諸經要集

Editor-in-chief: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XVI. CHOOSING FRIENDS AND ASSOCIATES

Comprising five sections: Introduction, Good Spiritual Friends, Evil Friends, Incurring Debts, and Admonitions Against Wrongdoing.

XVI.1. Introduction

At the ultimate level, principle consists only of good and evil. When these two paths are examined, they are truly easy to discuss; in their hidden depths lie merit and transgression, suffering and happiness, while immediately evident are wisdom and foolishness, honor and disgrace. To delight in honor and abhor disgrace, to pursue happiness and forsake suffering—this is the common disposition of all sentient beings.

People today delight in honor yet do not know how to esteem the virtuous; they seek blessings yet do not know how to avoid wrongdoing. This is like sowing empty seeds and hoping at harvest to obtain sound grain, or riding a weak, lame horse and hoping to traverse a distant road. Is this not an impossible expectation? Consider how birds, beasts, insects, snakes, and other creatures are clever enough to rely upon the wind, make use of the mist, depend upon height, and avail themselves of distance to accomplish their purposes. How much more should human beings rely upon virtuous friends to become good people?

Therefore, by drawing near to good friends, one gains an honored name and weighty virtue; by associating with evil people, one’s reputation is ruined and one’s person destroyed. Thus, precious standards arise from exemplary people, and only with earnest intentions can bonds of friendship be preserved. Likewise, a gadfly can fly only a hundred paces, but if it knows to alight upon the tail of a luan bird, it can travel a thousand miles. [79b] Is this not through reliance upon the power of the luan bird’s wings? In the same way, worldly people submerged in dark paths cannot ascend to the realms of humans and devas; but if they know to rely upon the awesome power of the Buddhas, they will swiftly realize the Ten Bhumis^[1] and together reach the Pure Land.

XVI.2. Good Spiritual Friends

The Nirvana Sutra records: “The bhiksu Ananda asked the Buddha:

‘May a person who possesses half of the holy life be called a good spiritual friend?’

The Buddha replied:

‘No. Only one who possesses the holy life in full may be called a good spiritual friend.’

The Buddha further said:

‘A good spiritual friend is one who teaches in accordance with the Dharma and practices in accordance with what he teaches.’

What does it mean to teach in accordance with the Dharma and practice in accordance with what one teaches? It means that one refrains from killing and teaches others to refrain from killing, and so on through personally practicing right view and teaching others to practice right view. One who does so is called a true good spiritual friend. One who personally cultivates bodhi and also teaches others to cultivate bodhi is called a good spiritual friend. One who personally cultivates right faith, observes the precepts, practices giving, possesses great learning, and develops wisdom is called a good spiritual friend.

A good spiritual friend is one who possesses wholesome qualities. These wholesome qualities mean that in all one does, one does not seek peace and happiness for oneself alone but seeks peace and happiness for all sentient beings. When seeing the faults of others, one does not speak of their faults but always speaks of their good qualities. Such a person is called a good spiritual friend.

Good man! Just as the moon in empty space gradually brightens from the first day of the month until the fifteenth, so too does a good spiritual friend cause the student gradually to distance himself from evil dharmas and increase wholesome dharmas.

Good man! If a person has not yet attained concentration and wisdom, liberation, or the knowledge and vision of liberation, he will attain them upon drawing near to a good spiritual friend; and if these qualities are not yet complete, they will increase.

The Buddha further said:

‘A good spiritual friend should discern whether this person is predominantly lustful or angry, deluded or given to discursive thought. If he knows that the person is strongly lustful, he should teach him the contemplation of impurity; if strongly angry, he should teach him the contemplation of loving-kindness and compassion; if given to much discursive thought, he should teach him mindfulness of breathing; if strongly attached to self, he should explain the eighteen dhatus.

Having heard the Dharma, that person practices and successively realizes the four foundations of mindfulness^[2], the twelve links of dependent origination^[3], the stage of warmth^[4], the summit^[5], patience^[6], the foremost worldly dharma^[7], and even such attainments as arhatship, pratyekabuddhahood, bodhisattvahood, and Buddhahood. Through these teachings, all are brought to fulfillment without obstruction. One who benefits oneself and others and brings both Dharma and practice to perfection is called a good spiritual friend.

If a Dharma teacher does not fully possess the foregoing qualities, he may not be called a good spiritual friend, and his students will likewise have no Dharma to practice by which they may realize the various attainments.’

[79c] Therefore, the Treatise on Buddha-Nature cites this verse from a sutra:

Without meeting a good spiritual friend,

Evil companions destroy wholesome conduct;

Like a spider falling into milk,

Causing that milk to become poisonous.

Thus, a good spiritual friend must truly benefit sentient beings, first disciplining himself and only afterward teaching others, and must be free from ten faults: little learning, loss of resolve, distraction, arrogance, inverted views, craving, anger, improper conduct, attachment to self, and evil conduct.

The Treatise on the Adornment has this verse:

Great in learning, seeing the Four Truths,

Eloquent in exposition and possessing penetrating understanding,

Such a person attains non-retrogression;

Upon him a bodhisattva skillfully relies.

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Past Conduct records: “At one time, the Buddha and the elder Nanda went to a perfumer’s shop. Seeing that the shop contained many kinds of incense, the Buddha said to the elder Nanda:

‘Nanda! Go and take some of the various incenses in this shop.’

Obeying the Buddha’s instruction, Nanda went and took them.

The Buddha further said to Nanda:

‘Place a little incense in the palm of your hand, and afterward let it fall to the ground.’

Hearing this, Nanda held a little incense for a short while and then let it fall to the ground.

The Buddha said:

‘Now smell your own hand.’

Obeying the Buddha, Nanda smelled his hand.

The Buddha asked:

‘Do you smell any fragrance?’

Nanda replied:

‘World-Honored One! My hand has a wondrous fragrance.’

The Buddha said:

‘So it is, so it is! If a person draws near to a good spiritual friend, then by constantly dwelling together, following along, being imbued with his influence, and associating closely with him, that person will certainly gain a good reputation that spreads afar.’”

On this occasion, the Buddha spoke this verse:

If one holds various incenses in one’s hand—

Agarwood, patchouli incense^[8], and musk^[9]—

In but a moment their fragrance permeates the hand;

Drawing near to a good spiritual friend is the same.

The Buddha further spoke this verse:

If a person draws near to evil friends,

In this life his good name will not spread;

Because he associates closely with evil companions,

In the next life he will fall into the Avici hell.

[80a] If a person draws near to good spiritual friends

And respectfully carries out wholesome deeds,

Though in this life he may obtain no profit,

Later he will utterly end the causes of suffering.

The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya records: “A close friend must possess seven qualities:

1. He can do what is difficult to do.

2. He can give what is difficult to give.

3. He can endure what is difficult to endure.

4. He shares secrets with his friend.

5. He keeps his friend’s secrets confidential.

6. He does not abandon his friend in suffering.

7. He does not despise his friend for poverty or lowly status.

One who fulfills these seven qualities is a good friend and should be approached and learned from.”

In the Treatise on the Great Adornment, the Buddha spoke this verse:

Freedom from illness is the greatest gain;

Contentment is the greatest wealth;

A good friend is the worthiest companion;

Nirvana is the greatest happiness.

The Sutra on Sigalavada’s Worship of the Six Directions records: “There are four kinds of good spiritual friends:

1. Outwardly he appears like an adversary, but inwardly he is affectionate.

2. In one’s presence he admonishes one frankly, while behind one’s back he speaks of one’s good qualities.

3. When he sees one defeated in a legal dispute, he grieves and seeks a way to help.

4. When he sees one poor and suffering, he does not abandon one in his heart but always wishes to help one become prosperous.

Furthermore, there are also four kinds of good spiritual friends:

1. Upon encountering a person arrested and being escorted away by officials, he shelters that person and afterward brings the matter to a satisfactory resolution.

2. Upon encountering a sick and emaciated person, he takes that person home and cares for him.

3. Upon hearing that a friend has died, he arranges and attends to the burial.

4. Upon learning that a friend has passed away, he goes to the family home to offer condolences.

XVI.3. Evil Friends

The Sutra on Sigalavada’s Worship of the Six Directions records: “There are four kinds of evil friends:

1. Inwardly he bears enmity, but outwardly he forces himself to appear sympathetic.

2. Speak well of others to their faces, but speak ill of them behind their backs.

3. When an urgent matter arises, they appear sorrowful and distressed in the person's presence, but rejoice behind that person's back.

4. Outwardly they appear intimate, but inwardly they secretly cause harm.

Furthermore, bad spiritual friends are also of four kinds:

1. At the slightest offense, they immediately become excessively angry.

2. They refuse to do what ought to be done.

3. When they see a friend encounter misfortune, they immediately avoid them.

4. When they see that a friend has died, they show no concern and do not visit.

The Nirvana Sutra states: “A great bodhisattva regards a bad spiritual friend as being like a vicious elephant. Why is this? Because both can harm one's body and life.

Yet a great bodhisattva does not fear a vicious elephant, but greatly fears a bad spiritual friend. Why? A vicious elephant harms only the body and not the mind, whereas a bad spiritual friend harms both body and mind. [80b] A vicious elephant harms only one body, whereas a bad spiritual friend harms immeasurable wholesome bodies and immeasurable wholesome minds.

A vicious elephant destroys only the defiled body, whereas a bad spiritual friend destroys the pure body and the pure mind. A vicious elephant harms only the physical body, whereas a bad spiritual friend destroys the Dharma body. One who is killed by a vicious elephant does not fall into the three evil paths, whereas one who is slain by a bad spiritual friend will certainly fall into the three evil paths.

A vicious elephant is only an enemy of the body, whereas a bad spiritual friend is an enemy of wholesome Dharma.”

Therefore, bodhisattvas must always distance themselves from bad spiritual friends.

