善見律毘婆沙

Silence means that he had accepted the invitation.

The Buddha told the brahmin:

“You should not be bound by household affairs.”

Having said this, the Buddha observed the brahmin’s capacity to receive the teaching and expounded the Dharma, enabling him to understand this life and the life to come and to create merit by receiving, retaining, and diligently cultivating the teaching. After raining down this rain of Dharma, the Buddha rose from his seat and returned to his dwelling place.

At that time, the brahmin gathered his children and grandchildren and said:

“Alas, my dear ones! Previously, I invited the Buddha to spend the three-month rains retreat here, yet I was unable to make offerings for even a single day. Tomorrow, I shall use all the provisions intended for those three months and offer them in a single day.”

Having said this, he prepared food and drink throughout that day and night. Early the next morning, after sweeping and cleaning both inside and outside, burning fragrant incense, arranging flowers, and adorning the place with jeweled garlands, banners, and canopies, he prepared magnificent seats and sumptuous offerings. He then went and informed the Buddha:

“Venerable Blessed One, the meal is ready; it is time.”

The Buddha set out together with the bhikkhus. Therefore, the Vinaya says: Having gone to the brahmin’s house, the Buddha and the bhikkhus took their seats. The brahmin then made offerings to the Buddha and the Sangha of bhikkhus, with the Buddha as the foremost elder of the assembly.

“Exquisite” (panìta) means having a most delicious flavor.

“With his own hands” (Sahattha) means that he personally presented the food and caused the Buddha and the Sangha to be fully satisfied.

“Fully satisfied” means that they had eaten sufficiently; it is also called being content and gratified.

“To refuse” means to stop him. There are three ways of stopping someone: with the hand, with the eyes, and with the mouth.

“When the meal was nearly finished...” The meaning of this is easy to understand.

The brahmin presented three robes to the Buddha. These three kasayas were worth three thousand gold coins. He also offered each of the five hundred bhikkhus two bolts of white-leaf cloth, with a total value of five hundred thousand gold coins.

Even after making these offerings, the brahmin was still not satisfied, so he further offered a thick woolen blanket (Kambala) and a bolt of silk (pattunnapattapata). The Buddha and the community of bhikkhus cut the woolen blanket into robe cords—cords tied around the waist over the robe, called “meditation belts” in Chinese—and bowl bags, and divided the silk to make waistbands (kàyabandhana-parissàvana) and water-strainer bags.

He also offered the Sangha a jar filled with medicinal oil, refined by being boiled one hundred times and worth one thousand gold coins, for anointing their bodies.

The Dharma master said:

“There are four kinds of offerings properly made to renunciants, unlike those made to worldly people; they have already been fully explained above. I present the matter in this way because the Vinaya says that an offering of the three robes is not equal to the four requisites.”

After making these offerings, the brahmin and all his relatives bowed with their heads and faces at the feet of the Buddha and the Sangha of bhikkhus, and then sat to one side. The Blessed One then thought: “This brahmin and his retinue invited us to enter the rains retreat, but throughout the three months, because they were disturbed by Mara, they did not hear the teaching. In a single day, I shall explain to them the teaching they did not hear during those three months—the ambrosial flavor of the Dharma—so that they may partake of it fully.”

After expounding the Dharma to the brahmin, the Buddha left the house and intended to journey to another country. At that time, the brahmin and his retinue prostrated themselves on the ground before the Buddha and, weeping, pleaded:

“We beseech the Blessed One to have compassion for us and return once again, so that we may see you once more and be free from regret.”

After remaining in Verañja for three days, the Blessed One entered the sphere of a Buddha’s knowledge and observed that, because the bhikkhus had eaten horse grain for ninety days, their bodies were thin and weak and they could not travel far on foot. He therefore went with them directly to the country of Soreyya, then proceeded to Pàyagapatitthàna. After arriving there, they crossed the Ganges River (Gangànadi), then continued to the country of Bàrànasi and onward to the city of Vesàlì. There the Blessed One stayed at the Mahavàna Kùtàgàrasalà monastery.

The Dharma master said:

“The section of the Vinaya-vibhāṣā, called ‘Complete Goodness,’ concerning the circumstances at Verañja, ends here. (samantapàsàdikàya vinayasamvannanàya verạnjakandavannanà nitthità).”

The Kalandaka Chapter (Kalandaka-vagga)

This commentary (Vibhāṣā) clearly distinguishes the characteristics of the precepts, fully presenting their meaning and flavor, without mingling them with other teachings. In the Vinaya, the exposition of the fundamental circumstances is very difficult to understand clearly. Because this commentary analyzes and explains the meaning of the Vinaya Piṭaka thoroughly, it is called complete.

The Supremely Honored One in the world,

Out of compassion for sentient beings,

Expounded the Vinaya Piṭaka,

In order to discipline sentient beings,

And, through wholesome practices,

To eradicate unwholesome states.

At that time, in the city of Vesàlì. The sequence of events is likewise easy to understand; if there is any passage profound and difficult to comprehend, I shall explain it.

Kalandakà is the name of a place where squirrels, or mountain rats, were cared for. One day, the king of Vesàlì took beautiful maidens into the forest for recreation. Becoming weary, the king lay down and fell asleep beneath a tree, while the attending maidens dispersed to amuse themselves in various places.

A large venomous snake lived in a hole beneath the tree. Smelling the wine on the king, the snake crawled out, intending to bite him. A squirrel in the tree ran down and cried loudly to warn the king. The snake therefore withdrew. The king briefly awoke but soon fell asleep again, and the snake once more crawled out, intending to bite him. Again the squirrel cried loudly and ran down to awaken the king. Upon waking, the king saw the large venomous snake in the hole beneath the tree and became greatly frightened. He looked everywhere for the maidens, but not one of them was there. The king thought: “I remain alive because of this squirrel’s kindness. How should I repay it?”

At that time, there was a village beside the mountain. The king issued an order:

“From this time onward, the village shall use the provisions bestowed by me to care for the squirrels.”

Because of these squirrels, the king also named the village Kalandaka, “the place where squirrels are cared for.”

“The man Kalandaka” means that, at that time, an elder in the village possessed four billion gold coins and had been granted the rank of elder by the king. Because he took his name from the village, he was called the elder Kalandaka.

The Dharma master asked:

“Was this elder alone known by this name, or did others bear it as well?”

The answer was:

“They were all called Kalandaka, as stated in the Vinaya.”

Sudinna was the elder’s son and had many close friends.

A close friend, or good spiritual friend, is a companion with whom one shares both suffering and happiness.

At that time, because he needed to seek out a debtor, Sudinna went to Vesàlì.

Another Dharma master said: “On the ninth day of the ninth month, the people of the country gathered together for recreation, and therefore Sudinna also went out to enjoy himself.”

At that time, before the fifteenth day of the ninth month, the Blessed One arrived in Vesàlì.

Question:

“What does ‘saw’ mean?”

Answer:

“Early in the morning, after eating breakfast, Sudinna saw people wearing garments that bared the right shoulder and carrying various kinds of incense and flowers as they left the city to see the Buddha, make offerings, and hear the Dharma.”

Seeing this, Sudinna asked:

“Good people, where are you going?”

They replied:

“We are going to see the Buddha, make offerings, and hear the Dharma.”

Sudinna said:

“Excellent! I shall go with you.”

At that time, the Blessed One, surrounded by the fourfold assembly, was expounding the Dharma in the Brahma voice. When Sudinna arrived, he saw the Buddha teaching the great assembly. For this reason, the Vinaya text says that he “saw.”

The Dharma master said:

“Because merits from his former lives served as the cause, Sudinna then gave rise to awakening.”

Sudinna thought: “By what means can I enter and listen to the Dharma?”

