諸經要集

Editor-in-chief: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XIII. REPAYING KINDNESS

Consists of four parts: Introduction, Repaying Kindness, Ingratitude, and Concluding Verses of Exhortation.

XIII.1. Introduction

[67c] The Three Jewels bestow exceedingly great kindness upon sentient beings. The Buddha is the benevolent father of the four kinds of beings, teaching and transforming throughout the ten directions and regarding all equally as his only child. However inferior their capacities may be, beings still receive the beneficent influence of his teaching; however keen and discerning their wisdom may be, he still wishes to instruct them. Therefore, King Udayana carved an image from sandalwood, and the image emitted brilliant light; King Prasenajit cast an image in gold, and the image left its seat and went forth to bow at the Buddha’s feet.

From that time onward, auspicious signs appeared repeatedly, and their renown spread afar, causing people everywhere to take refuge. By recollecting the Buddha, offenses are extinguished and merit arises; by revering the Buddha, the wholesome mind remains intact through many lives. This is because the Tathagata nurtures our Dharma-body, while our parents nurture our physical body. Their kindness is profound and lofty, and difficult to repay. How, then, could those who betray such weighty kindness not remain forever drifting and sinking in the sea of suffering?

Thus, a wife secretly poisoned her husband, yet through this the husband received a reward from the king. A woodcutter treacherously harmed a bear and immediately suffered the present-life retribution of losing his hands. Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Gratitude is the root of great compassion and the foremost gateway through which wholesome karma is opened. One who is grateful is respected and cherished by others, gains widespread renown, is reborn in the heavens after death, and ultimately attains Buddhahood. One who does not know gratitude is worse even than an animal.”

XIII.2. Repaying Kindness

The Sutra of the Contemplation of the True Dharma records: “There are four kinds of kindness that are difficult to repay: first, the kindness of one’s mother; second, the kindness of one’s father; third, the kindness of the Tathagata; and fourth, the kindness of one’s teachers and elders. If anyone makes offerings to these four, the resulting merit and blessings will be immeasurable. In this life, that person will be praised by everyone, and in the future will attain Buddhahood.”

The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra records: “If someone asks:

– Who knows kindness and repays kindness?

One should immediately answer:

– The Buddha is one who knows kindness and repays kindness.

Why is this so? Because in the world no one knows and repays kindness as the Buddha does.”

The Ekottarika Agama records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

– If sentient beings know kindness and repay kindness, they will not forget even a small kindness, much less a great one. [68a] Such persons are truly worthy of reverence. Even if people of this kind are a hundred thousand yojanas away from me, they are as though close beside me, and I always praise them. If sentient beings neither know nor repay kindness, they will not remember even a great kindness, much less a small one. Such persons cannot draw near to me, nor do I draw near to them. Even if they wear the sanghati robe beside me, they remain far from me. Therefore, bhiksus, you must know kindness and repay kindness; do not follow the ways of the ungrateful.”

The Sutra of Sariputra’s Questions records: “The Buddha taught:

– Disciples of the Buddha should repay kindness according to their abilities, regardless of whether what they can do is great or small.

Manjusri asked the Buddha:

– Why does the Tathagata say that the kindness of one’s parents must not go unrequited, while also saying that the kindness of one’s teachers and elders is immeasurable? Which kindness, then, is the greatest?

The Buddha taught:

– A householder should always remain close to and dutifully support his parents, but should not consider the kindness of those who gave him birth and raised him equal to that of a worldly teacher. Because the kindness of giving birth and nurturing is profound and weighty, it is said to be great. If one studies worldly knowledge under a teacher and broadens one’s understanding, that is the second greatest kindness. One who leaves the household life forsakes the parents’ house of birth and death and enters the house of the Buddha-Dharma. It is through the teacher’s efforts that one receives the subtle and wondrous teachings. The teacher is precisely the one who nurtures and develops our Dharma-body and uses the wealth of merit to cultivate our wisdom-life. Therefore, this kindness is boundlessly great, surpassing even the kindness of giving birth and nurturing.”

The Sutra of the Intermediate State records: “The Buddha asked Maitreya:

– In Jambudvipa,^[13] from the time an infant is born until the age of three, how much milk does the mother provide while carrying and nursing the child?

Maitreya replied:

– A person of Jambudvipa consumes one hundred and eighty hu of milk, and while still in the mother’s womb takes one-fourth of her food. A person of Eastern Purvavideha^[14] consumes one thousand eight hundred hu of milk from birth until the age of three. A person of Western Aparagodaniya^[15] consumes eight hundred and eight hu of milk from birth until the age of three. Because there is no milk in Northern Uttarakuru,^[16] when an infant is born there, it is placed at the roadside, and passersby allow it to suck their fingers. After seven days, it is already fully grown.

The beings in the intermediate state of the four continents all live by partaking of fragrances carried upon the wind.”

The Sutra on the Difficulty of Repaying Kindness states: “If someone carried his father upon his left shoulder and his mother upon his right shoulder for a full thousand years, allowing his parents to urinate and defecate upon his back, he still would not have fully repaid their kindness.”

The Ekottarika Agama states: “The merit of a filial person who supports and nurtures his parents is equal to the merit of a bodhisattva bound to only one more birth.”

The Sutra Collection of the Six Paramitas records: “Long ago, the bodhisattva was a wealthy man of immeasurable riches who constantly made offerings to the Three Jewels and felt compassion for sentient beings.

One day, while passing through a marketplace, the bodhisattva saw a soft-shelled turtle that had been caught and put up for sale. Moved by compassion, the bodhisattva asked to buy it. Knowing that the bodhisattva was compassionate, the seller demanded an exorbitant price:

– Its price is one million coins.

The bodhisattva said:

– Very well, I will buy it.

The bodhisattva then took the turtle home and released it into a river. Watching it swim away, he felt immeasurable joy and made this vow: ‘May sentient beings who encounter danger be safe, just as you are today.’

After he had made this great vow, the Buddhas praised him.

