mental resolve, to conduct the recitation of the precepts, the invitation ceremony, the acceptance of robes, the acceptance of a seven-day leave, and the procedure concerning seven-day medicine; to accept an invitation intended for one person alone; and to make robes and other articles allowable by assigning them as gifts.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records this verse:

The Blessed One described the case in which he did not dwell with the assembly but lived alone as follows:

“If I should meet a wholesome friend,

With whom I joyfully dwell and travel,

I shall journey everywhere together,

My heart ever true to the Way.

If I meet no virtuous friend,

I shall go alone, free of attachment,

Leaving villages and hamlets far behind,

Untroubled, like an elephant in the wild.”

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya records the following verse of the Venerable Mahakasyapa:

“One bowl of food each day is enough to satisfy;

At night, lying upon a simple bed, what is there to fear?

Three robes suffice to warm the body;

Purifying the mind, one casts off delusion.”

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya records the following verse by the bhikkhu Bhaddaji admonishing Venerable Ananda:

“Quietly beneath the foot of a tree,

Contemplate the unconditioned Way.

In meditation, do not be heedless;

What benefit is there in much speech?”

II. THE PROCEDURE FOR ASSEMBLING THE GREAT COMMUNITY

The third section[3] says:

When the Sangha has been divided and is brought into harmony by an unlawful procedure, the members should sit in such a way that no misconduct of body or speech arises. Once the matter has been resolved and harmony restored in accordance with the Dharma, they should sit with the space of one person between their seats[4].

The fourth section[5] says:

When discussing the Dharma and Vinaya, those whose seniority differs by three rains are permitted to sit together on a wooden bed; those whose seniority differs by two rains are permitted to sit together on a rope bed.

A bhikkhu entering the Sangha should observe five principles:

1) He should act with loving-kindness.

2) He should humble himself, regarding himself as a wiping cloth.

3) He should sit and stand at the proper times. On seeing a senior, he should not remain seated; on seeing a junior, he should not rise.

4) He should not engage in miscellaneous talk about worldly affairs. He should expound the Dharma himself or invite another to expound it.

5) If he sees something improper within the Sangha that his mind cannot bear, he should remain silent. Why? Because of the danger that the Sangha might be divided.

The Mahisasaka Vinaya says:

When entering the Sangha, one should observe five principles:

1) Humility.

2) Loving-kindness.

3) Reverence.

4) Sitting according to seniority.

5) Not discussing other matters.

The Mulasarvastivada Ksudrakavastu says:

A younger bhiksu should address an elder as “Venerable Sir.” An elder should address a younger bhiksu as “Long-lived One.”

III. THE PROCEDURE FOR DISTRIBUTING ARTICLES

The third section[6] says:

When the Sangha in residence receives many distributable robes and articles, it should appoint one person to distribute them by a motion followed by one proclamation.

When a bhikkhu dwelling alone receives distributable robes or articles and visiting bhikkhus arrive, if there are four or more, he should entrust the robes to one bhikkhu and have them distributed through a motion followed by one proclamation. If there are two or three persons, they should perform the face-to-face procedure and transfer them by making the threefold declaration together. If there is only one person, he should mentally resolve and verbally declare: “This is my share.”

If there are bhikkhus at the residence, or one believes there are bhikkhus there, and one wishes to divide the articles separately, the distribution is invalid and one commits a duskrta offense. If one believes there are no bhikkhus, the distribution is invalid, but no offense is committed.

If there are no bhikkhus, but one believes that there are, or is uncertain, the distribution is valid, but one commits a duskrta offense. If one believes there are no bhikkhus, the distribution is valid and no offense is committed....

The matter of accepting robes—whether the acceptance is valid or invalid and whether an offense is or is not committed—is likewise....

When a well-known bhikkhu passes into nirvana, there may be many monasteries, gardens, fields, fruit trees, private rooms and furnishings, bronze vessels, bronze basins, axes, chisels, lamps, valuable objects, beds, mattresses, pillows, and so forth; many laypeople may be residing in the monastery to look after it; and there may also be vehicles, bathing jars and vats, khakkharas, fans, work implements, robes and bowls, bedding, and bamboo needle cases.

The bhikkhus did not know how to dispose of these things. The Buddha said: Whether the deceased was well known or not, all these things belong to the Sangha. The robes, bowls, bedding, and needle cases should be distributed among the Sangha in residence.

Everything else belongs to the Sangha of the four quarters and should not be distributed.

When the twofold Sangha receives many distributable robes and articles, even if only a samaneri is present, they should still be divided into two portions. If there is no samaneri, the Bhikkhu Sangha should distribute them. If there is no samanera, the Bhikkhuni Sangha should distribute them.

If a bhikkhu dies in a place where there are no other bhikkhus, an upasaka there or the keeper of the monastery grounds should preserve his belongings and wait until a member of one of the five ordained assemblies arrives, then hand them over to that person. If no one comes, the belongings should be taken to the nearest monastery and handed over there.

Bhikkhus who relinquish surplus robes should offer them to the Sangha, the Buddha, or a stupa. They should not give them to laypeople or non-Buddhist renunciants.

A bhikkhu undergoing parivasa or manatta should also receive a share. In the case of one subjected to a formal act of censure and so forth, his share may be placed on the ground for him or delivered through another person.

If laypeople have been engaged to help with the work, their compensation should be calculated according to how much or how little they have done, and they should be paid with food or money.

When a sick bhikkhu passes into nirvana, his robes, bowl, bedding, and needle case should be given to the person who nursed him by a motion followed by one proclamation. If that person already has many sets of three robes, they should instead be given for use to someone in need. The quality of the nursing should be considered: if the nurse cared for the sick bhikkhu well, he should be given a fine set of three robes; if the care was moderate, he should be given a middling set; if the care was ordinary, he should be given an ordinary set.

If a deceased bhikkhu owed a debt to someone, his surplus robes may be sold to repay the debt. If there are no surplus robes, his three robes may be sold for repayment. If any money remains, it should be given to the nurse. The nurse should ask the sick bhikkhu: Which robes constitute your three robes, and which are surplus? Do you owe anyone a debt? Does anyone owe a debt to you? To whom do you wish your belongings to be given? If the nurse fails to ask, he should be dealt with according to the Dharma.

A bhikkhu completed the formal establishment of the rains retreat at one place and then went to observe the retreat elsewhere. He should receive the rains-retreat articles from the residence where he stayed for the greater number of days (this refers to a case in which, for a valid reason, he formally took leave for more than seven days and then returned to his original residence). If the periods spent at the two residences were equal, he is permitted to receive half from each residence (this refers to a case in which, for a valid reason, he did not return to the place where he had first undertaken the rains retreat for forty days, yet this was not considered a breach of the retreat....).

One should not receive a share of the rains-retreat robes at one residence and then receive another share of the rains-retreat robes at another residence.

If, before the robes and articles for the rains retreat have been distributed, a bhikkhu must leave on some business, he should appoint someone to receive his share, and the Sangha should hand it to that person. If he appoints no one, gives unclear instructions, or the appointed person forgets, none of these is the fault of the Sangha.

If a bhikkhu passes into nirvana during the rains retreat and leaves many robes and articles, they should be distributed among the Sangha in residence and should not be retained until the rains retreat is over.

If a donor wishes to make offerings to a stupa, hold an assembly, and so forth, and the Sangha in residence receives many robes and articles for distribution, they should not be retained. These are out-of-season robes and should be distributed.

When a bhikkhu dwells alone at a residence during the rains retreat and receives many robes and articles, he should mentally resolve: “These articles are mine.” Whether or not he formally accepts them, any other bhikkhu who later arrives should not receive a share.

If many robes and articles are received and the Sangha is subsequently divided, the donor should be consulted, and they should be distributed according to the donor’s wishes. If the donor says, “I do not know,” or says, “Give them equally,” they should be divided into two portions.