Why was this? Because the fourfold assembly was listening to the Dharma with wholehearted attention and could not move, so he was unable to make his way inside.

At that time, Sudinna gradually drew near and took his place beside the assembly.

Question: Why did he not enter the midst of the assembly?

Answer: Because he arrived late, he had to sit at the outer edge of the gathering.

The Vinaya says: Sudinna went to the assembly, sat down in one place, and afterward reflected...

Question: Did he reflect as soon as he sat down, or did he reflect after hearing the Dharma?

Answer: Having heard the Buddha praise virtue, concentration, and wisdom, he reflected.

Question: What did he reflect upon?

Answer: He reflected thus: “Through the Buddha’s discerning exposition, I have clearly understood and realized that the principles of virtue, concentration, and wisdom are all of one pure flavor.” He further reflected: “While living the household life, it would be difficult for me to cultivate virtue, concentration, and wisdom even for a single day. Therefore, I should not remain a householder, for doing so would be like polishing a jewel.”

Question: What does “polishing a jewel” mean?

Answer: Just as it is truly difficult for one who polishes a jewel to make it perfectly clear and pure... so too, cultivating the path while living the household life is as difficult as grinding and polishing a jewel and is truly difficult to accomplish. “How, then, may I shave off my hair and beard, put on the ochre robe, and cultivate the holy life, thereby leaving the conditioned household and entering the unconditioned household?”

Question: What are the conditioned household and the unconditioned household?

Answer: The conditioned household consists of plowing fields, planting crops, buying and selling, and undertaking the various occupations of the world. The unconditioned household consists of undertaking none of these occupations, dwelling in serenity and without desire. This is called leaving the conditioned household and entering the unconditioned household.

Not long after departing from his seat together with everyone else, Sudinna turned back and went to see the Buddha.

Why, while the assembly had not yet risen, did Sudinna see the Buddha but not request ordination?

Because at that time Sudinna thought: “If I request ordination, my relatives who are sitting here listening to the Dharma will obstruct me, saying, ‘You are your parents’ only son. If you go forth, who will support them?’ Having spoken thus, they will take me home and make my ordination difficult.”

After leaving with everyone and walking a short distance, Sudinna found an opportunity to turn back, went to see the Buddha, and requested ordination. Therefore, the Vinaya says: Not long after everyone had taken leave, Sudinna approached the Buddha and implored the Blessed One...

After Rahula (Rāhulakumāra) went forth, the Buddha did not permit the ordination of those whose parents had not given their consent. Therefore, the Buddha asked Sudinna: “Have your parents given you permission to go forth?”

The Dharma master said: “This passage is easy to understand; discern it for yourselves.”

What had to be done was done. Because Sudinna’s heart was intent upon going forth, he no longer delighted in places of amusement and did not concern himself with whether or not the debts owed to him had been collected; he only hurried home. This matter is easy to understand.

Ammā and Tāta (Pali: Amma, Tāta; translated into Chinese as “mother” and “father”)—discern this for yourselves.

“An only son” means that there was only one child and he had no brothers or sisters.

The Dharma master said: “His parents spoke thus because of their affection for him.”

“To live in comfort” means that from childhood to adulthood he had never experienced hardship. As soon as he was born, a nurse carried and cared for him until he was grown. He was always provided with every kind of delicious food, and wherever he went, he traveled by carriage, so his feet never touched the ground.

His father said to Sudinna: “You do not know even the slightest suffering...”

“Not knowing suffering” means that if one instance of suffering were divided into ten parts, he had neither known nor experienced even one of them.

The statement, “Even until death, we could not part from you,” means that his parents said: “If, while we were still alive, you were to die, we would not abandon you. How much less, while we are still alive, could we bear to be separated from you?”

The statement that Sudinna lay upon the ground means that he lay on the bare ground without a mat beneath him.

Question: What does “making offerings” mean here?

Answer: Men and women entertained themselves with friends amid the sounds of music and song, with lutes, flutes, konghou harps, pipas, and other instruments. His friends used these pleasures to persuade Sudinna to abandon his intention to go forth and to enjoy the five sensual pleasures.

Question: What does “enjoy” mean?

Answer: “Enjoy” means that he would personally partake with women in the pleasures of the five senses.

The phrase “perform meritorious deeds” refers to making offerings to the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; practicing generosity; cultivating the wholesome path; and performing meritorious deeds.

“To remain silent” means that although his parents tried in every way, as many as three times, to persuade him to abandon his intention, Sudinna remained resolute.

His parents said to Sudinna’s friends (sahāyaka): “He is your close friend and is lying upon the ground. We have urged him three times to rise, yet he continues to lie there. For our sake, please prevent him from going forth.”

Then his close friends went to Sudinna and spoke to him three times, saying: “Dear friend, you are your parents’ only son. If you are determined to go forth, who will assist them when they grow old? If you go forth, your parents will grieve, waste away, and die. What benefit would there be in that? You are a man of noble family, but if you go forth, you will have to carry an earthen alms bowl and beg for food. The food will be poor and not to your liking; sometimes you will receive it and sometimes not. You will eat only one meal a day and sleep alone. If you cultivate the holy life, this Dharma will indeed be difficult.”

They tried in every way to dissuade him, but when they saw that Sudinna remained resolute, his friends discussed the matter among themselves and said: “For now, we should allow him to go forth.”

Afterward, his friends approached Sudinna’s parents and persuaded them, and his parents gave him permission to go forth. Therefore, the Vinaya says: Sudinna’s friends, the son of Kalandaka, went to see his parents. Afterward, they went to Sudinna and said: “Your parents have given you permission to go forth.”

Upon hearing this, Sudinna was filled with joy and delight and rose from the ground. Because he had gone seven days without eating, Sudinna’s body had become thin and weak. His parents bathed him with scented water, anointed him with fragrant oil, washed and combed his hair, and gave him delicious and fragrant food and drink. After three or four days, his health was restored.

Then Sudinna tearfully bowed and took leave of his parents. He went to see the Buddha and said: “I beseech the Blessed One to permit me to go forth.”

Question: Was he ordained by the Tathagata or by the Sangha?

Answer: He was ordained by a bhikkhu. At that time, an alms-going bhikkhu was beside the Blessed One. The Buddha said to him: “Bhikkhu, ordain Sudinna and confer upon him the full precepts.”

The bhikkhu replied: “Excellent, Blessed One!”

He ordained Sudinna as a śramaṇa, admitting him into the noble order, and a bhikkhu conferred upon him the full precepts. Therefore, the Vinaya says: At that time, Sudinna went forth in the Buddha’s Dharma, received the full precepts, and undertook the dhutanga practices. [The dhutanga practices (dhūtaguṇa): translated into Chinese as “sweeping away the defilements and afflictions.”]

“To undertake” means to put into practice. Arañña means to remain far from villages and dwellings and to live in a secluded place, sustaining oneself by alms. “Living by alms” means not accepting surplus provisions and relinquishing fourteen kinds of food.

“Wearing refuse-rag robes” (paṃsukūlika) means not accepting robes from donors. “Going on alms round in successive order” (sapadānacārika) means proceeding from house to house in sequence. The village of Vajji (Vajjigāma) was a village of the Vajji king and possessed immeasurable wealth and precious treasures.

“Wealth” means property used in daily life. “Precious treasures” means things stored away and concealed from the sight of others. “Immeasurable” means that their quantity could not be counted.

“Abundant food and drink” means that every day much additional food and drink was provided. “Preparing the lodgings” means arranging seats and spreading out covering mats. They brought sixty large silver trays.

Each tray held enough food for ten people, so altogether approximately six hundred members of the Sangha ate and drank. “To eat” means to receive.

Question: What does “receive” mean?

Answer: It means to restore strength to the four great elements.

“To give” means to offer to the Sangha with a mind free from attachment and regret.

