善見律毘婆沙

Regarding the phrase: Abandoning pain and pleasure.

Question: What does abandoning pain and pleasure mean?

Answer: In the fourth jhana, there is no longer any mental pain or pleasure; this is also called casting aside even the designations “pain” and “pleasure.”

Question: In the fourth jhana, when do mental pain and pleasure cease to exist?

Answer: They cease at the very moment one begins to enter the fourth jhana.

Question: Where does bodily pain cease to exist?

Answer: As stated in the sutra: The Buddha told the bhikkhus, “Having become purified through seclusion from sensual desire, one enters the first jhana; here, pain is completely extinguished.”

Question: Where are both mental pain and pleasure entirely extinguished?

Answer: In the consummation of cultivation.

The Buddha told the bhikkhus: “In the fourth jhana, pain and pleasure are entirely extinguished; at the very moment one begins to enter the fourth jhana, rapture is completely extinguished, with nothing remaining.” In the first jhana, applied thought and sustained thought have not yet ceased, and therefore mental pain remains. When applied thought and sustained thought are entirely extinguished, pain no longer exists. Likewise, in the second, third, and fourth jhanas, their factors are successively extinguished, beginning with applied thought.

Rapture is entirely extinguished when one begins to enter the fourth jhana. Because the pleasure in the fourth jhana abides in equanimity—being completely purified through equanimity—pleasure can no longer arise. Therefore, in the fourth jhana, pain is entirely extinguished and no longer exists; hence it is called neither painful nor pleasant.

This quality of equanimity is exceedingly subtle and cannot be grasped by thought. Why is this so? It is like a fierce ox that a cowherd cannot seize.

He must therefore build a pen and drive the entire herd inside, then let the oxen out one by one; when in due sequence the fierce ox emerges, he can seize it. The Buddha acts in the same way: first taking hold of pleasure so that all the dharmas may be included, and then eliminating them successively, he indicates: this is neither painful nor pleasant, neither mental pain nor mental pleasure, and this is the feeling that is neither painful nor pleasant.

Question: Can this neither-painful-nor-pleasant state be apprehended?

Answer: It cannot be apprehended.

Question: But according to the preceding passage, why is it said that it can be apprehended?

Answer: Through its name, its characteristic can be known, as though it had been apprehended; such is its characteristic in words, and one should understand it for oneself. As stated in the sutra, there are four conditions by which the elder attained liberation through what is neither painful nor pleasant. That is, through concentration—having abandoned rapture and dejection in the third jhana—and with pain and pleasure entirely absent, he abides in the fourth jhana.

Elder, these four conditions of what is neither painful nor pleasant are called liberation through concentration. Likewise, at the very moment of the third path, which leads to the third jhana, wrong view and the other dharmas had already been extinguished from the outset; this is praise of the third path. The matter above is the same.

Question: What are those dharmas?

Answer: They begin with anger, delusion, and so forth; they should be understood successively in this way. Likewise, in the fourth jhana, beginning with mental pain and pleasure, craving arises from pleasure, and anger arises from pain. When anger arises, it destroys mental pleasure. The fourth jhana is far removed from them, and therefore it is called neither painful nor pleasant.

Question: What is the characteristic of what is neither painful nor pleasant?

Answer: It is the state in which pleasure and pain are entirely absent.

Question: What is its flavor?

Answer: It is without the bitter flavor of pain and the sweet flavor of pleasure; it is also called nonresponsiveness.

Regarding the phrase: Purity of mindfulness through equanimity.

Question: What is purity of mindfulness through equanimity?

Answer: Equanimity means causing consciousness to become purified. Here, in the fourth jhana, mindfulness is completely pure. Mindfulness is purified when the three preceding kinds of mindfulness have been relinquished, entirely through the function of equanimity and not through any other dharma. Therefore, in this Vinaya, purity of mindfulness through equanimity is compared to the moon obscured by clouds, so that its light does not shine clearly. After the clouds have entirely dispersed, the moonlight shines brightly and clearly. Here, sustained thought and pleasure are the same: when sustained thought and pleasure are relinquished, mindfulness immediately becomes pure.

Question: Is there purity of mindfulness through equanimity in the preceding three jhanas?

Answer: There is.

Question: Why is mindfulness not freed there?

Answer: Because it was previously obscured by sustained thought and therefore could not be freed. Furthermore, in the fourth jhana, mindfulness is like the night and equanimity is like the full moon; when they come together, the moon shines brightly.

Thus, the first jhana has five factors, while the fourth jhana has three factors: equanimity, mindfulness, and one-pointedness of mind. Explained broadly, there are three; summarized, there are two, as stated in the sutra.

Question: When do the two factors—equanimity and one-pointedness—arise?

Answer: These two factors arise in the fourth jhana.

Here ends the section on the fourth jhana.

Within these four jhanas, some wish to undertake the ground of contemplation, some wish to attain one-pointedness, some wish to attain the ground of supernormal knowledge, some wish to attain the ground of the truth of cessation, and some wish to enter rebirth. To enter the exhaustion of craving means to seek one-pointedness.

How does one enter meditative concentration in order to attain one-pointedness? Whoever intends, “I shall abide in bliss throughout an entire day,” should cultivate by means of krtsna-kasina—the totality, called in Chinese “the all-inclusive entrance”—and eight kinds of concentration will arise. Whoever, after emerging from concentration, remains one-pointed in insight as before, upon the object of contemplation, is said to possess the ground of contemplation.

Again, there is one who, having accomplished the eight kinds of concentration, enters into mastery of the various grounds of jhana. After emerging from concentration, that person can manifest supernormal powers, transforming one body into thousands and tens of thousands of bodies, and so forth; these should be understood in their proper sequence. Therefore, this is called attaining the ground of supernormal knowledge through jhana.

Again, there is one who, after attaining the eight kinds of concentration, abides in the attainment of cessation. The seven days spent in this attainment of cessation are conventionally called nirvana by the world. I say that maintaining bliss throughout these seven days is precisely the ground of the truth of cessation.

There is one who attains the eight kinds of concentration but takes no delight in this meditative concentration, thinking, “I wish to be born in the Brahma realm”; this is called entering the ground of rebirth. Beneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddha entered the concentration of the fourth jhana. Having emerged from that concentration, this ground of contemplation of the Tathagata is also called the ground of supernormal knowledge and the entrance into the ground of the truth of cessation, penetrating all mundane dharmas and the beneficial dharmas of the noble ones.

The Dharma master said: This has been stated in brief; the sequence of the fourth jhana should be understood for oneself. Through this Dharma, one enters the concentration of the fourth jhana. Because its one-pointed concentration is complete, it is called pure, as stated in the Vinaya: “Purity of mindfulness through equanimity.”

Question: What is purity?

Answer: Pure white, with no black remaining, is also called luminous. Through the bliss of seclusion from sensual desire and complete release from all afflictions, the mind becomes pure and radiant, amenable to training. Why?

Because it has been trained to the utmost degree of pliancy. As stated in the sutra: If the mind has become pliant, it is amenable to training. It is like refined gold that is gradually worked until pliant: it can then be fashioned at will into various ornaments and does not crack when hammered.

The mind is likewise amenable to training. In the sutra, the Buddha told the bhikkhus: I do not see any other phenomenon like the mind, which must be trained repeatedly before it becomes pliant and amenable to direction. When it reaches such supreme purity, it is called immovable: its energy no longer lapses into indolence; it is always one-pointed, without restlessness; its wisdom is steadfast and not obscured by ignorance; it is constantly mindful and not defiled by forgetfulness; it is luminous and discerning, unobstructed by afflictions.

Protected by this Dharma, it is not disturbed. When this mind enters the eight factors, it clearly distinguishes phenomena according to what it apprehends. Through the four concentrations of the four dhyanas, one-pointedness of mind is attained, leading to freedom from the hindrances, and the mind is no longer defiled or turbid.

Transcending applied thought and reflection, the mind becomes pure and wisdom arises. Therefore, the hindrances can no longer obscure the mind. Because applied thought has ceased, immovability is attained.

The complete eradication of afflictions is also called immovability. This passage is explained in the sutra; examine it for yourself.

The knowledge of former lives arises from the basis of supernormal knowledge. “Former” means the skandhas of past lives. “Abiding” means dwelling in this home or that home, dying in this home or that home, then being born again into this home or that home, leaving this home and being born into another.

To know clearly, through one’s own wisdom, every stage of former lives is called personally knowing one’s former lives in the past. As stated in the Vinaya text: To know—or discern—the knowledge of former lives means that through discernment one knows the abodes of one’s former bodies and lives, and knows one’s rebirths, whether one life, two lives, and so on through the cycle of rebirth. Because the mind knows, it discerns.

The Buddha, having reached the further shore (pāramī), no longer needs to train the mind before discerning everything clearly. A beginner must first undertake the practice and only then can discern. I shall explain this briefly.