At midnight the following night, the turtle came and gnawed at the door of the bodhisattva’s house. Hearing the strange sound, the bodhisattva opened the door and saw the turtle. The turtle said to the bodhisattva:

– Through your kindness, my life was preserved, yet I do not know how to repay you. As a creature that lives beneath the water, I know when the waters will rise and fall. A great flood is about to occur, and it will cause immense devastation. Please quickly prepare a boat. When the time comes, I will return to guide you.

[68b] The bodhisattva said:

– Excellent!

The next morning, the bodhisattva entered the royal palace and related the entire matter to the king. Because the bodhisattva had long been renowned as a good man, the king believed him. The king immediately ordered the people to move from low-lying places to higher ground.

When the waters rose, the turtle swam to the bodhisattva and said:

– Quickly board your boat and follow me, and you will be safe.

The bodhisattva’s boat then followed behind the turtle.

After they had traveled some distance, they saw a snake swimming toward the boat. The bodhisattva said:

– Save the snake.

The turtle replied:

– Yes.

After they had gone farther, they encountered a fox being swept away by the waters. The bodhisattva said:

– Save the fox.

The turtle again replied:

– Yes!

Proceeding still farther, they encountered a man being swept away by the waters. His face was pallid, and, looking up toward the sky, he continually cried out for someone to save his life.

The bodhisattva said:

– Pull that man aboard.

The turtle replied:

– Do not rescue him! Ordinary people have deceitful minds, seldom keep their word, delight in pursuing power and influence, forget kindness and betray righteousness, and commit acts of treachery.

The bodhisattva said:

– I rescue even animals; if I were to disdain a human being, how could I be called compassionate? I cannot bear to abandon him!

The bodhisattva then pulled the man aboard. The turtle said:

– You will regret this!

The bodhisattva’s boat reached a safe country. The turtle then bade farewell, saying to the bodhisattva:

– I have now repaid your kindness and righteousness. I shall take my leave.

The bodhisattva said:

– When I attain the state of the Tathagata, the Unattached, the Perfectly and Fully Enlightened One, I shall liberate you.

The turtle replied:

“Yes!”

The soft-shelled turtle took its leave, and the snake and fox also bade farewell, each going its own way.

The fox dug a burrow in which to live and unexpectedly discovered one hundred jin of pure gold buried there by someone of old. Delighted, it said:

“I shall offer this gold to the bodhisattva to repay his kindness.”

Having said this, the fox went to the bodhisattva and said:

“Through your kindness in rescuing me, my life was preserved. While digging a burrow in which to live, I found one hundred jin of gold. This burrow is neither a grave mound nor a dwelling, so this gold was neither stolen nor taken by robbery. I sincerely wish to bring it and offer it to you, worthy one.”

The bodhisattva reflected, “If I do not accept it, it will merely be abandoned and wasted. It would be better to accept it for the time being and distribute it among the poor to aid them. Would that not be excellent?”

He therefore accepted the gold. The man whom the bodhisattva had rescued saw this and said:

“Give me half.”

The bodhisattva then gave the man ten jin of gold. The man said again:

“You dug up a grave to steal gold, a crime punishable by death. Why will you not give me half? I shall report you to the authorities!”

The bodhisattva said:

“I wish to divide this gold equally among the poor and suffering, but you want to seize it for yourself. Is that not unjust?”

The man went and reported him to the authorities. The bodhisattva was arrested. He offered no defense, but merely turned toward the Three Jewels, repented of his faults, and remorsefully reproached himself. With compassion, he vowed, “May sentient beings soon be freed from the eight adversities and not become entangled in enmity as I am today.”

The snake and fox met to discuss the matter:

“How can we resolve this?”

The snake said:

“I shall go and rescue the bodhisattva.”

[68c] Having said this, it took a precious medicinal pill in its mouth and crawled into the prison. Seeing the bodhisattva’s body wasted and haggard, it felt deep anguish and said to him:

“I now give you this medicinal pill. Keep it with you. I shall find a way to bite the crown prince’s finger. My venom is exceedingly poisonous, and no one will be able to neutralize it. At that time, present yourself to the king and use this pill to cure the crown prince. The poison will immediately be neutralized, and you will thereby escape this calamity.”

The bodhisattva silently followed the snake’s instructions.

At that time, the crown prince’s life was in grave danger, so the king issued an order:

“If anyone can cure the crown prince of this poison, I shall appoint him prime minister and have him govern the country together with me.”

The bodhisattva asked the king for permission to treat the crown prince’s poisoning, and the prince immediately recovered completely. The king was overjoyed and asked how this had come about. The bodhisattva related the entire affair to the king. Grieved, the king reproached himself:

“I was truly foolish and benighted.”

The king then ordered that the other man be arrested and beheaded, and afterward proclaimed an amnesty for prisoners throughout the country. True to his promise, the king appointed the bodhisattva prime minister, took him by the hand, led him into the palace, and discussed the Buddha-Dharma with him. From that time onward, the country enjoyed peace and good governance.

The Buddha told the bhiksus:

“The wealthy man at that time was I myself. The king of that country was Maitreya; the soft-shelled turtle was Ananda; the fox was Sariputra; the snake was Maudgalyayana; and the man who was about to drown was Devadatta.

“Thus did the bodhisattva, with compassion and wisdom, practice the paramita of generosity.”

The New Vibhasa Treatise records: “Long ago, during the reign of King Kaniska in the kingdom of Gandhara, there was a eunuch^[17] who supervised affairs within the inner palace. One day, he went outside the city and saw a herd of five hundred oxen being driven into the inner city. He approached the herdsman and asked:

“‘What kind of oxen are these?’

“‘These are oxen being taken to be castrated,’ the herdsman replied.

“The eunuch reflected, ‘Because I committed evil karma in a former life, in this life I bear the body of a eunuch. I should now spend my money to save this herd of oxen from their impending suffering.’

“Having thought this, he asked the price of the entire herd and paid to secure their release. Through the power of the wholesome karma he had just performed, he immediately became a complete man again. Overcome with joy, he returned to the royal palace, stood outside the gate for a long while, and then sent a messenger inside to request an audience with the king. Finding this strange, the king summoned him and asked the reason. The eunuch related the entire affair from beginning to end. The king was astonished and delighted, bestowed many jewels upon him, and appointed him a high official in charge of external affairs.”