He went for alms himself. A female servant in the household took leftover food from the previous night, which was no longer to be used, outside to discard it. Food kept for one or two nights becomes sour and foul-smelling.

Question: Was it glutinous rice or ordinary rice?

Answer: Cooked ordinary rice.

She was called “sister” (elder sister) because those gone forth may not call them slaves or servants, and therefore call them sisters.

The phrase: “Please pour it into my bowl.”

Question: May one gone forth speak in this way?

Answer: Yes. Regarding something that its owner regards as worthless and intends to discard, one gone forth may say, “Please give it to me,” or, “Put it into my bowl.”

The Dharma master said: Seeing someone carrying leftover rice away to discard it, a bhikkhu on alms round said:

“If it is to be thrown away, put it into my bowl.” This bhikkhu was praised by the Buddha.

Question: Does this apply only to rice, or to other things as well?

Answer: One is permitted to ask for and receive all things that are being discarded; there should be no doubt about this.

“Hands and feet”: when lowering the bowl to receive food while on alms round, the arms were exposed as far as the elbows. As for the feet, about four fingerbreadths above the ankles were exposed. “Voice” means that when she heard Sudinna call out, she recognized his voice. “Recognized the marks” (nimittam aggahesi) means that she recognized these three characteristics of his. Sudinna went forth in the twelfth year after the Buddha’s enlightenment. Sudinna remained in another country for eight years. Only after practicing the path for eight years did he return to Kalanda village. When the Buddha had attained enlightenment twenty years earlier, Sudinna had been away from home for eight years, and so the female servant did not recognize him.... She went inside and reported it to her master.

Question: Why did she not ask Sudinna immediately, but instead go inside to report it to her master?

Answer: She felt apprehensive and did not dare question him on her own authority, so she hurried inside to report it.

... “If you seek the young master, look at the man sitting and eating beside the wall.” This means that at that time the houses in the village all had small water shelters built beside their walls, which were made available for almsmen to rest in at will. Therefore, the Vinaya says: ... he went outside and sat eating beside the wall.

“Why do you...” means that Sudinna’s father asked him why he was sitting beside the wall eating leftover food, since one gone forth ought not to eat such remnants.

The father said to Sudinna: “When you still lived at home, you found fault even with delicacies and fine foods, saying that they were bad, hard, cold, hot, or not to your taste. Yet now you eat this old leftover food as though it were ambrosia, without uttering a single complaint.”

The Dharma master said: Sudinna’s father had to speak in this way because his heart was distressed and he could not contain himself, and so he spoke thus. From ancient times until now, Dharma masters have successively transmitted this explanation.

The phrase: “Taking him by the hand, they returned home together.”

Question: Why did he take the hand of a white-clad layman and walk home with him?

Answer: Sudinna was a most devoted son, so when his father took his hand, he did not resist.

After returning home, Sudinna was invited to partake of a meal, and he silently accepted.

Question: It was stated above that Sudinna had undertaken the practice of going for alms. Why, then, did he accept his father’s invitation to eat at home?

Answer: Sudinna thought, “I have been away from home for a long time. If I do not accept the donor’s invitation, they will surely give rise to an unwholesome state of mind.” Out of compassion for them, he was permitted to accept an invitation once; one who accepts an invitation should clearly understand this.

The phrase: “A heap of gold and silver.”

Question: Was the gold and silver in ingots or in fragments?

Answer: It was money (kahāpana).

“As high as a man” (purisa) means neither excessively high nor excessively low.

The phrase: “A curtain was hung behind it” means that curtains were hung on all four sides to make the place secluded.

“Early in the morning, having put on his robe and taken his bowl” means that he went to attend the invitation.

Question: Why did he not wait for the donor to come and escort him, but went by himself?

Answer: They had already invited him, and that was sufficient; the Vinaya does not state that the foregoing was required.

“Mother” means the person who gave birth to another.

“Property belonging to the mother” means property from the maternal family that accompanied the mother to the father’s house.

The phrase: “Bathing morning and evening...” indicates a life of leisure.

“Your mother’s dowry, from the time I married her until now, has not yet been used; mine has likewise not been used, nor has the property of your grandfather been used.”

“Has not yet been used” means that the wealth was immeasurably abundant.

“You should return to lay life” means that the father told Sudinna:

“Cast off the clothing of one gone forth, return to lay life, put on beautiful worldly garments, and enjoy the five sensual pleasures. You did not go forth because you feared a royal command, nor because you were in debt; therefore, returning to lay life will be very easy.”

Sudinna said: “Donor, I greatly delight in the holy life and have no mind of attachment to worldly life. Please, donor, do not reproach me. Donor, I wish to ask one thing; please do not be angry.”

The father replied, “Good! Good!” ... This means that when the father heard Sudinna speak thus, he became joyful and praised him, saying, “Good!”

Sudinna said to have coarse cloth sewn into large sacks, to put the gold and silver into them and tie their mouths securely, then to place them upon more than ten carts and cast them into the deepest part of the great river.

The phrase “Because of these causes and conditions” means that Sudinna spoke words of refusal, asking what use there was for these treasures. Because of these precious things, afflictions arise; dangers from water, fire, and robbers all arise on their account.

“His hair stood on end” (lomahaṃsa) means that if a king saw such abundant treasure, he would surely come seeking it; robbers might come to seize it; or it might be burned by fire or swept away by water. Reflecting deeply in this way, all the hair on his body stood on end.

“Guarding it day and night” means that before darkness fell, they divided the watches among themselves, assigning strong men to stand guard, fastening the doors very securely so that robbers could not enter and enemies could not spy upon them. Therefore, this is called protection.

“Calling in the young wife” means that Sudinna’s father had created various conditions to induce him to return to lay life, but still had not achieved his aim. He therefore called Sudinna’s young wife and told her:

“You alone formerly shared love with him; make him change his mind. Why? Since all this wealth cannot entice him, only a woman may be able to make him change.”

The phrase: ... “Or, noble son, what are those beautiful celestial nymphs like, for whose sake you practice the holy life? (Kidisā nāma tā ayyaputta accharāyo yāsaṃ tvaṃ hetu brahmacariyaṃ carasi)” These were the words with which the young wife questioned Sudinna. She had seen kshatriyas and nobles abandon precious wealth, palaces, wives and children, and relatives to go forth, and so she supposed that they practiced the holy life because they sought celestial nymphs.

“Not for celestial maidens” means that it was not out of a desire for celestial maidens.

When she heard Sudinna reply by addressing her as “younger sister,” his wife thought, “Formerly, as husband and wife, we slept in the same bed; now he calls me ‘younger sister,’ meaning a sister born of the same mother.” She was overcome with anguish and fell to the ground.

“Do not trouble me” means: “You should not use precious wealth and beautiful women to beguile my mind.”

“Leave an heir” means that Sudinna’s mother told him: “May you practice the holy life forever and attain nirvana in the open air, but please leave behind a son to continue the family line. Do not let all this wealth be lost because there is no one to manage it. After we die, it will surely be confiscated into the treasury of the Licchavi king. Therefore, please leave an heir.”

Sudinna replied: “This is very easy; I can do it.”

Question: Why did Sudinna say this?

Answer: “Because Sudinna thought: ‘If I do not provide an heir to continue the family line, my parents will not leave me in peace and will trouble me day and night. If I give them a child, they will be reassured and will no longer trouble me. Through this, I shall be able to dwell peacefully in the path and cultivate the holy life.’”

The monthly flower (Puppha—menstruation) is the watery flower that arises each month. This is the name of a kind of blood. When a woman is at a time when she may conceive, a mass of blood forms in her womb; after seven days it breaks apart by itself and flows out as blood.