When the bhikshus receive many robe requisites, or when a bhikshu goes from one division to another, no share should be distributed to him.

If a bhikshu sets out for another division but passes away on the road before arriving, his robes and bowl should be delivered to the dwelling place he intended to reach.

When an expelled bhikshu passes away, his robes and bowl should be delivered to the Sangha community that performed the karma of expulsion.

Question: In its disciplinary procedures, the Mahasanghika Vinaya says: “When impermanence comes upon an expelled person, his robes and bowl should not be distributed but should be discarded.” Here, however, it says that when an expelled bhikshu passes away, his robes and bowl should be delivered to the Sangha community that performed the karma of expulsion. Which rule should be followed in this case?

Answer: The intent of the Mahasanghika Vinaya applies only to those who refuse to relinquish wrong views, whereas the present passage applies generally to all offenses for which one may be expelled. The two are not contradictory, and both may be followed.

If the Sangha has split into two divisions and a donor invites them to a place to make offerings of food, robes, and silk, these should be distributed according to the donor’s intention.

If the Sangha receives the rains-retreat robes and is then split into two divisions, they should be distributed according to the number of persons in each division. If the Sangha is split before receiving the rains-retreat robes, they should likewise be distributed according to the number of persons. Whether the summer robes have or have not yet been received, those who go to other divisions should all receive a share.

There are eight ways of giving robes:

1) Giving to the Bhikshu Sangha.

2) Giving to the Bhikshuni Sangha.

3) Giving to both Sanghas.

4) Giving to the Sangha of the four directions.

5) Giving to the Sangha within the same boundary.

6) Giving to the Sangha participating in the same karma.

7) Giving separately to specifically named individuals.

8) Giving to one person.

The distribution should accord with the manner in which the gift was made.

The fourth section[7] says:

Property of the Sangha of the four directions should not be divided, appropriated for oneself, or bought and sold; nor is it property that the Sangha may sell. Whether the community is large or small, it must not be sold. If anyone appropriates, divides, or sells it, it does not become private property, the division is invalid, and the sale is invalid; the offender commits a Sthulatyaya offense.

What is called property of the Sangha of the four directions? It includes a sangharama and the property of the sangharama; dwellings and the property of the dwellings; basins, bowls, axes, jars, lampstands, and various important articles; rope beds, wooden beds, bedding, bamboo,

timber, and so forth. None of these should be divided. Flowers and fruit may be divided, or flowers may be offered to the Buddha.

If a private dwelling is built on Sangha land and a visiting senior bhikshu arrives, it should be yielded to the visitor. It is unreasonable to appropriate Sangha land as one’s private property.

One who distributes gruel for the Sangha will enter hell as swiftly as an arrow in the following five cases: acting with attachment, anger, fear, delusion, and not knowing who has or has not received a share. One who distributes gruel in the following five ways will be born in the heavens as swiftly as an arrow: without attachment, without anger, without fear, without delusion, and knowing who has and has not received a share. The same applies even when a novice is sent as a messenger.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya says:

One who spends the rains retreat at another dwelling place may not receive a share of robes here. One receives a share of robes at the dwelling place where one principally observed the rains retreat, except in cases of danger to life or danger to the holy life.

There are five cases in which a share of the rains-retreat robes should not be distributed:

1) An expelled person. That is, one who refuses to relinquish any one of the three views and has undergone a karma of expulsion for the offense. (Except in the case of refusing to relinquish a wrong view, those expelled for not acknowledging an offense, refusing to repent, undergoing a karma of censure, and so forth may have their share placed on the ground for them or delivered by another person.)

2) One who has renounced the training. If he relies on the power of a king or minister, or uses the force of bandits to come and demand a share, and withholding it would cause harm, it should be given to him.

3) One who has died. If the rains-retreat robes have already been assembled but not yet distributed, and a person who is about to die entrusts another to receive his share, then after his death it should be delivered to the person entrusted to receive it.

4) One who has broken the rains retreat, having completed neither the earlier nor the later rains retreat.

5) One who is absent. That is, one who departs without entrusting another to receive his share.

Although a bhikshu did not observe the rains retreat at that dwelling place, if a donor establishes a ceremonial meal and offering on his behalf, he should receive a share. If the donor’s household wishes to make a general offering to all the bhikshus, it should be distributed according to the donor’s intention.

There are four kinds of property which, according to the donor’s words, belong to the Sangha presently assembled:

1) “I give robes.”

2) “I give the value of robes.”

3) “I give material goods.”

4) “I give the value of material goods.”

There are also ten kinds of receipts that belong to the Sangha presently assembled:

1) Timely medicine (the principal meal).

2) Medicine for the night portion (an afternoon beverage).

3) Seven-day medicine (food permitted for seven days).

4) Lifelong medicine (medicine permitted throughout one’s life).

5) The property of a deceased bhikshu.

6) Offerings made to a dwelling place (monastery).

7) Offerings received at a great assembly.

8) Out-of-season robes.

9) Miscellaneous articles.

10) Invitations to meals.

When a novice dies, his property belongs to his preceptor.

The Mahishasaka Vinaya says:

When a novice dies, his property is divided by the Sangha presently assembled.

Question: Regarding the property of a deceased novice, the teachings of the Mahasanghika and Mahishasaka Vinayas contradict each other. Which should now be followed?

Answer: If a novice dies while being supported and instructed by his preceptor, the Mahasanghika Vinaya should be followed. If the novice has lived with the Sangha for a long time and shared its material support, the Mahishasaka Vinaya should be followed. Each rule has its own meaning.

The Sarvastivada Vinaya says:

A novice and a trainee bhikshu who has undertaken the discipline of repentance after a parajika offense should receive a share equal to that of a fully ordained bhikshu.

The Introduction to the Vinaya says:

If a bhikshu borrows property belonging to a stupa or to the Sangha of the four directions for his own use, then after his death, an amount of his robes and bowl property corresponding to its value should be used to repay it, and the remainder should be divided by the Sangha. If a bhikshu’s robes and bowl property has been borrowed for the use of a stupa or the Sangha of the four directions, then after his death, property of the stupa or Sangha corresponding to its value should be used to repay it. The Sangha presently assembled should divide that property.

The Fundamental Miscellaneous Matters says:

If the Sangha receives a small cake no larger than a leaf, the community should still divide it equally among themselves. If they receive a piece of cloth sufficient only to make a lampwick, the community should likewise divide it among themselves. If they receive valuable fine white cloth, it should be sold and the proceeds divided among them.

The Nidana says:

If a bhikshu passes away at a bhikshuni dwelling place, his robes and bowl should be returned to the bhikshus. If a bhikshuni passes away at a monastery of bhikshus, her robes and bowl should be returned to the bhikshunis. If there are no bhikshus in the locality, the bhikshunis should receive them. If there is no bhikshuni community in the locality, the bhikshus should take them.

There are four kinds of property that may not be divided:

1) Property of the Sangha of the four directions.

2) Property of a stupa.

3) Medicine for treating illness.

4) Property of the monastery (dwelling place).

If many precious goods are received on the day of a great assembly, they should be distributed according to the total amount received and in conformity with the principle of equality. If the community is numerous, each group of one thousand persons may constitute one share, and those within each group of one thousand should divide it among themselves. Alternatively, groups of one hundred, thirty, or ten persons may constitute one share and be instructed to divide it among themselves.

If one person in a group of ten dies immediately after the distribution has been completed, that person’s share should revert to the Sangha. If one person dies before the distribution, it should be divided into only nine shares for the nine remaining persons. Larger numbers should be handled according to the same principle.

The Muktaka says:

Property from one dwelling place should not be given to another dwelling place. Property should be used wherever it belongs. If one gives it away privately, one must repay its exact value. If one does not repay it, one incurs the grave offense of violating the Dharma.