XIII.3. Ingratitude

The Sutra of One Hundred Parables records: “Long ago, there was a woman who was wanton and unrestrained, possessed of intense lust, and jealous of her husband. She constantly devised ways to harm him, but although she contrived many schemes, none succeeded. One day, learning that her husband was to serve as an envoy to a neighboring country, she secretly plotted to make poisoned pills with which to kill him. She falsely told her husband:

“‘You are now going far away as an envoy, and I fear that you may encounter hardship and privation. I have therefore prepared five hundred Pills of Delight^[18] as provisions for you to take along. Once you have left our country and entered another’s territory, you may eat these provisions whenever you are hungry.’

“Trusting his wife’s words, the husband entered the territory of the other country and was about to eat, but before he could do so, night fell, and he had to stop and spend the night in the forest. [69a] Fearing wild beasts, he climbed a tree and forgot the Pills of Delight beneath it. That very night, five hundred bandits who had stolen five hundred horses and precious treasures belonging to the king of that country also stopped to rest beneath the envoy’s tree. Because they had fled in haste, they were all hungry and thirsty. Suddenly finding the Pills of Delight beneath the tree, each bandit took and ate one. The poison then took effect, and all five hundred bandits died there simultaneously.

“At dawn, the man in the tree awoke and saw that the bandits had died beneath it. He climbed down, took a knife, and feigned stabbing and slashing the corpses. He then gathered the horses, wealth, and precious jewels and proceeded to the king of that country. Just then, the king was leading his army in pursuit of the bandits’ trail. Meeting the envoy along the way, the king asked:

“‘From what country do you come, and where did you obtain so many horses?’

“The envoy replied:

“‘I am from that other country. By chance, I encountered these bandits on the road and struck them down, eliminating the evildoers. All five hundred bandits now lie dead together beneath a tree. That is how I obtained these horses, wealth, and precious jewels, which I have now come to return to Your Majesty. If you do not believe me, please go and inspect the place where the bandits were slain.’

“The king immediately sent a trusted attendant to investigate, and everything was exactly as the envoy had said. The king joyfully praised him, regarding the deed as unprecedented. After returning to the palace, the king rewarded him most generously and also appointed him lord of a region. The king’s veteran ministers were all jealous of him and memorialized the throne:

“‘This man has come from afar and cannot yet be trusted. Why has Your Majesty so hastily favored him and treated him with excessive generosity, even granting him a position higher than those of your veteran ministers?’

“When the envoy heard this, he said:

“‘Whoever among you is strong, come and compete with me. I invite you to meet me on open ground and test your prowess.’

“The veteran ministers were terrified, and none dared oppose him.”

Later, in a vast wilderness, there was a fierce lion that blocked the road, killing people and obstructing travel. At that time, the former ministers discussed the matter among themselves: ‘He considers himself so mighty that no one can rival him. If he can now kill that lion and rid the country of this menace, it would indeed be a splendid thing.’ Having finished their discussion, they reported the matter to the king. The king agreed and again bestowed a sword and staff upon the envoy, ordering him to go and kill the lion.

He received the king’s command and resolutely went to where the lion was. When the lion saw him coming, it sprang up, roared, and charged forward. Terrified, he immediately climbed a tree. The lion opened its mouth and raised its head to look upward. Trembling with fear in the tree, he dropped his sword, which fell into the lion’s mouth and killed it on the spot. Overjoyed, he went to report to the king. The king esteemed him even more highly. At that time, everyone throughout the country revered and praised him without the slightest doubt.”

The Essential Collection of the Scriptures records: “A man entered a forest to cut firewood but could not remember the way home. He then encountered a torrential rainstorm. By evening, being hungry and cold and fearing harm from venomous creatures and wild beasts, he took shelter in a rocky cave. In the cave, he encountered a very large bear. The man was terrified and ran outside. The bear then said:

– Do not be afraid. This rocky cave is truly warm; stay here!

At that time, the rain continued for seven days, and the bear regularly brought delicious fruit and fresh water for the man. After seven days, the sky cleared, and the bear led him out and showed him a shortcut home. Before the man departed, the bear admonished him:

– My body is burdened with offenses, and many people bear resentment toward me. If anyone asks you, do not say that you encountered me.

The man replied:

– Very well!

As the man continued onward, he encountered some hunters, who asked him:

– Where have you come from? Did you see any wild animals?

The man replied:

– I saw a large bear, but it showed me the kindness of saving my life, so I cannot lead you to it.

The hunters said:

– You are a human being and should take the side of humans. Why would you care about a bear? You happened to lose your way here today; who knows when you will ever return to this place? Lead me to it, and I will give you the greater share.

The man’s resolve weakened, and he led the hunters to the bear’s cave. The hunters killed the bear and allotted the man the greater share, but as soon as he extended both hands to take the meat, both hands immediately fell away from his body. A hunter asked:

What offense have you committed?

The man replied:

– This bear treated me with the affection of a father for his son, yet today I have forgotten its kindness and betrayed its trust. That is why I have incurred this karmic retribution.

Hearing this, the hunters became frightened and did not dare eat the bear’s flesh. Instead, they brought it as an offering to the Sangha. Among them was an elder who had attained arhatship. He told the junior monks:

– This is the flesh of a bodhisattva, who in the future will become a Buddha. You must not eat this flesh.

The Sangha then built a stupa and made offerings to it. When the king heard of this matter, he issued a decree: “If anyone in my country forgets kindness and betrays trust, that person shall be expelled from the country.”

(The Vibhāṣā Treatise records: “At that time, the elder contemplated and knew that it was the flesh of a bodhisattva. They therefore gathered fragrant wood and cremated the body, then collected the remaining bones and built a stupa before which they paid homage and made offerings, just as one venerates a Buddha’s stupa.”)

The Sutra of the Nine-Colored Deer records: “Long ago, the bodhisattva was a deer whose coat had nine colors and whose antlers were white as snow. The deer often went to the riverbank to eat grass and drink water, and it befriended a crow. One day, a man was swept away by the current in the middle of the river. Struggling to stay afloat, he raised his head and cried for help: ‘O immortals, tree spirits, devas, and nāga spirits, why do you not have compassion for me!’ Hearing his cries, the deer immediately swam into the river to rescue him. The deer said:

– Climb onto my back and hold tightly to my two antlers. I shall carry you to the shore.