If the blood continues to flow, the man’s semen cannot remain but flows out with it. Only when the blood has completely ceased flowing can the man’s semen remain, after which a fetus forms. It is like a field that has been thoroughly plowed and harrowed: if too much water is let into it before the seed is sown, the seeds float and drift in all four directions.

Because the water is abundant and the seeds cannot adhere to the mud, they cannot take root. It is the same with a woman: only after the blood has ceased flowing can the man’s semen adhere and become a fetus.

“To take his wife by the hand” means that they led one another deep into the forest to engage in sexual intercourse.

After attaining enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddha did not establish disciplinary rules for his disciples during the first twenty years. Because the disciples had only recently entered the path, the Buddha had not yet established rules for them. Sudinna did not know the defining characteristics of an offense and therefore thought that this act was not an offense. Had he known the defining characteristics of the offense, he would not have dared to commit it even at the cost of his life.

“To perform the impure act three times” means that he performed the impure act with his wife three times, whereupon she conceived.

The Dharma master said: “Is this possible or not?”

Answer: “It is possible, for there are seven ways: first, through bodily contact; second, through taking a garment; third, through semen flowing down; fourth, through rubbing with the hand below the navel; fifth, through seeing; sixth, through sound; and seventh, through scent. Through these seven things a woman may conceive.”

Question: “Why is it called bodily contact?”

Answer: “When some women are menstruating, they desire men. If a man’s body comes into contact with her entire body, the woman gives rise to desire and conceives. This is conception through bodily contact.”

Question: “What is meant by taking a garment?”

Answer: “For example, the bhikkhu Udayi and his wife both went forth. After they had long been separated, one day Udayi went to see that bhikkhuni. Their mutual feelings of attachment surged to the utmost, causing semen to be emitted and soil Udayi’s robe. He gave that robe to the bhikkhuni to wash. Upon receiving it, the bhikkhuni licked it with her tongue and then introduced the semen into her female organ, whereupon she conceived. Some women, when having their monthly flower, conceive through contact with a man’s garment bearing semen. Therefore, it is called taking a garment.”

Question: “What is meant by semen flowing down?”

Answer: “For example, consider the mother of the ascetic Migasinga. Long ago, a doe came to the dwelling place of an ascetic. The ascetic urinated, and semen flowed down onto that spot. The doe, being in the period of her monthly flower, smelled the urine, gave rise to lust, drank it, and conceived, later giving birth to the ascetic Migasingatapasa. This is called conception through semen flowing down.”

Rubbing below the navel occurred in the case of the parents of the Bodhisattva Sama (Samabodhisatta), who were about to become blind. Knowing this, the Lord of the Devas, Sakka, descended to meet them and said that they should quickly unite the male and female principles through intercourse, and a child would be born. Since the husband and wife had gone forth to cultivate the path, they said: “We have gone forth, and according to the Dharma we may not do such a thing.”

Sakka said: “If you cannot unite the male and female principles, then rub below the navel with the hand.”

They followed his instruction, conceived, and gave birth to Sama; hence it is called rubbing below the navel with the hand. Mandavya and Candapajjta were also born in this manner.

Question: “What is meant by birth through seeing?”

Answer: “There was a young woman who was in the period of her monthly flower but did not engage in intercourse with a man. Because her sexual desire was exceedingly strong, merely seeing a man caused her to retain his image in mind. The women of the inner palace were likewise, and thus they conceived. This is called conception through seeing.”

Question: “What is meant by conception through sound?”

Answer: “For example, among a certain kind of white heron there are only females and no males. When spring arrives, the climate becomes warm and thunder begins to sound. Merely by listening to the thunder, the herons conceive. This is called conception through sound.”

Question: “What is meant by conception through scent?”

Answer: “For example, a female buffalo conceives merely by smelling the scent of a male buffalo.”

Sudinna did not act in any of the ways described above but performed the impure act. When the sexual desire and physical bodies of a man and woman unite in intercourse, rebirth takes place. When the three conditions come together, a child is subsequently born. It was the same with Sudinna.

When the earth deity saw Sudinna performing the impure act, the deity immediately cried aloud that... all such deeds are unwholesome phenomena, known to everyone. When he first committed that act, his guardian deity saw it; successively, all the devas possessing knowledge of others’ minds knew of it. The devas all saw a person acting in this way and therefore cried aloud. The report was transmitted successively as far as the Brahma realm and the Formless Realm, and all the other realms knew of it.

At that time, the child gradually grew in wisdom and later went forth together with his mother. When the child Continuator of the Lineage was eight years old, he and his mother, Mother of the Continuator of the Lineage, went forth together. His mother lived among the bhikkhunis, while Continuator of the Lineage lived among the bhikkhus, and both associated closely with spiritual friends (Kalyanamitta). Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Both went forth and successively attained the fruit of arhatship.”

“He immediately gave rise to remorse” means that because he had previously performed the impure act, remorse arose in him throughout the day and night: “Within the beneficial Dharma I have performed an unbeneficial act. I cultivated the holy life within the Buddha’s teaching in order to attain the threefold higher knowledge, yet I have not obtained this benefit.” Therefore, it is said: “With regard to benefit, I have not obtained this benefit.”

“I have incurred an evil gain” means that others who go forth obtain a wholesome gain, whereas he did not obtain a wholesome gain but instead received an evil gain.

“One who lives the holy life” means one who fully maintains morality, concentration, and wisdom, but he was unable to maintain them fully.

“Emaciated” means that from the time remorse arose, food and drink no longer tasted pleasant to him, so his flesh and blood withered away, and his bodily appearance changed like a withered leaf about to fall.

“His sinews and veins all stood out” means that because his blood and flesh had withered, his sinews and veins became visible.

“His mind was also constricted” means that his heart was constricted and he found it difficult to breathe.

“Ashamed, he hung his head” means that, seeing himself to have acted unwholesomely within the pure Dharma, shame arose in him.

When the bhikkhus were walking about and came before his dwelling, they saw that Sudinna had become emaciated and asked: “Formerly, Venerable Sir, your countenance was radiant and joyful, your body handsome, and your hands and feet evenly rounded and full. Why have you now become so thin?”

The bhikkhus further said to Sudinna: “Venerable Sir, do you harbor some sorrow or resentment concerning the cultivation of the holy life, or do you no longer delight in the life of one gone forth?”

Sudinna answered: “Venerable elders! It is not that I do not delight in the holy life or that I am indolent in cultivating this pure Dharma. It is only because I have committed an evil deed.”

“I have committed an evil deed” means that, having performed an evil act, he constantly saw it manifest before his eyes.

The bhikkhus said to Sudinna: “Your action gives rise only to doubt and remorse.”

Question: “Why is it called doubt?”

Answer: “Within the pure Dharma and Vinaya, if one performs an impure act and gives rise to doubt and remorse, one can no longer cultivate the holy life.”

The bhikkhus devised a means to relieve Sudinna’s thoughts and therefore said: “Elder, it is not so...”

... The Buddha used various skillful means to teach the Dharma of dispassion. Therefore, for the sake of all sentient beings in the three realms, the Buddha taught about the five sensual pleasures so that they might distance themselves from them and no longer draw near to sensual desires. Though the words differ, the meaning is the same.

The Dharma is taught to bring craving entirely to an end, to attain nirvana, and to cease transmigrating through the three realms; therefore, sensual desire is not permitted. The Buddha spoke of sensual desire in this way to distinguish what should not be approached.

Now, “you engaged in sexual intercourse” means that although the Buddha taught one to keep far away from impure conduct, you nevertheless committed an impure act with your former wife. This meaning is easy to understand.

The Buddha expounded many methods for escaping delusion. This means that the Buddha taught the Dharma to sentient beings solely to instruct them to sever delusion and craving. Because all sentient beings thirst for the five sensual pleasures, the Buddha taught the Dharma to cause them to relinquish them.