The Sangha should not accept the three robes of a sick bhikshu. Even if it accepts them, they should not be dispersed; if any are found missing, they must be recovered so that the set is complete.

If someone gives property to both the Sangha of bhikshus and the Sangha of bhikshunis, the donor should be asked, and it should be distributed accordingly.

The benefits belonging to the two assemblies should be divided equally. Sramaneras and sramaneris receive one part out of three (1/3). Siksamanas and those who wish to receive ordination receive one part out of two (1/2).

When bhiksus and bhiksunis are invited to a meal and articles are offered to them, the division should be calculated according to the number of persons; it should not be divided into two portions.

When a Dharma assembly is established and offerings are received, a share should also be given to the bhiksuni assembly.

If the donor’s original intention was to make offerings only to those residing in this monastery, excluding those from elsewhere, yet visiting Sangha members come to partake of the meal, they must be given an amount calculated according to the value of the articles.

The Vinaya-samgraha says:

If one who is observing the rains retreat has occasion to go elsewhere and, before departing, entrusts someone to receive his share, his share should be allotted to him. If he gives no such instruction, no share should be allotted. If one agrees to receive it on his behalf but fails to do so, one should compensate him from one’s own share. If a bhiksu passes into stillness, any bhiksu who arrives in time for one of the following five stages should receive a share:

1) When the gandhi is struck.

2) When the Scripture on Impermanence with the Three Invocations is recited.[8]

3) When homage is paid to the caitya (stupa).

4) When the tally sticks are distributed (to count the Sangha members).

5) When the formal announcement is made.

If the assembly does not gather, or if there is no one to officiate in the procedure,[9] the procedure of the first and last should be performed. The procedure of the first and last means taking a small article belonging to the deceased, or two coins and the like, and presenting them before the most senior elder and the most junior member, giving them to these two as a definitive token. Thereafter, the Sangha present may divide the property among themselves according to the usual rule, without having to perform a formal procedure.

Once the procedure of the first and last has been performed, anyone who arrives afterward should not receive a share. If one was present during the first four stages but absent during the fifth, one should still receive a share. If the formal announcement has been made, anyone presently within the boundary should also receive a share and partake of the benefits together.

If no formal announcement is made and the procedure of the first and last is not performed, then all the sravaka disciples of the Blessed One presently dwelling in Jambudvipa or in other places are entitled to a share. Scriptures should not be divided; they should be placed in the library so that the Sangha of the four quarters may read and recite them together. Other ordinary books should be sold and the proceeds divided among the Sangha present.

If any property is recorded in documents or contracts and can be collected immediately, it should be divided among the Sangha. If it cannot yet be collected, the documents should be kept in the Sangha treasury. Once the property is collected, it should be assigned for the use of the Sangha of the four quarters.

If, while ill, a bhiksu says, “After I die, give this article to such-and-such a person,” this is a secular procedure and does not constitute a valid testament. The article should be divided. A gift made and delivered face-to-face is in accordance with the Dharma.

The deceased’s body should be cremated with offerings, and all scripture-recitation services should be completed; only then should the property be divided. If the deceased had deposited property at a certain place, the assembly at that place should divide it among themselves.

The Matrika Vinaya Scripture says:

During his lifetime, if a bhiksu possesses Sutras and Vinaya texts, he should give them to someone capable of reading and reciting them. If he has not had time to give them away, the Sangha present should entrust them to someone capable of reading and reciting them; they should not divide and sell them.

Question: Regarding the Sutras, Vinaya texts, and treatises of a deceased bhiksu, the positions of the Vinaya-samgraha and the Matrika treatise are not the same. Which should now be followed?

Answer: Sutras and treatises are valued because they are circulated, read, and recited. Only dividing them and then selling them is impermissible. In other respects, one may exercise discretion according to the circumstances.

IV. THE PROCEDURE FOR EXPOUNDING THE DHARMA

The Second Vinaya[10] says:

It is permitted to explain the meaning without reciting every word and phrase in full. Two bhiksus should not expound the Dharma together from the same high seat. They should not arrange high seats close together and expound the meaning of the Dharma while mutually searching for each other’s strengths and shortcomings. The Dharma should not be taught with excessive chanting and singing.

Expounding the Dharma through chanting and singing entails five faults:

1) One personally develops craving and attachment to the sound.

2) The listeners develop craving.

3) The listeners imitate it.

4) householders become critical and give rise to contempt.

5) It creates noisy conditions in a tranquil place and disturbs meditative concentration.

The Fourth Vinaya (the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya) says:

If a bhiksu expounds teachings that merely resemble the scriptural words and phrases, he acts contrary to the Dharma and Vinaya. Such a bhiksu causes many people to lose benefit, creates painful karma, and brings about the disappearance of the True Dharma. If he accords with the scriptural words and phrases and does not violate the Dharma and Vinaya, such a bhiksu benefits many people, does not create painful karma, and causes the True Dharma to endure.

Furthermore, if a bhiksu himself institutes what the Buddha did not institute and fails to apply what the Buddha instituted, he thereby gradually causes the precepts and Vinaya to be disparaged and destroyed, causes many people to lose benefit, creates much painful karma, and brings about the disappearance of the True Dharma. If a bhiksu does not institute what the Buddha did not institute but applies what the Buddha instituted, he thereby gradually brings the precepts and Vinaya to fulfillment, benefits many people, does not create painful karma, and causes the True Dharma to endure.

Therefore, you should not yourselves institute anything that the Buddha did not institute. You should apply what the Buddha instituted, study it, and accord with the precepts established by the Buddha.

Question: The Scripture of Five Hundred Questions, when compared with the various Vinaya collections, now contains many contradictions. Moreover, the Baizhang Rules of Purity also diverge greatly from the Vinaya. If later generations follow them, can they avoid the offense of destroying the True Dharma?

Answer: The corruption and disappearance of the True Dharma are entirely due to those who study the Vinaya without thoroughly understanding it. It can clearly be known that the Scripture of Five Hundred Questions was certainly augmented with spurious additions by later people. As for the Baizhang Rules of Purity, over the passage of time the original intent of Chan Master Huaihai has been completely lost. Its present contents all arose from erroneous and baseless additions made by conventional Sangha officials and abbots during the Yuan dynasty, and their reasoning is incoherent. Those who now observe these rules do so because they have not yet understood the study of the Vinaya.

The Buddha told the bhiksus: There are four principles of great authority that should be widely proclaimed:

1) Suppose a bhiksu says: “Elders, at such-and-such a time, in such-and-such a city, I heard the Buddha teach and received and retained this: ‘This is the Dharma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Buddha’s teaching.’” Upon hearing him speak in this way, one should not immediately become suspicious or rebuke him. One should examine the words and phrases, then investigate and study the Sutras and Vinaya, comparing and testing them against the Dharma and the disciplinary rules.

If they do not correspond and are contrary to the True Dharma, one should tell that bhiksu: “What you have said does not accord with the Buddha’s teaching. Elder, you have failed to verify the Buddha’s teaching. Why is this?

Because I have investigated and studied the Dharma and the disciplinary rules, and they do not correspond to what you have said. Elder, you should neither read nor recite this, nor teach it to other bhiksus. You should discard it!” If, upon investigating and studying the Dharma and the disciplinary rules, one finds that they correspond, one should say: “What the Elder has said is indeed the word of the Buddha.

You have verified the Buddha’s teaching. Why is this? Because I have investigated and studied the Dharma and the disciplinary rules and found that they correspond and do not conflict.

Elder, you should carefully receive, retain, read, and recite this, and teach it to other bhiksus; do not allow it to be lost.” This is the first principle of great authority that should be widely proclaimed.