After being brought ashore, the man circumambulated the deer three times, bowed his head in gratitude, and said:

– I now beg to become your servant. Command me as you please, whether to fetch water, gather vegetables, or perform any other task.

The deer said:

– Enough; there is no need! From now on, each of us shall go our own way. If you wish to repay my kindness, I ask only one thing of you: do not tell anyone that I am here. People desire my hide and antlers. If they learn where I dwell, they will certainly seek me out and kill me.

At that time, the queen of that country dreamed one night of a nine-colored deer. She then pretended to be ill and remained lying down, refusing to rise. Seeing this, the king asked the reason, and the queen replied:

– Last night I dreamed of a most extraordinary deer. Its coat had nine colors, [69c] and its antlers were white as snow. I long to obtain its hide as a cushion upon which to sit and its antlers as the handle of a fly whisk. Your Majesty, please find and capture it for me. If Your Majesty cannot find it, I shall surely die!

After hearing this, the king issued a proclamation throughout the country: whoever found such a deer would be granted half the kingdom to govern jointly with him, together with a golden bowl filled with grains of silver and a silver bowl filled with grains of gold.

At that time, the man who had been swept away by the river heard the proclamation. Desiring wealth and honor, he thought: ‘A deer is merely an animal; what significance can its life or death have?’ Having thought this, he went to the royal palace and reported: ‘I know where that deer dwells.’

The king rejoiced and said: ‘If you obtain its hide and antlers and bring them here, I shall grant you half the kingdom.’ As soon as the king had spoken these words, poisonous sores suddenly appeared on the man’s face. He again addressed the king:

– Great King! Although that deer is an animal, it possesses immense spiritual power. Your Majesty should send many soldiers with me; only then can it be captured.

Following the man’s advice, the king personally led a great army directly to the bank of the Ganges. At that time, the crow was perched atop a tree. Seeing the king’s soldiers approaching in great numbers, it immediately called to the deer: ‘My friend! Wake up quickly! The king’s soldiers have arrived!’ The deer, however, remained fast asleep and knew nothing of it. Seeing this, the crow flew down and pecked the deer’s ear. The deer awoke and looked in all four directions, only to see that the soldiers had completely surrounded it, leaving no path of escape. The deer approached the king’s chariot. A great minister standing near the king was about to shoot it, but the king stopped him, saying: ‘Do not shoot! This deer appears most extraordinary; perhaps it is a heavenly spirit!’

The deer said to the king:

– Great King, do not shoot me. In the past, I saved the life of a man from your country.

Having spoken, it knelt down and asked the king:

– Who told Your Majesty that I was here?

The king pointed to the man standing beside the chariot and said:

– It was that man whose face is covered with poisonous sores who led me here.

The deer looked up at the man’s face. Choked with emotion, it shed tears that it could not restrain and said to the king:

– That man was once swept away by the river. Without cherishing my own life, I risked myself by entering the water and carrying him ashore. When we parted, he promised not to tell anyone where I dwelt. This man does not know how to repay kindness. It would have been better to pull a piece of driftwood from the river than to rescue him.

When the king heard the deer’s words, he was ashamed and rebuked the man:

– You received the deer’s life-saving kindness; why did you turn against it and seek to harm it? Having said this, the king immediately issued an order throughout the entire country:

– If anyone pursues or captures this deer, all five generations of that person’s family shall be put to death!”

From then on, a herd of several thousand deer often came to dwell in that kingdom. They ate only grass and drank water, never damaging the rice seedlings. In that kingdom, the rains were timely and the winds favorable, the five grains yielded abundant harvests, the people suffered no epidemics, and all under heaven enjoyed peace.

The Buddha said to the bhikshus:

– The nine-colored deer of that time was none other than I. The crow was Ananda; the king of that kingdom is now King Suddhodana; the king’s queen at that time is now Sundari; and the man who was being swept away by the waters is now Devadatta. Although I treated him with kindness, Devadatta^[19] still deliberately sought to harm me, yet he was unable to fulfill his wish.”

The Sutra of the Sparrow King records: “Long ago, the bodhisattva was a king of sparrows who, with a compassionate heart, sought to deliver all sentient beings. On one occasion, the bodhisattva was injured while saving the life of a sentient being.

At that time, there was a tiger that habitually devoured other animals. One day, after eating flesh, a bone became lodged between its teeth, leaving it unable to eat or drink. Its hunger and thirst persisted until it was close to death. Seeing this, the sparrow king flew into its mouth and pecked the bone loose for it. Every day, the sparrow king flew into the tiger’s mouth and pecked at the bone to dislodge it, but as a result the sparrow king’s beak was injured. Unable to eat, its body grew gaunt and wasted away.

[70a] After the bone had been removed, the tiger escaped death. The sparrow king flew up into a tree and spoke to the tiger of the Buddha’s teaching: ‘Taking life is a cruel deed; no offense is graver than this evil!’

Hearing the sparrow king’s admonition, the tiger flew into a rage and said:

– You have only just escaped from my mouth, yet you still dare to speak so much!

Seeing that the tiger could not be taught and transformed, the sparrow king immediately flew far away.

The Buddha taught:

– The sparrow king of that time was none other than I, while that tiger was none other than Devadatta.”

The Sutra of the Miscellaneous Treasures records: “At that time, Devadatta constantly harbored evil intentions and wished to harm the Buddha. He hired five hundred brahmins skilled in archery to shoot the Buddha. But when they drew their bows, every arrow they released was transformed into a flower. When the five hundred brahmins witnessed such a miraculous transformation, they became greatly afraid. They immediately cast aside their bows and arrows, bowed before the Buddha, and repented. The Buddha taught them the Dharma, and they all attained the fruit of stream-entry.

The five hundred brahmins then addressed the Buddha:

– We beseech the Blessed One to permit us to renounce the household life and study the Way.

