釋禪波羅蜜次第法門

B. EXPERIENCING EVIL PROPENSITIES

There are four topics:

I. The Number of Afflictions

II. The Arising of Evil Propensities

III. Establishing Methods of Counteraction

IV. General Conclusion in Terms of the Four Siddhantas ⁽¹⁾, Extensively Embracing the Buddha-Dharma

I. THE NUMBER OF AFFLICTIONS

Afflictions: The Nirvana Sutra states: “Afflictions are evil dharmas.” If discussed fully, they have a great many names. Here, only five kinds of evil and unwholesome dharmas will be explained briefly; if dissected and analyzed, they are immeasurable.

The five kinds of unwholesome dharmas are:

– The unwholesome dharma of discursive thought

– The unwholesome dharma of sensual desire

– The unwholesome dharma of anger

– The unwholesome dharma of delusion

– The unwholesome dharma of evil karma

If broadly classified, there are eighty-four thousand kinds (8,400). As for the fundamental afflictions, there are only the three poisons and the equal division. If these five unwholesome dharmas are divided into four divisions of affliction, the three poisons—greed, anger, and delusion—constitute three divisions and belong to causal accumulation. The other two unwholesome dharmas, discursive thought and evil karma that obstructs the path, are combined into one division.

Why is this so? The unwholesome dharma of discursive thought arises from the three divisions of affliction—greed, anger, and delusion—and may also be called the equal division of causal accumulation. Evil karma that obstructs the path belongs to the equal division of resultant causation. Because these two kinds, causal accumulation and resultant causation, are combined in the explanation, they are spoken of simply as one equal division.

Generally speaking, the five kinds of unwholesome dharmas comprise only four divisions; discussed extensively, they comprise eighty-four thousand (84,000). As stated in the Mahayana Treatise: “The afflictions of sensual desire comprise twenty-one thousand kinds (21,000). The afflictions of anger comprise twenty-one thousand kinds (21,000).

The afflictions of delusion comprise twenty-one thousand kinds (21,000). The afflictions of the equal division comprise twenty-one thousand kinds (21,000).” Together, the four divisions of affliction comprise a total of eighty-four thousand kinds (84,000) of defiling afflictions. The Buddha therefore taught eighty-four thousand Dharma gates as counteragents to them.

Here, only the five kinds of evil and unwholesome dharmas are used to discuss the characteristics of the arising of evil propensities.

Why is this so? The preceding section explained the characteristics of the arising of wholesome propensities by discussing five kinds as well. Now, in explaining the arising of evil propensities, why should the discussion likewise be based on only five unwholesome dharmas? It is because medicine and illness correspond to one another, and the characteristics of the dharmas are alike. Practitioners who wish to cultivate meditative concentration must distinguish them clearly and skillfully.

II. THE ARISING OF EVIL PROPENSITIES

When some people cultivate meditative concentration, their offenses and afflictions are so deep and severe that, although their minds abide in secluded stillness as explained in the preceding section, none of the inner or outer wholesome dharmas arise in the slightest; they see only afflictions arising. Therefore, the case of evil propensities arising is now explained. In explaining the arising of evil dharmas, five kinds of unwholesomeness are again presented.

Each unwholesome dharma has three cases. Thus, three cases for each of the five kinds comprise fifteen unwholesome dharmas.

When unwholesome dharmas arise in a practitioner, they do not necessarily follow a fixed order. Here, however, in accordance with the teaching, they are analyzed fully in sequence, as in the preceding section.

1. Characteristics of the Arising of Discursive Thought

There are three kinds:

a) The arising of acute discursive thought within the mind

If practitioners did not plant wholesome roots in past lives, then while cultivating meditative concentration no wholesome dharmas arise. Instead, they find only that the mind within is restless and that thought after thought never ceases. The objects upon which the three poisons seize are likewise not fixed: sometimes thoughts engage with greed, sometimes with delusion, and sometimes with anger. They are very clearly aware of the objects upon which their thoughts arise and seize. Yet although this engagement continues in this way for many months and years, no meditative concentration arises. This is called the characteristic of acute discursive thought arising within the mind.

b) The arising of discursive thought that is half alert and half torpid

When practitioners gather in their thoughts, although they are aware that the affliction of discursive thought continues from thought to thought without ceasing, their awareness of the objects followed is sometimes clear and sometimes dim. When alert and clear, discursive thought seizes upon objects, and restless recollections continue without ceasing. When torpid, the mind is indistinct and indeterminate, without clear awareness. This is therefore called the characteristic of discursive thought arising in a state that is half alert and half torpid.

c) The arising of discursive thought within a torpid mind

When practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, their minds may be dim and hazy, as though they were sleeping deeply. Within that dimness, discursive thought remains restless, continually seizing upon objects without abiding. This is called the characteristic of the affliction of discursive thought arising within a torpid mind.

2. Characteristics of the Arising of Sensual Desire

There are three characteristics of its arising:

a) The arising of the affliction of external sensual desire

b) The arising of the affliction of external and internal sensual desire

c) The arising of the affliction of sensual desire in relation to all things

a) The arising of the affliction of external sensual desire

While practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, sensual desire may arise in their minds. A man may desire a woman, or a woman may desire a man, becoming attached to the other’s appearance, speech, and gestures. Defilement arises within the mind, continuing from thought to thought without ceasing. This is the characteristic of the affliction of external sensual desire.

b) The arising of the affliction of external and internal sensual desire

While practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, their minds of desire may be stirred. Seeing another’s physical appearance, relaxed and dignified bearing, and beautiful complexion and expression, they give rise to craving and affection. Or they may cherish their own physical form and thus groom and adorn themselves. Becoming attached from thought to thought, they give rise to various states of craving that obstruct meditative concentration. This is the characteristic of the affliction of internal and external sensual desire.

c) The arising of the affliction of sensual desire in relation to all things

When practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, they may not only experience internal and external sensual desire but may also give rise to craving for every object of the five senses, as well as for the body, wealth, and so forth. They may desire fields, gardens, houses, clothing, food, drink, and other such things, giving rise to craving for all kinds of things.

3. Characteristics of the Arising of Anger

There are three cases:

a) Unreasonable anger

b) Reasonable anger

c) Contentious anger

a) Unreasonable anger

When practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, thoughts of anger may arise spontaneously. Whether or not anyone has offended them, and whether something is reasonable or not—in short, even when nothing whatsoever has happened—thoughts of anger arise spontaneously in their minds. This is the manifestation of perverse anger contrary to reason.

b) Reasonable anger

While practitioners cultivate meditative concentration, someone may come and disturb them, whereupon they give rise to anger, and angry thoughts continue to arise without ceasing. This is also like a person who upholds the precepts and, upon seeing someone act contrary to the Dharma, immediately gives rise to anger. As stated in the Mahayana Treatise: “In a pure Buddha-land, although there are no people with perverse greed, anger, and delusion, there are nevertheless correct greed, anger, and delusion.” Those now said to possess correct anger in accordance with reason are precisely people of this kind.

c) Contentious anger

While cultivating meditative concentration, practitioners may cling to the view that the Dharma as they understand it is right and correct, while the deeds and words of others are wrong. If another person expresses an opinion that does not accord with their own, they immediately become angry. Some people in the world can patiently endure even when outsiders seize their money or possessions, yet if an opinion is disputed and does not accord with their wishes, they immediately become angry and resolve never again to associate with that person. This is called the characteristic of the arising of contentious anger.

4. Characteristics of the Arising of Delusion

There are three cases:

a) The deluded attachment to annihilationism and eternalism

b) The deluded attachment to existence and nonexistence

c) The deluded attachment to worldly natures

These three characteristics all belong to attachment to wrong views, through which one cannot escape the cycle of birth and death. They are therefore collectively called delusion.

a) Deluded attachment to annihilationism and eternalism

While practicing meditative concentration, the practitioner may suddenly give rise to erroneous thoughts and make keen discriminations inwardly, thinking: “Did my former-life self and all dharmas cease to exist and only come into being again in this life, or did they not cease and therefore continue to exist?”

Through such reflection, views and understanding immediately arise in the mind, which then searches through all three periods of time. If the practitioner believes that everything has entirely ceased, they fall into the view of annihilationism; if they believe that nothing has ceased, they fall into the view of eternalism. Such deluded thoughts arise continuously, thereby producing extremely acute and incisive wrong knowledge, swift in examination, fluent in debate, and given to argumentation. This leads to many evil practices and obstructs supramundane right concentration. This is the manifestation of deluded attachment to the views of annihilationism and eternalism.

b) Deluded attachment to existence and nonexistence

While practicing meditative concentration, the practitioner may suddenly give rise to discriminative reflection and think: “At present, do I and the five skandhas definitely exist, not exist, or neither exist nor not exist?” As the practitioner investigates in this way, views and understanding immediately arise in the mind. They draw conclusions according to what they perceive and consequently develop attachment. Because of these wrong views and erroneous knowledge, thoughts continue without pause, producing extremely acute and incisive wrong knowledge, argumentative reasoning, and wrong conduct, thereby obstructing the arising of right concentration. This is the manifestation of deluded attachment to existence and nonexistence.

c) Deluded attachment to the nature of the world

While practicing meditative concentration, the practitioner may suddenly think: “Is it because minute particles accumulate that all dharmas come to exist; because all dharmas exist, the four great elements exist; and because the four great elements exist, the designations ‘sentient beings’ and ‘world’ arise?” As the practitioner reflects in this way, thoughts arise continuously within the mind from moment to moment, producing sharp intelligence and eloquence by which they can challenge and answer others.

Their mind becomes arrogant, disputing right and wrong, devoted to wrong conduct, and distant from the true Path. Even their thoughts and discriminations in every kshana become like this. For these reasons, the practitioner cannot attain the meditative concentrations; even if concentration should arise, they will fall into wrong concentration.

This is the manifestation of deluded attachment to the nature of the world.