“Entirely destroying the seeds” means that the Buddha taught the Dharma to bring about the destruction of the seeds of the three realms. The exhaustion of craving is nirvana.

Craving means sensual craving within the three realms. Because sentient beings are bound by sensual craving, they cannot escape the three realms.

“Exhaustion” means the complete destruction of craving.

“Attaining nirvana” means that sentient beings within these three realms—amid the nine planes, seven consciousnesses, five destinies, and four modes of birth—pass from one place to another and then return again, like threads woven together without gaps to form a piece of cloth. Their inability to escape craving is their being tightly woven; “exhaustion” means its complete destruction. The exhaustion of craving is nirvana: “nir” means no more, and “vana” means birth—that is, there is no further birth.

“The Buddha taught the Dharma to eliminate desire” means causing the complete elimination of desire for the five sense objects and the desire arising from afflictions.

“Fully knowing desire” means that one has fully understood all desires and brought them under control; therefore, it is called knowing.

“Craving” means intensely thirsting for and seeking sensual pleasures.

“Thoughts of desire” means constantly thinking about sensual desire.

“Distress over desire” means that, concerning the five sensual pleasures, one continually thinks about what has not yet been satisfied, and distress consequently arises.

The foregoing is an exposition according to the truth of the path. The preceding statement concerns mundane dharmas; the following statement concerns supramundane dharmas.

“…the elder causes those without faith to remain unbelieving, and causes those who already believe to follow an evil dharma” means that he causes those who have not yet developed faith to distrust the elder, while those who already possess faith alter their belief.

“Altering their belief” means that regret and doubt concerning the teaching arise in their minds.

One who has faith in the path is like Mount Sumeru, which does not move even when winds blow upon it from all four sides. A person possessing faith is likewise. Therefore, the Vinaya says: “There are such persons, and there are no such persons.” At that time, the bhikkhus reported the matter to the Blessed One.

The bhikkhus informed the Blessed One of the evil act committed by Sudinna, but they did so neither in the hope that the Buddha would praise them personally, nor so that the Buddha would disdain Sudinna and expel him from the pure Dharma, nor to use this evil act as a basis for disputing with one another. They merely stated the truth. All the bhikkhus thought that a defiling dharma had arisen, and so they addressed the Blessed One: “A defiling dharma has now arisen. We beseech the Blessed One to establish a precept for the disciples who are sravakas.”

Because of this matter, the Buddha assembled the Sangha of bhikkhus. Because Sudinna’s evil conduct violated the Dharma of the noble ones, the Buddha assembled the Sangha of bhikkhus.

“The Buddha rebuked Sudinna…” Whoever acts in accordance with evil dharmas is to be rebuked; therefore, the Tathagata rebuked him.

“There are those who uphold the precepts and practice diligently” means that the Tathagata praises whoever deserves praise. Thus, whether anyone performs wholesome or unwholesome deeds, the Buddha conceals nothing. In Sudinna’s case, he deserved censure; therefore, the Vinaya says that when a case deserves censure, the Tathagata censures it with a mind of compassion.

The Buddha said: “You foolish man, you have gained nothing at all.”

“Foolish” means not doing what ought to be done, doing what ought not to be done, and doing what is improper—that is, committing an impure act. Impurity is not the Dharma of a renunciant.

The Buddha asked: “Why did you act in this way? I have taught dispassion…” as previously explained.

Seeing that Sudinna had committed an evil act, the Buddha compassionately said: “You deluded man!” This is like compassionate parents who, on seeing their child do something wrong, nevertheless scold the child: “Why were you so foolish as to do such a thing?” Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Foolish man, it would be better for you to place your male organ in the mouth of a venomous snake than to place it in the female organ.”

Regarding the mouth of a venomous snake: when anyone touches the mouth of a venomous snake, his flesh decays. It would be better to die in this way, for if he places the male organ in the female organ, after death he falls into hell, with no day of release. Thus it is said that it would be better to place the male organ in the mouth of a venomous snake.

“To place it there is to have it decay immediately” means that by doing so one dies at once but does not fall into hell, whereas placing it in the female organ causes one to transmigrate through hell.

It would be better to place the male organ in a blazing fire than in the female organ. Why? When a foolish person is burned by fire, he may die or he may not. Even if he dies, only this body undergoes a little suffering; it does not thereby fall into hell and undergo fierce torment.

Unwholesome dharmas are the dharmas of wicked people. Savage dharmas are the dharmas of those who dwell in the wilderness.

“A grave offense” means a grave affliction.

“The practice of the final washing” (Odakantika—at the water’s edge, the final washing water) means that after committing an unlawful act, one uses water to wash; therefore, it is called the final washing.

“In a secluded place” means that only two people are present and can commit an impure act. This is the beginning of evil dharmas.

Question: Why did the Buddha speak in this way?

Answer: Because Sudinna brought defilement into this pure Dharma, he is called the first person to commit a defiling offense within this pure Dharma.

“The Tathagata employed various means” means that he censured him in many ways.

“This person is difficult to support” means that although he is protected within the Dharma, he cannot protect his own body; therefore, he is called difficult to support.

“A person who does not know contentment” means one who lives accumulating possessions. Such a person is called discontented because even if he acquired precious goods as abundant as Mount Sumeru, he still would not be satisfied; therefore, he is called one who does not know contentment.

“Bodies gathering together in one place” means assembling together in one place and praising one another, or praising one another because of afflictions.

Laziness has eight modes of conduct that encompass all cases of laziness.

Through skillful means, the Tathagata praised fewness of wishes, contentment, being easy to support, and being easy to maintain.

“Fewness of wishes” means being free from greed and accepting offerings according to the wishes of others.

Whoever maintains the quality of being easy to support can restrain the six sense faculties and does not pursue the six sense objects; therefore, such a person is called easy to support.

“Easy to maintain” means knowing moderation and the proper measure regarding the four requisites; therefore, one is called easy to maintain.

When receiving something, whether delicious or unpalatable, one accepts it; because one has few wishes, one knows contentment.

One is pure because of having few wishes and knowing contentment; therefore, this is called purity. Having become pure, one is not stained by the dust of defilements; this is precisely being cleansed. Because one has been cleansed of the dust of defilements, one is called upright and proper. It is also said that when the three kinds of karma are all pure and the three kinds of unwholesome karma have been eradicated, one cannot be censured by others; therefore, one is called upright and proper.

“Not gathering together” means opening up and dispersing all the afflictions that cover the body; therefore, it is called not gathering together. Preventing them from gathering is courageous diligence. The precepts established by the Buddha can be faithfully accepted by virtuous bhikkhus because they are suited to bhikkhus. Why? Those who have few wishes and know contentment are able to receive and uphold them. Therefore, the Buddha expounded the Patimokkha for them, like flowers of five colors arranged and bound together in sequence, or like beads of the seven precious substances strung one after another.

Teaching about this life and the next causes fear to arise. If a person delights in training and lives by the precepts, he attains the fruit of arhatship, or the fruit of once-returning, non-returning, or stream-entry. If a person lacks the causes and conditions for attaining these, he will nevertheless be reborn in a heavenly realm. Whether the Buddha teaches the Long Agama or the Short Agama, good people are able to accept it with faith.

The precepts are the ground of training. What is the ground of training?

Answer: It is the Dharma of meditative concentration and samadhi.

What is meant by the ground of training? It means that, on the basis of ten principles, precepts are established so that the Sangha may dwell in security. Security means freedom from peril.

Those who undertake and uphold the prohibitive precepts established by the Tathagata will dwell in great peace and happiness in future lives; therefore, this is called security. The Buddha taught: “For those who accept my teaching, I shall establish precepts. For those who do not accept my teaching, I shall not establish precepts, but shall only explain the fundamental causes and conditions, nor shall I deliberately discipline them.” Therefore, the Vinaya states that, by relying upon ten principles, the Sangha is enabled to dwell in happiness, as when it declares: “This action is blameless; this action is an offense.