The Buddha said:

– Come, bhikshus!

The hair and beards of the five hundred brahmins fell away of themselves, and Dharma robes appeared upon their bodies. The Buddha again taught them the Dharma, enabling them all to attain the fruit of arhatship.

At that time, the bhikshus addressed the Buddha:

– The spiritual power of the Blessed One is truly extraordinary. Devadatta constantly seeks to harm the Buddha, yet you always arouse loving-kindness toward him.

The Buddha said:

– It is not so only in this life. In a past age, in the kingdom of Varanasi, there was a merchant leader named Ungrateful. One day, he and five hundred merchants went to sea in search of jewels. After finding the jewels, on their return journey they came to a deep chasm of swirling waters and were seized by rakshasas beneath the water, so their ship could go no farther. Everyone was terrified and cried out together for help:

– Deities of heaven, deities of earth, deities of the sun, and deities of the moon, please have mercy upon us and come to our aid.

At that time, there was a great turtle whose back was one league wide. Hearing their cries for help, it felt compassion, came to the ship, and carried everyone to shore.

When they reached the shore, the turtle fell into a deep sleep. Ungrateful wanted to take a stone, smash its head, and kill it, but everyone tried to stop him:

– It was through the turtle’s kindness in rescuing us from danger that our lives were saved. To kill it would be evil and would make us ungrateful.

Ungrateful said:

– With hunger pressing upon us, who still thinks of kindness and gratitude?

Having said this, he immediately killed the turtle and ate its flesh. That very night, a large herd of elephants suddenly arrived and trampled the entire band of merchants to death.

The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– The great turtle at that time was my own former body; Ungrateful was Devadatta; and the five hundred merchants were the five hundred brahmins who today renounced the household life and attained the Way. Long ago, I saved them from calamity; now I have again helped them escape the affliction of birth and death.”

The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on the Sandalwood Tree records: “The Buddha told Ananda:

– Listen attentively and receive this teaching. At that time, in the kingdom of Vaisali,^[20] five hundred men went to sea in search of jewels. Leaving their ship behind, they returned on foot by a shortcut through a deep forest. When darkness fell, they stopped to rest, intending to depart early the next morning. [70b] At dawn, four hundred and ninety-nine of them departed, but one man, being fast asleep, awoke late. He therefore became separated from the group. Snow and rain then fell, obliterating the path. Stranded in the forest, the man wailed and cried out to heaven.

In the forest stood an enormous fragrant sandalwood tree. The tree deity dwelling within it came and said to the lost man: ‘You may remain here. I shall provide you with food and clothing, and when spring arrives, you may depart.’

The lost man then stayed there for three months. One day, he said to the tree deity:

– It is through your kindness that my life has been preserved, yet I have not repaid you in the slightest. However, my parents are still in my homeland, so I wish to return. Please show me the way.

The tree deity said:

– Very well.

The deity also gave the lost man a golden vessel and said:

– After traveling only a short distance, you will reach your village.

As the lost man was about to depart, he asked the tree deity:

– This tree possesses a pure fragrance and is truly rare in the world. Now that I am about to return home, I wish to know its name.

The tree deity said:

– You should not ask.

The lost man said again:

– I have relied upon this tree’s protection for three months. When I return to my homeland, I ought to proclaim the kindness this tree has shown me.

The tree deity replied:

– This tree is called sandalwood. Its roots, trunk, branches, and leaves can all cure many illnesses, and its fragrance travels far. This is a rare and precious tree, so many people greatly desire to obtain it. Please do not tell anyone about it.

The lost man returned to his homeland, and all his relatives and kin rejoiced greatly.

Not long afterward, the king of that country developed a headache. He made offerings to the deities of earth, heaven, mountains, rivers, and others, but his illness was not cured. A renowned physician examined him and said: ‘Only a fragrant sandalwood tree can cure Your Majesty’s illness.’

Upon hearing this, the king immediately sent people to search everywhere, but none could be found. The king then proclaimed throughout the country that anyone who found a fragrant sandalwood tree would be enfeoffed as a marquis and given the princess in marriage.

At that time, when the lost man heard of the king’s generous reward, he went before him and reported: ‘I know where there is a fragrant sandalwood tree.’

The king immediately ordered a woodsman to accompany the lost man and cut down the tree and bring it back. When they reached the place, the official saw that the tree stood majestic, tall, and immense, with luxuriant branches and leaves and extraordinarily brilliant flowers and fruit. He could not bear to cut it down, yet failing to do so would violate the king’s command. As he hesitated in uncertainty, not knowing what to do, the voice of the tree deity was heard from the sky, saying:

– Cut it down, but leave the stump. Then smear it with human blood and place human liver and intestines upon it, and the tree will naturally become green and flourish again just as before. When the official heard the tree deity say this, he immediately ordered his men to cut down the tree.

While the tree was being cut, the lost man was standing beneath its canopy when a branch suddenly fell and crushed him to death. After the tree had been felled, the official said to everyone:

– At first, the tree deity said that human blood, liver, and intestines should be used as an offering to the tree, but I did not know whom we should use for this. Now that this man has died, we may conveniently use him as the offering.”

After finishing their deliberation, they cut open the dead man’s body, took his blood and liver, and followed the tree spirit’s instructions. The tree immediately became green and flourishing as before.

They transported the tree back to the kingdom, where the royal physician prepared medicine from it and presented it to the king. As soon as the king took it, his illness was cured, and the entire kingdom rejoiced greatly. The king ordered that anyone in the kingdom who fell ill was to be given sandalwood from the tree for treatment. Thus, all illnesses were cured, and everyone joyfully enjoyed an age of peace.

[70c] At that time, the Venerable Ananda rose from his seat, bowed at the Buddha’s feet, and said:

“World-Honored One! Why did that man repay kindness with betrayal and break his promise to the tree spirit?”

The Buddha replied:

“Long ago, during the time of Buddha Vipasyin^[21], there was a family consisting of a father and his two sons. The father diligently observed the fast and upheld the precepts. The elder son often went to an open place in the courtyard, burned incense, and made offerings to the Buddhas of the ten directions. The younger son was foolish and knew nothing of the Three Jewels. When he saw his elder brother burning incense as an offering, he covered it with a garment. The elder brother said:

“‘This offense is very grave. How dare you commit it?’