5. Evil karma that obstructs the Path

There are three kinds:

a) The obstruction caused by the covering of torpor
b) The obstruction caused by thoughts of evil intentions

c) The obstruction caused by oppressive circumstances

a) The obstruction caused by the covering of torpor

When the practitioner applies the mind to the cultivation of meditative concentration, they are immediately overcome by torpor and mental darkness, remembering and knowing nothing. This obstructs meditative concentration and prevents it from arising. This is the manifestation of obstruction arising from torpor and mental darkness.

b) The obstruction caused by thoughts of evil intentions

When the practitioner wishes to cultivate meditative concentration, although they are not overcome by torpor and mental darkness, evil and unwholesome thoughts arise. They may think of committing the ten evil karmas or the five heinous offenses, or wish to break the precepts and return to lay life. Such thoughts persist inwardly without the slightest interruption and therefore obstruct the arising of the meditative concentrations. This is the manifestation of obstruction arising from evil thoughts.

c) The manifestation of oppressive circumstances

While practicing meditative concentration, although neither of the two preceding conditions occurs, the practitioner’s body may suddenly become painful, or they may experience oppressive discomfort. Whether in dreams or suddenly during meditative concentration, they may see people without heads, hands, feet, eyes, and so forth; see torn and tattered clothing; fall into pits; see fire burning their own body; see themselves falling from the edge of a high mountain; see themselves trapped between two mountain cliffs; or encounter rakshasas, tigers, wolves, and so forth.

They may also dream of evil and ominous phenomena. Such events all arise from offenses that obstruct the Path and oppress the practitioner, causing fear or anguish. Events of this kind are so numerous that they cannot all be described.

These five unwholesome dharmas may now be gathered into three kinds of obstructions to the Path:

– Greed, anger, and delusion are the accumulated causal afflictions that constitute the Affliction Obstruction.

– The disturbing dharmas of initial and sustained thought within afflictions present in equal proportions are the four coarse skandhas, called the Retribution Obstruction.

– Evil karma that obstructs the Path is the Karma Obstruction. How is it known to be an obstruction? Because evil karma was created in past lives, evil retribution must be undergone in the future. Before practitioners have undergone this retribution, they turn instead to the cultivation of wholesome dharmas. Since evil and wholesome qualities oppose one another, karmic power assists evil dharmas in arising to obstruct wholesome dharmas. This is called the Karma Obstruction.

– These three kinds—the accumulated causal afflictions, the Retribution Obstruction, and the Karma Obstruction—obstruct the practitioner’s meditative concentration and wisdom, preventing them from arising; therefore, they are called Obstructions.

III. METHODS OF COUNTERACTION

“Counter” means to be directed principally toward a particular object. “Act” means to treat or cure.

For example, the contemplation of impurity is used principally to counteract the illness of craving and attachment to sensual form; hence it is called a method of counteraction. Likewise, the methods of the Buddha-recollection samadhi and so forth are used chiefly to counteract evil karma that obstructs the Path.

The methods of counteraction will now be explained. They differ in six ways:

1/ Direct counteraction

2/ Counteraction through transformation

3/ Counteraction without transformation

4/ Combined counteraction

5/ Combined counteraction through transformation and combined counteraction without transformation

1. Explanation of direct counteraction

In the previous section explaining the arising of wholesome and unwholesome dispositions, each disposition was presented in fifteen cases. Here, the methods of counteraction likewise comprise fifteen kinds.

QUESTION: Would this not make the explanation excessively repetitive?

ANSWER: It is not so. The previous section presented fifteen cases for examination and recognition, whereas the present section gives fifteen methods to be used as counteractions. The former concerned fifteen wholesome dharmas arising of themselves; the latter concerns fifteen methods of cultivation. Therefore, this is not an excessively repetitive explanation or a needless duplication.

a) Treating the illness of excessive initial and sustained thought (deluded thoughts)

As recorded in the sutras: “Those afflicted by excessive initial and sustained thought should be instructed to practice counting the breaths.” The illness of initial and sustained thought has three kinds, and the contemplation of counting the breaths likewise has three corresponding counteractions.

a.1. Counteracting acute initial and sustained thought in the mind:

While sitting in meditation, the practitioner’s mind is acute and constantly grasps at conditions, with thoughts continuing without pause.

The method of counteraction is to instruct the practitioner to cultivate the practice of counting the breaths. Counting the breaths means binding the mind to the breath; it is excellent medicine for counteracting a restless mind. If the practitioner can count from one to ten without losing track midway, they can enter concentration. This method has the power to eliminate a mind filled with scattered thoughts. Counting the breaths enables the mind to become settled and to keep close track of the count. Because the mind becomes settled, it can counteract acute and scattered thoughts. Thus, counting the breaths has the power to cure the illness of acute initial and sustained thought within the mind.

a.2. Counteracting initial and sustained thought that is half-alert and half-torpid

This illness was discussed previously.

The method of counteraction is to use the practice of following the breath. Following the breath means attending to the breath as it enters and leaves, with the mind taking the breath as its object. Because the mind follows the breath, when the breath is coarse, the mind is also coarse; when the breath is subtle, the mind likewise becomes extremely subtle.

As inhalation and exhalation become gentle and subtle, the mind’s grasping at conditions is cut off, thereby eliminating the illness of initial and sustained thought. Because the mind becomes still and lucid, it clearly knows whether each inhalation and exhalation is long or short. This clarity of contemplation can dispel torpor.

Therefore, it is said that the method of following the breath is used to counteract the illness of being half-alert and half-torpid. If the practitioner continually uses only the practice of counting the breaths, this has the fault of increasing torpor; if they continually use only the contemplation of the breath, the mind may become agitated. The practitioner must therefore skillfully employ these two methods as appropriate to counteract the illness.

a.3. Counteracting discursive thought and torpor

The characteristics of discursive thought associated with torpor have already been discussed in the preceding section.

The method of counteracting it is to employ contemplation of the breath. While the breath moves in and out, one must carefully examine where it comes from, where it goes when exhaled, and where it arrives when inhaled. One likewise contemplates the breath at the very moment it leaves the mouth.

This method will be explained in greater detail below. If the practitioner traces the breath back to its source, the outgoing breath is found not to disperse, the incoming breath not to accumulate, and neither is seen to possess any fixed form. Through lucid contemplation, wisdom immediately unfolds and dispels torpor.

As the inner mind rests quietly upon the breath, it can also eliminate mental distraction. Therefore, contemplation of the breath is used to cure the afflictions of torpor and discursive thought.

b) Treating the affliction of sensual desire

The sutras state, “Those with much sensual desire should be taught the contemplation of impurity.” The affliction of sensual desire is of three kinds; accordingly, there are three methods of counteracting it.

b.1. Treating external sensual desire

This affliction arises from attachment to physical appearance, deportment, speech, and outward beauty, causing the fire of desire to burn unceasingly within the mind.

The method of counteracting it is to teach the Contemplation of the Nine Stages of a Corpse. The practitioner visualizes a corpse in a charnel ground and simultaneously contemplates the object of personal attraction as though it were a corpse lying upon the ground: swollen and decomposing, blood and fluids flowing forth, urine and excrement covering the earth, and flies swarming all around. The practitioner then visualizes the body of the man or woman with whom one is infatuated and asks: if this body is just like that corpse, what is there to love? Through such contemplation, lust naturally ceases. Therefore, the Contemplation of the Nine Stages of a Corpse can counteract craving and desire for external objects.

b.2. Treating the affliction of internal and external sensual desire

The arising of the affliction of sensual desire has already been explained in the preceding section.

To treat this affliction, one should be taught to cultivate the First Liberation and the subsequent practices. That is, the practitioner contemplates one’s own body as filthy and impure, like a corpse and utterly repulsive; this can eliminate attachment to one’s own body. One must also contemplate the impurity and filthiness of another person’s body as described above, thereby eliminating attachment to external objects. This is called the First Liberation. Contemplation of the impurity of both the inner and outer body can eliminate the affliction of lust and attachment to what is within and without.

b.3. Treating sensual desire with respect to all things everywhere

The characteristics of the arising of the affliction of sensual desire have already been described above.

To treat this affliction, one should be taught to cultivate the contemplation that all things everywhere are impure. This means visualizing all phenomena—one’s own body, the bodies of men and women, fields and gardens, houses, clothing, food and drink, and every object found in the world—as wholly impure. There is no place or object capable of causing attachment to arise in the mind. When the practitioner consequently becomes disenchanted with and detached from all material things, sensual desire no longer arises. This is the method for counteracting sensual desire with respect to all things everywhere.

c) Treating the affliction of anger

As recorded in the scriptures: “Those with much anger should be taught to counteract it through contemplation of loving-kindness.” The affliction of anger is of three kinds; accordingly, there are also three methods of counteracting it.

c.1. Treating an angry mind: An angry mind is one that constantly dwells, day and night, upon unreasonable matters and seeks ways to harm others. The characteristics of the arising of an angry mind have been described above.

To counteract it, one should be instructed to practice loving-kindness conditioned by sentient beings. This means that the practitioner first thinks of the dearest and most beloved relative and wishes that person to be happy. In meditative concentration, the practitioner sees that relative enjoying happiness and well-being. Next, one thinks of friends as being happy, and finally of enemies as likewise enjoying happiness and well-being. Because the practitioner wishes sentient beings to be happy, a mind of affection for them arises, thereby eliminating anger, vexation, and resentment toward all sentient beings.

c.2. Treating righteous anger: Righteous anger means that ordinarily no anger arises, but upon seeing someone commit evil deeds, violate the precepts, and so forth, an angry mind immediately arises. The occurrence of this affliction of righteous anger has already been explained above.

To counteract it, one should be taught to cultivate loving-kindness conditioned by phenomena. This means contemplating the five skandhas—form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness—as false and unreal, without seeing any sentient being. If there is no sentient being, how could there be such matters as observing or violating the precepts, right or wrong? The practitioner wishes only to bestow the joy of the Buddha-Dharma upon everyone and gives rise to affection for all, without causing sentient beings’ afflictions to increase. When the mind that discriminates right and wrong has ceased, anger immediately ends. Therefore, practicing the contemplation of loving-kindness conditioned by phenomena can counteract the affliction of anger arising in conformity with reason.

c.3. Treating anger arising from disputes: The occurrence of this affliction has already been explained above.

To counteract it, one should be taught to cultivate unconditioned loving-kindness. Why is this so? Because such a practitioner clings to one’s own views and understanding as correct and regards the views of others as mistaken.

When others share one’s views, the mind becomes joyful; when they oppose them, anger immediately arises. Some practitioners cling to the four propositions—existence, nonexistence, both existence and nonexistence, and neither existence nor nonexistence—while others cling to the Middle Way. Since all such doctrines have their respective bases, causes for dispute arise.