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra states: “The Buddha spoke this verse:

Do not draw near to bad spiritual friends,

Nor follow foolish people;

Associate closely with good spiritual friends,

The foremost among humankind.

If one whose mind is gentle and virtuous

Associates closely with bad spiritual friends,

In time one will sow unwholesome seeds

And remain forever submerged in darkness.”

The Madhyama Agama Sutra states: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

‘There are seven circumstances that create enmity:

1. One does not wish an enemy to possess a handsome appearance; therefore, although that person frequently bathes and anoints the body with fine fragrances, the body still appears ugly. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

2. One does not wish an enemy to sleep peacefully; therefore, although that person lies upon a bed with pillows covered in brocade and silk, their sleep remains anxious and painful. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

3. One does not wish an enemy to obtain great benefit; therefore, when that person ought to gain a benefit, they do not gain it, and when they ought not to gain a benefit, they do. These two things are contrary to one another. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

4. One does not wish an enemy to have friends; therefore, even if that person has close friends, those friends will seek ways to avoid them and leave. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

5. One does not wish an enemy to receive praise; therefore, that person's disgrace and ill repute spread everywhere. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

6. One does not wish an enemy to be wealthy and honored; therefore, even if that person is wealthy, they will lose much property. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.

7. One does not wish an enemy to be reborn in a happy realm after death; therefore, that person commits the three evil karmas and, upon death, will certainly be reborn in a place of extreme suffering, such as hell. This enmity is created because the mind is dominated by anger.’”

The Agama Sutra states: “Stay far away from bad friends and associate closely with good friends.”

There are four unwholesome things that one should not approach but should keep one hundred yojanas^[10] away from: bad friends; evil assemblies; excessive talking, laughing, and jesting; and anger and fighting.”

[80c] The Sigalaka Sutra states: “There are five places where a precepts ceremony must not be held: a slaughterhouse; a brothel; a tavern; a royal palace; and the home of a candala.

There are also five occupations that one should not engage in: selling poison, brewing alcohol, gambling, playing the game of liubo^[11], and performing songs, dances, and instrumental music.”

The Ratnamegha Sutra states: “A person who observes the precepts must not go to the home of one who breaks the precepts to beg for alms.”

The Treatise of the Vajra Immortal states: “Renunciants must not go to slaughterhouses, taverns, brothels, or places where there are vicious elephants, vicious dogs, and so forth to beg for alms; nor may they frequently visit and associate closely with such places.”

The Great Vaipulya Dharani Sutra states: “The Buddha said:

‘Good man! After I enter nirvana, if a Dharma teacher skillfully expounds the Dharma according to the inclinations of the listeners and can cause bodhisattvas who study the Mahayana scriptures and the great assemblies to give rise to even the slightest joyful thought, or even be moved to shed a single tear, you should know that all of this is due to the Buddha's spiritual power.

If a foolish person who is not truly a bodhisattva claims to be a bodhisattva and then slanders true bodhisattvas and the practices they cultivate, saying: “What does that person know? What does that person understand? If these people are in harmony with one another, they can preserve and transmit My teaching. If they oppose one another, the true Dharma cannot be transmitted.” The person who slanders the true Dharma in this way incurs a most grave offense, falls into the three evil paths, and finds it extremely difficult to escape.

If a foolish person does not believe or accept the Buddha's teaching, then even if that person reads and recites a thousand collections of Mahayana scriptures, or expounds them so that others attain the Four Dhyanas, because of the offense of slandering others, that person must endure the most extreme suffering for seventy kalpas. How much more so will this be true of a foolish person who has no genuine understanding, yet is arrogant and conceited, and goes so far as to slander a single four-line verse?

This person must fall into hell and will never again encounter a Buddha. Because that person glared viciously at one who had aroused the aspiration for bodhi, they will receive the karmic retribution of having no eyes; and because they slandered one who had aroused the aspiration for bodhi with malicious words, they will receive the karmic retribution of having no tongue.’”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish states: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, the bhiksuni Utpalavarna, who had attained the fruit of arhatship, recounted to the assembly of nuns the karmic retribution of the wholesome and evil deeds she had committed in a previous life.

The bhiksuni related:

‘In the past, there was an extremely wealthy elder who had no children. He therefore took a younger wife and cherished her dearly. After some time, she gave birth to a son, and the husband loved her even more, never tiring of gazing upon the child. Seeing this, the senior wife grew jealous and secretly thought: “When this child grows up, he will inherit the household. What use is all the wealth I have laboriously accumulated? It would be better to kill him!” Having thought this, she took a needle and pierced the child's head. The child died. The younger wife suspected that the senior wife had killed her son and asked:

“Did you kill my child?”

[81a] The senior wife believed there was no karmic retribution for offenses and merits, so she swore: “If I killed your child, then in life after life may my husband be bitten to death by a snake; may my children be swept away by water and devoured by wolves; may I myself eat the flesh of my children and, in this very life, be buried alive; and may my parents be burned to death when their home catches fire!”

After making this oath, she died. Because she had killed that child, she fell into hell and endured extreme suffering.

When her punishment in hell was exhausted, she was reborn in the human realm as a Brahmin woman. She gradually grew to adulthood, married, and gave birth to a child. Later, she became pregnant with a second child.

When the full term had passed and the time of delivery drew near, she and her husband set out to visit her parents. Halfway there, she began to suffer labor pains and gave birth. That night, the husband and wife rested beneath a tree, with the husband sleeping apart from her.

The time had now come for her to undergo karmic retribution in accordance with her former oath. At that moment, a venomous snake came and bit her husband to death. Seeing that her husband was dead, she fainted.

After some time, she regained consciousness. At daybreak, she placed the older child upon her shoulders, carried the younger child in her arms, and continued on her way, weeping as she walked.’

Along the way, she came upon a deep and wide river. She left the elder child on this bank, carried the younger child across to the other bank first, and then returned to fetch the elder one. Seeing his mother wade into the water, the child immediately followed her in and was swept away by the current. The mother at once swam after him, but could not save him. In a short while, the elder child had drowned. When the mother returned to the other bank to fetch the younger child, a tiger had already devoured him, and she saw only bloodstains on the ground. The mother fainted. After a long while she regained consciousness and continued on her way.

After traveling some distance, she encountered a brahmin ascetic who was a close friend of her father. Weeping, she related all her sufferings to him in full, then asked whether her family was safe. The brahmin ascetic replied, “A few days ago, a fire broke out, and your parents and entire household all burned to death.” Hearing this, she fainted. After a long while, she regained consciousness.

The brahmin ascetic took her into his home, raised her as his own daughter, and later arranged her marriage. One day, when she was about to give birth, her husband went out drinking. When evening came, the wife shut the door and remained home alone, where she went into labor. At midnight, her husband returned and called from outside for her to open the door. The wife was giving birth, so no one came to open it. Her husband broke down the door, dragged her out, and beat her. She told him that she was giving birth, but he flew into a rage, killed the infant, stewed it with milk, and forced his wife to eat it. Terrified, the wife ate her child. Afterward, she was filled with remorse and thought, “Because my merit is meager, I have encountered this man.”

She then fled to the kingdom of Varanasi. Reaching a garden, she sat beneath a tree to rest. At that time, the wife of a certain wealthy householder’s son had recently died. Every day, he went to visit her grave, grieving and weeping as he remembered her. Seeing this woman sitting alone beneath the tree, he approached and asked about her circumstances, and the two became husband and wife. Several days later, the husband died. According to the law of that kingdom at the time, when alive, husband and wife loved one another; when the husband died, the wife was buried alive together with him.

[81b] That night, a band of robbers came to dig open the grave. The robber chief saw that she was beautiful and took her away to become his wife. Several weeks^[12] later, her husband broke into another family’s tomb and was caught and killed by the owner. The bandits brought her husband’s corpse back to her, and she was buried alive once again.

Three days later, a wolf came and dug open the grave, enabling her to escape. She reproached herself, saying, “I do not know what offense I committed in a past life that, within only a few dozen days, I have twice suffered calamities in which I died and returned to life. What can I do now to preserve my life?”

At that time, hearing that Buddha Shakyamuni was residing at Jetavana Monastery, she went to the Buddha and asked to enter monastic life. Through the power of the vow she had made when she resolved in a past life to offer food to a pratyekabuddha, she was now able to encounter the Buddha, enter monastic life and cultivate the path, and attain arhatship. Through uncontaminated wisdom, she knew that in a past life she had created the karma of killing and had also sworn an oath to fall into hell. Therefore, in this present life she had to undergo this grievously painful karmic retribution, which no one else could bear in her place.

Bhikshuni Utpalavarna herself said:

– “The senior wife of that former time was none other than I. Although I have attained arhatship, I often suffer pain as though red-hot iron needles were piercing me from the crown of my head down to my feet. Day and night, the pain is unbearable. Such calamities are plainly manifest and never fail to come to pass.”

In the Treatise on Entering the Mahayana, Bodhisattva Saramati spoke this verse:

Those who slander the Mahayana Dharma

Will certainly fall into the evil destinies.

The agony of being burned is truly unbearable;

Such indeed is the retribution for that offense.

Even if they emerge from hell,

They must still undergo residual retribution:

Their faculties will be incomplete,

And they will never hear the Dharma.

Even if they hear the wondrous Dharma,

Their minds will give rise to slander.

Because of this cause of slander,

They will fall into hell once more.

XVI.4. Repaying Debts

The Sutra of Parables from the Dhammapada records: “Long ago, when the Buddha was still in the world, there was a bhikshu named King Pukkusati who entered the city of Rajagriha to seek alms.

Right at the city gate, he was gored to death by a cow that had recently given birth. The cow’s owner became frightened and sold her to someone else. The new owner led the cow to the river to drink, but he too was gored to death from behind. The owner’s family became enraged, killed the cow, and took her meat to the market to sell.

A farmer bought the cow’s head, threaded a rope through it, and carried it home. He sat down to rest beneath a tree more than a mile from his house and hung the cow’s head from a branch. A short while later, the rope broke, and the cow’s head fell directly upon him. Its horn pierced his body, and he died on the spot.