“The younger brother became resentful and threatened his elder brother in return:

“‘Beware, or I will cut off both your legs!’

“The elder brother then thought, ‘I must beat this younger brother to death.’ Hearing the two brothers quarrel, their father said:

“‘You two are quarreling and giving me a headache.’

“The elder brother said:

“‘I offer this body of mine as medicine to cure Father’s illness, so that Father may recover.’

“Words once spoken do not vanish, and so, life after life, they had to undergo the consequences of their offenses. Because the younger brother gave rise to an evil thought and wished to cut off his elder brother’s legs, his later retribution was to lead others to cut down the tree. Because the elder brother wished to beat his younger brother to death, he now became the tree spirit, and it was indeed through the tree that the younger brother was beaten to death.

The king who suffered from headaches was, in his previous life, the father of the man who lost his way. Because he had formerly observed the fast and upheld the precepts, he now attained an honored station. At that time, he said, ‘You brothers are quarreling and giving me a headache,’ and so, as later retribution, he again suffered from headaches.

Each person brought misfortune upon himself.”

The Buddha said:

“The retributions of offenses and merit follow beings as a shadow follows its form.”

XIII.4. Concluding Verses of Exhortation

Lofty indeed is the World-Honored One,

Who makes compassionate rescue from suffering foremost,

Manifesting in response to beings’ capacities,

Loving, tending, and comforting them.

The fox offered gold, the snake brought medicine;

The eunuch rescued the ox, and blessings appeared.

Those who know kindness repay virtue,

And unseen, they receive auspicious blessings.

The wicked wife poisoned her husband;

The king bestowed a rank of radiant dignity.

Robbers and savage beasts were escaped,

And recompense was received for many years.

How could one bear to forget kindness and betray fidelity?

Calamity and disaster come, imperiling one’s life.

Coveting wealth and honor, he felled the tree,

And blood and liver were offered in sacrifice to the spirit.

XIV. RELEASING LIVING BEINGS

This section consists of five parts: Introduction, Killing, Releasing Living Beings, Rescue from Peril, and Concluding Verses of Exhortation.

XIV.1. Introduction

It has been said that all sentient beings cherish life, and even tiny, ignorant insects know to fear death. Thus, when a tiger loses its forest, it must entrust its life to a thatched hermitage; when a bird breaks its wing, it has no choice but to shelter beside a writing desk. Yang Sheng^[22] raised a sparrow without any thought of receiving a jade ring, while a member of the Kong family^[23] released a tortoise with no intention of obtaining a golden seal. Yet good causes arrived unseen, and wholesome fruits unfailingly repaid them. From this one understands that the causes and effects of deeds are as evident as daylight.

Moreover, the teaching and transformation of the Compassionate Honored One takes rescuing beings from suffering as foremost, while his vast aspiration takes delivering living beings as its foundation. Yet the renowned five clans all boasted of their mighty armies and powerful generals; [71a] the Three Capital Regions^[24] abandoned benevolence and made warfare their undertaking. What offense had the multitude of beings committed that they should suffer wrongful deaths? What fault had conscious creatures committed that they should vainly undergo the calamity of slaughter, causing resentment to continue without end and enmity to revolve unceasingly?

I now exhort everyone to cultivate the practice of compassion together and relinquish all hatred, hostility, and fear. Whether they are birds that fly or fish that swim beneath the waters, let them follow their own habits of eating and drinking: let the red-scaled, crimson-tailed creatures freely enjoy the rivers and lakes, and let the brocade-breasted, green-feathered birds once again soar through the vast, lofty sky. Some may hear the Three Refuges and awaken to the path, like the blind dragon; some may understand the Four Noble Truths and be reborn in heaven, like the parrot. All this establishes the foundation for longevity and brings about the karmic fruit of a long life.

XIV.2. Killing

As recorded in the Nirvana Sutra: “There are sixteen occupations contrary to moral discipline:

1. Raising lambs for profit and then selling them.

2. Buying sheep for profit and slaughtering them.

3. Raising pigs for profit and then selling them.

4. Buying pigs for profit and slaughtering them.

Buying calves for profit, fattening them, and then selling them.

6. Buying cattle for profit and slaughtering them.

7. Raising chickens until they are fat for profit and then selling them.

8. Buying chickens for profit and slaughtering them.

9. Fishing with hooks.

10. Working as a hunter.

11. Working as a bandit.

12. Killing for hire or working as an executioner.

13. Spreading nets to catch birds.

14. Engaging in divisive speech.

15. Working as a prison guard.

16. Practicing spells to command dragons.

“One who, for the sake of sentient beings, permanently abandons the sixteen evils above is called a person who upholds the precepts.”

The Miscellaneous Abhidharma Heart Treatise states: “There are twelve occupations contrary to moral discipline:

1. Slaughtering sheep

2. Raising chickens

3. Raising pigs

4. Catching birds

5. Fishing

6. Hunting

7. Being a bandit

8. Killing for hire or being an executioner

9. Guarding prisons

10. Practicing spells to command dragons

11. Slaughtering dogs

12. Leading a hunting party.”

Slaughtering sheep means killing sheep. Because the intention is deliberately to kill, whether one raises, sells, or kills them, all these are called slaughtering sheep. Raising chickens and pigs is likewise.

Catching birds means making a livelihood by capturing and killing birds. Fishing and hunting are likewise.

Being a bandit means habitually plundering property and killing people.

Killing for hire or being an executioner means killing people to make a living.

Guarding prisons means making a livelihood by working as a prison guard.

Practicing dragon spells means using incantations to command dragons and snakes to perform entertaining acts as a means of livelihood.

Slaughtering dogs refers to the occupation of dog slaughter practiced by candalas.

Leading a hunting party refers to princes and nobles who commonly lead hunting parties.