Because attachment gives rise to anger, the method of counteracting it is to cultivate unconditioned loving-kindness. When practicing this method, all language utterly ceases and mental activity comes to an end; one should not form thoughts concerning any phenomenon. If no thoughts are formed, what cause could there be for disputes that provoke anger?

Loving-kindness is vast, boundless, and impartial, identical with the inherently present bliss of purity. At that time, thoughts of troubling or harming sentient beings naturally cease. Thus, loving-kindness has the power to bestow happiness upon sentient beings.

It may also be said, “Because bodhisattvas have compassion for sentient beings, they teach the Dharma gateway of unconditioned loving-kindness,” which is also called Great Loving-Kindness. One should understand that cultivating unconditioned loving-kindness can counteract every affliction of anger arising from disputes.

d) Treating the affliction of delusion

As recorded in the sutras: “Those with much delusion should be taught to contemplate causes and conditions.”

QUESTION: The contemplation of the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination is extremely profound in meaning. Why, then, are deluded people taught to cultivate the contemplation of causes and conditions?

ANSWER: Here, “delusion” does not mean being unintelligent like animals such as buffaloes or cows. It refers only to people of clever and keen faculties who can discriminate, reason, and deliberate, but whose wisdom is not correct and whose minds cling to erroneous principles; this is called delusion. The affliction of delusion is of three kinds; accordingly, there are also three methods of counteracting it.

d.1. Counteracting the afflictions of annihilationism and eternalism

Because practitioners cling to erroneous ideas, they may give rise either to the view of eternalism or to the view of annihilationism, maintaining that the principle of cause and effect does not exist. The characteristics of these wrong views have already been explained above.

To counteract them, one should be taught to contemplate the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination throughout the three periods of time.

– In the past life there are two: ignorance and formations.

– In the present life there are eight: consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, and becoming.

– In the future life there are two: birth and aging-and-death.

These are the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, revolving throughout the three periods of time and serving mutually as cause and effect. They are neither eternal nor annihilated, as recorded in a verse from the sutras:

The true self in the Buddha-Dharma
Though self-nature is empty, it is not annihilated;
Thought after thought continues, yet it is not permanent;
The fruits of good and evil are likewise never lost.

If practitioners skillfully contemplate the twelve links of dependent origination, then, because they no longer cling to permanence or annihilation, the mind of wrong views is immediately extinguished. This method is also used as an antidote to dispel delusion concerning the Provisional Continuity⁽²⁾.

d.2. Counteracting the deluded attachment to existence and nonexistence

Practitioners give rise to erroneous thoughts and reasoning, clinging to the existence of a self or the nonexistence of a self, the existence of the five skandhas or the nonexistence of the five skandhas, and so forth, as explained above.

The antidote is to teach them to employ contemplation of the fruition of the twelve links of dependent origination. To contemplate the fruition of the twelve links means to contemplate the present life beginning at the seventh day in the mother’s womb, at the kalala stage, which is called ignorance, and proceeding through birth, aging and death, and so forth. The five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, and eighteen dhatus that presently constitute a person all arise from causes and conditions. During the kalala stage, there are three factors:

– Life

– Warmth (the ovum)

– Consciousness

The conjunction of these three conditions is called ignorance. Ignorance itself arises from causes and conditions; yet causes and conditions are originally devoid of self-nature, so they cannot be said either to exist or not to exist. Each of the twelve links of dependent origination is likewise so.

If practitioners clearly understand the principle that self-nature is neither nonexistent nor existent, they immediately dispel the malady of attachment to the two extremes. Therefore, one should know that contemplation of the fruition of the twelve links of dependent origination can counteract the malady of attachment to existence and nonexistence, and that this method can also be used to dispel deluded attachment concerning the Provisional Formation from Causes⁽³⁾.

d.3. Counteracting delusion concerning world-nature

Practitioners cling to the belief that an extremely minute substance can produce the myriad dharmas. This erroneous view is called “Conceptual Attachment to World-Nature,” as explained above.

The antidote is to cultivate contemplation of the twelve links of dependent origination within a single thought. Why? Practitioners contemplate that a single thought fully contains all twelve links of dependent origination, yet this single thought is not the twelve links, nor are the twelve links this single thought.

Now, the twelve links are fully explained through a single thought, and a single thought is also explained through the twelve links. Therefore, one should know that a single thought originally has no fixed self-nature; and since it is not fixed, world-nature likewise cannot be apprehended. Thus, contemplation of the twelve links of dependent origination within a single thought is used to dispel deluded attachment and error.

This method of contemplating the twelve links within a single thought is chiefly used to dispel attachment to the views of identity and difference, and it can also be used to dispel deluded attachment concerning the Provisional Relative⁽⁴⁾.

e) Treating the obstruction to the Path caused by evil karma

As recorded in the scriptures: “Those whose Path is obstructed should be taught to cultivate mindfulness of the Buddha.” There are three kinds of obstruction to the Path, and therefore there are also three methods of counteracting them.

e.1. Treating torpor that obstructs meditative concentration

The condition of torpor was explained above.

The antidote is to teach practitioners to contemplate the Buddha’s transformation body. From among the Buddha’s thirty-two marks⁽⁵⁾, they may freely select one mark. For example, they may contemplate the tuft of white hair between the Buddha’s eyebrows.

Practitioners close their eyes and visualize it. If their minds are dull, dim, and obscure, and the visualization cannot be accomplished, they should go before an image of the Buddha, concentrate upon one physical mark, and single-mindedly abide upon it to enter meditative concentration. If the visualization is unclear when their eyes are closed, they should open their eyes and observe it very carefully, then close their eyes again.

After they can visualize one mark clearly in this manner, they should continue by contemplating all thirty-two marks in sequence, causing the mind’s eye⁽⁶⁾ to open and become luminous. This method has the power to dispel the dimness and obscurity of torpor. Through the merit of recollecting and contemplating the Buddha, karmic offenses and obstructions can be eliminated.

QUESTION: If clearly contemplating one selected mark can dispel the malady of torpor and obscurity, why not cultivate the contemplation of the Nine Perceptions or the contemplation of the white bones?

ANSWER: The contemplations of the Nine Perceptions and the white bones merely contemplate the impurity of the body and corpses in order to eliminate the sinful karma of sentient beings. Their efficacy, however, is not strong, and thus they are not the appropriate antidotes for this malady.

e.2. The method for counteracting the obstruction of discursive thought

The arising of this obstruction is as explained above.

The antidote is to teach practitioners to recollect the Buddha’s merits. How should they recollect them? With a mind of right mindfulness, practitioners contemplate: the Buddha’s Ten Powers, Four Fearlessnesses, Eighteen Distinctive Qualities, and omniscience concerning all aspects; his illumination extending throughout the Dharma realm; his eternal quiescence and immovability; and his manifestation of physical bodies throughout the Dharma realm to benefit all sentient beings.

The Buddha’s merits are immeasurable and inconceivable. When practitioners recollect them in this way, this itself is the method of counteraction. Why?

Recollection of the Buddha’s merits causes supreme wholesome qualities to arise among the wholesome mental factors. Recollection of evil causes unwholesome qualities to arise among the unwholesome mental factors. Because wholesome recollection can dispel unwholesome recollection, practitioners should recollect the Buddha’s reward body.

It is like an ugly, insignificant person without wisdom living together with someone beautiful, dignified, and possessed of great wisdom; the former naturally feels ashamed. Unwholesome thoughts are likewise so: if abundant wholesome states are present in the mind, the unwholesome mind naturally becomes ashamed and ceases. Recollecting the merits of the Buddha’s reward body has, in every single thought, the power to eliminate all obstructions.

e.3. Counteracting the obstruction of oppressive states

The arising of states produced by sinful karma was explained above.

The antidote is to instruct practitioners to recollect the Buddha’s Dharma body. The Buddha’s Dharma body is the equality of Dharma-nature: neither arising nor ceasing, without form, quiescent and empty, unconditioned and tranquil. Within the unconditioned, naturally there are no states; and if there are no states, how could the marks of oppression arise?

If practitioners clearly understand that states are originally empty, this itself is the antidote. Contemplating the thirty-two marks of the Buddha’s transformation body, however, is not the appropriate antidote. Why?

Before such persons begin to visualize these marks, their minds have already been disturbed by those states; and those who cling to marks often thereby fall into demonic states, where demons drive their minds into madness and confusion. Practitioners should now contemplate emptiness to dispel all such states. If they recollect the Buddha’s Dharma body, the merit is immeasurable and has the power to eliminate even the gravest sinful karma.

This is precisely the appropriate antidote, and its meaning can be clearly understood. The explanation of methods of counteraction is now complete.

2. The method of changing the treatment

In its explanation of the Ten Powers, the Mahayana Treatise states concerning the Power of Concentration, Purity from Defilements, and the Power of Wisdom: “Those with much lust are instructed to cultivate the contemplation of loving-kindness; those with much anger cultivate the contemplation of impurity; those with much delusion are instructed to contemplate whether thought is finite or infinite; those whose minds are restless and distracted are taught to cultivate discerning wisdom; and those who are torpid are taught to gather and concentrate their thoughts. Cultivation in this manner is called changing the treatment. What is otherwise is called not changing the treatment.” This is the reverse of what was stated above.

The method of changing the treatment will now be explained. It is of two kinds:

a) When the malady changes, the antidote also changes

b) When the malady does not change, but the antidote changes

a) When the malady changes, the antidote also changes

Now, relying only on the preceding section to explain the meaning of changing the treatment, the method of applying a counteractive treatment explained earlier states: “If a person has excessive sensual desire, instruct them to cultivate the contemplation of impurity. After this contemplation has been successfully developed, the practitioner sees the impure object, becomes disgusted with it, and consequently gives rise to anger.” For example, when the Buddha was still in the world, certain bhikshus practiced the contemplation of impurity.

After their visualization had been successfully developed, they became disgusted with their own bodies and asked others to kill them. If one who cultivates the contemplation of impurity encounters such a condition, one should instruct that person to change to the contemplation of loving-kindness to counteract anger. This is called changing the treatment and is also called changing both the medicine and the illness.

Although it is explained in this way, the matter must still be carefully weighed and examined, lest it not accord with the teaching.

b) The illness does not change, but the counteractive method changes

For example, a person previously afflicted by sensual desire may be unable to transform it through the contemplation of impurity and therefore changes to the contemplation of loving-kindness to counteract it.