Hearing that three people had been killed in this way in a single day, King Bimbisara found it extraordinary. Together with his ministers, he went to the Buddha and asked him to explain the cause.

[81c] The Buddha told the king:

– “Long ago, three merchants traveled to another kingdom to conduct business and asked to lodge at the home of a solitary old woman. The old woman agreed to rent them a room, but seeing that she was alone, the three men deceived her and had no intention of paying. While she was away, they secretly departed without paying the rent. When she returned and found that her guests were gone, the old woman asked her neighbors about them. Everyone told her that they had left. The old woman became angry, pursued and caught up with them, and painstakingly demanded her money. The three guests cursed her in return, saying, ‘We already paid you before. Why are you demanding payment again?’ They all raised objections at once and refused to pay. Alone and powerless, the old woman did not know what to do. In sorrow, she wept and lamented, then swore a malicious oath: ‘I am now destitute; how could they have the heart to deceive me? I vow that, wherever I am born in a future life, if I meet you again, I will kill you. Even if you attain the path, I will not let you go.’”

The Buddha told King Bimbisara:

– “The old woman of that time was none other than the cow of today. The three merchant guests were Pukkusati and the others who were gored to death by the cow.”

The Buddha then spoke this verse:

Those who revile others with harsh words,

Treating them with contempt and oppression,

Create evil in this way,

And deepen the suffering born of enmity.

Those whose words are gentle and humble,

Who honor and respect others,

Who relinquish anger and patiently endure evil,

Will see the suffering of enmity dissolve by itself.

For people living in this world,

An axe lies at the doorway of the mouth;

Because they speak harsh words,

Their own bodies are hewn down.

The Sutra of the Udana records: “Long ago, there were two brothers in the kingdom of Kashmir. The elder brother entered monastic life and attained arhatship, while the younger remained at home and worked to establish the family estate. At that time, the elder brother often returned home to instruct his younger brother, exhorting him to practice generosity, observe the precepts, cultivate goodness, and create merit, so that he might enjoy a good reputation in the present and, after death, be reborn in a realm of happiness. But the younger brother replied:

– “You have now entered monastic life and no longer need to concern yourself with public or private affairs. You do not have to think about a wife and children, fields and gardens, or property and wealth, whereas I must attend to all these things.”

The elder brother repeatedly admonished and reminded him, but the younger brother refused to listen. Later, the younger brother became ill and died, and was reborn as an ox. Driven by others, he had to carry salt into the city. As the elder brother was coming out of the city, he saw the ox and taught it the Dharma. After hearing the teaching, the ox became sorrowful and choked with emotion. Seeing this, the ox’s owner said to the arhat:

– “What did you say that caused my ox to become sorrowful and unhappy?”

The arhat replied:

– “In his previous life, this ox was my younger brother. Long ago, he owed you one coin’s worth of salt, and therefore he has now fallen into the state of an ox and must use his strength to repay his debt to you.”

Hearing this, the ox’s owner said to the arhat:

– “In his previous life, your younger brother was a close friend of mine.”

The owner then said to the ox:

– “I now set you free. You need not labor any longer.”

Hearing his owner say this, the ox was deeply moved and sincerely recollected the Buddha. It then deliberately plunged headfirst into a deep ravine and died, whereupon its consciousness was reborn in a heavenly realm and enjoyed the utmost bliss.”

[82a] From this account, it may be understood that once one has incurred a debt to another, one cannot avoid repaying it.

The Satyasiddhi Treatise states: “If a person incurs a debt and does not repay it, he will fall among buffaloes, goats, roe deer, deer, donkeys, horses, and other such creatures in order to repay his former debt.”

The Vibhāṣā Treatise states: “It was once heard that a certain girl was seized by a hungry ghost. Someone used a spell to question the ghost:

– Why are you harming this girl?

The ghost replied:

– This girl is my enemy. For five hundred lifetimes, she repeatedly killed me, and for five hundred lifetimes, I likewise took her life. If she can first relinquish her former hatred, I too will relinquish mine.

Then the girl said:

– I have now relinquished my hatred and resentment.

Perceiving that although the girl said with her mouth that she had relinquished it, she had not let it go in her heart, the ghost immediately killed her.”

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures states: “The Venerable Maudgalyāyana went to the bank of the Ganges River and saw five hundred hungry ghosts descending toward the river. At that time, the ghost guarding the river drove them away with an iron staff, refusing to let the host of ghosts draw near. The ghosts then went directly to Maudgalyāyana, bowed at his feet, and asked about their offenses. One ghost said:

– My body constantly suffers the torment of heat and thirst. Formerly, I heard that the water of the Ganges was clear and cool, so I came here joyfully; yet the water boiled and injured my body. When I tried to drink a single mouthful, my five internal organs were burned away, producing a stench impossible to endure. For what reason must I suffer such punishment?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a physiognomist who foretold people’s good or bad fortune from their features. Yet you were seldom right and often wrong, sometimes disparaging and sometimes praising, while claiming that your words were certainly true. In this way, you stirred people’s emotions, enticed and deceived them in the hope of gaining wealth and profit, and deluded everyone, though in the end their wishes were never fulfilled.

Another ghost said:

– I am constantly attacked by great, sharp-fanged, pale-red dogs that devour my flesh until only my skeleton remains. Then a wind blows, my skin and flesh grow back, and the dogs come to devour me again. Through what causes and conditions do I suffer such torment?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were the overseer of a temple to a deity. You often ordered people to kill goats and offer their blood in sacrifice to the deity, while you ate the meat yourself. Therefore, today you must repay them with your own flesh.

Another ghost said:

– My entire body is constantly smeared with filthy excrement, and I must also eat that excrement. Through what causes and conditions did this punishment arise?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a malicious brahmin who held wrong views and did not believe in the Three Jewels. When a bhikṣu came to beg for alms, you put excrement into his bowl, covered it with rice, and then gave it to him. The bhikṣu carried the bowl back and took the rice with his hand to eat, whereupon the excrement soiled his hand. Therefore, today you must suffer such punishment.

Another ghost said:

[82b] - My belly is as large as a jar, while my throat, arms, and legs are as slender as needles, and I am unable to eat or drink. Through what causes and conditions does this suffering arise?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a village headman. Relying upon your wealth and status, you drank wine without restraint, despised others, and seized their food and drink, causing everyone to suffer hunger. Therefore, you must endure this suffering.

Another ghost said:

– I constantly wish to go to a latrine to eat excrement, but a vast host of ghosts wielding staffs drives me away and will not allow me near the latrine. Thus, my mouth reeks, and I suffer hunger, yet I know no one to whom I can turn. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were the head of a monastery. Laypeople offered the Sangha all kinds of food. You gave the inferior dishes to visiting monks, while keeping the delicacies for yourself. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– Tongues grow all over my body. An axe comes and chops them off; once severed, they grow back, and this continues without end. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a bhikṣu. The Sangha assigned you to dissolve rock sugar in water. Because one large lump was difficult to dissolve, you used an axe to chop it into small pieces, whereupon the thought of stealing arose in you, and you took and ate one piece. Because of those causes and conditions, an axe now cuts off your tongues.

Another ghost said:

– Seven red-hot iron balls constantly roll straight into my mouth and then descend into my belly, burning away my five internal organs. The iron balls roll out and then roll in again. Through what causes and conditions must I suffer such punishment?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a śrāmaṇera who was instructed to bring fruit to your teacher. Because you revered your own teacher, you gave him partial treatment and gave him seven fruits more than his share. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– Two red-hot iron wheels are constantly lodged beneath my armpits. Whenever my body moves, it is immediately burned. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you made cakes for the Sangha. On two occasions, the thought of stealing arose in you, and you took cakes and concealed them beneath your armpits. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– I have a great tumor as large as a jar. When walking, I must carry it upon my shoulder; when stopping, I must sit upon it. Whether walking or standing, I suffer pain and misery. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you served as a market superintendent^[13]. When giving goods to others, you used light weights and small measures; when taking goods for yourself, you used heavy weights and large measures. You constantly sought great profit for yourself while causing losses to others.

Another ghost said:

– My eyes are constantly upon my two shoulders, and my nose and mouth are on my chest, but I have no head. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were often the disciple of the leader of a band of killers. Whenever a condemned person was killed, you always took delight in it, bound him with a rope, and dragged him away. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost asked:

– My body is constantly pierced with iron needles, which are then pulled out. The pain is unbearable, yet I know no one to whom I can cry out. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

[82c] - In a former life, you trained horses or elephants. When the elephants and horses were difficult to control, you stabbed their legs with iron needles. Whenever they moved slowly, you likewise stabbed them with needles. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– Flames constantly arise from my body and burn me, causing immeasurable pain. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were an empress. The king also had a consort whom he favored, and so you became jealous and resolved to harm her. Once, after the king awoke and went outside, the secondary consort remained asleep and had not yet risen to dress. An evil thought arose in you, and you poured hot sesame oil upon her belly. Her abdomen was scalded, and she died. Therefore, today you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– I am constantly enveloped by a whirlwind and cannot move about freely. My heart is always filled with sorrow and anguish. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you were a diviner. Sometimes you spoke truthfully and sometimes falsely, thereby deluding people, yet their wishes were not fulfilled. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– My body is like a lump of flesh, without arms, legs, eyes, ears, nose, or other faculties. Moreover, birds and insects constantly burrow into and devour me, causing unbearable pain. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you often gave people medicines to induce abortions. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– I am constantly enclosed within a red-hot iron cage, which burns me and causes great pain. Through what causes and conditions has this come about?

The Venerable Maudgalyāyana replied:

– In a former life, you often used nets and fishing lift-nets to catch birds and fish. Therefore, you must suffer this torment.

Another ghost said:

– I often take something and cover my head completely with it. I am also constantly afraid that someone will come and kill me, so my heart is always filled with fear, unbearable to endure. What is the cause and condition of this?