2) Furthermore, if someone says: “While I was in such-and-such a village or city... I heard an elder, in the midst of the harmonious Sangha, say: ‘This is the Dharma,’ and so forth,” this too must be investigated, studied, compared, and examined. If it does not correspond, one should say: “This is not the teaching of the Buddha.

The Sangha there and that elder failed to examine the Buddha’s teaching properly; you, Venerable Sir, have likewise failed to do so...” up to the statement: “You should discard it.” If it does correspond, one should say: “This is the teaching of the Buddha. The Sangha and the elder there, as well as you, Venerable Sir, have properly examined the Buddha’s teaching...” up to the statement: “Do not allow it to be lost.” This is the second principle that should be widely proclaimed.

3) If someone says: “I heard many bhikshus who understand the Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma Pitakas say...” it should likewise be treated in this manner.

4) If someone says: “I heard a bhikshu well versed in the Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma Pitakas say...” it should likewise be treated in this manner.

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya says:

If the place for the elder’s lion seat is fixed, its legs should be made of brick. If its place is not fixed, its legs should be made of wood. A Dharma teacher should be provided with a spittoon for expectoration.

One who begrudges the teaching incurs five harmful offenses:

1) One is born blind.

2) One is without wisdom.

3) One is separated from the Buddhadharma.

4) One has enemies within one’s household.

5) One cannot enter the right stage, and at death falls into

hell.

The Miscellaneous Matters says:

Beneath the lion seat, a wooden platform should be made, or stones should be used to support its four legs.

The Vinaya Compendium says:

There are five kinds of people for whom one should not expound the Vinaya Pitaka:

1) Those whose disposition lacks understanding and who deliberately pose peculiar questions.

2) Those who ask not for the purpose of dispelling doubts.

3) Those who pose test questions merely in jest.

4) Those who ask in order to cause trouble and inconvenience.

5) Those who ask in order to pry into faults.

One should proclaim the noble teaching without seeking gain as a means of livelihood. If someone teaches what is contrary to the Dharma, the elder must stop him. A Dharma teacher should not take a large assembly of disciples as his retinue. If they follow of their own accord, there is no offense. If, without having been invited, a Dharma teacher hastily expounds the Dharma for others, he commits an offense of transgressing the Dharma.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya says:

While listening to the Dharma, when an elder arrives, those of lower seniority should not be made to rise. If either of one’s two teachers—the preceptor or the acharya—arrives, one may rise oneself out of utmost reverence, but others may not be made to do so.

There are five kinds of people for whom one should not explain the Vinaya: those who pose test questions; those who ask though they have no doubts; those who ask not for the purpose of repenting of a transgression; those who interrogate contentiously; and those who refuse to accept the answer.

On the six observance days of each month, bhikshus who are not ill should assemble harmoniously in one place to expound the Dharma. If non-Buddhist debaters come with jealous minds, wishing to refute the subject of the Dharma discourse, they should be challenged and interrogated in accordance with the Dharma so as to subdue them. One should not settle the matter with abusive speech arising from anger.

A Dharma teacher should single-mindedly present the true Dharma and give rise to a mind of compassion and beneficence. His speech should be dignified, lucid, refined, orderly, and continuous; his eloquence should be inexhaustible and accord with the true nature of all dharmas. He should teach for the sake of the Dharma, not for offerings or material gain.

The Preface to the Vinaya says:

When the Dharma is being taught or heard, one should not rise when an elder arrives. The elder likewise should not compel those of lower seniority to rise.

The Mahishasaka Vinaya says:

The Dharma should be taught on the eighth and fourteenth days of the month, and the Uposatha should be held on the fifteenth day...

One should not teach the Dharma in a chanting or singing voice...

If laypeople scatter flowers and they fall upon the heads or robes of bhikshus, the bhikshus should brush them off. If they fall upon the high seat, one should not be displeased by it.

The Vinaya-Matrika Sutra says:

A bhikshu teaching the Dharma must observe the assembly and consider what Dharma they are capable of comprehending and retaining. If profound Dharma should be taught, he should teach profound Dharma. If ordinary Dharma should be taught, he should teach ordinary Dharma.

If what he teaches does not benefit the listeners, it is called wrong teaching. Moreover, he should eliminate the mind of craving, the defiled mind, the malicious mind, the deluded mind, the mind that disparages oneself, and the mind that disparages the assembly. He must possess a compassionate mind, a joyful mind, a beneficial mind, a patient mind, an unmoving mind, and a mind free from delusion and defilement.

Only after establishing such states of mind may he teach the Dharma. Furthermore, he should not teach the Dharma because of other conditions, for the Dharma is exceedingly important and exceedingly difficult to hear. The Dharma is a treasure and a medicine capable of benefiting everyone; it is for this reason that it is taught.

Even if only a four-line verse is taught, the listeners should be enabled to understand its principle in accordance with reality and thereby gain benefit, peace, and happiness upon the path through birth and death.

It is permitted to cite the subtle and essential words of the sutras in order to elucidate their meaning.

V. THE PRACTICE OF READING AND RECITATION

The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya says:

Extensive learning has five benefits:

1) Skill concerning the five skandhas.

2) Skill concerning the twelve ayatanas.

3) Skill concerning the eighteen dhatus.

4) Skill concerning dependent origination.

5) In matters requiring admonition and instruction, one need not seek assistance from others.

The Miscellaneous Matters says:

The use of a melodious chanting voice is permitted in two cases:

1) Praising the virtues of the Great Teacher.

2) Reciting the Sutra of the Three Invocations[11].

Those who do not know how to chant melodiously—that is, to recite praises—should learn in a secluded place.

One should not prolong the voice in a singing manner when reciting sutras or teaching the Dharma. At night, lamps may be lit for sutra recitation. In summer, for fear of harming insects, a cover should be placed over the lamp.

Only one who is wise and intelligent, widely learned, possessed of a strong memory, and capable of subduing non-Buddhists may study non-Buddhist texts. Each day, from the early part of the day through the middle and later parts, one should read and recite the Buddha’s sutras; only in the evening may one look through non-Buddhist texts. The three watches of the night should be arranged in the same way.

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya says:

One should not intermingle the language of non-Buddhists with the Buddha’s sutras. It is permitted to explain and recite the Buddha’s sutras in accordance with the secular culture and literature of the country concerned.

Question: Here in China, passages from the writings of Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Xuanni (Confucius) are quoted in sutras and treatises to explain their essential purport. Is this an offense?

Answer: When one’s insight into the teaching has not yet opened, introducing external expressions merely to embellish literary phrases and language is called intermingling non-Buddhist teachings. If one has realized the true nature of the Dharma seal, one can select and condense material so that everything is clearly and distinctly presented, without circumlocution or confusion. In brief, both coarse words and refined expressions may express the ultimate truth. If passages from various sutras and writings are quoted to enable people to understand, and all accord with the Four Siddhantas[12], there is nothing contrary in doing so.

The Ten Recitations Vinaya says:

When one of lower seniority wishes to teach the Dharma to an elder, he should sit in a higher place out of reverence for the Dharma. When an elder wishes to receive the Dharma from one of lower seniority, he should sit in a lower place out of reverence for the Dharma. It is also permitted for one of lower seniority, while teaching the Dharma to an elder, to sit together with him on the same seat out of respect for the elder.

Reciting sutras has five benefits:

1) The body does not become weary, and what has been memorized is not forgotten.

2) The mind does not become indolent or fatigued.

3) The voice is not impaired.

4) The words are easily understood.

5) When the devas hear the recitation, their minds immediately become joyful.

One who recites the Buddha’s sutras using the intonation of non-Buddhists commits a dushkrita offense.