QUESTION: From ancient times to the present, people have commonly harbored desire and delighted in the beautiful appearance of others. The contemplation of loving-kindness also takes the beautiful appearance of others as its object. How, then, can loving-kindness be used to counteract sensual desire?

ANSWER: The bodhisattva precepts in the Brahma Net Sutra state very clearly: “All men are my fathers, and all women are my mothers. How could one who has received the bodhisattva precepts fail to give rise to loving-kindness and compassion? How could one engage in sexual misconduct without restraint? Even to engage in sexual relations with any of the Six Close Relations⁽⁷⁾ constitutes a parajika offense, an extremely grave offense.” If practitioners contemplate the men and women before them as their mothers, fathers, children, and grandchildren, they will naturally give rise to reverence and affection. Loving-kindness and compassion can destroy sensual desire, just as parents cannot give rise to improper thoughts toward their own children.

Furthermore, the meaning of loving-kindness is to bestow happiness upon everyone, whereas sensual desire is an unwholesome dharma that increases the afflictions of others. This is contrary to principle and does not bestow peace and happiness upon anyone. Reflecting in this way, practitioners single-mindedly cultivate the contemplation of loving-kindness. If the meditative concentration of loving-kindness is developed, it can counteract sensual desire. Why is this so?

Because the contemplation of the Four Immeasurable Minds belongs to the form realm, where sensual desire cannot arise. Here, although the illness does not change, one changes to another contemplative method to counteract it. For the present, only the contemplation of impurity has been cited in general terms as an explanation. Each of the other fourteen gates of meditation likewise possesses these two meanings of changing the treatment.

This gate of changing the contemplation also has two cases:

– The mind changes, but the object does not change.

– Both mind and object change.

Practitioners should carefully investigate and seek out these meanings for themselves, and they will be able to discern them.

3. Treatment without change

This has two meanings:

a) Neither the illness nor the contemplative method changes. b) The illness changes, but the contemplative method does not change.

a) Neither the illness nor the contemplative method changes

For example, a person with excessive sensual desire may cultivate the contemplation of impurity, yet the mind of sensual desire does not cease. At that time, the person continues and intensifies the visualization without changing to another contemplative method. The practitioner further contemplates such objects as corpses, flowing blood and pus, decomposition, and so forth.

If contemplating one corpse does not end thoughts of sensual desire, one should contemplate many corpses, gradually increasing their number until one contemplates the corpses of people filling an entire neighborhood, an entire city, or an entire country, regarding them all as impure. This is extensively explained in the “Meditation Sutra.” Alternatively, one must contemplate white bones radiating light to counteract sensual desire; only then will the mind of sensual desire cease.

Therefore, this is called not changing the counteractive method. Although this interpretation exists, careful investigation shows that it may still not be the precise meaning of the teaching.

b) The illness changes, but the contemplative method does not change

Because practitioners are afflicted by sensual desire, they use the contemplation of impurity to counteract it. As a result, thoughts of sensual desire cease, but the affliction of anger then arises. At that time, practitioners do not change the contemplation of impurity but merely shift to contemplating white bones radiating light in order to enter meditative concentration; the mind of anger will then naturally be eliminated. This also has two cases:

– The object does not change, but the mind changes.

– Neither the object nor the mind changes.

The meanings of treatment without change as applied to the other fourteen counteractive methods are likewise similar.

4. Combined treatment

This counteractive method is also drawn from the Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra’s explanation of the recollection of relinquishment among the Eight Recollections. The treatise states: “A bodhisattva’s gift of Dharma is the Dharma of causes and conditions: teaching the Dharma, manifesting supernatural powers, emitting light, and so forth. Using these skillful means to benefit and liberate sentient beings is called the gift of Dharma.” When practicing the gift of Dharma, one must skillfully understand whether the afflictions of sentient beings are many or few, for some sentient beings have only one afflictive illness, while others have two or three intermingled afflictions.

If sentient beings have only one afflictive illness, it is sufficient to teach them one counteractive method. If they have two afflictive illnesses, teach them two counteractive methods. If they have three afflictions, teach them three counteractive methods.

This is the characteristic of combined treatment.

If sentient beings have only one illness, teach them one counteractive method, as already discussed above. If they have two kinds of illness, two counteractive methods should be used. For example, if practitioners are afflicted by both sensual desire and anger, the contemplations of loving-kindness and compassion and of impurity must be combined to counteract them.

Why? If only one counteractive method is used, only one illness will be cured, while the other will grow even stronger. This is an error.

By using both methods to counteract them, both illnesses are cured—for example, using the contemplation of impurity together with the contemplation of loving-kindness and compassion, or using the contemplation of loving-kindness and compassion together with the contemplation of impurity. In brief, counteractive methods must be applied according to the illnesses that arise. This meaning must be carefully weighed and examined.

The same meaning applies to combined treatment for two, three, four, or even five kinds of illness; they will not all be discussed here.

5. Combined changing treatment and combined treatment without change

The meaning is the same as that of changing treatment and treatment without change. The only difference is that suitable counteractive methods are applied according to whether the illnesses that arise are severe or mild, many or few. Practitioners may follow the meanings contained in the methods of changing treatment and treatment without change; careful investigation will make them clear.

6. Neither counteractive treatment, nor changing treatment, nor combined treatment

This is precisely an explanation of the siddhanta of the ultimate truth. The right contemplation of prajna can counteract all fifteen kinds of illness and can also develop all fifteen gates of meditation. Therefore, it is said to be neither counteractive treatment, nor changing treatment, nor combined treatment. The right contemplation of the Dharma-nature means that one dharma cannot be used to counteract another dharma; therefore, it is said to be no counteractive treatment. The uncontaminated right contemplation needs no counteractive treatment. Because this contemplation does not counteract only one side, it does not increase illness on the other side; therefore, there is no need to change it.

– The power of the right contemplation of prajna can destroy whatever illnesses must be destroyed; therefore, there is no need to cultivate any other contemplation together with it. Although this contemplation contains neither “that which destroys” nor “that which is destroyed,” merely by using it as a counteractive treatment, all unwholesome dharmas are entirely eliminated. This is called Counteractive Treatment.

The Mahayana Treatise states: “There is a kind of samadhi that removes only sensual desire but cannot remove anger and delusion. There is another kind of samadhi that can remove all three poisons of greed, anger, and delusion.” This refers precisely to this samadhi: the right contemplation of prajna, which is the siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth being discussed here.

This right contemplation of prajna is capable of treating five kinds of illness:

a) Right contemplation treats sensual desire

As the Sutra of the Questions of Brahma states: “Those afflicted by sensual desire attain liberation through the contemplation of purity; they do not attain liberation by cultivating the contemplation of impurity. The World-Honored One himself clearly knows this matter.”

b) Right contemplation treats anger

As the Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “In a former kalpa, when King Kali cut my body into pieces, at that time I perceived no self, no person, and no sentient being; therefore, an angry mind did not arise.” Thus one should know that the true nature of reality can treat the mind of anger.

c) Right contemplation destroys delusion

The wisdom of prajna has the power to destroy ignorance. Thus the Nirvana Sutra states: “When it is light, there is no darkness; when it is dark, there is no light.” This means that when wisdom is present, the afflictions of ignorance are absent, and when afflictions are present, wisdom is absent.

d) Right contemplation treats discursive thought and examination

Within the mind of right contemplation there are no marks of language and no conceptual thought. From where, then, could erroneous discursive thought and examination arise? Thus the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “How does one stop the mind from grasping at conditions? It is said: ‘The mind apprehends nothing.’”

e) Right contemplation treats karmic offenses and obstructions

As explained earlier in the Contemplation of Samantabhadra: “To sit upright and contemplate the true nature of reality is called the foremost repentance. All offenses are like morning dew, dispersed without a trace when illumined by the sun of wisdom.”

It is like the various medicines of the world: each is administered according to the illness being treated, and each medicine has the power to cure only one illness; it cannot cure every illness. Right contemplation is compared to the agada medicine, which has the power to cure all illnesses. This is called neither specific treatment, nor transposed treatment, nor combined treatment, because this Dharma also has the power to bring about the complete realization of all gateways of meditative concentration.

As the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Those who wish to learn all wholesome dharmas should learn prajna.” Why is this so? It is like a king traveling in his royal carriage: wherever he goes, a great army is certain to accompany and protect him. When the wisdom of prajna unfolds, the myriad practices are fully present within a single mind.

This may also be illustrated by the wish-fulfilling jewel.

IV. GENERAL CONCLUSION: THE FOUR SIDDHANTAS COMPREHENSIVELY EMBRACE THE BUDDHA-DHARMA

We shall now discuss the methods of treatment by examining unwholesome dispositions and comparing them with the meaning of the four kinds of siddhanta in the Mahayana Treatise.

Why is this so? The manifestations arising from the fifteen kinds of unwholesome states constitute the worldly siddhanta. Even the manifestations of wholesome roots explained earlier also belong to the worldly siddhanta, because the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, and eighteen dhatus all arise through causes and conditions.

Next, the fifteen treatments belonging to the gateways of meditation are explained. These constitute the therapeutic siddhanta, because their principal subject is distinguishing the arising of illnesses and administering medicines.

Next, transposed treatment and non-transposed treatment are explained. These constitute the individual siddhanta, for methods are applied according to the differing faculties and conditions of practitioners, skillfully bringing benefit to sentient beings; hence it is called “individual.”

Next, neither specific treatment nor transposed treatment is discussed. This is precisely the siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth, and its meaning is very clear. Thus the Mahayana Treatise states: “These four siddhantas encompass all Buddha-Dharma, the twelve divisions of scripture⁽⁸⁾, and the eighty-four thousand (84,000) Dharma gates.” Reasoning from this principle, the meaning of the gateways of meditation is so vast that there is nothing they do not encompass.

*3. METHODS FOR SETTLING THE MIND

There are five points:

1. According to the appropriate skillful means

2. Establishing a method for settling the mind according to the treatment already accomplished

3. According to the suitable Dharma gate

4. Establishing a method for settling the mind according to the proper sequence

5. Selecting one Dharma gate

1. According to the appropriate skillful means

After examining and recognizing which of the fifteen kinds of meditative concentration has arisen from one’s wholesome-root disposition, the practitioner should understand that whichever meditation has arisen among those fifteen is a gateway of meditation that the practitioner cultivated in a former life. In this life, the practitioner returns to its cultivation so that it may be brought to fulfillment. Therefore, the practitioner should settle the mind in practice according to the meditative Dharma that has arisen.