Venerable Maudgalyayana replied:

– In a former life, you committed sexual misconduct and were constantly afraid of being seen, or feared that the woman’s husband would seize, bind, beat, or kill you, or feared that the king’s law would have you executed and your corpse exposed in the marketplace. Thus, you were fearful at all times. Therefore, you must undergo this suffering.

Another ghost said:

[83a] - I constantly carry a vessel of boiling molten copper on my shoulder, then take a ladle in my own hand, scoop up the molten copper, and pour it down from my head. My entire body is burned and disintegrates, and I undergo immeasurable suffering. What offense caused this?

Venerable Maudgalyayana replied:

– In a former life, you renounced the household life and became a bhiksu responsible for food and drink. You set aside a vessel of milk and ghee elsewhere. When visiting Sangha members arrived, you did not allow them to partake of it. After they had departed, you brought out the milk and ghee and gave it to the resident Sangha. This milk and ghee belonged to the Sangha of the four directions, and everyone was entitled to a share. Although you stored it and later distributed it among the resident Sangha, doing so was inequitable. Because of that cause and condition, you must undergo this punishment.”

The Sutra of Parables records: “Long ago, in a certain country, a man died, and his spirit took a whip and beat his own corpse. A person nearby asked:

– You are now dead; why do you beat yourself?

He replied:

– This was my former body. Because I committed evil, saw the sutras on the precepts but refused to read or recite them, and also stole, deceived others, violated other men’s wives, was unfilial toward my parents, showed no respect or deference to my brothers, greedily hoarded wealth, and refused to practice generosity, now that this body has died, it has caused me to fall into an evil realm, where the pain and suffering are beyond description. Therefore, I beat my own body.”

The Sutra of Infinite Life records: “In a past life, Gavampati was once a bhiksu. He plucked an ear of rice from the edge of another person’s field to see whether it was ripe, causing several grains to fall to the ground. Because of this, for five hundred lifetimes he was repeatedly reborn as an ox to repay the debt.” Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “Because of his former habitual tendencies, even when reborn as a human, this bhiksu still chewed like an ox. Later, the Buddha took pity on him, enabled him to renounce the household life, and he attained the fruit of arhatship.”

XVI.5. Admonitions Against Faults

The Vimalakirti Sutra records: “Therefore, only through many earnest and poignant words can a person be brought into conformity with discipline.”

A Confucian text states: “He accepts remonstrance as readily as flowing water.” This saying is worthy of remembrance. Ordinarily, people are inclined to resist and malign others and refuse to heed admonition, like unruly horses that are difficult to tame. Those who possess a sense of shame and know how to examine themselves constantly admonish themselves and hope to receive sincere counsel that will broaden their minds.

If one now wishes to restrain the body by keeping the mouth closed, how could that compare with first restraining the mind and then subduing one’s thoughts? Therefore, the sutra states: “When the mind abides in one place, there is nothing that cannot be accomplished.” Just as foxes and rabbits would not dare dwell in a golden mountain cave^[14], how could frogs and toads dare live in a deep abyss or vast ocean?

Thus, those who know how to calm the mind and stabilize their thoughts can bring to an end the karmic retributions of the three realms of suffering and perfect the four virtues^[15]. Those who guard their thoughts as they would defend a fortress and guard their mouths as they would protect a bottle are worthy of receiving the teaching bequeathed at the Golden River^[16] and of being entrusted with an emperor’s work of governance and transformation^[17]. Those who guard the three kinds of karma in this way are capable of eliminating the four sufferings of birth, aging, illness, and death.”

Therefore, the Sutra on Conception records: “At the time of conception, sentient beings undergo every kind of suffering, dim and obscure like a cloud of dust. [83b] As the ten months approach completion, the fetus begins to experience suffering. At that time, the wind of karma drives the child’s head toward the mother’s birth canal. As soon as the child leaves the mother’s womb, its entire body is in pain as though lying upon a mountain of blades, while the wind blows with a piercing cold like frost and ice. At that very moment, birth is indeed suffering.”

The Nirvana Sutra records: “A lampwick burns by relying upon oil. If the oil is exhausted, the lamp cannot continue burning for long. Human beings are likewise: they rely solely upon the vigor of health and youth, but when their strength is exhausted, they become old and feeble; how then could they live for long?”

In the Udana Sutra, the Buddha spoke of the suffering of old age in verse:

In youth, one possesses health and strength;

In old age, suffering presses hard.

Emaciated and weak like a withered tree,

Strength exhausted, one walks leaning on a staff.

The Buddha spoke of the suffering of death in verse:

The breath ceases, the spirit leaves the body;

The physical form becomes utterly cold.

Humans and other creatures are alike:

Whatever is born must surely die.

The Nirvana Sutra records: “A dead person is like one who enters a perilous place without provisions; who journeys to a distant and dangerous region without companions; who travels constantly by day and night without knowing where to stop; who dwells in murky darkness without a bright lamp; who enters a place without a home yet has an abode; who, though experiencing no pain, cannot be treated; and who goes everywhere without obstruction yet has no path of escape.”

The Sutra of Infinite Life records: “Alone one is born, and alone one dies; alone one comes and alone one departs. Whether in a realm of suffering or happiness, one alone must undergo it, with no one to take one’s place. Dim and obscure, one is forever separated and far removed; one’s path does not follow the same course, and there is never another meeting.

How difficult! How difficult! When people are able to be together, the birth of a child brings joy; relatives gather close, cherishing and loving one another dearly.

Yet when death comes, one may die in the morning and be buried that evening. Those left behind fear the pain of separation, weeping as they accompany the deceased, while the dead person is entirely unaware. When the relatives return, the house is empty and desolate, and their loved one can no longer be seen.

Continuance and loss, existence and nonexistence, change in the space of an instant.”

Therefore, the Udana Sutra records: “The Buddha again spoke of the suffering of death in verse:

Life is like a ripened fruit,

Ever in danger of falling.

Once born, one must undergo suffering;

Who in human life does not die?

Like a prisoner condemned to death,

Being led to the execution ground,

Knowing with certainty that death awaits,

So too is human life.

Like a swiftly flowing stream,

That passes and never returns,

So too is human life:

Once dead, how could one live again?”

The Avatamsaka Sutra records: “There are ten forms of conceit that must be kept far away. They are:

[83c] 1. Failing to honor, respect, and make offerings to venerable fields of merit, such as one’s preceptor, acarya, parents, sramanas, and brahmins.

2. Failing to believe in, accept, respect, and make offerings to Dharma masters who have attained the wondrous Dharma, understand that the profound Mahayana Dharma is the path leading out of birth and death, have attained dharani^[18], are greatly learned, have perfected wisdom, and are skilled in teaching the Dharma.

3. Upon hearing the wondrous Dharma, giving rise to the aspiration to relinquish desire and experiencing immeasurable joy, yet failing to praise the Dharma master and thereby bring joy to the great assembly.

4. Giving rise to arrogance and conceit, exalting oneself and disparaging others, failing to examine one’s own faults, and failing to discipline the mind.

5. Giving rise to attachment to self: upon seeing someone possessing merit and wisdom, failing to praise that person’s virtues; upon seeing someone lacking virtue, praising that person as excellent; or, upon hearing another person praised, becoming jealous of that person.

6. When there is a Dharma master who correctly understands the Dharma, the Vinaya, the truth, and the Buddha’s teachings, declaring out of jealousy that these are not the Dharma, not the Vinaya, not the truth, and not the Buddha’s words, thereby destroying the faith of others.

7. Setting up a high seat for oneself and then proclaiming, ‘I am a Dharma master. I need not perform any duties, nor need I respect or make offerings to others. All virtuous elders who cultivate the pure conduct must respect and make offerings to me.’

8. They do not look upon others with hostile eyes or a scowling countenance, but usually regard sentient beings with a gentle gaze and speak courteously, without a fierce demeanor or an angry mind; nevertheless, they seek faults in the Dharma teacher.

9. Because of pride and arrogance, they habitually show no respect toward those of broad learning and extensive understanding. When listening to the Dharma, even if they have questions, they refuse to ask: what is wholesome, what is unwholesome, what should be done, what should not be done, which actions bring lasting benefit to all sentient beings, which actions do not benefit sentient beings, which actions are called going from light to light, and which actions are called going from darkness to darkness. Such people are submerged by the mind that clings to self and therefore cannot see the true supramundane path.

10. Because they give rise to arrogance, they do not encounter the Buddhas, find it difficult to hear the Dharma, and lose all the roots of goodness planted throughout many previous lives. They say what should not be said, harbor resentment, and then quarrel with one another. Those who live in this manner will fall onto a wrong path, solely because their bodhicitta is weak. Even though they do not abandon the practices of a bodhisattva or forsake the Bodhisattva Path, throughout immeasurable hundreds of thousands of myriads of kalpas they will still not encounter a Buddha, much less hear the Dharma.”

The Sutra of the Emergence of the Marvelous contains this verse:

Those bound by conceit,

Steeped in arrogance,

Deluded by attachment to views,

Cannot escape the shores of birth and death.

[84a] Therefore, one should know that although the evil committed by ordinary beings may be slight, in later lives they undergo boundless painful retribution. It is like poison lodged within the mind, while each person’s intentions differ. People of the world concern themselves with their livelihoods and do not think of death; yet life cannot be assured, and death arrives most unexpectedly. This fragile life may change impermanently in but an instant, whether sooner or later, yet people devote themselves only to fields, gardens, houses, and homes, clinging lovingly to wives and children.

The Sutra of Parables from the Dhammapada records: “When the Buddha was in the kingdom of Sravasti, there was in the city a brahmin nearly eighty years old who possessed immeasurable wealth. He was difficult to teach, knew nothing of virtue, and gave no thought to impermanence. He concerned himself only with building an elegant house, including front rooms, rear rooms, cool chambers, warm chambers, eastern wings, and western wings—several dozen rooms in all. Only the front of the rear building remained unfinished.