Those who wish to understand it clearly should read the Visuddhimagga Vibhasa; here it is explained according to the Vinaya.

Question: What is one life?

Answer: A single course extending from the time a sentient being enters the womb until death is called one life. In this sequence, it continues up to innumerable lives. Samvattakappa is translated into Chinese as the eon of dissolution.

Question: What are innumerable eons of dissolution?

Answer: An eon that gradually undergoes destruction in due sequence is called an eon of dissolution.

[Vivatta-kappa is translated into Chinese as the eon of formation—the translator.]

Question: What is a vivattatthāyi-kappa, an eon of duration?

Answer: Gradual arising and development are called an eon of duration.

The eon of dissolution is included within the empty eon (samvattatthāyi-kappa). When reckoned from the empty eon, the eon of formation is included within the eon of duration. The mind clearly discerns all these eons.

As stated in the sutra: The Buddha told the bhikkhus that there are four incalculable eons. They are samvatta, samvattatthāyi, vivatta, and vivattatthāyi [samvatta (dissolution), samvattatthāyi (emptiness), vivatta (formation), vivattatthāyi (duration)]. What is an eon of dissolution?

There are three kinds of dissolution: dissolution by fire, dissolution by water, and dissolution by wind. Three realms are subject to dissolution: the Abhassara heaven (Streaming Radiance), the Subhakiṇha heaven (Limited Purity), and the Vehapphala heaven (Great Fruit) (Abhassarā, Subhakiṇhā, Vehapphalā).

When dissolution by fire occurs, everything below the Streaming Radiance realm is consumed by fire. When dissolution by water occurs, everything below the Limited Purity realm is submerged in the great flood. When dissolution by wind occurs, everything below the Vehapphala heaven is devastated and swept away. This extends throughout an entire Buddha-field.

The Dharma master asked: What is a Buddha-field?

Answer: It comprises the field of birth, the field of power, and the field of knowledge (Jātikkhetta, Āṇākkhetta, Visayakkhetta).

Question: What is the field of birth, and so forth?

The field of birth consists of ten thousand worlds. When a Buddha takes birth, all ten thousand worlds quake. The field of power is the domain throughout which the Buddha’s majestic power extends, encompassing a hundred koṭis of worlds.

Within it, if the Buddha teaches protective scriptures such as the Protection of the Three Jewels, the Protection of the Skandhas, the Protection of the Crest of the Banner, the Protection for Peace, and the Peacock Protection (Ratanaparitta, Khandhaparitta, Dhajaggaparitta, Āṭānāṭiyaparitta, Moraparitta), any nonhuman beings who hear them but do not submit are blown by fierce winds beyond the hundred koṭis of worlds. The field of knowledge is immeasurably vast in the extent of what he knows.

Therefore, when one of the Buddha’s three fields—the field of power—is destroyed, the field of birth also disintegrates. When that world is formed, the other field is likewise established. This is clearly explained in the Visuddhimagga; examine it there for yourself.

Thus, beneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddha attained omniscience and clearly knew not merely one eon or two eons, but all the way back to the eons of dissolution.

Question: What does “according to the place of birth” mean?

Answer: When the dissolution of an eon occurs, sentient beings may be born in the heavens or in the human realm through spontaneous birth, womb birth, or moisture birth. In this successive order, he clearly knows: This was my clan; this was the name of my father and mother; this was my name; I belonged to the Kassapa clan, the brahmin caste, or the kshatriya caste; such were my suffering and happiness; such was my complexion, fair or dark; such were the various grains I ate and drank; such were the sweetness and fragrance of the different fruits; such were the deeds of body, speech, and mind by which I created karma; and such was the length or brevity of my lifespan.

From the human realm to the first heavenly realm and upward as far as the Brahma heaven, he knows the successive cycle of rebirth in this way, until his birth in the Tusita heaven (Tusitabhavana) as a bodhisattva bound to only one more birth. There I shared the clan of the devas of the Tusita heaven and was named Setaketu—translated into Chinese as the White-Banner Deva, the deity named White Banner. My body was golden in color; I consumed ambrosia as food and drink, enjoyed the pleasures of the devas, and lived for 5,760,000,000 human years.

From the celestial palace, I descended and took birth in the womb of Māyā in the palace of King Suddhodana. I clearly know every place of birth in my former lives, together with the names and clans, appearances fair or ugly, ranks high or low, and conditions wealthy or poor.

The Dharma master asked: Does only the Buddha know this, or can others also know it?

Answer: Others as well—paccekabuddhas, disciples, non-Buddhist ascetics, and brahmin recluses—can discern this. Non-Buddhist ascetics and brahmin recluses know only within the range of forty kalpas. Because their wisdom is shallow and narrow, they cannot know beyond that; they know only the taking of rebirth and do not know all the other circumstances.

Why? Because their wisdom is weak and inferior. There are eighty great arhats who can know ten thousand kalpas.

The two chief arhats can know one incalculable kalpa and ten thousand kalpas. A paccekabuddha can know one incalculable kalpa and ten thousand kalpas. These ones know only according to the measure of their abilities.

The Buddha’s knowledge is boundless and inexhaustible. Non-Buddhist ascetics and brahmin recluses know only according to the succession of the skandhas; if they wish to know by skipping over a period, they cannot do so. It is like a blind person who, when walking, must proceed step by step and cannot skip a step.

Disciples know both ends—birth and rebirth-linking; solitary realizers do likewise. Buddhas know according to their wishes and know completely all the ascents, descents, comings, and goings throughout countless kalpas. Brahmin!

Such is My knowledge.

The Buddha told the brahmin: Beneath the Bodhi tree, I attained unsurpassed wisdom and came to know countless kalpas in the past. By what means did I completely extinguish ignorance and attain the lucid wisdom I now possess? It was all attained through diligent effort without regard for body or life, like a chick using its beak to break through its eggshell.

The Buddha told the brahmin: My knowledge of past lives is the beak, and the ignorance that covered many lifetimes is the shell. With this beak of knowledge, I shattered the shell of ignorance and emerged from it; therefore, I am called One of Unsurpassed Knowledge. Through the knowledge of past lives, I also know the lives of other beings; through wisdom, I know the destinations in which beings fall and are reborn, and therefore this is called knowledge of falling and rebirth. With the divine eye, as soon as the Tathagata observes beings, He knows at once, for He has perfected the paramitas. Others who wish to know in this way must cultivate the practice. This is only a brief explanation; those who wish to know more should consult the Visuddhimagga Vibhāṣā.

Question: What does “noble” mean?

Answer: One sees with the physical eye, yet it is unlike the noble eye. Through practicing wholesome dharmas, devas attain this eye. It is independent of the physical eye, purified of all dust and defilement, and capable of seeing very far.

Therefore, the Vinaya speaks of observing with the noble eye. The wisdom-eye attained through diligent effort is likewise no different from the noble eye. Why?

Because it is attained only after realizing nobility, the wisdom-eye is called the noble eye. Why? Because one’s own life accords with the noble ones and one obtains the radiance of the noble ones.

When the mind becomes lucid, it can observe very far, penetrating rocks and walls as though looking through transparent light. Therefore, with the purified wisdom-eye, one clearly sees beings die and take rebirth. Because non-Buddhist ascetics and brahmin recluses see death but do not see rebirth, they give rise to the view of annihilation.

Again, other non-Buddhists see rebirth but do not see death, and therefore give rise to the view of permanence (yo hi cutimattam eva passati na upapàtam so ucchdaditthin ganhàti). Regarding the nine realms in which reborn beings dwell, the Buddha clearly sees both the view of permanence and the view of annihilation. Therefore, the Vinaya says that with the wisdom-eye He sees beings die and take rebirth.

“Supremely purified” means that the Tathagata no longer possesses the eleven defilements and is therefore called supremely purified. As stated in the sutra, the Buddha taught Anuruddha: Doubt is a mental defilement and is dispelled through wisdom. An unguarded mind is a defilement.

Sloth and torpor are defilements; a mind of elation and fear, an arrogant mind, a mind of excessive effort, an overly lax mind, a talkative mind, a mind unable to discriminate, and a mind excessively absorbed in contemplating forms are defilements. Anuruddha, mental defilements such as these constitute the eleven defilements. Through the utmost diligent effort, the Tathagata has become utterly removed from these defilements.

If I saw only forms, I did not see light; if I saw light, I did not see forms. Beginning in this way, the Tathagata overcame the eleven defilements and thereby surpassed the human eye. Therefore, the Vinaya says: With the purified noble eye surpassing the worldly physical eye, He observes beings as though seeing them with the physical eye and clearly sees the death and rebirth of beings.

The Dharma master said: Does the Buddha clearly see beings from the moment of birth until their death?

Answer: He sees them from birth until death and sees no intermediate existence [(between two lives) there is no intermediate skandha—translator]. This is also explained in the Vinaya.