For example, after various sensations arise while a practitioner is cultivating meditative concentration, the practitioner who wishes to settle the mind securely should cultivate breath-counting to settle it. Why is this so? Because the fundamental first dhyana is generally realized through cultivating the contemplation of counting the breath.

One should therefore know that this person cultivated meditative concentration through breath-counting in a past life. If the practitioner now uses breath-counting to enter concentration, together with the supporting conditions created by cultivation in former lives, meditative concentration will readily unfold. Moreover, by continuously and diligently applying effort, the practitioner may attain the four dhyanas and the four formless concentrations and, on this basis, realize the fruits of the Three Vehicles: arhat, pratyekabuddha, or bodhisattva.

An example is the Buddha’s instruction to the blacksmith to cultivate breath-counting in accordance with his practice in a former life. Consequently, his wholesome roots readily unfolded. After wholesome roots have arisen, practitioners must be taught a Dharma gate for settling the mind.

The remaining fourteen kinds of wholesome roots are likewise cultivated according to suitable skillful means as described above, and their methods for settling the mind are the same.

2. Establishing a method for settling the mind according to the treatment already accomplished

If a practitioner was formerly burdened by sensual desire, and this unwholesome condition obstructed the path, then, wishing to treat the illness, the practitioner should cultivate the contemplation of impurity. After the contemplation of impurity has been accomplished, although the illness of sensual desire has been cured, the practitioner has still not realized profound and wondrous meditative concentration and must therefore redouble the effort devoted to the contemplation of impurity.

After completing the contemplation of the various impurities, the practitioner next abandons contemplation of the corpse’s skin and flesh and cultivates instead the contemplation of white bones emitting light, thereby penetrating the eight liberations, cutting off the afflictions of the Three Realms, and realizing the fruit of one of the Three Vehicles. Only then will the practitioner’s efforts not have been in vain. If the practitioner does not cultivate in this manner but instead adopts another method for settling the mind and begins anew, success will be very difficult.

The methods for settling the mind in the remaining fourteen kinds of completed treatment are explained analogously to this one.

3. According to the suitable Dharma gate

If a practitioner employs a method of treatment to eliminate the illness of unwholesome afflictions in the Desire Realm, the practitioner may then pass freely through all fifteen kinds of meditation without obstruction. At that time, the practitioner may settle the mind in practice according to whichever meditative samadhi is preferred. Every such practice can unfold and be brought to fulfillment from beginning to end. This method of cultivation is similar to the therapeutic practice of the Sarvastivada school.

4. Establishing a method for settling the mind according to the proper sequence

Once the obstructions have been eliminated, if a practitioner wishes to cultivate fully the various meditative concentrations from the shallow to the profound, the practitioner should be instructed, according to the contemplation of anapana, to cultivate breath-counting. After realizing the four fundamental dhyanas and the four formless concentrations, the practitioner should next be taught to follow the breath and thereby realize the sixteen superior practices.

Next, the practitioner should contemplate the breath and realize the discerning meditation. Next, the practitioner should again contemplate impurity and enter such meditations as the nine perceptions, the eight liberations, and so forth. Thereafter, the practitioner should contemplate the nature of mind and enter the nine kinds of great meditation.

The sequence of meditative concentrations is clearly explained in Chapter Five, “Clarifying the Sequence of Meditation.” The methods of cultivation and realization will be explained more specifically below.

We shall now explain the case in which, after examining whether one’s faculties are wholesome or unwholesome, one applies a method for settling the mind. Since there are such expedient means for the cultivation of meditative concentration, we shall next explain how meditation is to be practiced.

5. Selecting a Dharma Gate Accordingly

To realize nirvana and the true Dharma treasure, each sentient being must enter through a particular Dharma gate. After the fifteen kinds of wholesome roots have arisen and the five methods of counteraction have been used to remove obstacles, the practitioner should select whichever Dharma gate most readily leads to awakening and use it as the method for settling the mind in practice. In most cases, practitioners thereby attain the fruits of the noble path.

*4. METHODS FOR TREATING ILLNESS

Once the practitioner has settled the mind and begun cultivating meditative concentration, if the practitioner’s four great elements were already afflicted by illness, the present exertion of the mind in practice may cause the mind and breath to intermingle and stimulate one another, thereby producing illness. At other times, illness may arise through a failure to regulate skillfully the three matters of body, mind, and breath, so that the inner and outer aspects oppose and conflict with each other. If one skillfully applies the mind in practicing seated meditation, the four hundred and four illnesses will naturally be cured. If the mind is applied incorrectly, the four hundred and four illnesses will arise.

Therefore, whether practicing oneself or teaching others to practice, one must thoroughly understand the sources of illness. While practicing seated meditation, one must skillfully know the methods for treating illnesses within the mind. If one does not know these methods, once an illness arises, it will not only obstruct cultivation but may even make it difficult to preserve one’s life.

The methods for treating illness will now be explained under two headings:

I. The Signs of the Arising of Illness

II. Methods for Treating Illness

I. THE SIGNS OF THE ARISING OF ILLNESS

Although illnesses are of many kinds, in summary they do not go beyond three:

1. Illnesses caused by an increase in one of the four great elements

2. Illnesses arising from the five viscera

3. Signs of illnesses arising from the five sense faculties

1. Illnesses Caused by an Increase in One of the Four Great Elements

When the earth element increases, one suffers from severe swelling, constipation, heaviness, emaciation, and so forth; thus, one hundred and one illnesses arise. When the water element increases, there is excessive phlegm and saliva, food and drink are not digested, the abdomen aches, and so forth; thus, one hundred and one illnesses arise. When the fire element increases, the body suddenly becomes cold or hot and painful, the mouth has a foul odor, the bowels and urination are obstructed, and so forth; thus, one hundred and one illnesses arise.

When the wind element increases, the body feels as though it were floating, suspended in empty space; one becomes languid and exhausted, the bones and joints ache, the lungs swell, the breath becomes rapid, and so forth; thus, one hundred and one illnesses arise.

A sutra states: “When one great element is out of harmony, one hundred and one illnesses arise; when the four great elements are out of harmony, four hundred and four illnesses arise together.” When the four great elements become diseased, each manifests its own characteristic signs. During seated meditation or in dreams, one must carefully observe them, for their manifestations are too numerous to enumerate fully.

2. Illnesses Arising from the Five Viscera

When illness arises in the heart, the body is often hot or excessively cold, the mouth is dry, and so forth, because the heart governs the mouth.

When illness arises in the lungs, the body becomes distended and full, the four limbs ache, and the nose is congested, because the lungs govern the nose.

When illness arises in the liver, one feels sorrowful and joyless within, becomes anxious and angry, has headaches, and the eyes become hot and red, because the liver governs the eyes.

When illness arises in the spleen, wind eruptions appear on the face, the entire body itches and aches, and food and drink are unappealing, because the spleen governs the tongue.

When illness arises in the kidneys, the throat becomes constricted, the abdomen becomes swollen and distended, and the ears ring, because the kidneys govern the ears.

The five viscera give rise to very many illnesses, and the causes of illness differ in each case. Since the signs of illness are too numerous to enumerate fully, they should be clearly discerned through observation during seated meditation and in dreams.

3. Signs of Illnesses Arising from the Five Sense Faculties

Illness of the Body: The body suddenly becomes painful, the entire body itches, and so forth.

Illness of the Tongue: Sores erupt on the tongue; it becomes painful, and food and drink are unappealing.

Illness of the Nose: The nose becomes congested and obstructed, there is nasal discharge, and so forth.

Illness of the Ears: The ears ring and ache, sounds cannot be heard, or there are rumbling noises within the ears.

Illness of the Eyes: Vision becomes blurred, the eyes become painful, and so forth.

The causes from which illnesses of the four great elements, the five viscera, and the five sense faculties arise are too numerous to describe fully.

QUESTION: Illnesses of the five sense faculties and illnesses within the five viscera appear alike. Why are they distinguished?

ANSWER: Because the methods used to treat them during seated meditation are not the same, the characteristic signs of each illness must be discussed separately. If practitioners wish to cultivate meditative concentration without illness arising, they must clearly understand the causes of illness. The common cause of these three kinds of illness is that inner conditions respond to external influences and thereby give rise to illness. Excessively hot or cold weather, noxious winds, or carelessness with food and drink are external causes of illness.

If the mind is not properly regulated, contemplative practice goes astray, or various states manifest within the mind and there is no method for dispelling them, the four great elements, the five viscera, and the five sense faculties become diseased. Illnesses arising in these three domains originate internally.

Practitioners should also understand that there are three distinct causes of illness:

– Illness arises through an increase or decrease in the four great elements, as explained above.

– Illness arises through affliction by ghosts, spirits, or heavenly maras.

– Illness arises through karmic retribution.

When illnesses such as these first begin to arise, they must be treated promptly, and they will quickly be cured. If allowed to persist for a long time, they will become increasingly severe, the body will grow thin and weak, and they will be very difficult to cure.

II. METHODS FOR TREATING ILLNESS

Once practitioners clearly understand the causes of illness, they must seek methods of treatment. There are very many methods of treatment, but in summary they do not go beyond five kinds:

1. Treating Illness by Means of Qi and Breath

Some masters say that six kinds of qi and twelve kinds of breath should be used to treat illness. The six kinds of qi are:

Sui, Hu, Xi, He, Xu, and Si. These six kinds of qi are all produced through movements of the tongue and mouth. When one feels cold during seated meditation, one should use the Sui qi; when one feels hot, one should use the Hu qi. The Sui qi treats illnesses of cold; the Hu qi eliminates illnesses of heat; the Xi qi eliminates illnesses of wind and aching pain; the He qi eliminates distress and agitation; the Xu qi disperses phlegm and reduces swelling and distension; and the Si qi has the function of replenishing a weakened body.

When they are used to treat illnesses of the five viscera, the two kinds of qi, Sui and Hu, can treat illnesses of the heart; the Xu qi treats illnesses of the liver; the He qi treats illnesses of the lungs; the Xi qi treats illnesses of the spleen; and the Si qi treats illnesses of the kidneys.