At that time, the brahmin was constantly occupied with his affairs and directing all the work. With his eye of the Way, the Buddha saw that this old man would die before the end of that very day. Yet the man himself could not know this and continued bustling about with the construction until his spirit was exhausted. He was truly pitiable!

The Buddha and Ananda went to the brahmin’s house and inquired after him:

‘Are you well? For what purpose are you building this house?’

The old man replied:

‘The front rooms are for receiving guests, and the rear rooms are for me to live in. The eastern and western wings are for my children and servants to occupy and for storing possessions. In summer, we shall stay in the cool chambers; in winter, in the warm chambers.’

The Buddha said to the old man:

‘I have long heard of your virtuous reputation, but only now have I come to speak with you. The Tathagata has an important verse, greatly beneficial in matters of life and death, which I now wish to offer you. Would you set aside your work for a short while so that we may talk?’

The old man replied:

‘Today I truly am very busy and have no leisure to speak with you. Please come another day, and then we shall talk together; but as for the verse, please recite it now.’

The Buddha then spoke this verse:

‘I have children; I have wealth’—

Thus fools bustle about.

Even the self is not truly theirs;

How much less children and wealth?

Heat is in this place,

Cold is in that place;

Fools make many calculations,

Unaware of impermanence.

Because folly obscures them,

They deem themselves wise.

Foolish, yet claiming wisdom—

Such is the greatest folly.

The brahmin said:

‘This verse is excellent, but I am exceedingly busy now. Please explain it to me at another time.’

Hearing this, the Buddha departed, feeling compassion for him.

Afterward, the old man was supporting a roof beam when it suddenly fell, struck him, and split open his head. He then died. His family wailed bitterly, disturbing the entire neighborhood. This accident occurred before the Buddha had gone far. At the entrance to the village, he met several dozen brahmin ascetics, who asked:

‘Where have you come from?’

The Buddha said:

[84b] ‘We have just come from the home of that old man who has now died. We taught him the Dharma, but he had no faith in the Buddha-Dharma and did not understand impermanence. Now he has suddenly passed away.’

The Buddha then explained to the brahmin ascetics the meaning of the preceding verse. Upon hearing it, they rejoiced and all attained vision of the Path. The Buddha then spoke this verse:

A fool who draws near the wise

Is like a gourd filled with wine;

Though remaining close for a long time,

He still does not understand the Dharma.

An intelligent person who draws near the wise

Is like a tongue tasting flavors;

Though close for only a moment,

He immediately understands the wondrous Dharma.

A fool who commits evil deeds

Brings calamity upon himself.

Deliberately committing evil,

He must bear misfortune.

Having committed every kind of evil,

How can later regret avail him?

He weeps and bitterly laments

When the fruits of former causes are repaid.

After hearing this verse, the faith of the brahmin ascetics grew even deeper. They bowed at the Buddha’s feet and joyfully accepted his teaching.”

The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma records: “If sentient beings see friends beating one another and thereby becoming enemies, and they reconcile them, then after death they will be born in the Heaven of Desire and Love. Whatever they think of, the five desires will immediately appear for their enjoyment. If sentient beings see someone about to die or being taken away by others and save that person from danger; or if, in a perilous place, they show someone a way of escape; or if, amid fear, they help someone attain safety, then after death they will be born in the Heaven of Right Conduct, attended by heavenly maidens and fully enjoying the pleasures of the five desires.

If born as humans, they will enter a wealthy and noble elder’s household and possess right view. Those whose minds are gentle and who have left all defilements far behind can readily attain the fruit of liberating nirvana, as though it were within reach. A gentle person whose mind is pure is like a white candle and is trusted by everyone.

A coarse person with an obstinate mind is like a diamond; such a person constantly forms enmities, never forgets a grievance, behaves perversely, and is hated, distrusted, and unloved by everyone.

At that time, Bodhisattva Peacock spoke this verse in the Buddha’s sutra:

A good person whose mind is gentle

Is like gold refined and purified;

Beautiful both within and without,

Such a person swiftly ends all suffering.

If a person’s mind is well subdued,

All affairs will be harmonious.

This person plants roots of goodness,

Like sowing a fertile field of merit.”

The Ha-dieu Anagamin Sutra^[19] records: “An anagamin has eight qualities that he does not wish others to know. They are:

1. Seeking nothing

2. Possessing faith

3. Feeling shame before others

4. Feeling moral shame within his own mind

[84c] 5. Diligence

6. Self-contemplation

7. Attaining the Dharma of meditation

8. Luminous wisdom

The reason an anagamin does not wish others to know these qualities is that he does not wish to trouble their minds.

There is a verse:

Campaka^[20] transforms tumbleweed;

Eranda^[21] becomes fragrant grass.

The full moon wanes again;

White silk does not remain white forever.

Delight only in the three beneficial friends^[22],

Guard the four deportments^[23].

One should exert oneself;

Only vigilance is truly precious.

XVII. CAREFUL REFLECTION

This chapter consists of five sections: Introduction, Caution Regarding Faults, Caution Regarding Calamities, Caution Regarding Circumstances, and Caution Regarding Requisites.

XVII.1. Introduction

Careful reflection to prevent faults is the principle for avoiding calamity; keeping one’s mouth closed and refraining from disparagement is the root of distancing oneself from evil. Admonishing beforehand and guarding against later transgression is the foremost principle of the noble person. Respecting the old and cherishing the young is the essence of nurturing living beings.

One should then clearly examine the rise and fall brought about by merit and offenses, and understand the suffering and happiness resulting from good and evil. For example, if one wishes to see one’s own face, one must rely on a mirror; if one wishes to straighten tangled hair, one must rely on a comb. Thus, seeing one’s face depends upon a bright mirror; straightening one’s hair depends upon a good comb; the far-reaching renown of virtue depends upon wholesome speech; and excellent karmic results depend upon planting wholesome causes.

Therefore, when one suffers defeat, it is certainly because one did not accept sound counsel; when one’s life is about to end, it is certainly because one did not take good medicine.

XVII. 2. Guarding Carefully Against Faults

The Chapter on Aiding the Dragons in the Mahasamnipata Sutra records: “At that time, within the assembly, there was a blind dragon named Pha-la-co-le-xa, who cried aloud and said:

‘Great Sage, World-Honored One, please save me! Please save me! My body now endures many sufferings. Day and night I am constantly bitten and devoured by insects, and I live in scalding water, never enjoying even a moment of respite.’

The Buddha said to Le-xa:

‘In the past, you were once a bhiksu within the Buddha-Dharma, but you violated the precepts. Inwardly you were deceitful, while outwardly you assumed the appearance of goodness. You craved a large following, many disciples, and renown that would spread everywhere so that everyone would know you.

You even proclaimed, “I am a preceptor who has attained the fruit of arhatship.” [85a] Because of these causes and conditions, you received abundant offerings from donors, but used them solely for yourself. When you saw those who upheld the precepts, you slandered them, causing them grief and anguish, and they vowed, “Life after life, wherever I may be born, I will devour your flesh.” Such was your body in a former life.

Because of this evil karma, after death you were born among the dragons. Because of their vows, those people now devour your flesh; and because you created evil karma, you must undergo the retribution of blindness. Moreover, throughout immeasurable past kalpas, while you were in the hell of boiling molten copper, you were also constantly bitten and devoured by insects.’

Upon hearing this account, the dragon grieved and wept loudly, saying to the Buddha:

‘Today, all of us sincerely repent. May we swiftly be freed from this suffering.’

At that time, those two billion six hundred million hungry dragons all recalled their former bodies. They wept bitterly, remembering that although in former lives they had gone forth within the Buddha-Dharma, they had committed every kind of evil karma. Consequently, throughout countless lives they had fallen into the three evil realms. Because the retribution for this karma had not yet been exhausted, they were again born among the dragons and endured extreme suffering, just like this blind dragon.

The Buddha then told the dragons:

‘Take water and wash the Tathagata’s feet; your karmic offenses and their retributions will gradually be extinguished.’

Thereupon, all the dragons scooped up water in their hands, but the water turned into fire and then into great rocks. Fierce flames then blazed red across their palms. Whenever they extinguished the flames, they ignited again.

This occurred seven times. Seeing this, all the dragons became frightened and distressed, and tears streamed down their faces. Following the Buddha’s instruction, they made great vows, whereupon all the fierce flames were extinguished.

On the eighth occasion, they scooped up water in their hands, washed the Tathagata’s feet, and sincerely repented. The Buddha bestowed a prediction upon these dragons: ‘In the time of Maitreya Buddha, you will be reborn as human beings, encounter the Buddha, go forth into monastic life, diligently uphold the precepts, and attain the fruit of arhatship.’

At that time, all the dragons attained knowledge of their former lives^[24] and personally recalled the karma they had created in the past. While within the Buddha-Dharma, some had been lay devotees who associated closely with the Sangha, while others had come and gone to hear the Dharma. When people of faith offered food, drink, and fruit, they ate and drank together with the bhiksus.

One dragon said:

‘I regularly consumed the food, drink, and fruit belonging to the Sangha of the four quarters.’

Another dragon said:

‘I went to monasteries to make offerings to the Sangha or to pay homage, and I also ate and drank in this way.’

Another dragon said:

‘I was once a lay devotee in the Dharma assembly of Vipasyin Buddha.’

Yet another dragon said:

‘I was once a lay devotee in the Dharma assembly of Sakyamuni Buddha. Whether because of personal acquaintance and visits, or because I came and went to hear the Dharma, I frequented monasteries. People of faith brought various fruits, foods, and drinks as offerings to the Sangha. [85b] After the bhiksus received them, they gave some back to me, and I accepted them.

Because of this karmic cause, I fell into hell for countless kalpas. There I was burned and boiled in fierce flames, made to drink molten copper, or forced to swallow red-hot iron pellets, and so forth. After emerging from hell, I fell into the animal realm.