The Treatise on the Collection of Abhidharma states: “Who are those who act contrary to moral discipline? They are those who delight in occupations that harm sentient beings, such as slaughtering sheep; raising chickens and pigs; catching birds; fishing; hunting deer; trapping rabbits; stealing and plundering; killing for hire; serving as executioners; slaughtering cattle; binding elephants; setting up ritual platforms for dragon-commanding spells; guarding prisons; fabricating accusations and slandering others; and so forth.”

[71b] Some people engage in such evil occupations contrary to moral discipline because they were born into families practicing those trades, while others learn such occupations later. That is, some are born into households already engaged in such practices, while others are born into different households and only later learn those occupations. The point at which such karma is definitively set in motion is when, beginning with bodily and verbal means, one determines to carry out that evil karma. This is called acting contrary to moral discipline.

XIV.3. Releasing Living Beings

The Brahma Net Sutra states: “If one is a disciple of the Buddha, one should cultivate the practice of releasing living beings with a mind of loving-kindness. All men are my fathers, and all women are my mothers. In lifetime after lifetime, I have been born from parents; therefore, all sentient beings throughout the six realms are my parents.

Whoever kills sentient beings and eats their flesh thereby kills his own parents and also kills his own former bodies. All earth and water are my former bodies; all wind and fire are my fundamental substance. Therefore, one should always release living beings.

In every lifetime, whenever one sees someone killing sentient beings, one should devise a means to rescue them and free them from suffering; one should constantly teach and expound the bodhisattva precepts to deliver sentient beings. When one’s parents or siblings pass away, one should invite a Dharma master to expound the Bodhisattva Precept Sutra, so that through reliance upon this merit and virtue, the deceased may behold the Buddhas and be reborn in the heavenly or human realms.

If one fails to do so, one commits a minor defiling offense.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya states: “All seven assemblies, monastic and lay alike, must filter water until it is clean before drinking it. The filtered water should be poured into the palm so that, at a glance, even the fine lines of the palm can be seen through it. Only when one knows that the water contains no living creatures may it be used.

“One should have a trustworthy person filter the water; if the person is not trustworthy, one should filter it oneself. Creatures caught by the filter should be returned to the place from which the water was taken. If that place is too far away but there is a nearby pond or well whose water will not dry up within seven days, the creatures may be released there.

If one knows that water contains living creatures, one must not take a bucket and ask someone else to draw it. If the water of a river or lake contains living creatures, one must not cry aloud, ‘There are living creatures in this water.’ If someone asks, one should reply, ‘Examine it yourself.’ If one knows that the person is a fellow disciple of the same teacher, one should tell him, ‘There are living creatures in the water; filter it before using it.’”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “There were two bhiksus who had never seen the Buddha. [71c] They therefore journeyed together from the distant north to Sravasti so that they might behold Him. On the road they became thirsty and came upon a pool containing living creatures. The precept-breaking bhiksu said:

“‘Let us drink this water.’

“The precept-keeping bhiksu said:

“‘There are living creatures in the water. How could we drink it?’

“The precept-breaking bhiksu said:

“‘If we do not drink, we will surely die of thirst and never see the Buddha.’

“Having said this, he drank the water and continued onward. Because the precept-keeping bhiksu carefully safeguarded the precepts, he did not drink and died of thirst. His consciousness was reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Endowed with a beautiful form, he came and reverently bowed at the Buddha’s feet. Upon hearing the Buddha teach the Dharma, he attained the pure Dharma-eye, received the Three Refuges, and then returned to the heavenly realm.

“Afterward, the one who had drunk the water came to see the Buddha. The Buddha was teaching the Dharma to the four assemblies. He raised His hand, drew aside His robe, pointed to His golden-hued body, and said to the precept-breaker:

“‘You foolish man wished only to see My physical body. How could that compare with the precept-keeper, who beheld My wisdom Dharma-body?’

“The Buddha taught:

“‘From now on, if a bhiksu travels more than twenty miles without carrying a water-straining bag, he commits an offense. If he does not have one himself but a traveling companion has one, he is permitted to proceed.’

“There were also soldiers going into battle who were taught the method of filtering water by a bhiksuni. Thus, when traveling, they all carried water-straining bags suspended from the tips of their bows. When an official heard of this, he reported it to the king. The king became extremely angry and wished to put them all to death. He said:

“‘You are so afraid to kill even tiny creatures; how, then, will you dare to kill when you encounter the enemy?’

“The soldier explained before the king:

“‘If tiny creatures were to harm the kingdom, your servant would certainly kill them. But since they bear us no enmity, why should we not be allowed to filter the water before drinking it?’

“Upon hearing this, the king pardoned them. Later, through the power of the soldiers’ wholesome roots and benevolent conduct, all the enemy forces were inspired, transformed, and submitted.”

The Sutra of the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “Water left overnight may give rise to tiny creatures if it is not carefully inspected. If it is not filtered again, it should not be used. This is called carefully observing the precept against killing.”

The Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom states: “In the past, many people suffered from paralysis, and their complexions became pale and discolored. At that time, the bodhisattva took birth as a red fish and gave his own flesh to the sick. In another kalpa, the bodhisattva took birth as a bird that dwelt in a forest.

One day, the bird saw a man swim into deep water in a place where no human footprints were found. The man was bound by a water deity and could not escape. The bodhisattva went to Mount Gandhamadana, obtained a medicinal herb, and placed it upon the bonds.

The bonds immediately broke, and the man escaped calamity. In former lives, the bodhisattva performed such deeds for the benefit of beings, rescuing sentient beings throughout many kalpas; these accounts are therefore called Jataka tales.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya states: “The Buddha taught:

“‘In the past, near the foot of the Snow Mountains, there was a leader of a herd of deer named Majestic Virtue, who led five hundred deer. At that time, a hunter set food upon a snare. The herd leader went first, and his right leg was caught in the trap. [72a] He thought, “If I struggle, the entire herd will be afraid to approach and eat. I must wait until they have all finished eating before seeking a way to free myself.”

“‘When the herd had finished eating, the leader struggled. All the other deer fled, and only one doe remained. She spoke this verse:

“‘Great King, you should now know:

The hunter will soon arrive.

Please quickly find a way

To escape these binding nets.

“‘The leader of the herd replied in verse:

“‘I have sought many ways,

And exhausted all my strength;

The net draws ever tighter—

How could I possibly escape?