The Sarvastivada Treatise says:

If a bhikshu has nowhere to learn the recitation of sutras, he may go to a shramanerika to receive instruction in the Dharma. He should merely seek a companion who observes the precepts well and esteems virtue to serve as witness. He may also receive instruction in the Dharma from a layperson, but must not address that person as acharya. In this way, instruction in the Dharma may be received successively. He must only take care not to compromise proper deportment.

Question: It is traditionally said: “When a layperson teaches the Dharma and a bhikshu listens, this is a sign of the decline of the Buddhadharma.” How, then, can a bhikshu receive instruction in the Dharma from a layperson?

Answer: The elder Anathapindika, whenever he came to Jetavana to teach the sutras to newly ordained bhiksus, would first bow at the feet of the bhiksus and only afterward expound the Dharma. At times, the layman Vimalakirti sharply rebuked those attached to the Lesser Vehicle, causing all the sravakas and bodhisattvas to be awestruck; yet he never dared regard himself as their teacher and have them bow at his feet. This was a beautiful custom while the Buddha was still in the world; how could it be called a sign of decline? If a layperson is called a teacher and a bhiksu in turn performs reverential obeisance to him, or receives instruction in and seeks to study non-Buddhist texts, these are all contrary to the Dharma.

The Five-Part Vinaya says:

It is permitted to study non-Buddhist texts, but one must not abandon the work of the Way out of fondness for them. For the purpose of subduing non-Buddhists, one is permitted to read non-Buddhist books, but one must not rely upon those books to form views and interpretations.

It is permitted to read and recite the scriptures according to the language of one’s own country, but one must not contradict the Buddha’s intent. One must not use the language of the Buddha to compose non-Buddhist books. If one violates this, one incurs a Sthulatyaya offense.

The Vinaya-samgraha says:

The teachings may be transmitted in any of the four deportments. To show reverence for the Dharma, the person receiving the teaching must assume one of three deportments, and must not sleep while receiving instruction. According to the discipline of a disciple, whether old or young, upon arriving before the teacher one should join one’s palms and bow one’s head, and only then inquire whether the teacher’s four great elements are at ease.

One should give rise to a mind of reverence and admiration, be upright in heart and not devious, seek resolution of one’s doubts, and attend well to what is received so that it is not forgotten. If one has no doubts and receives the Dharma in the customary manner, one should bow at the teacher’s feet and withdraw. The teacher should likewise respect the student and harbor neither contempt nor deceit while transmitting the teaching.

The teacher should not be miserly with the Dharma, but should comprehend it well and explain it well, possessing patience and compassion, so that the recipient of the teaching does not become weary or vexed. The teacher should regularly instruct those who attend upon him; if a person is dull by nature, he should be taught frequently. To transmit the teachings in a chanting or intoning voice incurs an offense of wrongdoing.

One should not praise non-Buddhist writings. In order to subdue other paths, if one knows oneself to be capable, one should divide the day into three periods: during the two suitable periods one should study the Buddha-Dharma, namely, the beginning and middle of the day; during the final period one should study non-Buddhist texts, namely, late in the afternoon. One should not divide years or months into three such periods.

VI. THE METHOD OF SEATED MEDITATION

The third section of the Four-Part Vinaya says:

If a bhiksu dozes off, the one seated nearby should awaken him with the meditation staff. If he deliberately falls asleep again, one should touch his eyelids, wash his face with water, pinch his ears or nose with one’s hand, touch his forehead, or lift his robe and touch his body with one’s hand. Alternatively, he should rise and go outside the door, look in the four directions, gaze up at the stars, or go to the walking-meditation ground and practice walking meditation, restraining the faculties so that the mind does not become distracted.

The Ten-Recitation Vinaya says:

When taking up the meditation staff, one should give rise to a mind of reverence. One who sits nodding forward and backward cannot be relied upon. One who sits firmly can be relied upon. There are five circumstances in which one may lightly press another person with the meditation staff:

1) Out of compassion.

2) So as not to cause another person affliction.

3) When the person is dozing.

4) When the person sits with his head leaning against the wall.

5) When the person sits with his legs stretched out.

It is permitted to wear a meditation weight[13]. Make a hole in it and thread a cord through the hole. Tie one end of the cord into a loop and hook it over the ear. Wear the meditation weight four finger-widths from the forehead. When the meditation weight falls once, one may stretch one’s legs once; when it falls twice, one may stretch one’s legs twice; when it falls three times, one must rise and walk.

It is permitted to establish a schedule for day and night, for a period of seven days or as a daily routine.

The Preface to the Vinaya says:

When sitting in meditation, one should not distinguish between senior and junior, nor may anyone be expelled.

The Mulasarvastivada Miscellaneous Matters says:

A king of the northern region presented two youths to King Prasenajit. One was named Dhajaka and the other Balaka; one held the view of annihilation and the other held wrong views, and this was known both near and far. Later, through the elder Anathapindika’s skillful guidance and acceptance, they were made to sweep the monastery grounds.

At night, they witnessed the miraculous transformations of arhats and saw devas expounding the Dharma; they thereby gave rise to right view. They went to the Buddha, heard the Dharma, went forth, and attained the fruit. King Prasenajit felt ashamed and feared reproach.

The Buddha instructed the two men, when eating at the elder’s house, to take charge of the drinking water, thereby revealing their extraordinary virtue, and the king then marveled in admiration. When the bhiksus asked about their past causes, the Buddha taught: “During the time of Kasyapa Buddha, these two went forth together as companions and came to dwell in a remote frontier country. Having no instructing teacher, they practiced meditation on their own.

In truth they had attained no fruit, yet mistakenly believed that they had. As they approached death, they slandered the True Dharma, gave rise to wrong views, and declared: ‘Kasyapa Buddha deceived the world by claiming that he had completely eradicated the afflictions and attained the fruit of arhatship. Since even we cannot eradicate all the afflictions, how could anyone else attain the fruit of arhatship?’ Because they thus slandered the True Dharma and gave rise to wrong views, for many kalpas they fell into the evil destinies.

Throughout many lives they also continually dwelt in frontier regions with minds holding wrong views. Nevertheless, because they had read, recited, received, and retained the teachings on the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, causes and conditions, principles, and what is possible and impossible, and were thoroughly skilled in them all, through the power of this karma they were able to go forth and cultivate the Way within My True Dharma.

Such are the errors that arise when one practices meditation without a teacher. Therefore, one should not practice meditation on one’s own without a teacher.”

The Samantapasadika Vinaya Commentary says:

If one is able to skillfully maintain samatha, the afflictions may not arise for twenty or thirty years, or even for eighty or one hundred years. From this, a mind of overweening pride may arise.

(Samatha is translated into Chinese as “cessation.” If one realizes the essential nature of cessation, this is concentration endowed with wisdom, and there is no fault of giving rise to overweening pride. But if one cultivates concentration alone, it merely halts coarse and scattered thoughts. Even if one thereby gradually suppresses and eliminates all defilements, attains the concentration of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and believes nirvana has become manifest, this remains nothing but overweening pride.)

VII. MISCELLANEOUS PRACTICES

The Mahasamghika Vinaya says:

The “six recollections” are:

1) Recollecting and knowing the day and month.

2) Recollecting and knowing the place where one received food.

3) Recollecting and knowing the time when one received ordination and the number of one’s rains-retreat years.

4) Recollecting and knowing which robes and bowl one has formally received and retained, and which have been given through the rite of purification.

5) Recollecting whether one ate together with the Sangha or apart from it.

6) Recollecting whether one’s body is strong or weak.

The fourth section[14] says:

Failing to clean one’s teeth has five disadvantages:

1) The mouth has a foul odor.

2) One cannot distinguish flavors.

3) It increases internal heat.

4) Food is not properly digested.

5) The eyes are not clear.

Cleaning one’s teeth has five benefits, the opposites of the five stated above. A tooth-cleaning stick should be at most one span long and at least four finger-widths long. One should not use unfamiliar kinds of wood or the ribs of miscellaneous leaves. One should not use bark. One should clean one’s teeth in a secluded place.