When I relinquished an animal body, I was then born among hungry ghosts and endured many such torments. Yet because my evil karma had not been exhausted, I had to be born among these dragons and constantly endure suffering.’

The Buddha taught:

‘These evil deeds are no different from stealing the Buddha’s property.... The gravity of this offense is equal to half that of the five heinous offenses. You should now take refuge in the Three Jewels for the rest of your life and devote yourself wholeheartedly to cultivating goodness. Through this merit, during the Bhadrakalpa you will encounter the final Buddha, named Ruci^[25]. In the time of that Buddha, your offenses will be eradicated.’

After hearing the Buddha’s teaching, all the dragons sincerely vowed to receive and uphold the Three Refuges for the rest of their lives.

At that time, among them was the blind dragon’s wife. Her mouth was ulcerated and filled with maggots, and it stank like urine and excrement. Even the foul substances issuing from the female organ of her body were dreadful to behold. When she ate or drank, blood and pus flowed out. Her entire body was constantly bitten and devoured by flies, mosquitoes, and venomous insects. Her body was so fetid that no one dared look at her.

Then, with great compassion, the Buddha saw the dragon’s wife, blind and afflicted in this manner, and asked:

‘Why must you bear such a repulsive body? What karma did you commit in the past?’

The female dragon replied:

‘World-Honored One, this body of mine is assailed by every kind of suffering, without even a moment’s respite. Even if I wished to describe it, I could not. I recall that, thirty-six billion kalpas ago, for a hundred thousand years I was born among the dragons and endured suffering such as this, throughout every day and night, without a moment’s respite.

Furthermore, ninety-one kalpas ago, in the time of Vipasyin Buddha, I was once a bhiksuni within the Buddha-Dharma. My thoughts were constantly preoccupied with sexual desire, more intensely than a drunkard craves wine. Although I had gone forth, I did not practice in accordance with the Dharma.

Within the monastery, I transgressed the precepts and discipline, and therefore I have continually been scorched and burned within the three evil realms.’

After recounting this, the dragon said to the Buddha:

‘Please save me!’

Having heard the dragon truthfully relate these matters, the Buddha took a little water and poured it into her mouth. At that moment, the flames, maggots, blood, and pus all vanished. Her mouth became clean, and the dragon again said:

‘Great Sage, Tathagata! I recall that in the past, during the time of Kasyapa Buddha, I was once a lay devotee. One day, while I was plowing a field, a bhiksu came and asked me for fifty coins. At that time, I replied:

“Wait until the grain ripens, and I will make an offering to you.”

The bhiksu said:

“If you cannot give fifty coins, then even ten coins will suffice.”

At that time, I became angry and said to the bhiksu:

“Even if it were only ten coins, I would not give them.”’

At that time, the bhikshu became sorrowful and departed.

[85c] On yet another occasion, I entered the monastery orchard and stole ten mangoes belonging to the Sangha presently assembled, then ate them by myself. Because of this evil karma, I suffered in the hell realms. When that evil karma had not yet been exhausted, I was reborn as a hungry dragon in a desolate marsh, constantly bitten and gnawed by insects that devoured my flesh. Blood and pus flowed all over me, and I suffered from hunger and thirst. As for that bhikshu, because of the evil karma of his anger, after death he fell into rebirth as a small venomous dragon living beneath my armpit and sucking my blood. Its scorching heat pervades my entire body and is unbearable. Therefore, my body burns with heat and is drenched in blood and pus.

The dragon again addressed the Buddha:

– I beseech you, out of loving compassion, to take pity on me and save me, so that I may quickly be freed from this venomous dragon, my karmic enemy!

The Buddha then scooped up water in his hand, made a vow, and recounted:

– Long ago, during a time of famine, I vowed to become an animal with an immense body of immeasurable length and breadth. Then, using spiritual power, I proclaimed from midair:

– In that desolate marsh there is a huge animal named Free from Anger. You should go and take its flesh as food so that you may be relieved of hunger.

– Humans, nonhumans, and others heard these words and all vied with one another to come and eat its flesh.

Upon hearing the Buddha make this vow and recount this truth, the small dragon beneath the other dragon’s armpit crawled out. Together, they addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One! When will our lives as dragons end and the retribution for our offenses be completely exhausted?

The Buddha said:

– This karma is extremely grave and will cause you to fall into the Five Uninterrupted Hells^[26]. Why is this? Suppose there are possessions of the Sangha of the four directions^[27], possessions of the Sangha presently assembled^[28], or things offered by deeply faithful donors, such as flowers, fruit, orchards, food, drink, beds, mats, medicines, and so forth. If one arbitrarily uses them for oneself or takes them outside to give to laypeople, friends, or acquaintances, this offense is extremely grave, and one must undergo retribution in Avici Hell. Therefore, you should undertake and uphold the Three Refuges. Only after taking refuge in the Three Jewels will you be able to live in the cool stream. Recite them three times and receive them three times in this way, and you will be able to dwell peacefully in that stream.”

The Buddha then spoke these verses for the dragons:

Better to take a keen blade and cut one’s body,

Severing every bone and joint, flesh, skin, and sinew,

Than for worldly laypeople to take any share

Of property offered by donors.

Better to swallow red-hot iron blazing fiercely,

Causing flames to rise from mouth and tongue,

Than for laypeople secretly to consume

The food and drink of the Sangha.

A layperson dwelling in the household life

Should rather take a great fire like Mount Sumeru

With their own hands and place it in their mouth

Than dare to use possessions of the Sangha.

[86a] Better to take a keen blade and cut one’s body,

Then eat one’s own skin and flesh,

Than, as a layperson dwelling at home,

Accept food belonging to the Sangha.

Better to cast oneself into a fire

Blazing fiercely throughout a chamber,

Than, as a layperson dwelling at home,

Sit or lie upon the Sangha’s beds.

Better to take an iron pestle heated in fierce flames,

Grasp it in one’s hand, and be burned away,

Than, as a layperson dwelling at home,

Secretly use possessions of the Sangha.

Better to take keen and finely honed knives and pestles

And oneself flay and pound one’s own flesh,

Than to give rise to even a single angry thought

Toward pure monastics.

Better to gouge out one’s own two eyes

And cast and throw them upon the ground

Than to look with an angry mind

At one who cultivates wholesome Dharma.

Better to wrap one’s body in sheets of hot iron,

Finding no ease while walking, standing, sitting, or lying down,

Than to give rise to anger and jealousy

While wearing the Sangha’s pure robes.

Better to drink lye or brine,

Or boiling water that scalds the mouth like fire,

Than to harbor greed, anger, and malice

While taking medicine offered by donors to the Sangha.

After the Buddha spoke these verses, all fourteen thousand dragons undertook and upheld the Three Refuges. All the painful karmic retributions of their past and present were extinguished. They developed profound faith in the Three Jewels, and their minds never regressed. Other hosts of dragons, numbering eight billion, also resolved to take refuge in the Three Jewels.

The Mahasamnipata Sutra states: “There was a bhikshu who received all the necessary requisites. All these requisites had been offered by faithful donors. Yet he either consumed them himself, gave them to others, or secretly took and concealed them together with others, using them privately in secluded places. Because of such deeds, he fell into the three lower realms and continually endured suffering.

“There are also impoverished and lowly beings who have no peace or security, and therefore leave the household life in hopes of obtaining wealth, security, and happiness. Yet after leaving the household life, they become indolent, refuse to read and recite the scriptures, and do not diligently cultivate meditation and wisdom, but only delight in meddling in the affairs of the Sangha.

“There was also a bhikshu who diligently cultivated wholesome Dharma day and night, reading and reciting the scriptures, practicing seated meditation, and cultivating wisdom without a moment’s negligence. Through this merit, he received abundant offerings from the four assemblies. At that time, while serving as a steward, he obtained many offerings and either used them privately or secretly gave them to familiar laypeople.

Because of this karmic condition, he remained for a long time in the lower realms, emerging only to enter them again. Such a fool does not fear how heavy or light the retribution of future lives may be. [86b] Therefore, I now admonish my shramana disciples: ‘Be mindful of the Dharma and practice it. Do not merely declare, “I am a shramana who practices in accordance with the true Dharma.” Because you rely upon the Sangha, you receive things offered by donors, such as cakes, vegetables, flowers, and fruit.

Yet these are food belonging to the Sangha. You must not arbitrarily take them and give them to laypeople, nor may you say, “These things are mine,” and eat separately^[29] from the assembly.’

“Furthermore, you must not take possessions of the Sangha and hoard them, seek profit from them, buy and sell them, or barter them, claiming that you are acting for the benefit of others, thereby incurring the censure of the world. Nor may you buy cheaply and sell dearly, competing with worldly people for profit. Nor should you, because of matters concerning food and drink or the Sangha, cause sentient beings to fall into the three lower realms. You should exhort them to abide in wholesome Dharma so that they may have steadfast faith in the Three Jewels, and gather in and protect all sentient beings, including your parents, so that all may attain peace and realize the three gates of liberation^[30].”

The Sutra of the Ten Wheels states: “If possessions of the Sangha of the four directions, necessary requisites, and so forth are not distributed to those who uphold the precepts and those who break them alike, then after death the person responsible will fall into Avici Hell.”

XVII.3. Caution Concerning Calamity

The Old Miscellaneous Parables Sutra states: “Long ago, in a certain kingdom, the five grains yielded abundant harvests, the people lived in peace and happiness, and there was no illness. They sang and danced day and night, and no one had any worries. The king then asked his ministers:

– We have heard that calamity exists beneath heaven. What is it?

The ministers replied:

– We do not know.

The king then sent an official to a neighboring kingdom to seek out and purchase calamity. At that time, a heavenly deity transformed into a human being and entered the marketplace to sell a strange animal bound with iron chains, resembling a pig in appearance.

Seeing it, the official asked:

– What animal is this?