At this time it should be done; at this time it should not be done.” Thus those who delight in training in the precepts are freed from doubt. Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Precepts are established for bhikkhus who possess a sense of shame and moral dread, not for bhikkhus who lack shame and moral dread.” This Dharma enables bhikkhus who possess shame and moral dread to dwell in happiness. Why?

Because bhikkhus who lack shame and moral dread may not enter the assembly, convene with the Sangha, participate in the uposatha, or take part in the invitation ceremony.

Bhikkhus who possess shame and moral dread dwell in happiness because they hear teachings on meditative concentration and samadhi and are not troubled by bhikkhus who lack shame and moral dread. Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Bhikkhus who possess shame and moral dread dwell in happiness.”

It eliminates the defilements and taints pertaining to the present life. One afflicted by taints in the present life (Ditthadhammika àsava), through failing to guard the five sense faculties, commits impure deeds in this very body and may be arrested, beaten, or killed by others, or may himself be filled with remorse. Completely eliminating all such suffering and affliction brings liberation.

It restrains bhikkhus who lack shame and moral dread. Those who lack shame and moral dread are violators of the precepts. One explanation says that the Buddha established precepts for those who had committed unwholesome acts without feeling ashamed.

After the Tathagata had established the precepts, if they committed evil and then retorted to others, “What did you see me do? What did you hear that I did? Of what offense am I guilty?”—thus disturbing the Sangha in every possible way—then, because the precepts had already been established, the Sangha could apply the Vinaya Dharma to punish the bhikkhus who violated the precepts, and they could not evade their offenses.

Therefore, the Vinaya says that bhikkhus who lack shame and moral dread are restrained, while those who possess shame and moral dread dwell in happiness. If bhikkhus possess shame and moral dread, they delight in training in the Vinaya, knowing: “This should be done; this should not be done.”

It eliminates the taints pertaining to the future. Because one does not restrain the five sense faculties, one acts in accordance with evil dharmas and afterward falls into hell and undergoes suffering and affliction. This is not ended after being endured only once; one must continue revolving there for innumerable kalpas. Therefore, the Tathagata established the precepts to eliminate these causes and conditions.

Those without faith are brought to faith. The Tathagata established the precepts solely so that, when good bhikkhus conform to the Vinaya and are complete in dignified conduct, those who previously lacked faith, upon seeing them, would give rise to faith and say: “These Sakyan ascetics are wholeheartedly diligent. They accomplish what is difficult to accomplish and are truly worthy of reverence.” Through seeing this, they give rise to faith. If adherents of other paths see the Vinaya Pitaka, they say: “The Buddha’s bhikkhus also possess a Veda; they are not different from us,” and thus they give rise to respect. Therefore, the Vinaya says that those without faith are brought to faith.

Those who already have faith increase their faith. If people see a person of faith who has gone forth and conforms to the prescribed precepts that have been taught, they show him great reverence and say: “How is he able, throughout his entire life, to eat only one meal each day, cultivate the holy life, and guard the precepts?” Having seen this, their faith increases. Therefore, the Vinaya says that those who already have faith are caused to increase their faith.

It causes the true Dharma to endure. The true Dharma is of three kinds: first, study causes the true Dharma to endure; second, faithful acceptance causes the true Dharma to endure; third, attainment of the Path causes the true Dharma to endure.

Question: How does study cause the true Dharma to endure?

Answer: Studying the three Pitakas causes all the Buddha’s teachings to endure; this is called studying the true Dharma. Practicing the twelve dhutanga observances, the fourteen rules of conduct, the eighty-two great rules of conduct, and the precepts, meditative concentration, samadhi, and insight taught in the three Pitakas (Terasa-dhutagunà—thirteen dhutanga practices—cuddasa-khandhaka-vattàni, dveasìti mahàvattàni, silàsamàdhivipassanà) is called faithful acceptance that causes the true Dharma to endure.

Realizing the four fruits of the ascetic life and nirvana is called attaining the Path, which causes the true Dharma to endure. The Tathagata established precepts so that bhikkhus would conform to them. Those who conform to them fully attain the noble benefit.

Therefore, training in the Vinaya is foremost in causing the true Dharma to endure.

Because the Vinaya is cherished and revered, precepts are established. The four kinds of Vinaya—the Concealed Vinaya, the Abandonment Vinaya, the Straightening Vinaya, and the Establishment-of-Precepts Vinaya—must be greatly cherished and revered. Therefore, the Vinaya says that the Vinaya Pitaka is to be cherished and revered.

The Dharma teacher said: “As for all the foregoing passages—the beginning, middle, and end—may you understand them for yourselves. Bhikkhus must carefully study offenses and merit as taught in the Vinaya. Therefore, in the Vinaya, the Buddha taught: ‘Bhikkhus, recite the precepts among yourselves.’”

Question: What is the meaning of these words?

It means that the Buddha told the bhikkhus: “I have established the precepts. You should recite them, undertake and uphold them, train in them, and teach them to others.”

It is stated thus: “Any bhikkhu who engages in sexual intercourse commits a parajika offense and may not live in communion.” To act in this way is to sever the fundamental Dharma.

Once this determination had been made, the first parajika precept was established.

Later, because of sexual activity with a female monkey, a further provision was established. That event will now be presented.

Thus, for the sake of the sravakas, the Buddha established the precepts. Therefore, the Vinaya says that the precepts were established for the bhikkhus.

—End of the First Establishment of the Precept—

The Dharma teacher said: “If any passage is difficult to understand, I shall explain its meaning. I will now present it:

“At that time, there was a certain bhikkhu.” This sentence is easy to understand.

“…enticed the female monkey with food and drink.” At that time, many bhikkhus in this forest practiced loving-kindness and compassion, and so the many kinds of animals were no longer afraid. Musk deer, deer, monkeys, peacocks, kingfishers, geese, pheasants, and other birds and beasts roamed and played around the meditation dwellings.

At that time, a certain bhikkhu saw among the troop of monkeys a plump and attractive female monkey. He enticed her with food and engaged in an impure act with her.

While the bhikkhu who committed this impure act was away,

“…inspecting the dwellings” means that bhikkhus from another country had come to visit the Blessed One and consequently came to this place. Early that morning, after the bhikkhus had eaten the meal for visiting monks (agantukabhatta), they thought: “We should go and inspect the bhikkhus’ dwellings.” Therefore, the Vinaya says that they went to inspect the dwellings and came to the dwelling of that bhikkhu.

Seeing those bhikkhus arrive, the monkey that had previously engaged in an impure act with a bhikkhu thought that these bhikkhus were like the former bhikkhu. It therefore ran up to them and made the same lustful gestures as before, when it had engaged in sexual intercourse with those bhikkhus: it raised its tail, directed its sexual organ toward the bhikkhus, and displayed a lustful manner. It waited for the bhikkhus to respond, but when it had waited a long time without any response, the monkey itself made sexually provocative movements before them.

The bhikkhus, wishing to see whether the monkey wanted to engage in sexual activity, said to one another: “Let us hide in a concealed place and wait until that venerable one returns from almsround; then we shall see what they do. Surely it is true, friends (saccaṃ āvuso). Surely it is real and not false. It will be like catching a thief together with all the stolen goods, so that he will not dare conceal it.”

“Surely, venerable sir, you did not do such a thing, did you? The sexual organ of a woman is no different from that of a female animal. The Buddha’s establishment of this precept was directed at this matter.

“Encountering a woman” means making contact, grasping, and rubbing. An impure act with a female animal is likewise so; all such actions are evil states.