Question: What does “lowly” mean?

Answer: Because, through delusion, one acts in accordance with evil dharmas. Furthermore, living in poverty is also lowly and causes one to be despised by others.

Question: What does “honored” mean?

Answer: To take rebirth with a mind of wisdom is called honored.

A beautiful appearance results from freedom from anger; an ugly appearance arises from anger.

A good destination (sugata) means being born into a wholesome realm; a place abundant in gold, silver, and jewels is also called a good destination.

An evil destination (duggata): Because of greed and stinginess, one is born into a poor and lowly realm, which is also called an evil destination.

Lowly (Hina) means that one’s daily food and drink are insufficient and that one is not provided for.

The Tathagata clearly knows the activities of beings according to their karma. Observing beings undergoing suffering in hell, the Tathagata reflects: What roots of wrongdoing did these beings plant that they must undergo such suffering throughout day and night in hell? He knows that because these beings committed evil karma, they undergo this painful result.

Looking upward to the heavenly realms and seeing devas wandering and amusing themselves in the parks of Nandavana (Nandavana), Myssakavana (Myssakavana), and Phàrusakavana (Phàrusakavana), the Tathagata reflects: What meritorious karma did these beings perform that they were born in that realm and enjoy the meritorious bliss of heaven? He knows that because they created wholesome karma, they obtained this meritorious reward.

This is clearly knowing karma in the present and clearly knowing its corresponding result in the future. Having attained great supernormal powers, the Tathagata knows this clearly with the noble eye.

Regarding the phrase: Committing evil bodily conduct (Kàyaduccarita).

Question: What is committing evil bodily karma?

Answer: Evil means defiled and impure. The Tathagata clearly knows all bodily karma of this kind.

Evil karma committed through speech and mind is likewise.

Regarding the phrase: Slandering good persons.

Question: Who are good persons?

Answer: Buddhas, paccekabuddhas, disciples, and even white-robed laypeople (gihi) who have attained the fruit of stream-entry are all called good persons.

Question: What is slander?

Answer: Abusive speech that destroys wholesome dharmas is called slanderous speech. Furthermore, if one says that Buddhas, paccekabuddhas, and disciples all follow evil teachings contrary to the true Dharma; that there is no meditative concentration, no Dharma of nirvana, and no path or fruit of the Dharma—with such slanderous speech, whether one speaks knowingly or unknowingly, one is one who slanders good persons. For those who commit this grave karma, the gates of heaven are closed and the gates of hell open to receive them.

The Dharma master said: I shall provide evidence for this matter. At a certain dwelling place there were two bhikkhus, one senior (thera) and one junior (Daharabhikkhu). They entered a village together and came to a certain house, where the senior received a portion of thin, hot rice gruel (ulunkamatta unhàyagu). He thought: My stomach is afflicted by wind. This gruel is still hot; if I consume it at once, that illness will be cured.

At that time, the senior bhikkhu sat and sipped the hot gruel upon a piece of wood once used as someone’s threshold (ummàra) that had been discarded by the roadside. Seeing him sitting on the piece of wood and sipping the gruel until it was gone, the junior bhikkhu rebuked him: “You foolish old man (mahallaka), you have made me deeply ashamed.”

After taking the rice gruel, they returned to the monastery. The elder asked the younger:

“Venerable, have you attained anything in this Buddha’s dispensation?”

He replied:

“Yes, I have realized the path of stream-entry.”

The elder bhikkhu said:

“If so, do not expect to attain any further path or fruit. Why? Because you have slandered a bhikkhu whose defilements have been exhausted.”

Hearing this, the younger bhikkhu apologized:

“Venerable sir, I have acted unwholesomely toward you. Please allow me to make amends.”

After the other had accepted his apology, he joyfully took his leave.

The Dharma teacher said:

“If one reviles a noble one, and the latter is a senior bhikkhu, one should apologize as follows: ‘Venerable, I ask your forgiveness. May you please accept my apology.’ If the latter is junior, one should bow down to the ground, join one’s palms, and say: ‘Venerable sir, this is my fault. I ask your forgiveness; may you please accept my apology.’ If the other does not accept, one must immediately go and meet bhikkhus elsewhere or in another monastery.

If one meets a senior, one should bow at his feet, join one’s palms, and say: ‘Venerable sir, I have committed such a fault; please acknowledge my apology.’ If one meets a junior, one should say: ‘Venerable, I have committed such a fault. I ask your forgiveness; may you please accept my apology.’ If that person has entered parinirvana, one should go to the place where he entered parinirvana (Parinibbutamanacatthāna) and make amends there.

After apologizing in this way, the gateway to the heavenly realms and the gateway to nirvana remain wide open, just as before the offense was committed.

Concerning the phrase: Wrong view (Micchādiṭṭhika)

Question:

“What is wrong view?”

Answer:

“Distorted understanding is wrong view. Having accepted conduct based on wrong view, one then teaches it to others. Slandering noble ones with evil speech and committing evil karma by intention also belong to wrong view.

Once wrong view has been accepted, all evil actions follow the course of wrong view, and this profoundly evil conduct leads to an exceedingly grave offense. As stated in the scriptures, the Buddha said to Sāriputta: ‘A bhikkhu who is perfect in morality and fully endowed with concentration and wisdom attains right view himself and teaches others to attain it as well. Sāriputta, wrong view is likewise inseparable from body, speech, and mind.

Just as one who throws a clod of earth cannot make it escape the earth, one who creates the evil karma of wrong view cannot escape hell. Why? Because the offense created by wrong view is extremely grave.’ The scriptures also state: The Buddha told the bhikkhus, ‘Among all evil karmas that I see, none surpasses wrong view, for it creates offenses that bring exceedingly grave results.’

Concerning the phrase: At the breakup of the body (Kāyassa Bheda).

Question:

“What is the breakup of the body?”

Answer:

“Death means falling into hell together with one’s offense, with no time of escape. It is also called the dissolution of the four great elements and is also said to be followed by rebirth.”

The Dharma teacher said:

“If one chooses hell, one firmly closes the path to the heavenly realms and the gateway to liberation. Furthermore, the term ‘evil destinations’ includes hungry ghosts, animals, and asuras. When speaking of hell (apāya), beginning with Avīci, whether it is white or black, one should understand for oneself. When speaking of good destinations, the human realm is also a good destination.”

Question:

“What does ‘heavenly realm’ mean?”

Answer:

“Because its forms, sounds, fragrances, tastes, and other objects are superior to those of the human realm, it is called a heavenly realm.”

Clear knowledge (Vijjā, illumination) means knowledge through the eye; the remaining aspects should be understood accordingly.

This concludes the brief explanation of the Chapter on the Divine Eye.

Clearly understanding the ignorance that concealed knowledge of former lives, he used the beak of the knowledge of former lives to break apart the shell of ignorance that covered them, while also clearly knowing the passing away of beings in the present.

The knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements is the knowledge attained through the complete destruction of the defilements by the path of arhatship.

The well-concentrated mind (samāhita citta—the mind in equipoise, supreme concentration) is the contemplative mind. This contemplative mind clearly knows suffering, that it is completely ended here, and that it will no longer continue, because it fully understands the characteristics and essential nature of the truth of suffering. Furthermore, it contemplates that the truth of suffering arises from the truth of its origin: this is the truth of origin.

It also contemplates the cessation of suffering: this is the truth of cessation. Contemplating the path leading to the cessation of suffering is contemplation of the truth of the path. Thus, one fully knows, in accordance with reality, the characteristics of the Four Noble Truths.

Therefore, the Buddha said: ‘I know the Four Truths by seeing them as they truly are and knowing them as they truly are.’

Concerning the defilement of sensual desire:

To be liberated from the defilement of sensual desire refers solely to the fruit. On the basis of that result, one declares, ‘I have been liberated.’ For a long time, the defilement of sensual desire obscured the knowing mind; now, through contemplation, one clearly knows, ‘I will not be reborn again.’ Therefore, it is said in the Vinaya that the Buddha told the brahmin:

“I shall not be born again.”

The Dharma teacher asked:

“Does this mean not being born in the past, not being born in the present, or not being born in the future? If it refers to birth in the past, that past birth has already ceased. If it refers to birth in the present, that present birth has already arisen. If it refers to birth in the future, that future birth has not yet arrived. What, then, is there to be born?”

Answer:

“Because the cause has been eradicated, it is called ‘not being born.’”

Abiding (Vusita) means abiding in the holy life. The holy life (Brahmacariya) means that virtuous persons dwell together in the sevenfold training in the precepts. Here, the Buddha was referring to those who have gone forth.

“The task has been accomplished” (kata karaṇīya) means that, regarding the Four Truths, the four paths have been completed. Therefore, the Buddha told the brahmin:

“My task has been accomplished; there is nothing further to be done.”

Question:

“What does it mean that there is nothing further to be done?”