The heavenly deity replied:

– It is the mother of calamity.

– Is it for sale?

– It is.

– How much does it cost?

– Ten million.

– What does it eat?

– It eats one sheng of needles.

After purchasing the mother of calamity, the official ordered every household to search for needles. Thus, people gathered in groups of two and three to search for needles, throwing all the commanderies and counties into disorder and causing the people to suffer many calamities and sorrows.”

The official reported to the king:

– Although we have obtained the mother of calamity, it has instead thrown the populace into disorder and deprived men and women of their livelihoods. Now I wish to kill it, but I do not know whether Your Majesty will permit it.

The king said:

– Very well.

The official immediately took it outside the city and intended to kill it, but when stabbed, it could not be pierced; when slashed, it could not be severed; when hacked, it would not die. When firewood was piled around it and set ablaze, its body became red as fire, and then it fled. When it ran through a village, the village burned; when it reached a market, the market burned; when it entered a city, the city burned; when it entered a country, the country burned, causing the people turmoil, hunger, and misery. Such suffering arose from becoming weary of happiness and inviting calamity upon oneself.”

This story is an analogy for men who are constantly scorched by the fire of lust for female beauty. People of the world are so deeply attached to sensual desire that even at death they still do not recognize its suffering.

XVII.4. Exercising Caution Regarding One’s Circumstances

[86c] The Sutra of the Mindfulness of the True Dharma records: “The Peacock Bodhisattva told the assembly:

– If a bhikshu fears ill repute, he should stay far away from places of wrongdoing:

Do not enter places where women engage in amusement.

Do not enter taverns.

Do not associate or converse with sellers of liquor.

Do not associate or converse with drunkards.

Do not keep company with thieves.

Do not associate with those who have previously committed evil deeds.

Do not associate with those who delight in fighting.

Do not associate with vicious people who secretly harm others.

Do not associate with those who have repeatedly abandoned the path.

Do not associate with those addicted to gambling.

Do not associate with singers and dancers.

Do not associate with children.

Do not associate with those infatuated with female beauty.

Do not associate with hot-tempered people.

Do not associate with those who speak recklessly.

Do not associate with greedy people.

Do not associate with those who engage in fraudulent trade.

Do not frequent cunning people who loiter at roadsides and market corners and are despised by others.

Do not associate with those who dig ponds or dredge lakes.

Do not associate with eunuchs, and do not travel on the same road as women.

Do not associate with elephant trainers.

Do not associate with hired killers.

Do not associate with horse trainers.

Do not associate with those who cling to the view of annihilationism.

Do not associate with those who observe no precepts.”

A bhikshu should not associate with such corrupt people. If he associates with them, his conduct will come to resemble theirs.

Therefore, a bhikshu must fear ill repute and should neither travel on the same road as nor associate with people whose conduct is improper.

The bodhisattva then spoke these verses:

If one associates with the wicked,

One will become unwholesome;

Therefore, one must shun evil

And commit no unwholesome deed.

Whomever one befriends,

One will surely remain close to them;

Through such closeness, one acts likewise,

Whether wholesomely or unwholesomely.

Those who esteem what is good

Should associate with the virtuous;

Thus, they will attain peace and happiness,

For goodness does not bring suffering.

Drawing near the good increases merit;

Drawing near the wicked increases faults.

Merit and calamity

Are briefly explained in this way.

If one associates with good people,

One will gain a fine reputation;

But if one associates with the unwholesome,

One will be despised by everyone.

One should always draw near the virtuous

And stay far away from evil friends;

Through association with good people,

One abandons all evil deeds.

[87a] The Samyukta Agama Sutra records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhikshus:

– Suppose a wooden pestle were used to pound throughout the day and night without ever stopping; it would quickly wear away. So too, bhikshus, those who from time immemorial have failed to guard the sense faculties, have known no moderation in eating and drinking, and have not diligently remained wakeful at the beginning and end of the night to cultivate wholesome dharmas—know that throughout each day such people only diminish and do not increase wholesome dharmas, just like that wooden pestle.”

Furthermore, the Sutra of Self-Love records: “The Buddha taught:

– People living in the world think evil thoughts with the mind, speak evil words with the mouth, and commit evil deeds with the body. These three kinds of karma originate in the mind and are then manifested through the body and mouth, creating evil karma and harming sentient beings. Because they have been harmed, sentient beings harbor resentment and inwardly vow to take revenge in this very life. Or after death, their consciousness may be born in the heavens and later descend to exact revenge; or they may be born as humans, or fall into birth as animals, hungry ghosts, or beings in hell, and again strike and kill one another. All this results from evil karma in former lives and does not occur without cause.

The Buddha spoke these verses:

Mind is the master of all dharmas;

Mind precedes them, and mind creates them.

If, with a deluded mind,

One speaks or acts,

Then suffering born of wrongdoing follows,

As a wheel follows the track.

Mind is the master of all dharmas;

Mind precedes them, and mind creates them.

If, with a benevolent and wholesome mind,

One speaks or acts,

Then blessed recompense follows,

As a shadow always follows the form.”

The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, during a drought, the ponds and lakes dried up, and a soft-shelled turtle could not reach a lake to seek food. At that time, a large crane flew down and alighted beside it. The soft-shelled turtle followed the crane, pleading and hoping to be rescued. The crane then grasped the turtle in its beak and flew over cities, settlements, and villages. The turtle would not remain silent but kept asking, ‘What place is this?’ The crane then opened its beak to answer. The moment it did so, the turtle fell to the ground, where people caught and ate it.”

Deluded people of the world who do not guard their speech are just like this soft-shelled turtle.

The Sutra of Parables from the Dhammapada records: “The Buddha told the brahmin:

– In the world, there are four things that people find difficult to accomplish. Whoever practices them gains blessed recompense and does not suffer poverty. These four are:

1. While young and strong, not giving rise to arrogance

2. While old, remaining diligent and not being greedy or lustful

3. When possessing precious wealth, always thinking of giving

4. When following a teacher to study, faithfully accepting correct instruction.

This old man did not practice these four things. Moreover, he regarded his life and wealth as permanent and never considered success or failure. In an instant, they will vanish, just as a crane guarding a dried-up pond gains absolutely nothing. The Buddha then spoke these verses:

Arrogant by day and night,

Still lustful in old age,

Possessing wealth but giving none,

Not heeding the Buddha’s words—

To commit these four evils

Is to bring harm upon oneself.

Alas! Old age arrives;

Complexion fades, and skin wrinkles.

The young are highly valued,

[87b] While the old are treated with contempt.

Having failed to cultivate the holy life,

And having gained no wealth,

In old age one is like a white crane

Guarding a dried-up pond.

Having neither kept the precepts

Nor acquired wealth,

Now aged, weak, and spent of strength,

How can regret be of any avail?

In old age one is like an autumn leaf,

Tattered and soiled;

With death already close at hand,

How can regret be of any avail?”

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasure Store records: “The Buddha said:

– Long ago, the king of Kashi was named Evil Tree. He constantly acted contrary to the Dharma, ruling tyrannically and without the Way, thereby bringing suffering upon the entire populace. Whenever traveling merchants arrived from various places, the king seized all their fine and precious goods without paying for them. Consequently, precious goods became extremely expensive throughout the country. People spread the news from one to another, and the king’s evil reputation became known everywhere.

At that time, the parrot king^[31] who lived in the forest heard all the travelers condemning the king’s cruelty and thought: ‘Although I am merely a bird, I still know that such conduct is wrong. I must now go and show the king the path of goodness. If the king heeds my words, he will surely think, “Even that parrot king knows how to speak virtuous and wholesome words, whereas I, though a king, allow myself to be reproached by it?” Perhaps he will then reform.’

Having thought this, the parrot king flew to the king’s garden, circled around, and perched on a tree branch. Just then, the king’s consort entered the garden for a stroll. The parrot king immediately flapped his wings, cried out loudly, and said: ‘The king is now truly tyrannical and devoid of the Way. He oppresses the entire populace and even kills birds and beasts. Humans and animals alike are filled with anger, and cries of grief resound throughout the realm. The consort is just as cruel as the king. As parents of the people, how can you behave in such a way?’”

Hearing this, the queen became exceedingly angry and thought, “How can this little bird rebuke me so harshly?”

Thereupon, the queen ordered someone to pursue and capture the parrot.

Without the slightest fear, the parrot alighted on the hand of the person who intended to catch it. Having obtained the bird, the queen brought it to the king. The king asked the parrot:

“Why did you rebuke me?”

The parrot replied:

“I spoke of Your Majesty’s wrongful deeds because I wished to benefit you. How would I dare rebuke Your Majesty?”

The king then asked:

“What have I done wrong?”

The parrot replied:

“Your Majesty has seven faults that endanger your life.”

The king asked:

“What are those seven?”

The parrot recounted:

1. You are infatuated with women and do not esteem upright people.

2. You indulge in drinking and neglect the affairs of state.

3. You are addicted to gambling and do not uphold the laws.

4. You lack loving-kindness and devote yourself to hunting and killing.

5. You delight in harsh speech and do not speak kind and wholesome words.

6. You impose excessive corvée labor and heavy taxes, and your punishments are severe, many times harsher than customary.

7. Disregarding righteousness, you seize the property of the people.

“These are the seven faults that endanger Your Majesty. There are also three things that cause the kingdom to decline.”

The king again asked:

“What are those three?”

The parrot said:

1. Associating closely with sycophantic and wicked people.

[87c] 2. Not drawing near to the worthy and talented, and not learning what is good and right.

3. Delighting in invading other countries while neglecting the welfare of the people.

“If Your Majesty does not eliminate these three things, the kingdom will perish before long. As sovereign, you are the one upon whom the entire country looks and relies. A king should be like a bridge, rescuing and assisting all the people.

A king should be like a balance, treating intimates and strangers equally. A king should be like a road, following in the footsteps of the sages. A king should be like the sun, illuminating the entire world.