“Venerable sir! By such a means you acted even with an animal; you have committed a pārājika offense and may no longer live in communion.” This means that if one engages in an impure act with a female animal, it also constitutes a pārājika offense.

The Dharma teacher said: “Additional provisions were established according to the offenses that arose, so that this precept would be firmly secured. Offenses relating to precepts are of two kinds: first, an offense blameworthy by nature in the world (lokavajja); second, an offense arising from transgressing the injunction of a noble one (paṇṇattivajja). Whoever’s mind delights in evil states incurs an offense according to what is naturally blameworthy in the world. Furthermore, the precepts established by the Tathagata were all laid down in accordance with worldly principles, in order to eradicate the fetters and make the discipline enduring.

“Except in a dream” means that no offense is committed in a dream. A rule established according to circumstances does not concern an offense blameworthy by nature. Rules concerning eating repeatedly and eating separately from the Sangha, for example, were established according to circumstances; they do not concern offenses blameworthy by nature and are not transgressions according to what is naturally blameworthy in the world. Thus, the Tathagata established precepts for the bhikkhus according to each particular circumstance.

— End of the Chapter on the Monkey —

The teaching to be presented below arose because of Vajjiputta. Vajjiputta was recruited by Devadatta as a partisan in his attempt to cause a schism in the harmonious Sangha. This matter arose because of Vajjiputta. One hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvana, unlawful practices—contrary to the Vinaya and contrary to the Buddha’s teaching—arose, all because of the Vajjiputta group. As stated in the Vinaya: After the Buddha had established the precepts, Vajjiputta ate excessively and slept excessively, and so lustful desire arose in him. Without relinquishing the training, he engaged in sexual intercourse, after which his relatives met with ruin. “Met with ruin” means that they were punished by the king and consequently had to flee, were killed, or were separated from one another.

“The body was tormented by illness and pain” means that the body became weak and diseased and therefore suffered greatly.

“Venerable Ānanda, we do not slander the Tathagata, recount the Tathagata’s faults, revile the Dharma, or insult the Sangha. We have slandered ourselves and therefore no longer possess merit or dignified conduct. From now on, we shall cultivate ourselves according to the true Dharma. With regard to the thirty-eight meditation subjects (Aṭṭhatiṃsārammaṇa), we shall progressively cultivate the factors of bodhi. Through cultivating this path to arhatship, our wisdom will increase, enabling us to abandon the ways of lay householders, abide in purity, and reach the state in which nothing further remains to be done.”

Ānanda replied: “Excellent!”

Here, Ānanda did not know their minds; he merely heard their lofty aspiration. Thinking that it would be very good if they could accomplish it, he praised them by saying, “Excellent!”

“It is impossible” is a statement of negation. If there were a result, it would be said that such a thing was possible. Because there was no result, it was said that such a thing was impossible.

The Tathagata had observed that the Vajjiputta group lacked the necessary causes and conditions. If he allowed them to receive full ordination, they would commit pārājika offenses and could no longer live in communion. Therefore, the Vinaya says that it was impossible and that they were not to be given full ordination.

If the Sangha gave them full ordination, this would be contrary to the pure Dharma, and they would not become ascetics but would remain only in the position of novices. If, while remaining novices, they revered the true Dharma, they could attain realization through cultivation. Whether the Buddha withheld full ordination or granted full ordination, he did so out of compassion.

Why? Because those who do not violate the precepts and who, in this pure Dharma, know through supporting conditions how to show reverence and respect will attain the path before long. Therefore, the Vinaya says that when a person goes forth, there are cases in which full ordination is given and cases in which full ordination is not given.

When these three conditions were complete, the Tathagata, wishing to establish a precept, told the bhikkhus: “You should recite the precept in this manner.”

“If a bhikkhu may not live in communion.” The Dharma teacher said:

“This is fully set forth in the Vinaya; I shall explain it. The word ‘if’ is a general designation and does not refer exclusively to any particular person.”

The Dharma teacher said:

“Regarding the wording of the precept, the Pātimokkha, and questions concerning difficult points, whoever wishes to understand them should consult the four Vinaya authorities. Venerable ones possessing supernormal powers explained them for everyone when the assembly of the Sangha gathered.”

Question: “What are the four?” First, the root text (sutta); second, conformity with the root text (suttānuloma); third, the teachers’ doctrine (ācariyavāda); and fourth, personal judgment (attanomati).

The root text is the entire Vinaya Piṭaka.

Conformity with the root text consists of the four great standards, as the Buddha taught the bhikkhus: “I have said that this matter is impure, although I have not established a precept concerning it. Since it accords with what is impure and not with what is pure, it is classified as impure. Bhikkhus, I have said that this matter is impure, although I have not established a precept concerning it; but if it accords with what is pure, it is classified as pure. Bhikkhus, I have said that this matter is pure, but if it accords with what is impure and does not accord with what is pure, then for you it is classified as impure. Bhikkhus, I have said that this matter is pure, and if it accords with what is pure, then for you it is classified as pure.” These are the four great standards.

What is the teachers’ doctrine? When the great assembly of five hundred arhats gathered, recited, compiled, and transmitted the root Vinaya taught by the Buddha, this was called the teachers’ doctrine.

What is personal judgment? Setting aside the root Vinaya, conformity with the root Vinaya, and the teachers’ doctrine, one acts as one wishes by whatever means one chooses—for example, elaborating a matter by citing the discourses, treatises, and Vinaya, or by citing the words of the teachers. This is called personal judgment.

Question: “This means that one must not act arbitrarily. First, one must examine the root text, then investigate the meaning of the passage, distinguish it clearly, and carefully weigh each issue. Afterward, one should examine the teachers’ instruction. If it accords with the wording and meaning, one accepts it; if examination shows that it does not accord, one rejects it. Only this is called personal judgment.”

When following personal judgment, one should clearly examine any determination made in the teachers’ doctrine. If it accords with the wording and meaning of conformity with the root text, one accepts it; otherwise, one does not accept it.

When following the teachers’ doctrine, if a determination is made in conformity with the root text, one should examine whether it accords with the wording and meaning of conformity with the root text. If it does, one accepts it; otherwise, one rejects it.

When conformity with the root text and the root text both establish the matter in this way, it cannot be altered. A formal act of the Sangha is no different from one performed while the Buddha was still present.

The Dharma teacher said: “If, after examining conformity with the root text, one still does not understand clearly, one should examine the commentaries on the discourses. If they accord with it, one should accept them.”

The Dharma teacher said: “If two bhikkhus question one another, one side saying that it is pure and the other saying that it is impure, then examine the root text and what accords with the root text. If both the root text and what accords with it say that it is pure, this is good and should be accepted; if they say that it is impure, the other side should not be accepted. If one bhikkhu, having examined the root text and what accords with it, determines that it is pure and also presents many textual passages and meanings as evidence, while the other bhikkhu has few textual passages and meanings, the words of the first bhikkhu should be followed.

The Dharma teacher said: “If both bhikkhus possess equal knowledge of the textual passages and their meanings, they should reflect repeatedly and carefully weigh the meaning of the root text to determine whether it should or should not be accepted.”

Such is one who has learned the four kinds of Vinaya. To be a Vinaya master, however, one must be accomplished in three qualities (Ti-lakkhanāni).

Question: “What are the three qualities?”

Answer: “First, to read and recite fluently and to know by heart the complete wording and meaning of the Vinaya root text.

“Second, to retain the Vinaya root text firmly and without confusion (Asamhīra).

“Third, to study and retain it successively under a teacher, without allowing it to be forgotten.”

Question: “What is the root text?”

Answer: “The entire Vinaya Pitaka is called the root text.

“To read and recite fluently means that if someone asks questions without following the sequence of the passages, one can answer according to the questions without needing to deliberate.