Answer:

“The afflictions and defilements will no longer arise in me. Because they will no longer arise, there is no further need to strive diligently to eliminate them. The Tathagata clearly knows this; therefore, it is called the knowledge of the exhaustion of the defilements. Why? Because the Tathagata wished to reveal this to the brahmin. The Buddha had attained the three higher knowledges: knowledge of the past, the present, and the future.”

The Dharma teacher said:

“Should one not make such a declaration about oneself, since this would mean that the Tathagata was praising himself?”

Answer:

“Out of compassion for the world and for the brahmin, the Buddha said: ‘I am a noble one. I am the supreme and unsurpassed Honored One, the knower of all things. I do not bow to another.’”

Hearing the Buddha teach in this way, the brahmin rejoiced and immediately apologized before the Buddha, saying:

“The ascetic Gotama possesses such perfect noble attainments. Truly, I did not rightly understand that the ascetic Gotama is one fully endowed with virtues.”

After reproaching himself and hearing the teaching of the Dharma, the brahmin praised him:

“Excellent! Excellent! The ascetic Gotama has instructed me in the savor of the Dharma.”

The Dharma teacher asked:

“Why did he praise him twice, saying ‘Excellent’?”

The verse says:

Having dispelled his anger, he hastened to praise;

Earnestly rejoicing, yet also afraid;

Both believing and filled with remorse,

He therefore spoke the words twice.

Why did he offer praise here? Having heard the Buddha teach the Dharma, the brahmin rejoiced. Not knowing how else to express his gratitude, he offered praise.

The Dharma teacher said:

“The brahmin was thinking: ‘The Dharma explained by the Buddha is profound in meaning, beautiful in expression, skillfully entering directly into people’s hearts, and giving rise to great loving-kindness and compassion. It is truly delightful.’”

Therefore, the brahmin said to the Buddha:

“I was like an overturned bowl, but now, having heard the Dharma taught by the Buddha, the bowl has been turned upright to receive the deathless nectar. I was like a precious jewel covered by another with grass and branches, until someone pointed it out and revealed its location. I was like one who had lost the way, until someone took me by the hand and showed me the right path. I was like one in a dark place, until someone gave me a bright lamp by which I could clearly see the road. I, too, am just like this.”

The Dharma teacher said: “I shall explain why the brahmin spoke in this way. The brahmin’s mind had been like an overturned bowl and therefore could not receive the ambrosia; now, through the Buddha’s instruction, it was enabled to receive it. Why was this? It was as though overgrown with grass and weeds. In the period after the Buddha Kassapa, wrong views were like grass and weeds that covered the true Dharma, and there was no one to reveal it. Today, because the Buddha clearly revealed it, he was at last able to understand.

“He was like a lost and bewildered traveler. Led astray by the wrong views of non-Buddhist paths, he became confused upon the wondrous path and could not see the wholesome way. The Buddha used the teaching as a guiding hand to lead him out. He was like a foolish person shrouded in darkness who could not clearly see the three realms. The Buddha bestowed the teaching as a lamp and torch, making everything clearly visible.” After offering praise, the brahmin Verañja, with a purified mind, addressed the Blessed One: “From this day onward, I take refuge in the ascetic Gotama.

“To take refuge means to follow and rely upon; by knowing the Buddha, the afflictions are extinguished.

“Next, one takes refuge in the Dharma and takes refuge in the Sangha.

“To take refuge in the Dharma means that the Dharma formerly practiced by the Tathagata does not lead to descent into hell. Therefore, whoever follows and upholds this Dharma will not fall into hell, the realm of hungry ghosts, or the animal realm. Dharma means the acceptance of truth; it signifies the Noble Path and nirvana. The Path means Dharma, as stated in the sutra: The Buddha told the bhikkhus, ‘The unconditioned, undefiled Dharma (Dhammàsankhata), the path endowed with eight factors, stands above all dharmas.’

The Dharma teacher said: “I shall speak only briefly. There was a brahmin named Chattamāṇavaka (Chattamànavaka-vimàna), who chanted the following verses in praise of the Buddha:

The Dharma removes desire and is free from desire,

Unmoving and without sorrow or grief;

Fragrant and sweet, transcending the world,

Most excellent and clearly distinguished;

Supreme above all dharmas—

Therefore, take refuge in this Dharma.

Gifts offered to those in the four directions,

When distinguished, are offered to eight persons;

Supreme among assemblies is the Sangha,

Through whom great fruit is attained.

Whoever takes refuge therein

Is rightly called an upāsaka.

(ràgaviràgam anejam asokam dhamman asankhatam appatikùlam madhuram imam pagunam suvibhattam dhammam imam saranattham upehi, yattha ca dinnamahapphalam àhu catusu sucisu purisayugesu, attha ca puggaladhammadasè te, sangham imam saranatham upehi).

The brahmin said: “May the Buddha know that I have undertaken the Three Refuges.”

The Dharma teacher said: “To explain the Three Refuges here would make the discussion even more elaborate. Those who wish to understand them clearly should consult the Abhidharma Vibhāṣā (papancasudani, majjhimatthakathà, Bhayabheravasuttavannanà, sumangalavilàsini, Dìghatthakathà).”

The brahmin said: “May the ascetic Gotama know that I have become an upāsaka (upàsaka); please regard me as an upāsaka.”

Question: “What is an upāsaka? Who is an upāsaka? Who is not an upāsaka? What precepts constitute an upāsaka? What state of mind constitutes an upāsaka? Why is one called an upāsaka? Why is one not called an upāsaka?”

The Dharma teacher said: “The meanings of this are numerous and cannot all be explained here. Consult the Suttanta Vibhāṣā (papancasudani, majjhimatthakathà).”

“From this day onward, for the rest of my life, I shall follow no other teacher. May the Buddha clearly know this. Even if someone were to cut off my head with a blade to compel me to speak against the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, I would never speak in such a way, even though my head should fall to the ground.”

Entrusting his entire body and life to the Tathagata and wishing to make an offering, the brahmin said: “May the Tathagata accept my invitation to spend the three-month summer rains retreat with the community of bhikkhus in the region of Verañja. I have become an upāsaka. May the Tathagata compassionately regard me and accept my invitation to spend the rains retreat at Verañja.”

The Tathagata silently accepted the invitation.

The Dharma teacher asked: “Why did the Buddha not verbally answer the brahmin’s invitation?”

Answer: “According to the worldly manner of responding by body or speech, the Blessed One responded by mentally accepting it out of compassion for the brahmin.”

The statement, “He clearly knew that the Buddha had accepted.”

Question: “How was it known that he had accepted?”

Answer: “Had he not accepted, he would have responded by gesture or speech. The Blessed One remained silent with a joyful countenance, and thus it was clearly known that he had accepted.”

The brahmin rose from his seat, circumambulated three times, paid homage to the Buddha in all four directions, and then took his leave. With palms joined and raised above his head, he walked backward until the Tathagata was no longer visible. He then paid homage once more before turning and walking forward.

At that time, a severe famine afflicted the region of Verañja, precisely when the Buddha had accepted the brahmin Verañja’s invitation to spend the three-month rains retreat there.

“Famine” means that food and drink were scarce. If people lack perfectly pure faith, they will not give even when they possess food and drink; this too is called scarcity. Such was not the case in the region of Verañja, for the crops and grains had failed to produce kernels.

Question: “What is meant by the two doubts?”

Answer: “The two doubts are two kinds of mental uncertainty.”

Question: “What are these two kinds of mental uncertainty?”

Answer: “Mental uncertainty means that, regarding almsfood during these three months of the rains retreat, they wondered whether they would obtain it or not, and whether they would be able to survive or not. These are the two kinds of mental uncertainty.”

“White bones” (setatthika) means that poor and lowly people who could obtain no food through begging starved to death, and their corpses lay scattered everywhere. Some also say that when the grains neither flowered nor formed kernels, they turned as white as bones; therefore, it was called “white bones.” “Like tally-sticks” means that when the rice had just begun to form ears, drought struck, leaving the stalks stiff and straight like tally-sticks; therefore, they were called “sticks.” Another explanation says that during the famine, tally-sticks were used to purchase food and drink, and therefore it was called “the time of sticks.” Why was this?

When people came to the market, the strong could enter, while the weak could not force their way in and cried out from outside. Seeing the weak in this condition, the rice sellers developed an impartial mind, opened the gates to let them enter, and seated them in order. They first received the payment for the purchases and then distributed the rice.

They counted people with tally-sticks according to whether their numbers were many or few. The bhikkhus reflected: “During this famine, provisions must be calculated by tally-sticks.”

The bhikkhus passed through seven or eight villages but received only a little, or no provisions whatsoever.

At that time, a caravan of merchants came from the north with five hundred horses, intending to take them south for sale, where they could make twofold or threefold profits. Passing successively through various countries, they arrived in the region of Verañja and remained there for the four months of the summer season.