A king should be like the moon, bringing coolness to all things. A king should be like parents, lovingly nurturing all the people. A king should be like the lofty heavens, sheltering all beings.

A king should be like the vast earth, sustaining all things. A king should be like a flame, burning away calamities for the populace. A king should be like flowing water, permeating everywhere.

A king should emulate the wheel-turning sage-kings of the past, teaching and transforming sentient beings through the Dharma of the ten wholesome actions.^[32]”

Upon hearing these words, the king felt deeply ashamed and thought, “The parrot’s words are truly sincere and earnest. Though I am the king of a nation, I have acted contrary to the Way. From now on, I must heed the parrot’s counsel, cultivate righteous conduct, and honor the bird as my teacher.”

From that time onward, moral principles were promulgated throughout the kingdom, and its ill repute disappeared. The queen and all the civil and military officials became wholeheartedly loyal and respectful. The people throughout the country all rejoiced.

The parrot at that time was I. King Evil Tree of the kingdom of Kasi is now the chief minister. The queen at that time is now the chief minister’s wife.

XVII.5. Exercising Care with Articles of Use

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “The Buddha told the bhiksus:

“In the past, in the city of Varanasi in the kingdom of Kasi, there was a brahmin who dug a public well in the wilderness so that travelers and cowherds could draw water from it for drinking and bathing.

“One evening, a pack of jackals came to drink the water that remained pooled upon the ground, but the king of the jackals refused to drink that dirty water. He therefore thrust his head into a jar to drink. After drinking, he tossed the jar high into the air and dashed it against the ground, breaking it, although the mouth of the jar remained caught around his neck.

“Seeing this, the other jackals said to the jackal king:

“‘Even leaves that hold water should be preserved if they can still be used. How much more should this jar, which benefits travelers, be protected? Why did you smash it?’

“The jackal king said:

“‘I did it merely for amusement. Why should I think about anything else?’

“Travelers then informed the brahmin:

“‘Your jar has been broken.’

“The brahmin made another just like the first, but the jackal king broke it as well. This happened fourteen times. The other jackals repeatedly admonished him, but the jackal king still refused to listen.

“The brahmin then thought, ‘I shall keep watch and see who is breaking these jars,’ and discovered that it was a jackal. [88a] The brahmin further thought, ‘I dug this well to perform a meritorious deed, yet I have met with such trouble.’ Thereupon, he made a sturdy wooden jar that was difficult to break, with an opening through which the jackal could easily insert its head but from which it would be difficult to withdraw it, and placed it beside the well. Then, holding a staff, he concealed himself in a hidden place and waited to catch the jackal.

“After the travelers had finished drinking, the jackal king came to drink as before. When he had finished, he again dashed the jar against the ground, but it did not break. At once, the brahmin emerged with his staff and beat the jackal to death. At that moment, a deva in the sky spoke this verse:

A good friend speaks wholesome words,

But the stubborn one refuses to listen.

Through obstinacy he invites disaster;

Thus does he bring harm upon himself.

Therefore, this foolish jackal

Has brought calamity upon himself.

“The Buddha told the bhiksus:

“‘The jackal king at that time was the present Devadatta, and the pack of jackals at that time are now the bhiksus who admonished Devadatta. You should know that, in the past, Devadatta repeatedly refused to heed the admonitions of his own kind and thereby destroyed himself and lost his life. Today, he again refuses to heed the admonitions of the bhiksus; consequently, he has fallen into the evil destinies, where he will long endure suffering.’”

There is a verse that says:

Always exercise care,

And examine yourself.

Do not speak duplicitous words;

Let the mind be free of deluded thoughts.

Have few desires and know contentment;

Do not scrutinize this and that.

Constantly and vigilantly guard

All experiences of sorrow and joy.

Notes:

^[1] Ten bhumis 十地 (Skt. bhūmi): the ten stages of attainment of a bodhisattva, as taught in the Avatamsaka Sutra. They are the Bhumi of Joy, the Bhumi Free from Defilement, the Luminous Bhumi, the Radiant Bhumi, the Bhumi Difficult to Conquer, the Bhumi of Direct Presence, the Far-Going Bhumi, the Immovable Bhumi, the Bhumi of Excellent Wisdom, and the Dharma-Cloud Bhumi.

^[2] Four foundations of mindfulness (四念處; Skt. catvāri smṛty-upasthānāni; also called the four abidings of mindfulness): four objects upon which the mind abides. They constitute one category among the seven categories of the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment and are four methods of concentrating mindfulness upon a single object, guarding against and preventing distracting and deluded thoughts from arising in order to attain the truth.

^[3] Twelve links of dependent origination 十二因緣 (Skt. dvādaśāṅgapratītya-samutpāda): twelve interconnected conditions that serve as causes and effects for one another, giving rise to the existence and cessation of sentient beings.

^[4] Warmth 煗: the first stage among the four wholesome roots. When contemplation dwelling upon the shared characteristics of all objects has been perfected to the utmost degree, it gives rise to a wholesome root conducive to the factors of decisive discernment. This wholesome root is called the Dharma of Warmth.

^[5] Summit 頂 (Skt. mūrdhāna): the second stage among the four wholesome roots.

^[6] Patience 忍: a stage of cultivation preceding the path of seeing, attained after the wholesome root of Summit has been completely perfected.

^[7] Foremost in the World 世第一: the fourth stage among the four stages of preparatory practice. It is the ultimate form of contaminated wisdom and is supreme among mundane dharmas.

^[8] Patchouli fragrance (藿香; Skt. tamālapatra): the fragrance of the patchouli plant.

^[9] Musk fragrance (麝香; Skt. kastūrī): an aromatic substance obtained from the musk deer.

^[10] Yojana 由旬 (Skt. yojana): an ancient Indian unit of distance. According to fascicle 2 of the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, one yojana denotes the distance covered by a king’s army in one day.

^[11] Liubo chess (lục bác kì 陸博棋): an ancient type of chess played by two people, consisting of twelve pieces, six black and six white, with each side holding six pieces to play against the other.

^[12] Xun 旬: ten days.

^[13] Market superintendent (thị lệnh 巿令): the person who administers a market.

^[14] Golden Mountain (kim sơn 金山): Mount Sumeru, so called because the sand at its foot is entirely made of gold.

^[15] Four virtues (tứ đức 四德): the four virtues of the Dharma body of the Tathagata. They are permanence, bliss, self, and purity.

^[16] Golden River (Kim Hà 金河): a place in the kingdom of Kushinagara where the Buddha entered nirvana.

^[17] Imperial palace (đế vương 帝王; the original text reads: jade gate, ngọc môn 玉門): according to the Chinese Buddhist Canon, “jade gate” should be emended to “royal gate,” meaning the palace gate.

^[18] Dharani (đà-la-ni 陀羅尼; Skt. dhāraṇī): the power of wisdom that gathers together and retains the immeasurable Buddha-Dharma, preventing it from being forgotten or lost.

^[19] The Ha-dieu Anagamin Sutra (Ha-điêu A-na-hàm kinh 呵鵰阿那含經): a sutra in one fascicle, translated during the Eastern Jin dynasty by the Tripitaka Master Zhu Tanwulan, a native of India. Its content concerns the Buddha’s praise of the lay devotee Ha-dieu Anagamin.

^[20] Champaka 瞻蔔: the name of a tree that grows in deep forests and on hills and mountains in tropical regions of India. The tree is tall and large; its leaves are 0.21 meters long, glossy on the upper surface, and covered with a white bloom and fine hairs underneath. Its flowers are golden yellow, and their fragrance carries for several miles. Fragrant liquid can be extracted from the bark; the bark, leaves, and flowers can all be used to prepare medicines or fragrances.

^[21] Eranda 伊蘭: a plant belonging to the castor-oil family, with an unpleasant odor; its seeds are pressed for oil.

^[22] Three benefits (tam ích 三益): three benefits, namely encountering a noble being, becoming free from suffering, and attaining peace and joy of mind.

^[23] Four deportments (the original text reads tứ khích hạnh 四隙行): walking, standing, lying down, and sitting.

^[24] Knowledge of former lives (túc mạng tâm 宿命心; also called knowledge of former lives): the knowledge that discerns the different forms of karmic retribution—good and evil, suffering and happiness—experienced in one past life or throughout immeasurable past lives.

^[25] Ruchika 樓至 (Skt. Rudita, Rucika): the last Buddha to appear among the one thousand Buddhas of the Auspicious Eon.

^[26] Hell of the Five Uninterrupted Retributions (Ngũ Vô Gián địa ngục 五無間地獄): the hell in which there are five uninterrupted retributions, namely the Avici hell. The five uninterrupted retributions are uninterrupted time, uninterrupted form, uninterrupted suffering, uninterrupted fruition, and uninterrupted life.

^[27] Property of the Sangha of the four quarters (tứ phương tăng vật 四方僧物): offerings that come from elsewhere and constitute communal property for the use of all bhikshus, such as monasteries, granaries, fields and gardens, cooked food and grain, clothing, medicines, and so forth.

^[28] Property of the Sangha presently assembled (hiện tiền tăng vật 現前僧物): articles that the Sangha presently assembled may use according to the material necessities of life, such as clothing, food, medicines, and the personal effects left by a deceased bhikshu.

^[29] Eating apart from the assembly (biệt chúng thực 別眾食): not eating together with the Sangha.

^[30] Three gates of liberation (tam giải thoát môn 三解脫門): the three gates of liberation leading to nirvana, comprising the gate of emptiness, the gate of signlessness, and the gate of wishlessness.

^[31] Parrot 鸚鵡: a parrot.

^[32] Ten wholesome actions (thập thiện 十善): ten wholesome principles through which both householders and monastics must guard body, speech, and mind against transgression. They are: not killing living beings; not stealing; not engaging in sexual misconduct; not speaking falsely; not speaking frivolously; not speaking divisively; not speaking harshly; not being covetous; not harboring anger; and not holding deluded views.