The Mahasamghika Vinaya says:

If tooth-cleaning sticks are difficult to obtain, after using one end one should cut off the used portion, wash the remainder clean, and use it again later. A tooth-cleaning stick should be at most sixteen finger-widths long and at least four finger-widths long.

The Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea says:

Every morning, one should clean one’s teeth, rinse one’s mouth thoroughly, and only then perform reverential obeisance.

Failing to clean one’s teeth, failing to wash after relieving oneself, and eating food that has been touched by unclean hands are all vile practices.

The Four-Part Vinaya says:

One should sweep in the direction of the wind. There are five ways of sweeping the ground that do not produce great merit:

1) Sweeping without following the direction of the wind.

2) Sweeping against the wind.

3) Sweeping without removing all the broom marks.

4) Failing to sweep away all the filth.

5) Failing to return the broom to its original place.

The five ways of sweeping the ground that bring great merit are the opposites of the five points above. If, while one is sweeping, a senior monk is standing downwind, one should say: “Venerable sir, please move aside for a moment; I wish to sweep this place.”

The Mūlasarvāstivāda Miscellaneous Matters says:

Every morning, the householder Anāthapiṇḍika came to sweep the monastery garden. One day, because he was occupied with other matters, he did not arrive in time to sweep. Seeing that the ground was not clean, the Blessed One himself took up a broom and swept it. At that time, the Venerable Śāriputra and the other great śrāvakas all swept together with the Buddha. When they had finished, they entered the dining hall and sat down. The Buddha told the bhikshus: Sweeping the ground has five benefits:

1) One’s own mind becomes pure.

2) One causes the minds of others also to become pure.

3) The devas rejoice.

4) One plants karma conducive to a dignified and handsome appearance.

5) At the end of one’s life, one is reborn in heaven.

Later, when the householder Anāthapiṇḍika entered the grove and heard that the Buddha and his disciples had already finished sweeping, he did not dare proceed, being exceedingly ashamed and afraid. The Buddha said: While reciting the scriptures and Dharma, simply walk in. Because the Buddha esteemed the scriptural Dharma, all the arhats likewise revered the Dharma.

The Fourth Section[15] says:

Walking meditation has five benefits:

1) One is able to travel far.

2) One is able to contemplate.

3) One has fewer illnesses.

4) Food is easily digested.

5) The power of concentration endures for a long time.

One should not sleep during the daytime. If one is elderly or ill, or has arrived after traveling from afar, one is permitted to enter one’s room, close the door, and sleep.

The Five-Part Vinaya says:

Upon approaching a latrine, one should clear one’s throat or snap one’s fingers so that whoever is inside, as well as nonhuman beings, may know. The person inside should likewise clear the throat or snap the fingers in response.

The Mūlasarvāstivāda Miscellaneous Matters says:

If one has not cleansed oneself, one should not circumambulate a stupa, practice walking meditation, bow to the Buddha, recite scriptures, bow to another person, receive another’s bow, eat or drink, enter the assembly, or sit upon the assembly’s beds or seats. Because the body is unclean and not in accordance with the Dharma, the devas are displeased, and the scriptures and mantras one upholds will have no efficacy. If one establishes a vegetarian offering ceremony, makes offerings, copies scriptures, or creates images, one will gain only meager merit.

The One Hundred and One Karmavācās says:

When one needs to defecate, one should carry a water vessel to the latrine, place one’s robe to one side, and arrange fifteen balls of earth outside the latrine (arranging them in a straight row upon a brick or plank near the place where the water drains, in an area about one cubit long and one handspan wide). Taking three balls of earth and a wiping implement, one should carry the water vessel into the latrine and close the door.

After defecating, one should use the wiping implement to wipe oneself clean. Next, using the three balls of earth, one should wash the left hand three times until it is clean. Then, holding the water vessel beneath the armpit, one should push open the door with the right hand and carry the water vessel with the right hand to the place for washing the hands.

Squatting down, one should place the vessel upon the left thigh and hold it in place with the elbow. Of the remaining five balls of earth, four are used to wash both hands, and the last is used to wash the vessel. Only afterward should one wash the feet, take up one’s robe, and depart.

Upon returning to one’s room, one should rinse one’s mouth with clean water.

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya says:

If the “lower part” is afflicted with hemorrhoids and cannot be washed, one should wipe it clean with something soft, such as cloth or leaves. One must not clean one’s teeth in the latrine. One should not cover the head or drape the shoulders, but should keep the upper body bare.

The Samantapāsādikā Vinaya says:

When one is about to sleep, one should recollect the Buddha, the Dharma, the Sangha, moral discipline, the devas, or impermanence. Among these six recollections, one should practice whichever is appropriate.

Question: Upon reading the Essential Compilation of the Vinaya and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya Piṭaka, as well as the Mahāsāṃghika, Mūlasarvāstivāda, Five-Part, Ten-Recitation, Samantapāsādikā, Vinaya Mātṛkā, and other Vinayas, one finds only extensive explanations of the precepts, but no discussion of verses and mantras. Nowadays, students of the Vinaya use verses and mantras as the basis of their practice and observance. What is the meaning of this?

Answer: The Dharma gates are innumerable, and although each has its own function, when one first enters the Path one must deeply penetrate a single gate. Having entered the ranks of bhikshus, one should know that the study of the Vinaya comes first. To understand clearly the essential principles of the Vinaya, two matters are especially urgent:

1) Memorize the precepts and clearly understand observance, transgression, allowance,

and prohibition.

2) Maintain the rules of deportment and concentrate upon cultivating the contemplation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness.[16]

In this way, throughout the twelve periods of a day and night, one may constantly maintain single-mindedness, without a single thought becoming confused or scattered, and only then can one form a continuous practice capable of severing delusion and realizing true suchness. If, at the outset, one studies many different gates, it will ultimately be difficult to enter the Path. The verses in question are extracted from the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, while those true words belong to the Esoteric canon.

As Dharma gates, they are indeed inconceivable, but in the matter of cultivation and realization each has its own distinct guiding principle. If one follows one’s own school and cultivates it exclusively and without interruption, samādhi is readily attained. It is like gathering many flowers but failing to string them together with a thread: when the wind blows, the flowers will certainly be scattered in every direction.

To gather them all together is entirely correct, for every phrase, every verse, and every word is a seed of the Path. But to select them separately and combine them indiscriminately is entirely mistaken, for then the Vinaya no longer constitutes the Vinaya, the Exoteric no longer constitutes the Exoteric, and the Esoteric no longer constitutes the Esoteric; one merely loses one’s wholesome roots. For this reason, the True Dharma gradually declines, and in the final age its fortunes cannot be revived.

For a person of aspiration, nothing is better than concentrating wholly upon the precepts and Vinaya and thoroughly mastering the proper duties of a bhikshu. Those of sharp faculties can proceed from the precepts to the ultimate attainment, thereby encompassing all the wondrous efficacy of both the Exoteric and Esoteric teachings. Those of dull faculties can likewise use the precepts as a staircase by which they gradually ascend into the edifice of the Exoteric and Esoteric teachings.

Only in this way will one’s learning have a foundation and one avoid the reproach of losing the sheep because there were too many paths!

The Third Section (of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya) says:

The Buddha told the bhikshus: Following your mindful awareness and maintaining the rules of deportment—this is my instruction. What is meant by following your mindful awareness?

– Contemplate the body internally, diligently maintaining the directing of mindfulness toward the body (that is, mindfulness of the body), keeping mindfulness undistracted, and subduing worldly craving, delusion, jealousy, sorrow, and distress.