“To know it by heart, understand it clearly, and fully comprehend its meaning means to distinguish clearly and be able to explain the wording and meaning of both the Vinaya root text and its commentary.

“To retain it firmly without confusion means that possessing a mind endowed with moral shame and moral dread is called firm retention. A person without moral shame and moral dread, though widely learned and possessing great understanding, and therefore honored and supported with offerings, does not live according to the Dharma and Vinaya and is a thorn in the Buddha’s teaching. Why is this? Because such a person often causes schism in the harmonious Sangha and also frequently disturbs the Sangha. A person with moral shame and moral dread always feels moral shame and moral dread concerning the precepts and, even at the cost of life, will not destroy the true Dharma for the sake of offerings. Because moral shame and moral dread exist, the disciplinary precepts exist.

“To be unmixed means that the textual passages are not confused with one another. When questioned, one answers in due sequence. If one answers questions about the Vinaya text and its commentary with inverted meanings, it is like passing through a thicket of thorns and is exceedingly difficult to traverse. If someone asks using such an inverted line of reasoning, one should answer in terms of that person’s own words. If challenged by a knowledgeable person, one should answer the question without straying from the subject. Just as a golden bowl containing lion’s fat (?) does not allow it to leak, this is called being unmixed.

“To study and retain it successively under a teacher without forgetting means to remember clearly that Upāli received and retained the Vinaya Pitaka from the Tathagata; Dāsaka received and retained it from Upāli; Sonaka received and retained it from Dāsaka; Siggava received and retained it from Sonaka; Moggaliputta Tissa received and retained it from Siggava; ... and Candavajji received and retained it from Tissa; ... in this way, the succession of teachers has transmitted it down to the present day. Clearly knowing this is called firm retention. If one cannot remember all the names of those teachers, one must at least remember the names of one or two of them.

“One who fully possesses the above three qualities is called a Vinaya master.

“When the Sangha assembles to settle disputes, a Vinaya master must first examine six matters with complete accuracy before giving an answer concerning the case.

Question: “What are the six?”

Answer: “First, examination of the basis (vatthu); second, examination of the root text (Mātika); third, examination of the textual phrase (padadhajaniya); fourth, examination of the three divisions (tikapariccheda); fifth, examination of an intermediate offense (antarāpatti); and sixth, examination of non-offense (anāpatti).”

Question: “What is examination of the basis?”

Answer: “When entering a monastery, one must cover the body with grass, wood, or leaves. If one enters the monastery naked, without covering the body, one commits a dukkata offense. After examining the characteristics of the offense, one then cites the Vinaya root text as evidence to bring the dispute to an end. This is called examination of the basis.”

Question: “What does examination of the root text mean?”

Answer: “If one deliberately tells a lie, one commits a pācittiya offense. This offense belongs to one of the five classes. Examining the nature of the offenses in each class and citing the root text as evidence to bring the dispute to an end is called examination of the root text.”

Question: “What is examination of the textual phrase?”

Answer: “If one engages in sexual intercourse with a corpse that has not yet decomposed, one commits a thullaccaya offense. In this way, after examining each characteristic and nature of the offenses among the seven groups of offenses, one cites the root text as evidence to bring the dispute to an end. This is called examination of the textual phrase.”

Question: “What are the three?”

Answer: “A sanghādisesa has three divisions, and a pācittiya has three divisions. Having examined these three divisions in order to render judgment (?), one cites the root text as evidence to bring the dispute to an end.”

Question: “What is examination of an intermediate offense?”

Answer: “An instance of kindling a fire may incur a dukkata offense. In this way, one examines the intermediate offenses within the code of precepts and cites the root text as evidence to bring the dispute concerning the offense to an end.”

Question: “What is non-offense?”

Answer: “There is no enjoyment, no intention to steal, no intention to kill, no deliberate falsehood, no intention to bring the matter up, no deliberate action, and no knowledge. In this way, one examines each case in which the characteristics of an offense are absent and cites the root text as evidence to bring the dispute to an end.

“Any bhikkhu who clearly knows the four principles of Vinaya, is proficient in the three qualities, and knows how to examine the six matters is accomplished in settling matters in accordance with the true Dharma. A bhikkhu who has settled a dispute so that it does not arise again is no different from having the Buddha still present in the world. A bhikkhu who has violated an established precept must approach a Vinaya master and ask him about his doubts concerning the matter.

The Vinaya master must first examine it carefully. If there is an offense, he answers that there is; if there is no offense, he answers that there is none. If confession is required, he tells the bhikkhu to confess.

If the Sangha should grant him the procedure of Abbhāna—rehabilitation from the offense—he says that it should be granted; if it should not be granted, he says that it need not be granted. Upon seeing the characteristics of a pārājika offense, he should not say, ‘You have committed a pārājika.’ Why is this? In the first pārājika, sexual intercourse, and in false speech, the characteristics are readily apparent; but in the two precepts concerning killing and stealing, the characteristics are difficult to know clearly.

If the offense was committed through some subtle circumstance, it should be explained according to that subtlety. Therefore, one should not directly tell a person who remains doubtful, ‘You have committed a pārājika offense.’ If he has a teacher, one should answer, ‘Return and ask your own teacher again,’ and send him back. When he meets his Vinaya master, however, he asks, ‘What is the nature of this offense?’ That Vinaya master examines the characteristics of the offense and determines that it can be remedied.

After hearing the instruction of that Vinaya master, the bhikkhu must return and report to the first Vinaya master that it can be remedied. That Vinaya master says, ‘Excellent!’ and acts according to those words. If he has no teacher, he should be told to ask his fellow students.

If his fellow students say that it can be remedied and he returns to report this to the Vinaya master, the Vinaya master replies, ‘Excellent!’

“If he has no fellow students, he should be told to ask his disciples. If his disciples answer that it can be remedied and he returns to report this to the Vinaya master, the Vinaya master says, ‘Excellent!’ and acts according to those words.

“If a disciple sees the characteristics of an offense, he must not say, ‘The teacher has committed a pārājika offense.’ Why is this?

The Dharma teacher said: “One should say to him, ‘It is difficult for a Buddha to appear in the world; it is difficult to obtain the going forth; and it is still more difficult to receive full ordination.’ Having said this, the Vinaya master cleans and sweeps the room and tells the doubtful bhikkhu to sit quietly throughout the day. He then gives him thirty meditation subjects and tells him to contemplate them. If his virtue is unimpaired, the meditation subject manifests to the contemplative: his deportment becomes composed and unobstructed, and his mind enters samādhi.

If, after sitting in samādhi for an entire day, he still does not know clearly, then at bedtime the Vinaya master comes and asks him, ‘Elder, what is the state of your mind?’ He answers, ‘Venerable sir, my mind remains in samādhi.’”

The Vinaya master further said:

“Going forth is exceedingly difficult. With regard to the Dharma of the renunciant, be vigilant and do not become heedless; you must diligently train and study.

“If one who has broken the precepts practices meditation, the mind cannot attain concentration, as though one were sitting upon thorns. Why is this? Scorched by the fire of agitation and remorse, it is also like sitting upon a hot stone. Unable to become settled, one rises and walks away.

“If a Vinaya master comes and says to such a person:

“‘Venerable sir! How is your state of mind? Has it attained concentration?’

“He replies:

“‘It has not attained concentration.’

“The Vinaya master says:

“‘When people in the world commit offenses, they cannot conceal them. As soon as the act has been done, the benevolent deities who protect them already know it clearly. Moreover, śramaṇas and brahmins can know the minds of others. Venerable sir! You should, as appropriate, seek a secure and peaceful place (sotthi) in which to live.’

Here ends the chapter on the four kinds of Vinaya and the three principles of a Vinaya master.

Commentary on the Vinaya, the Samantapāsādikā

—Volume Six—