Question: “Why did the horse caravan not continue onward but remain there for four months?”

Answer: “Because the heavy rains made the roads impassable for horses, they established a horse camp outside the city and built dwellings enclosed by a fence.”

When the bhikkhus went to the merchants’ camp for alms, each received five sheng of the horses’ grain.

Question: “Did they give grain to the bhikkhus out of faith or not?”

Answer: “It was out of faith. Every day when they entered the villages, the horse merchants saw the bhikkhus returning from their almsrounds with empty bowls. Seeing this, the merchants returned and related the matter to their companions. They reflected: ‘The bhikkhus endure great hardship going for alms, yet obtain nothing at all. Let us calculate together. If our caravan provides them with daily rations, we fear that our own morning meal will become insufficient. Therefore, let us reduce each horse’s ration by five sheng and give that grain to the bhikkhus. Once they receive this portion of horse grain, they will no longer suffer hardship, while our horses will come to no harm.’

“Having calculated in this way, they went to the bhikkhus, paid homage, and said: ‘Venerable ones! Please accept our horses’ grain. Each day, every one of you shall receive five sheng, together with other miscellaneous provisions, which you may prepare as food according to your wishes.’”

Therefore, it is said in the Vinaya:

– Every day, in the morning, the bhikkhus donned their robes, took their bowls, and went to seek alms of grain.

Question: What is meant by “the morning”?

Answer: The period from early dawn until midday is called the morning.

“Donned their robes” means that they covered their bodies with their kasayas. “Went for alms” (pindapāta) means that, being unable to obtain alms in the region of Verañjā, they had to pass through the villages, yet no one received them.

“Carried the grain back to the monastery” (patthapatthapulakam ārāmamharitvā) means that, after going everywhere for alms and obtaining grain, they brought it back and had to put it into a mortar and pound it themselves before eating it. Elderly bhikkhus who had no attendant, and no one else to do it for them, had to pound it themselves and prepare their meals. Sometimes eight to ten of them worked together and then divided the food among themselves. Having received the Tathagata’s portion, the Venerable Ānanda rubbed off the husks by hand. With his wisdom, Ānanda prepared exceedingly fragrant and delicious food, into which the devas also infused ambrosial essence.

After consuming this food, the Buddha entered right concentration and thereafter did not need to go for alms again.

Question: At that time, did the Venerable Ānanda attend upon the Buddha?

Answer: Yes.

For the twenty years after the Buddha departed from the foot of the Bodhi tree, he did not have one permanent attendant. At times it was the Venerable Nāgasamāla, at times the Venerable Nāgita, at times the Venerable Meghiya, at times the Venerable Upavāna, at times the Venerable Sāgata, or at times the Venerable Sunakkhatta Licchaviputta. These venerable ones served as attendants as they pleased: when they were glad, they came; when they were not, they left, sometimes departing for good.

The Venerable Ānanda came to attend upon him and asked:

– During this famine, why was there no one who performed the meritorious deed of setting aside even a small portion of food as an offering to the Sangha? Moreover, the brahmin invited the Blessed One to enter the three-month rains retreat beforehand, yet made no offerings.

Why was this? Because Māra Pāpimān cast a veil over an area of one yojana, causing the people to have no sincere aspiration to make offerings. After casting this veil, Māra departed.

Question: Did the Tathagata not know of this?

Answer: Excellent! It was because the Buddha wished to establish a precept and teach the Dharma.

The Buddha told Ānanda:

– You good men have accomplished something excellent. Bhikkhus in the future will seek rice within the grain.

The Dharma master said:

– I have not yet understood the meaning of this.

Thus, the Tathagata meant the following:

– Ānanda, during the famine, when alms were difficult to obtain, you good men knew contentment and protected the true Dharma; therefore, this is called excellent. During the famine, you subdued the mind of craving; therefore, this is called excellent. In other villages, the five kinds of grain were abundant and there was much fragrant and delicious fruit, yet they did not go there. Nor did anyone in the assembly entertain angry thoughts or utter complaints, saying, “Why must we remain here? Why does the Blessed One not go to those other places, where food and drink would be easier to obtain?” They never uttered such words, nor did they harbor resentment. They did not say, “Why did the brahmin of Verañjā invite us to spend the rains retreat here but make no offerings?” Neither did they harbor corrupt thoughts, seek gains elsewhere, or praise one another by declaring that this person or that person had attained the path, hoping that, on hearing such words, people would make offerings. They all remained silent, ate sparingly, and dwelt single-mindedly in dependence upon the Buddha; therefore, this is called excellent.

Question: Did they know that Māra had obstructed the people?

Answer: They knew.

Question: Why did the Tathagata not spend the rains retreat in Rājagṛha or another country, but instead came to this place?

Answer: Let alone Rājagṛha—even if he had gone to the region of Uttarakuru or to the Heaven of the Thirty-Three (Tidasapura), Māra the Evil One would still have come to obstruct him; it could not have been avoided. Why? During that year, Māra was exceedingly enraged. The Tathagata surveyed all places and saw that he could spend the rains retreat only by relying upon the horse merchants in Verañjā.

Question: Since Māra could obstruct others, why did he not obstruct the horse merchants, thereby leaving the Buddha and the Sangha without provisions?

Answer: He could have obstructed them as well, but the caravan of horse merchants arrived only after Māra had departed; therefore, they were not obstructed.

Question: Why did Māra not obstruct the horse caravan?

Answer: He could not obstruct everyone everywhere.

The Dharma master said:

– There are four things that Māra cannot obstruct. First, the morning offering; second, an unfailing supply of medicines; third, the Tathagata’s lifespan; and fourth, the Tathagata’s radiance. When the light of the sun, the moon, or Brahmā reaches the place where the Tathagata is, it loses its efficacy. Therefore, although Māra the Evil One employed various means, he could not obstruct these things.

On one occasion, the Buddha heard the sound of mortars being pounded. After obtaining grain and bringing it back, the bhikkhus pounded it in mortars, thus producing that sound. Although the Buddha knew clearly what it was, he deliberately asked.

“To know and not ask” or “to know and deliberately ask” means that when the Buddha knew there was a cause and condition that would benefit sentient beings, he deliberately asked; if there would be no benefit, though he knew, he deliberately refrained from asking.

“To ask at the proper time” means that if it was necessary to ask, he asked at the proper time. “Not to ask” means that the Tathagata knew the time was inappropriate and therefore did not ask. If there was meaning in asking, he asked; if there was no meaning, he did not ask. There are two reasons for asking: first, because he wished to teach the Dharma; second, because he wished to establish a light or grave precept for his śrāvaka disciples.

The Buddha asked:

– Ānanda, what is that sound?

He replied:

– It is the sound of the bhikkhus pounding rice.

The Buddha said:

– Excellent! Excellent, Ānanda!...

Why did the Buddha praise them? Because in the future, bhikkhus dwelling in monasteries would obtain food and drink easily, become arrogant, and say, “This food is coarse and unpalatable,” or, “It is overcooked, too hard, too mushy, too sour, or too salty.” By uttering such words, they would discriminate between delicious and unpalatable food.

The Buddha told Ānanda:

– You good men should establish the causes and conditions of wholesome Dharma for bhikkhus in the future. By relying upon your conduct, bhikkhus in the future, whether they receive delicious or unpalatable food and drink, will neither crave nor reject it. In former times, when the Dharma King dwelt in the world, even the great arhats ate horse grain. How much less should we now disparage and disdain food and drink such as this?

Chapter on Mahāmaudgalyāyana

At that time, there was Mahāmaudgalyāyana (Mahāmoggallāna). “Mahā” means that among the śrāvakas his supernormal powers and wisdom were exceedingly great. “Maudgalyāyana” is his clan name (gotta). “Addressed the Buddha” means that he spoke to the Blessed One.

Question: Why did he speak to the Blessed One?

Answer: Seven days after going forth, Mahāmaudgalyāyana attained the perfection of a śrāvaka (Sāvakapāramī), and the Blessed One praised him as foremost in supernormal powers. Because he possessed the power of supernormal abilities, Maudgalyāyana thought, “The region of Verañjā is stricken by a severe famine. The bhikkhus cannot obtain alms and are suffering greatly. I should turn the earth over and extract its nutritious essence as an offering to the Bhikkhu Sangha.”

The Venerable One further thought, “If I do this without first addressing the Blessed One, it would amount to seeking to rival the Tathagata’s supernormal power. This would truly be contrary to my Dharma.”

After reflecting thus, the Venerable One addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One, when the earth was first formed, it possessed a rich, nutritious essence like butter and honey. Excellent, Blessed One! I wish to turn the earth over, extract this nutritious essence, and offer it to the Sangha.