– Contemplate the body externally and both internally and externally; contemplate feelings and mind (that is, mindfulness of mind), and Dharmas (the foundation of mindfulness of Dharmas) in the same way. A bhikshu who practices in this manner attains right mindfulness. Maintaining the rules of deportment means that when going out or coming in, bending down or looking up, taking hold of one’s robe and bowl, drinking, eating, taking medicine, defecating or urinating, sleeping or waking, walking, standing, sitting or lying down, speaking or remaining silent, the mind continually abides in those actions. This is called a bhikshu who maintains the rules of deportment. (Throughout day and night, in the four modes of deportment, one single-mindedly cultivates the contemplation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness. This is the essential principle of Vinaya study.)

The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya says:

Going forth has five benefits:

1) I myself receive a benefit that others do not possess.

2) I know that I was formerly a person of lowly status, driven away and ordered about by others. After going forth, I receive the respect of others and am praised and bowed to.

3) I shall attain the peace and security of unsurpassed nirvana.

4) At the end of my life, I shall be reborn in the heavenly realm.

5) I shall always be praised by the Buddhas, the assemblies of śrāvakas, and the worthy and virtuous.

THE SŪTRA SPOKEN BY THE BUDDHA

ON THE GRAVITY OF OFFENSES AGAINST THE PRECEPTS[17]

(Translated during the Later Han dynasty by the Parthian Tripiṭaka Master, Śramaṇa An Shigao)

Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was dwelling in the city of Rājagṛha, in the Bamboo Grove at Kalandaka. At that time, late in the afternoon, the Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana arose from meditation and went to where the Buddha was. He bowed at the Buddha’s feet, withdrew, and sat to one side. With palms joined reverently, he addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One, I have a small doubt and now wish to ask about it. May you grant me permission?

The Buddha said to Maudgalyāyana:

– Ask whatever is in your mind, and I shall explain it for you.

Maudgalyāyana then addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One! If bhikkhus or bhikkhunis are without a sense of shame, disdain the Buddha’s teachings, and violate the rules concerning matters to be learned, pratidesaniya, pacittiya, thullaccaya, sanghavasesa, or parajika, how many years of harmful retribution will they incur? May the Blessed One please explain.

The Buddha told Maudgalyayana:

– Listen, listen carefully! The Tathagata will now explain this to you. If bhikkhus or bhikkhunis feel neither shame nor remorse, disdain the Buddha’s words, and violate a “rule to be learned,” they will fall into hell (Niraya) for a period equal to five hundred years in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, which, according to human reckoning, is 900,000 years.

Furthermore, Maudgalyayana, if they feel no shame or remorse, disdain the Buddha’s words, and violate a pratidesaniya rule, they will fall into hell for a period equal to one thousand years in the Heaven of the Thirty-three, which, according to human reckoning, is three hundred sixty million years.

Furthermore, Maudgalyayana, if they feel neither shame nor remorse, disdain the Buddha’s words, and commit a pacittiya offense, they will fall into hell for a period equal to two thousand years in the Yama Heaven. According to human reckoning, this is fourteen billion four hundred million years.

Furthermore, Maudgalyayana, if they feel no shame or remorse, disdain the Buddha’s words, and commit a thullaccaya offense, they will fall into hell for a period equal to four thousand years in the Tusita Heaven. According to the reckoning of this human realm, this is fifty-six billion six hundred million years.

Furthermore, Maudgalyayana, if they feel no shame or remorse, disdain the Buddha’s words, and commit a sanghavasesa offense, they will fall into hell for a period equal to eight thousand years in the Heaven of Delight in Creation (that is, the Heaven of Unhindered Delight). According to human reckoning, this is two hundred thirty billion four hundred million years.

Furthermore, Maudgalyayana, if they feel no shame or remorse, disdain the Buddha’s teachings, and commit a parajika offense, they will fall into hell for a period equal to sixteen thousand years in the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations. According to human reckoning, this is nine hundred twenty-one billion six hundred million years.

After the Venerable Maudgalyayana heard the Buddha’s teaching, he rejoiced and respectfully practiced it.

Question: - This inquiry is called authentic and true; does that mean the other five hundred inquiries are called spurious?

Answer: - What accords with the authentic and true is acceptable; what follows it superficially but is erroneous is false. Therefore, over the years, the authentic and true portions have been selected and determined, while the miscellaneous portions have been discarded.

Chart correlating the 250 precepts of bhikkhus and the 348 precepts of bhikkhunis with the five punishments (on the following page):

– The five divisions correlated with the five punishments.

– The sequence of the seven classes.

– The retribution of the six offenses.

Discarding means being cast out, like one defeated in battle. Death means capital punishment. Exile means banishment to a distant region. Penal servitude means punishment by forced labor. Beating means punishment with a staff. Flogging means punishment with a whip or slaps.

VERSES ON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PRECEPTS

Upon examination, the Mahasanghika Vinaya, when compiled, first presents verses and then the text of the Vinaya. The Mulasarvastivada Vinaya also contains verses. Thus beginners can easily remember and recite it. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, however, contains no verses. If verses from other schools are adopted, their sequence will not be the same. I wished to preserve the ancient arrangement, yet feared that beginners would find it difficult to remember and recite. Therefore, relying on the underlying principles, I have now composed these verses so that, when beginners study them, the characteristics of the precepts in the five divisions will be set forth in conformity with their essential framework.

Respectfully composed by the sramana Zhixu

VERSES ON THE 250 PRECEPTS

FIRST DIVISION:

Sexual intercourse; stealing five coins.

Intentionally ending a human life.

Having no attainment, falsely claiming attainment,

Except for one overcome by excessive conceit.

These four parajika offenses,

Once committed, are beyond remedy.

SECOND DIVISION:

Emission through stimulation; touching a woman;

Lewd speech; soliciting sexual service;

Acting as a go-between; building a large hut;

Building a dwelling for the Sangha when the Sangha has not designated the site;

Groundlessly defaming another;

Causing schism in the Sangha and supporting its faction;

Being expelled and then resenting the Sangha;

Being ill-natured and refusing admonition.

The first nine are offenses as soon as committed;

For the last four, admonition must be given three times.

These are the thirteen Sangha-residue offenses;

Rehabilitation requires a Sangha of twenty.

THIRD DIVISION:

There are two indeterminate rules;

One is judged according to either of three, the other according to either of two.

FOURTH DIVISION:

There are thirty rules entailing forfeiture and downfall:

Keeping an extra robe; sleeping apart from one’s robe.

Waiting for sufficient cloth, yet exceeding one month.

Receiving a robe from an unrelated bhikkhuni.

Having an unrelated bhikkhuni wash or dye a robe.

Begging a robe from an unrelated layperson.

Accepting beyond the amount of an invitation to take at will.

Demanding an increased price; arranging for a robe to be made.

Inquiring about the robe more than six times.

These are the first ten rules.

Making a sitting rug from silk.

Making it entirely black, without mixed colors.

Obtaining another within six years.

Failing to make the prescribed patch on a sitting rug.

Carrying sheep’s wool over a long distance.

Having a bhikkhuni wash, dye, or beat it.

Accepting gold or silver; engaging in buying and selling;

Bartering makes twenty.

Keeping an extra bowl; seeking a better one.

Having an unrelated weaver weave cloth,

And offering more to have it woven finely.

Giving a robe, then angrily demanding it back.

Keeping medicine beyond seven days.

Using a rains robe before the proper time.

Prematurely accepting an urgent gift of robe cloth.

During the Kathina period, being apart from one’s robe for six nights.

Diverting Sangha property to oneself.

These are the thirty rules.

The object must be forfeited before the Sangha,

And the pacittiya offense confessed.

FIFTH DIVISION:

The ninety rules of simple downfall:

False speech. Insulting speech.

Divisive speech. Lodging with a woman.

Lodging three nights with one not fully ordained.

Reciting together. Disclosing another’s offense.