The twelve kinds of breath have the power to treat illnesses:

1/ Upward breath

2/ Downward breath

3/ Filling breath

4/ Dissolving breath

5/ Increasing breath

6/ Extinguishing breath

7/ Warming breath

8/ Cooling breath

9/ Penetrating breath

10/ Sustaining breath

11/ Harmonizing breath

12/ Replenishing breath

These twelve kinds of breath are all employed through mental visualization.

We shall now briefly explain how the twelve kinds of breath are used to treat the signs of illness.

1/ Upward breath is used to treat severe heaviness.

2/ Downward breath treats sensations of floating.

3/ Filling breath treats emaciation.

4/ Dissolving breath treats edema.

5/ Increasing breath treats wasting and debilitation.

6/ Extinguishing breath treats excessive increase.

7/ Warming breath treats illnesses of cold.

8/ Cooling breath treats illnesses of heat.

9/ Penetrating breath treats blockage and obstruction.

10/ Sustaining breath treats unsteadiness and staggering.

11/ Harmonizing breath treats disharmony among the four great elements.

12/ Replenishing breath treats illnesses caused by weakness of the four great elements. If practitioners skillfully use these kinds of breath to treat illness, every illness can be cured; if they use them incorrectly, illnesses may arise. Careful examination will make this clear. Teachers who use breath to treat illness have a great many methods, too many to describe exhaustively. Here, only a few methods are presented to convey the general meaning.

2. Using visualization to treat illness

The Samyukta Agama Sutra extensively discusses the seventy-two secret methods⁽⁹⁾ for treating illnesses arising from meditation. However, people in the present age have dull and shallow faculties. Most fail in their practice of visualization, or are unable to regulate their mental images skillfully; not only are their illnesses not cured, but many other illnesses arise as well. Therefore, practitioners of meditation must thoroughly understand the secret essentials. When the power of visualization is used, there is no illness that cannot be cured, yet the entirety of this secret and essential Dharma cannot be expressed in writing.

3. Using incantations to treat illness

Every phenomenon has its corresponding antidote. Those who skillfully use incantations for treatment will certainly cure illness. Many incantation methods are recorded in meditation scriptures and dharanis, but teachers who practice incantations generally keep them secret and do not transmit them indiscriminately.

4. Using the mind’s focused attention upon an object to treat illness

One teacher said: “The mind is the sovereign of the karmic retribution received during a single lifetime. Just as bandits disperse wherever the king goes, so too is the sovereign mind. Wherever illness arises, focus the mind there. If, over a long period, the mind remains undistracted and unmoving, the illness will naturally be cured.” Another teacher said: “About one inch below the navel is the point called the dantian. If the mind is made to abide there, most illnesses will be cured.” Another teacher said: “Continually settling the mind beneath the feet can treat a great many illnesses.” There are numerous teachings on methods of treating illness, and they cannot all be recorded here.

5. Using contemplative analysis to treat illness

With right wisdom, contemplate and examine the afflicted place, visualizing that the illness is fundamentally empty. The illnesses arising from the four great elements will then naturally disappear completely. If the illness is caused by demons or by the disruption of heavenly Maras, the practitioner should establish a firm resolve and counteract it by reciting incantations and practicing contemplation. If the illness is due to karmic retribution, one must cultivate merit and recite rites of repentance; the illness will then naturally be cured.

Of these five methods for treating illness, practitioners need only master one to be capable of cultivating it themselves and teaching it to others, how much more so if they master them all. If they know none of these methods, they will be unable to treat themselves when illness arises. Not only will their practice be neglected, but their lives may also be endangered. How then could they cultivate themselves and teach others?

Therefore, those who wish to cultivate meditation must thoroughly understand methods of using the inner mind to treat illness. The methods are numerous and cannot all be recorded in writing. Practitioners who wish to train in and understand them should investigate the essential principles explained above. If they practice solely according to the written words, the written account is incomplete and presents only a brief outline, so it cannot serve as a definitive basis. Those with wisdom who understand this meaning can skillfully adapt each method to treat illness. Even without the guidance of a spiritual teacher, they can still use them as temporary emergency measures.

QUESTION: When treating illness with the mind during seated meditation, is the method certain to be effective?

ANSWER: One need only fulfill these ten principles, and there will certainly be benefit:

1/ Faith: Believe that this Dharma is capable of curing illness.

2/ Application: Apply it constantly and at the appropriate times.

3/ Diligence: Apply it diligently without rest until the illness is cured.

4/ Constantly abiding with the object: The subtle mind must continually abide in the practice and not be allowed to become distracted.

5/ Examining the cause from which the illness arose: As explained above.

6/ Skillful means: As in methods of breathing, skillfully direct mental images and bring them to successful completion without violating the proper method.

7/ Long-term practice: If its application has not yet brought benefit, continue practicing without abandoning it, no matter how many days or months it takes.

8/ Knowing what to adopt and what to relinquish: Upon recognizing what is beneficial, diligently apply it; relinquish what is harmful, and always judiciously redirect the mind for treatment.

9/ Skillful protection: Skillfully know how to avoid interference from other conditions.

10/ Knowing how to prevent obstacles: If benefit is obtained, one should not go and tell others about it; if the illness has not yet abated, one should not give rise to doubt or disparagement.

If practitioners treat illness according to these ten principles, the treatment will certainly be effective.

*5. MARA’S ACTIVITIES

Mara is called Mara in Sanskrit and was translated in the Qin dynasty as “Killer,” because he can plunder the precious merits and virtues of practitioners and kill their wisdom-life. Therefore, he is called Mara.

Why are they called Mara’s activities?

The Buddhas use merit, virtue, and wisdom to liberate sentient beings, enabling them to realize and enter the realm of nirvana. This is called the work of the Buddhas.

Mara constantly destroys the wholesome roots of sentient beings, causing them to revolve within the cycle of birth and death. These are called Mara’s activities.

Only when practitioners skillfully settle their minds upon the right path will they understand that the higher the path, the more powerful Mara becomes. Therefore, they must clearly and skillfully understand Mara’s activities.

The explanation of Mara’s activities consists of three parts:

I- Distinguishing the different kinds of Mara
II- Explaining the signs by which Mara’s activities arise
III- Methods for destroying and eliminating Mara’s activities

I- DISTINGUISHING THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MARA

There are four kinds of Mara:

1. The Mara of afflictions

2. The Mara of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas

3. The Mara of death

4. The heavenly Mara of the desire realm

1. The Mara of afflictions

This refers to the three poisons of greed, anger, and delusion, as well as the ninety-eight kinds of affliction. Clinging and existence among the twelve links of dependent origination flow onward to birth and death, leaving beings without freedom. The five turbidities⁽¹⁰⁾, five hindrances, five entanglements⁽¹¹⁾, nine fetters⁽¹²⁾, sixteen kinds of affliction⁽¹³⁾, and so forth all destroy the minds of practitioners. As a verse in the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise says:

Desire is Mara’s first army.
Sorrow is the second host.

2. The Mara of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas

This refers to the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, and eighteen dhatus. All name-and-form bind sentient beings, while the five skandhas obscure the practitioners’ pure wholesome roots, merit, virtue, and wisdom, preventing them from increasing. Therefore, they are called Mara.

The skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas of the desire realm, as well as those of the form realm and formless realm, are likewise. If practitioners’ minds do not understand them and instead greedily cling to them, they are called Mara. If their minds no longer cling, they can contemplate the three realms as being like empty space, without obstruction. This is called destroying the karma of Mara.

3. The Mara of death

All karmic retribution involving the ceaseless turning of birth and death is called Mara.

If people aspire to practice but then die from illness or are killed by others and therefore cannot practice, they lose the opportunity in this life to cultivate the Noble Path. In a subsequent life, changing causes and conditions may cause them to forget their original aspiration. All of these are called Mara’s activities.

Furthermore, when practitioners wish to cultivate but fear death, their attachment to and concern for their own bodies and lives may prevent them from daring to cultivate the Noble Path. This also falls within the scope of Mara’s activities.

4. The heavenly Mara of the desire realm

This is the demon king Papiyan. This kind of demon is an enemy of the Buddha-Dharma. It constantly fears that practitioners will escape its sphere of dominion, and therefore sends the ghosts and spirits in its retinue to harass and disturb them and destroy their wholesome roots. This is the demon king of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying Transformations by Others.

II. EXPLANATION OF THE SIGNS OF DEMONIC PHENOMENA

– If the phenomena of the demon of afflictions arise, they should be explained in the same way as the afflictions in equal proportions and the three poisons within unwholesome dispositions discussed in the preceding section.

– If the phenomena of the demons of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas arise, they should likewise be explained in the same way as the appearances of material and internal mental states within wholesome and unwholesome roots discussed in the preceding section.

– If the phenomena of the demon of death arise, they should likewise be explained in the same way as illness and calamity discussed in the preceding section. Why is this so? Illness is a cause of death.

– If illness arises because of ghosts, spirits, or demons, the practitioner must know how to distinguish them.

Demons are now explained as comprising three kinds:

1. Demonic sprites

These are animal spirits associated with the twelve double-hours. They transform themselves into various forms, such as young women, young men, or elderly people, and even exceedingly terrifying appearances, in order to harass and disturb practitioners. Each kind appears during its corresponding hour, and practitioners must recognize them clearly. If it is the hour of the Hare, spirits such as rabbits, foxes, and deer come; if it is the hour of the Dragon, dragons and trạnh creatures come. When practitioners clearly recognize these animal sprites and call them by name, they all vanish. As for the forms that appear during the other hours, practitioners can infer their identities accordingly.

2. Dui-dich demons

Dui-dich demons also manifest as various animals to torment practitioners. They may transform into worms or insects that crawl over a person’s body, stinging, burrowing, and scratching beneath the armpits or upon the face. They may embrace and restrain the person, cry out and produce clamorous sounds, or manifest myriad strange forms to harass and disturb the practitioner.

Once practitioners clearly recognize them, they should single-mindedly close their eyes and silently rebuke them, saying: “I now clearly know you. Your name is Thâu-lạp-kết-chi, and you dwell in Jambudvipa. You delight in eating fire and smelling fragrances.