To overturn means to bring the lower part to the top. Why? For the sake of the Sangha. Not wishing to permit it, and in order to have Moggallana utter his lion’s roar (Sīhanāda), the Buddha asked:

“Moggallana, all living beings, cities, and villages rest upon the earth, and the earth cannot hang suspended in empty space. How, then, would you accomplish this?”

Moggallana replied:

“Blessed One, with one hand I shall conjure an expanse of earth to support the cities, villages, and all living beings, while with the other hand I shall support the living beings who depend upon the earth.”

The Buddha replied:

“Enough, Moggallana (alaṃ Moggallāna).”

Question: Why did the Blessed One not allow Moggallana to overturn the earth?

Answer: Out of compassion for living beings, who would have had to live upside down. Some might understand, while others might not, saying, “Our dwellings and cities have undergone a strange transformation. These are not our cities, villages, fields, gardens, ponds, and lakes.”

The Dharma teacher said:

“Only one possessing supernatural powers could do this, not one without such powers. Moreover, famine does not occur only once. If famine occurred again, where could someone like Moggallana be found?

In the future, disciples who are śrāvakas will seldom possess supernatural powers. When they enter villages to seek alms, people will see them and say: ‘When the Buddha was still in the world, his śrāvaka disciples observed the precepts perfectly and therefore possessed supernatural powers. When famine arose, they overturned the earth and obtained its nourishing essence to offer to the Sangha.

Today the Sangha does not observe the precepts perfectly, for if they did, their supernatural powers would be no different from those of old.’ Consequently, they would give them nothing at all. Some would even give rise to perverse and inverted views and disparage the noble ones. Because of such disparagement, after death they would fall into hell.

Therefore, the Blessed One told Moggallana that he should not overturn the earth.”

After asking the Buddha for permission to overturn the earth and not receiving it, Moggallana made another request:

“Excellent indeed...”

The Blessed One said:

“Enough.”

The Dharma teacher said:

“The words following ‘Excellent indeed’ are as previously explained and should be understood accordingly. There is, however, a slight difference: Moggallana wished to bring the land of Uttarakuru into the land of Jambudīpa.”

Question: What about the ocean?

Answer: The ocean would be like a puddle in a cow’s hoofprint, crossed in a single step, so that the bhikkhus might obtain food and drink as they did in other prosperous settlements. (Niṭṭhitā Mahāmoggallānassa Sīhanādakathā.)

Chapter on Sāriputta

Upāli wished to establish the foundation of the Vinaya Piṭaka. At that time, while in seclusion, Sāriputta reflected...

Question: What is meant by “seclusion”?

Answer: Seclusion means being free from noise; it is also called one-pointed serenity.

(Continuing from above)... why did the Buddha’s teaching endure for a long time?... From the Buddha Vipassī to the answer... the meanings of the other sections should be understood accordingly.

Question: Why did Sāriputta not use his own supernatural powers to contemplate and know the matter, but instead went to ask the Buddha?

Answer: He could not. If Sāriputta had used his supernatural powers to contemplate, he could clearly have known whether the teachings of the Buddhas endured for a long or a short time; but he could not have thoroughly comprehended the various causes and conditions pertaining to those Buddhas. The Venerable Mahāpaduma said that he could have done so. Why? Because a supreme great arhat possesses sixteen kinds of knowledge. Yet according to this principle, the matter is not difficult: wishing to rely upon the Tathagata and to demonstrate that the Blessed One was supreme, he went and asked the Buddha.

The Buddha replied:

“Sāriputta...” (The passages that follow will be clear when read according to the text of the Vinaya.)

What are causes and conditions? This meaning is easy to understand.

The statement, “The Buddha told Sāriputta that the Buddha Vipassī...” is introductory. The Buddhas are never indolent. Whether teaching one person, two or three people, or living beings throughout the three-thousandfold great-thousand world-system, whose thoughts differ from one another, they do not think, “Because these beings are few, I shall teach briefly; because these beings are numerous, I shall teach extensively.” Nor do they teach the Dharma in higher and lower ways; they teach it impartially to all.

It is like the lion king, who goes in search of food once every seven days. When about to seize a living being, whether large or small, he first roars and only then captures it. Why? If the lion did not roar loudly before seizing its prey, carelessness might cause the prey to escape. Therefore, the lion must roar, terrifying the living being, and only then seize it. The Buddha is likewise: he diligently teaches the Dharma to all living beings, whether great or small. If he taught only briefly, living beings might sometimes fail to apply themselves wholeheartedly to cultivation. Why? Because the Tathagata honors the Dharma.

The teaching now proclaimed by our Blessed One is like the water in the great ocean, which has only one taste; the teachings of the Buddhas of the past were likewise. Yet the minds of living beings at that time were easy to instruct, so the teaching of a single verse enabled them to understand the Four Noble Truths. Therefore, is it not the case that the Buddhas of the past also did not teach at length the verses concerning the Dharma of cultivation and realization? [(tasmā na vitthārena dhammaṃ desesuṃ) (dhamma = sutta geyya?)]

The Dharma teacher said:

“This has already been explained in the preceding passage and will not be repeated.”

Concerning the statement: “They did not establish precepts for the śrāvakas.”

Question: Why did the Buddhas of the past not establish precepts for their śrāvaka disciples?

Answer: Because the śrāvaka disciples committed no transgressions, the Buddhas did not establish specific regulations of the prescriptive Pātimokkha (āṇāpātimokkha), nor did they recite the precepts every half-month, for as long as six years. Only after six years were the admonitions of the Pātimokkha (ovādapātimokkha) taught. These words were proclaimed by the Tathagata himself; he did not permit the śrāvakas to proclaim them.

At that time, in the Khema Deer Park of the royal city of Bandhumatī (Bandhumatī rājadhānī Khemo Migadāyo), in the land of Jambudīpa, which was the dwelling place of the Buddha Vipassī, all the bhikkhus assembled. The Buddha observed the Uposatha with the Sangha; groups of three, two, or even one also observed the Uposatha. Long ago, the land of Jambudīpa contained eighty-four thousand monasteries, each housing as many as one hundred thousand or two hundred thousand bhikkhus, yet they lived in serenity without clamor.

At that time, those who wished to hear the Buddha teach the Dharma had to calculate the years. Once every six years, the Sangha assembled and came before the Buddha to hear him recite the precepts. Bhikkhus possessing supernatural powers came by themselves. To those without supernatural powers, devas came and announced, “It is time for the Uposatha,” and they prepared their robes and bowls. Relying upon the supernatural power of the devas, they reached the Uposatha hall, where the bhikkhus bowed at the Buddha’s feet.

Knowing that the Sangha had assembled, the Buddha Vipassī proclaimed the verses of admonition concerning the Pātimokkha:

Patient endurance is the foremost path;

Nirvana is the supreme awakening.

One gone forth who harms another

Is unworthy of the name śramaṇa.

Do no evil whatsoever;

Practice every wholesome Dharma;

Purify one’s own mind—

This is the teaching of the Buddhas.

Do not cause distress or speak of others’ faults;

Do not obstruct the affairs of others;

Practice according to the precepts taught;

Know moderation in food and drink;

Have few desires regarding all things;

Always delight in secluded places—

This is the teaching of the Buddhas.

By this method, all Buddhas of the past used this verse to instruct and admonish concerning the Patimokkha. Because the lifespans of the Buddhas were of varying length, these teachings also varied in duration. From beneath the Bodhi tree, the Buddhas established precepts for their shravaka disciples. As for these specific regulations of the Patimokkha, during the regular observance it was not the Tathagata who recited the precepts; rather, the shravaka disciples recited them. Therefore, from the time our Buddha Shakyamuni attained enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree until twenty years afterward, he taught only the exhortation concerning the Patimokkha.

On one occasion, at the Hall of Migara's Mother (Migāramātu) in the Pubbārāma monastery, after the bhikkhus had taken their seats, the Buddha said to them: “From now on, I shall no longer perform the Uposatha observance or recite the Patimokkha instructions. You yourselves shall recite them. Why? The Tathagata does not perform the Uposatha or recite the Patimokkha precepts in the midst of an impure assembly.”

From that time onward, the shravaka disciples recited the regulations of the Patimokkha. Therefore, the Vinaya says: The Buddha told Shariputra: “The Buddhas of the past did not teach the specific regulations of the Patimokkha, but taught only the exhortation concerning the Patimokkha. The three Buddhas Vipassi and the others did not teach the Patimokkha.

Therefore, after those Buddhas entered nirvana, their shravaka disciples also entered nirvana. The shravaka disciples of the final period differed in clan and name: some belonged to the Gotama clan, some to the Moggallāna clan, some were named Buddha-Avirtue, and some were named Dhamma-Avirtue. They came from different social classes (jacca): some were brahmins (Brāhmaṇa), some householders, and some kshatriyas (Khattiya).

They also came from different families: some wealthy, some poor, and some lowly. Because they had gone forth from different families and different social classes to practice the holy life, and because they entered the true Dharma bearing different names, surnames, and lineages, they continued to adhere to their own views and did not completely conform to the Buddha-Dharma. Consequently, the Buddha-Dharma did not endure for long.”