Telling laypeople of another’s superior attainment.

Teaching Dharma to a woman in more than six sentences.

Digging the earth. These are the first ten.

Destroying living plants.

Evasive speech. Resentful abuse.

Spreading Sangha bedding in the open.

And failing to put it away inside a dwelling.

Forcibly taking another’s sleeping place.

Dragging someone out of a Sangha dwelling.

Using a bed with detachable legs on an upper floor.

Pouring water containing living creatures onto plaster.

Roofing a dwelling with more than three layers.

This completes the second ten.

Teaching bhikkhunis without authorization.

Though appointed by the Sangha, teaching until dusk.

Disparaging one who teaches bhikkhunis.

Giving a robe to an unrelated bhikkhuni.

Sewing a robe for her; sitting in a secluded place.

Arranging to travel together; traveling in the same boat.

Eating food obtained through a bhikkhuni’s praise.

The thirtieth: traveling in company with a woman.

Accepting more than one meal.

Eating repeatedly; eating apart from the Sangha.

Accepting more than three bowlfuls when invited.

Eating again without performing the procedure for leftover food.

Deliberately causing another to offend.

Eating at an improper time; eating food kept overnight.

Without being invited, demanding fine food.

The forty rules are now complete.

Placing food into the hand of a non-Buddhist ascetic.

Going to another household without informing anyone.

Deliberately sitting too long in a household where a meal is being served,

And sitting in a secluded place.

Sitting with a woman in an open place.

Deceiving another so that he misses his meal.

Exceeding the term of an invitation for medicine.

Going to see an army; remaining more than three nights.

Watching a battle at night.

These are the fifty precepts.

Drinking alcohol; playing in water.

Striking with the palm; refusing admonition.

Frightening another; bathing too frequently.

Kindling a fire in the open.

Playfully hiding another’s robe.

Taking a robe without asking its owner.

Wearing a new robe without first discoloring it.

The sixty rules are now complete.

Intentionally killing an animal.

Drinking or using water containing living creatures.

Annoying another; concealing another’s offense.

Conferring ordination contrary to the Dharma.

Reopening a matter already settled.

Traveling in company with bandits.

Refusing to abandon wrong views after admonition.

Providing support and associating with such a person.

Keeping an expelled novice in one’s service.

These are the seventy pacittiya rules.

Resisting admonition; disparaging the precepts.

Feigning ignorance; opposing a Sangha act.

Failing to give consent, then regretting it afterward.

Secretly eavesdropping; striking another in anger.

Threatening to strike; falsely accusing another of a Sangha-residue offense.

These are the eighty pacittiya rules.

Entering a royal palace; picking up valuables.

Entering a village at an improper time.

Using a high bed or a cotton-stuffed mattress.

Making a needle case of bone or horn.

Making an oversized sitting rug or cloth for covering sores.

Making an oversized rains robe.

And making a robe equal in size to the Buddha’s robe.

The ninety rules of simple downfall are complete.

Confess in accordance with the Dharma and regain purity.

If one does not confess, one must fall.

SIXTH DIVISION:

Accepting food from an unrelated bhikkhuni.

Failing to stop a bhikkhuni from directing the serving.

Accepting food from a family in training, where restrictions apply.

These are the four offenses requiring acknowledgment.

SEVENTH DIVISION:

The rules to be learned begin with wearing the robes properly.

The proper conduct when entering a layperson’s house.

Receiving food; urinating and defecating.

Teaching the Dharma; showing reverence toward stupas.

Walking while holding hands; climbing trees.

Bags, staffs—all these should be learned.

EIGHTH DIVISION:

In the presence of the parties; by mindfulness;

By finding no insanity; by self-confession;

By investigating the offense; by the decision of the majority;

By covering it over as with grass—these are the seven ways of settling offenses.

Such are the divisions and classes;

Every bhikkhu should know them.

Those who practice as taught

Are praised as good by all Buddhas.

ESSENTIAL COMPENDIUM OF THE MEANINGS OF VINAYA MATTERS, REVISED AND CORRECTED

END OF VOLUME FIFTEEN

Notes:

1 Four-Part Vinaya 49, Part Three, Dharma Skandhaka, p. 933c06, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

2 Eight liberations: Also called the Eight Renunciations, they counteract and lead one away from the afflictions of the three realms. Through eight kinds of meditative concentration, one is liberated from all bonds of affliction within the three realms. These eight kinds of meditative concentration are called the Eight Liberations (the four meditative concentrations of the form realm together with the concentration on emptiness of the formless realm).

3 Four-Part Vinaya 43, Part Three, Kauśāmbī Skandhaka, p. 883a26, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

4 They should not sit too close together or within arm’s reach of one another, so as to avoid verbal disputes or fighting.

5 Four-Part Vinaya 52, Part Four, Miscellaneous Skandhaka, p. 956c03, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

6 Four-Part Vinaya 40, Part Three, Robe Skandhaka, p. 859a01, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

7 Four-Part Vinaya 50, Part Four, Lodgings Skandhaka, p. 943c10, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

8 Scripture on Impermanence in Three Openings: The Scripture on Impermanence Spoken by the Buddha (Scripture of the Three Openings), one fascicle, translated by Yijing during the Tang dynasty, p. 745, Taishō 17, no. 801.

9 Conducting the Procedure 秉法: This is one of the four requisites of a karma procedure—procedure, matter, persons, and boundary—all of which must be complete: 1) The formal procedure performed for the karma is called conducting the procedure; 2) “Matter” refers to matters such as committing an offense, repentance, and so forth; the karma that clarifies and carries out those matters is the matter; 3) “Persons” means determining the requisite number of people for the karma; 4) “Boundary” means establishing the boundary of the place where the karma is performed.

10 Four-Part Vinaya 35, Part Two, Recitation of the Precepts Skandhaka, p. 817a09, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

11 See note 8 above.

12 Four siddhāntas 四悉檀: Skt. catvāraḥ siddhāntāḥ; siddhānta is translated as “accomplishment.” The Buddha’s teachings do not go beyond these four principles; that is, the Buddha employs these four principles to accomplish the Buddha-path and universally liberate sentient beings: 1) the worldly siddhānta; 2) the individual siddhānta; 3) the remedial siddhānta; 4) the siddhānta of ultimate meaning.

1) The worldly siddhānta: First, the Buddha accommodates conventional usage, provisionally employing the designations of person and self. In accordance with the affairs of sentient beings, he teaches worldly Dharma, causing those who hear it to give rise to joy and delight.

2) The individual siddhānta: The Buddha teaches the Dharma according to whether the capacities of sentient beings are great or small and whether the roots they planted in previous lives are shallow or deep. He teaches accordingly, causing them to increase right faith and develop their wholesome roots.

3) The remedial siddhānta: When sentient beings have much sensual desire, the Buddha instructs them by means of loving-kindness; when they have much delusion or jealousy, he instructs them through contemplation of causes and conditions.

4) The siddhānta of ultimate meaning: Seeing that the conditions of sentient beings have matured, the Buddha teaches the true nature of all dharmas, enabling them to enter reality.

13 Meditation-rest 禪鎭: Made of wood and shaped like a court tablet.

14 Four-Part Vinaya 53, Part Four, Miscellaneous Skandhaka, p. 960c15, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

15 Four-Part Vinaya 59, Part Four, Numerical Enumeration of Vinaya, p. 1005c28, Taishō 22, no. 1428.

16 Four establishments of mindfulness: 1. Contemplating the body as impure, internally and externally; 2. Contemplating feelings as suffering, internally and externally; 3. Contemplating the mind as impermanent, internally and externally; 4. Contemplating dharmas as non-self, internally and externally.

17 Taishō 24, no. 1467, p. 910: Scripture Spoken by the Buddha on the Relative Gravity of the Retribution for Offenses Against the Precepts.