You hold wrong views and violate the grave precepts. I now uphold the precepts and am certainly not afraid of you.” Monastics should recite the Pratimoksha; laypeople should recite the Three Refuges, the Five Precepts, the bodhisattva’s ten grave precepts, and the forty-eight minor precepts. These ghosts will then cower and withdraw.

The forms that obstruct practitioners and the methods for counteracting and dispelling them are explained fully in the Dhyana Sutras.

3. Disturbing demons

This kind of demon commonly manifests three kinds of perceptual states to ruin practitioners.

– Manifestations of adverse states: They manifest exceedingly terrifying forms and objects of the five senses, causing fear to arise in the practitioner’s mind.

– Manifestations of favorable states: They transform themselves into highly pleasing forms and objects of the five senses, causing attachment to arise in the practitioner’s mind.

– Manifestations of states that are neither favorable nor adverse: They manifest ordinary objects of the five senses that stir the practitioner’s mind.

Therefore, a demon is called a Killer. It is also called the Flower Arrow and the Five Arrows, because it shoots into the five sense faculties of human beings. Within each faculty, it manifests three kinds of states to disturb practitioners; taken together, the five faculties comprise fifteen kinds of states.

Within visible form, there are three kinds of states:

– Favorable states manifested within visible form: The demon manifests the forms of parents and siblings, images of Buddhas, handsome men or beautiful women, and other pleasing sights, causing attachment and infatuation to arise in the practitioner’s mind.

– Adverse states manifested within visible form: The demon manifests wild beasts such as tigers and wolves, and terrifying forms of rakshasa ghosts, in order to frighten practitioners.

– States neither favorable nor adverse manifested within visible form: The demon manifests only ordinary forms that are neither pleasing nor frightening to practitioners, yet can agitate and disturb the mind and cause the loss of meditative concentration; it is therefore called a demon.

Within the other four sense objects—sound, fragrance, taste, and touch—the demon likewise manifests favorable and adverse states; only the forms of the sense objects differ. If practitioners cannot discern the falsity of wicked demons, those demons will ruin their cultivation. Their minds will become deranged, and they will commit sinful acts, stripping themselves naked without any sense of shame. They may also destroy the wholesome deeds of others and slander the Three Jewels, committing more evils than can be recounted. At times they become ill and die. Therefore, practitioners must be cautious and examine these phenomena carefully.

QUESTION: Why does this section not discuss demonic phenomena involving mental objects in relation to the mind faculty?

ANSWER: Speaking in terms of the majority of cases, all demonic phenomena most often begin by arising through the five faculties in relation to the five sense objects. Therefore, only the five sense objects are discussed. If examined in detail, however, the mind faculty also has three kinds of disturbing demonic phenomena; this can be understood by inference. The Mahayana scriptures explain very clearly and thoroughly the illusory transformations occurring among the six sense objects and the cases in which demonic phenomena arise in relation to the mind faculty. Therefore, the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Anyone who fails to instruct practitioners about the various kinds of demonic phenomena is indeed an unwholesome spiritual friend to bodhisattvas.”

III. METHODS FOR DISPELLING DEMONIC PHENOMENA

There are three methods:

1. Practitioners must clearly understand that the faculties of seeing, hearing, sensing, and knowing are all empty. Therefore, if practitioners neither accept nor become attached to them, neither grieve over nor discriminate them, these states will not appear.

2. Practitioners need only turn the illumination inward and contemplate the mind that sees, hears, senses, and knows, observing that it has no place of arising. Since no mind that hears, sees, senses, and knows can be found, what is there that could be disturbed? When practitioners contemplate in this way and neither accept nor discriminate the states that appear, the demons will naturally vanish.

3. Although practitioners contemplate in this way, the states may still fail to disappear. At such a time, they must sustain right mindfulness continuously, without giving rise to fear or clinging regretfully to their lives.

Their right mindfulness must remain firm and unwavering. They should know that demonic states are thusness and that Buddha states are also thusness.⁽¹⁴⁾ Demonic states and Buddha states are equal and nondual—the thusness of the demonic realm and the thusness of the Buddha realm are one thusness, a nondual thusness. They should neither reject demonic states nor cling to Buddha states.

The Buddha-Dharma will then be present before them, and the demons will naturally disintegrate. When practitioners see neither coming nor going and give rise to neither sorrow nor joy, how could demons harm or torment them?

Furthermore, no one has ever actually been eaten by a tiger or wolf manifested by a demon while sitting in meditation. The demon merely transforms itself into a tiger to intimidate practitioners and cause fear to arise in their minds; in reality, no tiger exists. Practitioners need only recognize that the phenomenon is false.

When they clearly understand this, their minds will no longer be afraid. Alternatively, they may contemplate: “I now seek the Way. Even if I die or relinquish my life, what is there to fear?

You may do whatever you wish with my body.” The practitioner’s mind must be as firm as vajra and never waver. Even if many years and months pass without the state disappearing, practitioners must maintain an upright mind and firm right mindfulness, neither cherishing their lives nor harboring fear.

They should recite the Mahayana Vaipulya scriptures and mantras for subduing demons, or recite them silently, while constantly recollecting the Three Jewels.

When emerging from concentration, one should also recite mantras for self-protection, repent with shame and remorse, and recite the precepts, for the false cannot violate the true; after a long time, it will naturally disappear. The methods of counteraction, whether through phenomena or principle, are so numerous that they cannot all be stated. Practitioners must understand them well in order to employ skillful means to eliminate such disturbances.

Therefore, beginners in cultivation who wish to learn seated meditation need to draw near to good spiritual friends so that they may receive instruction in methods for counteracting such obstacles and difficulties. When Mara enters the mind, he can cause practitioners to attain various deviant dhyana-samadhis, as well as wisdom, supernormal powers, and dharanis, to say nothing of such minor states as those described above.

Those who wish to discern clearly the states of Mara should study the Mahayana scriptures. The sutras also introduce a small portion of this subject. Here only a general account is given so that practitioners may understand its profound import and not mistakenly take demonic states for genuine attainment.

In brief, those who wish to abandon the false and return to the true path must contemplate the true character of all dharmas. Therefore, the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise states: “Apart from the true character of all dharmas, everything else is the work of Mara.”

A verse says:

If one recollects and discriminates,
That is the net of Mara.

Neither moving nor discriminating—
That itself is the Dharma seal.

Furthermore, a brief explanation will be given of the differing meanings of the methods for destroying Mara. As the Mahaprajnaparamita Treatise states: “By attaining the bodhisattva path, one destroys the Mara of afflictions. By realizing the Dharma-nature body⁽¹⁵⁾, one destroys the Maras of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas. By attaining the bodhisattva path and the Dharma-nature body, one destroys the Mara of death. By attaining the Immovable Samadhi, one becomes sovereign and non-abiding within all dharmas and gains the power to destroy the heavenly Mara—the Mara king of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying the Transformations of Others in the desire realm.”

The Mahasamnipata Sutra states: “To attain the Four Foundations of Mindfulness is to destroy the four kinds of Mara.” Although the terminology of these two explanations differs, their meaning is the same. The Jeweled Necklace Sutra states: “A Tathagata at the stage of Equal Enlightenment has passed beyond three kinds of Mara’s activity, with only one degree of the Mara of death remaining.” The Lotus Sutra states: “Those of the Two Vehicles can destroy only three kinds of Mara; they are not yet able to destroy the heavenly Mara of the desire realm.” The sutras and treatises contain many differing explanations, but each has a profound meaning.

Generally speaking, these four kinds of Mara are not completely eradicated until the fruit of bodhi is realized. Why is this so? Because the Mara of the subtle affliction of ignorance⁽¹⁶⁾ can be completely severed only by the wisdom of a Buddha. Concerning the Maras of the skandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas, the Buddha taught Kaundinya: “Form is impermanent. Only when this form has been extinguished can permanent form be realized. The same is true of feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.”

The Mara of death is also explained in the passage from the Jeweled Necklace Sutra cited above. The heavenly Mara of the desire realm comes to fight with the bodhisattva and is subdued only when the bodhisattva sits at the seat of enlightenment. Thus, one should know that these four kinds of Mara are ultimately and completely eradicated only upon realization of the fruit of bodhi.

The bodhisattva’s mind is vast, abiding steadfastly and immovably while cultivating profound dhyana-samadhi. From the initial arousal of the mind of bodhi until the realization of Buddhahood, the bodhisattva subdues the four Maras, turns the Dharma wheel, performs the work of a Buddha, extensively delivers sentient beings, and never allows the mind to retreat. The Nirvana Sutra speaks of eight kinds of Mara, while the Avatamsaka Sutra speaks of ten kinds of Mara⁽¹⁷⁾. If one understands the profound meaning of this teaching, the four kinds of Mara encompass them all, and there are no other dharmas apart from them. The sutras and treatises discuss the activities of Mara extensively; here they have been explained only in brief.

Notes to Fascicle 4:

⁽¹⁾ The Four Siddhantas: four categories employed by the Buddha to teach and transform sentient beings universally. According to fascicle 1 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom, the Buddha’s teachings contain many different kinds of doctrines. At first glance, they may appear contradictory, but when those teachings are considered together, they comprise four distinct siddhantas, all of which express true meaning and do not contradict one another.

1/ The Worldly Siddhanta: teaching the meaning of causes and conditions coming together in accordance with worldly conventions. This means using ordinary worldly things, such as thoughts, language, and concepts, to elucidate the truth of dependent origination. For example, the human body exists through the conjunction of causes and conditions and therefore has no true substance. The belief that the human body truly exists is a view generally held by ordinary people. The Buddha therefore expounds teachings appropriate to worldly conventions, accommodating people so that ordinary beings may rejoice and attain correct worldly wisdom. Thus, this siddhanta is also called the Siddhanta of Joyful Inclination.

2/ The Individual Siddhanta: teaching practical supramundane dharmas in accordance with the differing faculties and capacities of each sentient being, thereby causing sentient beings to arouse roots of goodness. Thus, it is also called the Siddhanta of Producing Goodness.

3/ The Counteractive Siddhanta: prescribing the medicine of Dharma according to the illness in order to counteract all the afflictions of greed, anger, and delusion in sentient beings. This is the teaching that eliminates the afflictions and evil karma of sentient beings. Because this siddhanta has the power to sever the evils of sentient beings, it is also called the Siddhanta of Severing Evil.