Question: “Was it because the bhikkhus did not practice diligently that the true Dharma rapidly declined?”

Answer: “What the venerable ones of former times did in this way was already improper; how much more so if we fail to preserve the treasury of the Dharma, thereby causing the Buddha's true Dharma to perish swiftly.”

Flowers not strung together with thread are scattered in every direction when the wind blows. “Strung” means bound together. Just as various flowers, if not bound together, are scattered in every direction when the wind blows, so too is the Buddha-Dharma.

Regarding the statement, “Precepts were not established because the mind first had to be contemplated, and only afterward were the shravakas instructed.”

Question: “What does this mean?”

Answer: “The Buddhas of the past first contemplated the minds of the shravakas and instructed them afterward. When the shravakas could easily understand the meaning and principle, the Buddha did not teach at length.”

“The terrifying forest” (bhimsanaka vanasanda) means that anyone who entered this forest became afraid.

Regarding the statement, “Thus should you contemplate”: There are three kinds of contemplation, the first being renunciation. The statement, “You should concentrate your minds and contemplate in this way; you should not contemplate in that way,” means that there are three unwholesome states, the first being contemplation of sensual desire. You should take care not to contemplate the foregoing states, but should always remain mindful, contemplating impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self.

The mind should remain constantly mindful and should not contemplate in this way: regarding the impermanent as permanent or the impure as pure. You should not contemplate in that way; these are the things you must abandon. You must abandon unwholesome states and cultivate wholesome states; when wholesome states have already arisen, cause them to increase.

Thereby, afflictions do not arise and the mind is liberated. Because the mind does not cling to afflictions, it is liberated. This is also called their non-arising through cessation and their no longer existing through cessation.

Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Because afflictions no longer arise, the mind is liberated.”

All attained arhatship. They were like lotus flowers blooming all at once when the sun rose.

Regarding the statement, “Shariputra, in former times, in the terrifying forest, anyone who had not become free from sensual desire and entered that forest would have the hair on his body stand on end because of the fearsome phenomena within it.”

Regarding the statement, “Shariputra, for this reason.”

The Dharma master said: “The meaning of this statement is easy; understand it for yourself.”

“Did not endure for long”: The Buddha Vipassi lived for eighty thousand years, and the assembly of shravakas likewise lived that long. From the time the Buddha appeared in the world until the final shravaka, the Buddha-Dharma remained in the world for one hundred and sixty thousand years. The Buddha Sikhi lived for seventy thousand years, and the assembly of shravakas likewise lived that long. The Buddha Vessabhu lived for sixty thousand years, and the assembly of shravakas likewise lived that long. From the lifetimes of the latter two Buddhas until their final shravakas, the Buddha-Dharma remained in the world for one hundred thousand and forty-two ten-thousand years. Because the duration progressively diminished, the Buddha-Dharma was said not to endure for long.

Hearing that the Buddha-Dharma of the three Buddhas did not endure for long, Shariputra wished to ask which Buddha's teaching endured for a long time, and so he said: “Blessed One! Why did the Buddha-Dharma endure for a long time in relation to the lifespans of the Buddhas?”

Answer: “The Buddha Kakusandha lived for forty thousand years; the Buddha Koṇāgamana lived for thirty thousand years; the Buddha Kassapa lived for twenty thousand years; and the Buddha Shakyamuni lived for one hundred years. The lifespans of their shravaka disciples were likewise. Therefore, the Buddha-Dharma endured for a long time.

As for me, the present Blessed One, if I had taken one-half of the lifespan during the time of the Buddha Kassapa—namely, ten thousand years—I could have appeared in the world. Yet upon examining beings at that time, I saw that their faculties were not yet mature. I could have appeared when their lifespans reached five thousand years, and so forth, down to when their lifespans reached five hundred years, but there still were no beings whose faculties were mature.

Only when their lifespans reached one hundred years were there beings who could be liberated. Therefore, the Buddha appeared in the world at a time when lifespans were short. The same was true of the assembly of shravaka disciples, yet the Buddha-Dharma endured for a long time.

The teachings of the first three Buddhas perished in accordance with the lifespans of those Buddhas and are therefore said not to have endured for long. Although the latter three Buddhas entered final nirvana, their Buddha-Dharma remained in the world and is therefore said to have endured for a long time.”

When he heard the Buddha teach in this way, Shariputra wished the Buddha-Dharma to endure for a long time and therefore said to the Buddha: “I beseech the Blessed One to establish precepts for the shravaka disciples.”

As the Vinaya says: “After emerging from meditative concentration, Shariputra...” The statements that follow should be understood in sequence.

The Buddha told Shariputra: “Enough, enough. The time has not yet come.”

Shariputra again said to the Buddha: “Blessed One! I beseech you to establish precepts for the shravaka disciples.”

The Buddha told Shariputra: “Enough, enough. This matter is not within the sphere of knowledge of shravakas or pratyekabuddhas. Only a Buddha together with another Buddha can know it, for defilements have not yet arisen.”

Question: “What do defilements do?”

Answer: “That which is defiled gives rise to faults extending from the present into future lives; therefore, it is called defilement.”

Regarding the statement, “Precepts had not yet been established for the shravakas.”

Question: “Why had precepts not yet been established for the shravakas?”

Answer: If no taints had yet arisen and the Tathagata were to establish precepts, beings would conceive slanderous thoughts, saying, “The ascetic Gotama and his Hearer-disciples are all from noble families or royal lineages, yet they have renounced their wealth, palaces, wives, children, and relatives. Without cherishing even their own lives, they all dwell contented and seek nothing more from the world. Why, then, does Gotama bind them with the disciplinary rules of the Patimokkha?” Because they would think that Gotama had not properly discerned the people of the world, they would speak in this way.

If I were to establish precepts, the people of the world would likewise have no reverence for them. It is like seeing that a person has just developed a boil: although there is a swelling, it has not yet grown large or formed pus, yet an unskilled physician hastily cuts it open. After it is opened, blood flows profusely and the patient suffers great pain; medicine must then be applied to the wound before it can heal.

The physician says, “I have treated your illness; now pay me my fee.”

The patient replies, “Foolish physician! If I truly had an illness and you treated me, that would be proper. But when I had no illness, you deliberately cut my flesh, caused me to bleed, and inflicted great suffering upon me; now you even demand payment. Are you not insane?”

It is the same with the Hearer-disciples. If precepts were established beforehand, they would give rise to slander, saying, “I have committed no offense; why are precepts being imposed upon me?” Therefore, the Tathagata does not establish precepts beforehand.

Regarding the statement: “If taints arise.”

Question: How do taints arise?

Answer: If taints arise within the assembly, the Tathagata will then establish precepts for the disciples and prescribe the Patimokkha. It is like a skilled physician who administers medicine according to the illness so that the patient quickly recovers; he then receives abundant rewards and praise: “This is an excellent king of physicians, skilled in completely curing my illness.” The Tathagata is likewise. Because he establishes precepts according to the transgressions committed, they joyfully receive and uphold them without resentment. Therefore, the Vinaya says: “Enough, enough, Sariputta! If tainted phenomena arise, only then will the Tathagata establish precepts.”

The Dharma teacher said: The other passages should be understood accordingly.

In the Buddha’s teaching, the first person to commit a transgression concerning ordaining another was Upasena, the son of Vanganta (Vangantaputta). This precept was established because Upasena, although he had not yet completed ten rains, accepted a disciple and conferred full ordination upon him. Upasena had two rains, and his disciple had one rain. Because events unfolded in this way, the Buddha established the precept: “Bhikkhus, from now onward, anyone who has not completed ten rains and yet confers full ordination upon a disciple commits an offense of wrongdoing (dukkata).”

After the Buddha established this precept, there were bhikkhus who had completed ten rains (vassa) or more than ten rains but were foolish and devoid of wisdom, yet they conferred full ordination upon disciples. On account of this, the Buddha again established a precept. The Buddha told the bhikkhus that anyone who lacks wisdom and confers full ordination upon another incurs an offense of wrongdoing.

The Buddha permitted one who possesses wisdom, has completed ten rains or more, and knows how to instruct and admonish others to confer full ordination upon disciples.

“Not yet numerous” means that the number of elder and junior members of the Sangha was not yet great, and the monastic dwellings were not yet extensive. When the Sangha became numerous, people would transgress and tainted phenomena would arise. On account of this, the Tathagata then established the precepts:

– Any bhikkhu who sleeps in the same lodging with a person who has not received full ordination for more than two or three nights commits a Pacittiya offense.

– Any bhikkhu who accepts a disciple every year commits a Pacittiya offense.

– Any bhikkhuni who accepts a disciple every year commits a Pacittiya offense.

It has been clearly explained in this way; you should understand it accordingly.

“Great gain and support”: when the Sangha receives abundant gain and support, tainted phenomena arise. The Tathagata will then establish the precept:

– Any bhikkhu who personally gives food or drink … to a male or female naked ascetic of another sect (acelaka) commits a Pacittiya offense.

“Not yet learned in much” means that there were not yet those learned in much within the Sangha. If there are bhikkhus learned in much within the Sangha, tainted phenomena may arise. Someone may recite fluently from one Agama through all five Agamas (pañca āgamā; cf. pañca nikāya), yet, with an improper mind, expound meanings perversely, calling what is contrary to the Vinaya “Vinaya” and what is contrary to the Dharma “Dharma.” Therefore, the Buddha established the precept: “Any bhikkhu who says, ‘I clearly understand the teaching … taught by the Buddha,’ while speaking contrary to the Dharma and Vinaya as described above, commits a Pacittiya offense.” A novice who makes such a statement is dealt with in the same manner.

Why do I establish precepts for the disciples? The Tathagata does so on the basis of tainted phenomena.

Question: What is a taint?

Answer: It is a robber.

Question: What is a robber?

Answer: One who violates the precepts in the Buddha’s teaching is precisely a robber.

Question: Why is such a person called a robber?

Answer: One who is not an ascetic but claims, “I am an ascetic,” thereby steals the requisites of the fourfold assembly.

Therefore, the Vinaya says: “When tainted phenomena had not yet arisen, this robber did not yet exist.” It also says that when there was no one who violated the precepts, there was no offense.

“To be without afflictions” is also called “to be without calamity.” One who does not violate the precepts is unstained by dark phenomena (nirādinava, apagatakālaka). “Dark phenomena” also means the breaking of precepts. To say that the Sangha has not broken the precepts means that it is supremely pure. “To dwell in great radiance” means to dwell upon the ground of truth (sāre patiṭṭhita). Whoever possesses virtue, concentration, wisdom, and liberation dwells upon the ground of truth.

The Dharma teacher said: I shall explain this in sequence. During the three-month earlier rains retreat in the region of Verañja, the Buddha dwelt with five hundred bhikkhus, of whom the lowest attainment was the path of stream-entry (sotāpanna).

Question: What is the path of stream-entry?

Answer: Sotāpanna means “stream.”

Question: What does “stream” mean?

Answer: It means the path. Whoever has entered the stream of this path is said to be on the path of stream-entry. As the scripture says, the Buddha asked Sariputta, “Sotāpanna—why is one called a sotāpanna?”

Sariputta replied: “Blessed One, it is the penetration of the eightfold path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.”

Again he was asked: “What is a stream-enterer?”

Answer: One who, by penetrating this eightfold path, proceeds to a wholesome destination is called a stream-enterer. As the name is, so is the person. Because the fruit is named after this path, the person is called a stream-enterer. You should understand it accordingly.

“One whose nature is not to fall away” (avinipātadhamma): it cannot be said that a stream-enterer will still fall into hell, the realm of hungry ghosts, or the animal realm. Why? Because the afflictions leading to such states have been eliminated.

Through this path one proceeds toward awakening (sambodhiparāyana), meaning that all three of the preceding paths certainly lead to awakening, because the path is present.

Thus the greatly wise Sariputta finished answering the Tathagata.

After completing the three-month rains retreat at Verañja and concluding the invitation ceremony, the Buddha said to Ananda that …

– “Said” means that he spoke in words.

… it should be understood that this practice had long existed in the Buddha’s teaching; that is, the Tathagatas of the past had given the same instruction. One who had accepted a personal invitation from another was permitted to depart. The other Hearer-disciples, whether invited or not, were all permitted to depart.

Out of compassionate concern for beings, the Buddha wished to travel to other countries.

Regarding the passage, “The Buddha traveled to other countries”: the Buddha journeyed freely at will throughout the three regions (mandala)—great, middle, and small.

Question: What is the great region?

Answer: It is an area extending nine hundred yojanas.

Question: What is the middle region?

Answer: It is an area extending six hundred yojanas.

Question: What is the small region?

Answer: It is an area extending one hundred yojanas.

When the Buddha wished to travel throughout the greater region, after completing the rains retreat, on a day in the ninth month, surrounded by the bhikkhus, he would set out and journey successively from one village to another, teaching and expounding the Dharma, receiving food and drink, guiding those ready to be guided, and bringing merit and benefit to those not yet guided. After traveling for nine months, when the three-month rains retreat arrived, if many bhikkhus had not yet completed their practice of meditation, the Tathagata would not hold the great invitation ceremony but would wait for the lesser invitation ceremony; then, on the fifteenth day of the ninth month, he would set out again.

Traveling throughout the middle region meant journeying for eight months.

Traveling throughout the lower region meant that the Buddha first contemplated whether there were beings whose faculties had matured. If so, he remained; if their faculties had not yet matured, he departed. On a day in the eleventh month, surrounded by the bhikkhus, he set out and traveled for seven months.

He journeyed everywhere throughout these three regions in order to teach beings, enabling them to escape the afflictions and attain the four paths and fruits. Just as a flower-gatherer roams throughout the mountains and, seeing various flowers blooming luxuriantly, plucks and carries them away, so too did the Tathagata. He also performed other deeds of a Buddha: early in the morning he would enter meditative concentration, then joyfully emerge from meditation and, with great loving-kindness and compassion, contemplate the worlds of the ten directions.

Whoever was ready to be liberated, the Tathagata would go and liberate. He also performed other deeds of a Buddha, such as greeting those newly arrived from other countries and expounding the Dharma to them.

The present occasion was that a disciplinary rule was about to be established. This is the unsurpassed way of the Dharma of all Buddhas.

Question: What is the practice of the sravakas?

While the Buddha was in the world, there were two occasions on which the assembly gathered at a later time: first, after the first day of entering the rains retreat, they assembled to receive meditation subjects; second, after completing the rains retreat, they assembled to report their attainments. This is the practice of the sravakas. As stated in the Vinaya, the Buddha told Ananda, “Let us go together.” “Go” refers to going to the brahmin who had extended a special invitation. “Separately” means telling them, “Having completed the rains retreat, we now wish to travel to another country.”

At that time, early in the morning, the Buddha donned his kasaya, arranged his robes, and set out. Attended by Ananda, he proceeded to the city gate. After entering the city, he emitted a great radiance that illuminated all the roads, alleys, and houses within the city, making everything appear like a mass of gold. With five-colored rays, golden and brilliant like lightning, the Buddha went to the house of the brahmin Veranja and stood directly before the door.

Seeing the Buddha’s brilliant radiance shining upon them, the people hurried inside and informed the brahmin, “The ascetic Gotama has arrived at the door.”

On hearing that the Buddha had arrived, the brahmin suddenly came to his senses. He hastily prepared a cushioned seat and personally went out to welcome him, saying to the Blessed One, “Please, Lord, enter by this way.”

The Buddha then entered the house and took his seat. Wishing to sit near the Buddha but finding no way to do so, the brahmin Veranja could only stand beside the Buddha with hands respectfully folded.

The Dharma master said: Understand the following passages for yourselves.

The brahmin said to the Buddha, “Venerable Blessed One, I have not done what ought to have been done.”

The Dharma master said: Here the brahmin wished to bring up the offering he had previously promised to make to the Tathagata.

The brahmin said, “Previously, I invited the Tathagata to spend the three-month rains retreat here. Properly, I should have brought rice gruel, cooked food, sweet fruits, and drinking water each day as offerings to the Blessed One. Yet, through foolishness, I forgot and have not made even the slightest offering; it was not that I was unwilling to give. I failed to present my offerings because, as a white-robed householder, I was occupied with many affairs and, overwhelmed by anger and delusion until my mind became confused, I forgot and therefore made no offering.”

The Dharma master said: Why did the brahmin speak in this way? Because he did not know that Mara had deluded him, he blamed himself, thinking that he had forgotten the Blessed One because he was occupied with worldly affairs. He then reflected, “I invited the Buddha to spend the three-month rains retreat so that I might make offerings, but I have presented nothing at all. Therefore, I should take all the provisions intended for those three months and offer them in a single day,” and said, “May the Blessed One compassionately accept my offering tomorrow.” Thus the brahmin invited the Tathagata to accept the entire offering on the following day.

Observing the brahmin’s exceedingly joyful state of mind, the Buddha compassionately reflected, “If I do not accept, this brahmin will give rise to an unwholesome thought, thinking: ‘Because the ascetic Gotama received none of the offerings during the three months for which he had been invited, he now bears resentment and will no longer accept my invitation.’ He will therefore say that the ascetic Gotama is not omniscient and does not know patience, or utter similar words disparaging the Tathagata, and will consequently suffer the karmic result of a grave offense. Therefore, I should accept his invitation.”

The Samantapasadika Vinaya Commentary

—Volume Five—