4/ The Siddhanta of the Ultimate Truth: refuting and transcending all discursive argument and language, and directly employing the ultimate truth to illuminate the principle of the true character of all dharmas, thereby enabling sentient beings genuinely to accord with and enter the teaching. Thus, it is also called the Siddhanta of Entering the Principle.

⁽²⁾ Provisional Existence through Continuity: all dharmas are merely conventional designations. Their formation through the temporal sequence of cause and effect and the continuity of the five skandhas are regarded as provisionally existent, without any true substance.

⁽³⁾ Provisional Existence through Causal Formation: all conditioned dharmas are provisional because they are formed through causes and conditions.

⁽⁴⁾ Provisional Existence through Mutual Dependence: conventionally designated dharmas are established as existent in dependence upon one another.

⁽⁵⁾ The Thirty-Two Marks: these belong to the Buddha’s response body. When sentient beings see the Buddha, they see only his thirty-two marks. A Wheel-Turning Sage King and ordinary people may also possess these marks, either fully or partially, according to the merit and virtue they have cultivated.

The eighty minor characteristics of beauty, however, are possessed only by a Buddha. The manifest features are called marks, while the subtle features are called minor characteristics. The minor characteristics appear interspersed among the marks.

Through diligent effort, Bodhisattva Shakyamuni surpassed nine great kalpas and, after cultivating for only ninety-one kalpas, perfected the karma producing the marks and minor characteristics. There are various accounts of the thirty-two marks. Here, the account in fascicle 4 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom is followed:

1/ The mark of flat, soft soles that rest evenly upon the ground.

2/ The mark of thousand-spoked wheels formed by flesh-patterns on the palms and soles.

3/ The mark of long, slender, and straight fingers and toes.

4/ The mark of full and rounded heels.

5/ The mark of membranes joining the fingers and toes, like those of the king of geese; when the fingers or toes are spread, the membranes appear, and when they are not spread, the membranes do not appear.

6/ The mark of hands and feet as soft as kappa cloth.

7/ The mark of full and raised insteps.

8/ The mark of rounded, slender thighs like those of the king of deer.

9/ The mark of hands that, when one stands upright with both arms extended downward, reach below the knees.

10/ The mark of the male organ concealed within the body.

11/ The mark of a full, well-proportioned, and compact body.

12/ The mark of body hair and head hair that curl toward the right from head to foot, black with a reddish hue, exceedingly soft, lustrous, and smooth.

13/ Each pore bears a single lapis-lazuli-colored hair that emits a subtle and exquisite fragrance.

14/ The entire body shines with the color of pure gold.

15/ Light radiates from the entire body throughout the three-thousandfold world-system, while on each of the four sides it shines to a distance of one zhang.

16/ The skin is fine, smooth, and sleek, and no dust or dirt adheres to it.

17/ The flesh in seven places—the two palms, the two soles, the two shoulders, and the neck—is full and soft.

18/ The flesh and bones beneath both armpits are full and without hollows.

19/ The upper half of the body is broad, and the four dignified postures are majestic like those of the lion king.

20/ Among human beings, the Buddha’s body is the tallest and most upright.

21/ Both shoulders are rounded, full, excellent, and wondrous.

22/ The Buddha has forty teeth, very even and white as snow.

23/ The Buddha’s teeth are all uniform, neither large nor small, and fit closely together without the slightest gap.

24/ In addition to the forty teeth, the upper and lower jaws each have two canine teeth, translucent white in color, bright and pure, sharp as swords, and hard as vajra.

25/ The cheeks are full like those of a lion.

26/ Within his mouth there is always the supreme taste among all flavors.

27/ His tongue is large, broad, soft, and thin; when extended, it reaches as far as his hairline.

28/ The characteristic of his voice is that its sound is pure, full, and resonant like a celestial drum and like the song of the kalavinka bird.

29/ His eyes are deep blue like blue lotus blossoms.

30/ His eyelashes are straight and orderly, without intermingling.

31/ On the crown of his head is a protuberance of flesh shaped like a topknot.

32/ Between his eyebrows is a radiant white hair, soft as tūla cotton, fifteen feet long, curling clockwise. It constantly emits light and is therefore called a radiant aureole.

Each of these thirty-two marks is attained through the practice of one hundred wholesome deeds and is therefore also called the “Adornment of a Hundred Merits.”

⁽⁶⁾ The mind’s eye: The mind’s eye refers to seeing and knowing through the power of meditative concentration, without relying upon the physical eye or the divine eye. Principally through the power of meditative concentration, one can behold the Buddhas and the adornments of the Buddha-realms, or perceive the impure substances within one’s own body. According to the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life, when King Bimbisara was imprisoned in a dark dungeon by his son Ajatashatru, he used the mind’s eye to behold the Buddha from afar.

⁽⁷⁾ The six relatives: six close family members—father, mother, elder brother, younger brother, wife, and children.

⁽⁸⁾ The twelve divisions of scripture: twelve categories of scripture distinguished according to the form of presentation and the content of the teachings.

1/ Sutra: records the Buddha’s teachings in prose.

2/ Repeated verse: verses that restate what was previously taught.

3/ Prophecy: passages concerning the conferral of predictions and confirmation.

4/ Independent verse: verses recorded directly, without repeating an earlier meaning.

5/ Spontaneous teaching: teachings that the Buddha expounded on his own initiative, without being asked.

6/ Causes and conditions: records the causes and conditions surrounding acts of instruction and conversion.

7/ Parable: uses analogies and parables to explain the meaning of the teachings.

8/ Past events: concerns the former lives of the Buddha and his disciples.

9/ Birth stories: concerns the Buddha’s practices of great compassion in past lives.

10/ Extensive teachings: scriptures that expound vast and profound doctrines.

11/ Unprecedented events: rare and wondrous deeds of the Buddha and his disciples.

12/ Exposition: analyzes the essential nature of dharmas and elucidates their meaning.

⁽⁹⁾ The seventy-two secret methods: The seventy-two secret methods taught in the Samyukta Agama each employ skillful contemplation of the mind as a therapeutic method. Because these secret methods are applied according to circumstances and capacities, only a few are presented here for reference.

1/ The Method of Swallowing a Snake: The first recension of the Agama Sutra says: “While eating a meal, a man mistakenly swallowed what he thought was the shadow of a snake. He immediately believed that he had swallowed a real snake, and by dwelling upon it day and night, he fell ill. Someone who knew the cause secretly placed a dead snake in his chamber pot and then cried out that the snake had come out. The man was cured at once.”

2/ The Agama Sutra records: “In the kingdom of Shravasti there was an elder named Shenshi. In his household was a maidservant of exceedingly ugly appearance, who was frequently sent to perform arduous work outdoors, such as carrying water and cutting grass. One day, while she was in the fields, she came to an ancient tree beside a stream.

A beautiful young woman had hanged herself from the tree, and her reflection appeared in the water. Upon seeing it, the maidservant thought it was her own reflection. She consequently became angry with everyone, thinking: ‘With beauty such as mine, I am more than worthy of being a noble lady or young mistress.

Why do they constantly make me serve as a slave, attending to such menial work in the fields?’ She then smashed the water bucket. Returning home, she seated herself upright upon the jeweled couch and remained silent, refusing to speak. Everyone thought she had gone mad and questioned her.

The maidservant recounted what she had seen and replied: ‘Why do you fail to recognize how beautiful I am and treat me so poorly?’ They gave her a mirror in which to look. Although she saw that she was ugly, she still did not believe it and instead claimed that the mirror was defective. Having understood the cause, everyone led her to the stream where the dead young woman hung from the tree and showed her the truth.

Her mind then became clear, and she felt ashamed.” Her illness arose through seeing a reflection, and it was likewise cured through seeing a reflection.

The seventy secret therapeutic methods in the Agama Sutra are each of this kind. Thus the ancients said: “Quench thirst by gazing upon plums; satisfy hunger by hanging up sand.” These are instances in which one benefits from contemplating imagined appearances.

⁽¹⁰⁾ The five turbidities: five forms of defilement that arise within the mind.

The turbidity of the kalpa, the turbidity of views, the turbidity of afflictions, the turbidity of sentient beings, and the turbidity of lifespan.

⁽¹¹⁾ The five entanglements: five afflictions that bind the mind, mental factors, and objects of cognition.

⁽¹²⁾ The nine fetters: nine afflictions that bind sentient beings and prevent them from escaping birth and death. They are craving, anger, conceit, ignorance, views, grasping, doubt, jealousy, and stinginess.

⁽¹³⁾ The sixteen afflictions (the Sixteen Agents): the sixteen delusions of thought within the three realms. According to the Mahayana Yogacara teaching, the desire realm has six delusions: greed, anger, delusion, conceit, the view of a self, and the extreme view. In the form realm and the formless realm, the affliction of anger is absent from each, thus yielding ten further kinds.

⁽¹⁴⁾ Suchness (Thusness, True Suchness, Reality-as-It-Is): Although all dharmas differ from one another, in terms of their underlying principle they are equal and undifferentiated. This universally identical principle of equality is also called Suchness. Suchness is another name for principle. Because this principle is true and real, it is called True Suchness; because this principle is one, it is called the One Suchness. The Prajnaparamita Sutras call Suchness emptiness, while the Lotus Sutra calls Suchness the Middle.

⁽¹⁵⁾ The body of Dharma-nature (also called True Suchness): The aspect of awakening that realizes is called the body of Dharma-nature, while the essential Dharma that is realized is called the land of Dharma-nature, because the fundamental essence of both is True Suchness.

⁽¹⁶⁾ Subtle ignorance (also called fundamental ignorance): This refers to the very first thought—the sudden arising of a thought. Because the equal principle of True Suchness is not understood, a thought suddenly stirs and arises.

It is the origin of all afflictions and the earliest deluded confusion. Because this thought is exceedingly subtle, it is difficult to distinguish between the mental factor and the mind itself.

⁽¹⁷⁾ The ten kinds of mara: the ten kinds of mara recorded in fascicle 42 of the Avatamsaka Sutra. They are the mara of the five skandhas, the mara of afflictions, the mara of karma, the mara of the mind, the mara of death, the celestial mara, the mara that causes the loss of wholesome roots, the mara of samadhi (attachment to an attained meditative concentration is mara), the mara of a spiritual friend (withholding the true Dharma out of stinginess is mara), and the mara of not knowing the true Dharma of bodhi.