“‘Seeing the hunter approach, the doe spoke this verse:

“‘Please take your sharpened knife

And first put me to death;

But afterward, I beg you,

Release the deer king to depart.

“‘Hearing this, the hunter was moved with compassion and replied in verse:

“‘I shall not kill you,

Nor shall I kill the deer king.

I now release you both;

Go wherever you please.

“‘Having said this, the hunter immediately removed the snare and released the leader of the herd.’

“The Buddha taught:

“‘The leader of the deer herd at that time was I, and the herd of five hundred deer was these five hundred bhiksus today.’

“In ancient times, there was also a leader of a flock of geese who was captured by a hunter. One of his companions wished to offer himself in his stead. The leader then spoke a verse to express gratitude for his companion’s kindness. Seeing this, the hunter was moved with compassion and released them both. Afterward, the goose sought precious jewels to repay the hunter’s kindness. The general meaning is the same as in the preceding account.”

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Upon hearing the leader of the deer herd speak, the king arose and replied in verse:

“‘I am truly a beast,

A man with the head of a deer;

Though you possess a deer’s body,

You are a deer with a human head.

If judged according to principle,

One should not determine a being by appearance;

One rich in loving-kindness and compassion,

Though a beast, is yet a human being.

From this moment onward,

I shall eat no kind of flesh.

I shall bestow the gift of fearlessness,

So that your heart may be at peace.’”

The Samantapasadika Vinaya Commentary states: “One day, Moggaliputta Tissa^[25] related a Jataka tale to King Asoka:

“‘Great King! In ancient times, a partridge was captured by a man, confined in a cage, and placed upon the ground. Grief-stricken and frightened, it cried out loudly. When a flock of partridges heard its cries, they flew toward it, and the man killed them all. Seeing this, the captive partridge became doubtful and asked an ascetic:

“‘“My own kind have been killed. Am I guilty of an offense?”

“‘The ascetic asked in reply:

“‘“When you cried out, did you have the intention to kill them?”

“‘The partridge said:

“‘“I merely cried out for someone to save my life. My companions came to me, but I had no intention to kill them.”

“‘The ascetic said:

“‘“[72b] If you had no intention to kill, then you are not guilty.”

“‘The ascetic then spoke this verse:

“‘Through another’s karma, calamity is endured;

Without intent, one causes pain,’”

The wise skillfully restrain the mind,

Bearing no sin, they are free from sorrow.”

The Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya records: “The Buddha told the bhikkhus:

– In the past, there was a seer dwelling on Mount Gandhamādana. Not far from that mountain was a lake, and in the lake lived a turtle.

One day, the turtle came ashore to forage for food. After eating and drinking its fill, it faced the sun, opened its mouth, and fell asleep. At that time, a troop of monkeys from Mount Gandhamādana came down to the lake to drink. When they returned to shore, they saw the turtle lying asleep with its mouth open. One monkey immediately engaged in a lewd act, inserting its sexual organ^[26] into the turtle’s mouth. The turtle suddenly awoke, closed its mouth, and drew all six limbs into its shell.

On account of this, the Buddha spoke this verse:

The foolish cling to appearances,

Like the turtle holding the object in its mouth;

Caught off guard and seized by Māra,

It will not release him unless it is severed.

The turtle then bit down tightly on the monkey and tried to drag it into the lake. The monkey was terrified and thought, ‘If I am pulled into the water, I will surely die.’ Yet because of its pain and exhaustion, the monkey could only let the turtle drag it along. After pulling the monkey some distance, the turtle encountered uneven ground and was overturned onto its back. The monkey then lifted the turtle with both hands and thought, ‘Who can help me escape this calamity?’ Knowing that a seer lived in the mountain, it thought to itself, ‘That man will save me.’ It then carried the turtle to the seer. Seeing them from afar, the seer thought, ‘Good heavens! What strange affair is this? What is that monkey doing? Is it trying to put on some sort of performance?’ The seer called out:

– Monkey! What treasure have you obtained, filling a bowl and bringing it here? Or is there some matter for which you have come to seek me?

The monkey then spoke this verse:

I am a foolish monkey,

Who wronged another without cause.

May the worthy sage save me from danger;

My life will not last much longer.

Today, O brahmin,

If you do not save me,

My sexual organ^[27] will soon be severed,

And I shall return to the forest in misery.

The seer replied in verse:

I believe I can save you,

So that you may return to the mountain forest;

But I fear that, being of the monkey kind,

Your old habit will arise again.

The seer then recounted a story from a former life:

You, turtle, in days gone by,

Were named Kāśyapa;

[72c] That monkey in that lifetime

Was called Kauṇḍinya.

Having formerly committed a lewd act,

You should now end this entanglement.

Kāśyapa! Release Kauṇḍinya,

So that he may return to the mountain forest.

Upon hearing the seer’s words, the turtle released the monkey and let it return to the forest.”

XIV.4. Rescue from Peril

The Udānavarga Sūtra records: “A great wave suddenly arose in the Southern Sea and surged onto the shore, carrying three large fish into shallow water. They said to one another, ‘We are stranded here. Before the water recedes, we must swim against the current and return to the open sea.’ After swimming some distance, they encountered a boat blocking the stream, and none of the three could pass. The first fish exerted all its strength, leapt over the boat, and swam away. The second slipped beneath a mass of grass and made its way through. The third alone, its breath failing and strength exhausted, was caught by a fisherman. Seeing this, the Buddha spoke this verse:

This day has now passed,

And life grows ever shorter,

Like fish in dwindling water—

What joy can there be?”

The Sūtra of Maitreya’s Questions Concerning His Original Vow records: “The Buddha told the Venerable Ānanda:

– Long ago, while I was seeking the Way, I endured immeasurable hardship. In the past, there was a crown prince named Precious Flower, handsome in appearance. One day, the prince left the pavilion in the garden and, along the road, encountered a person afflicted with leprosy. The prince asked the sick man:

– What medicine could cure your illness?

The sick man replied:

– Only by taking the blood and marrow of a member of the royal family and applying them to my body can this illness be cured.

Hearing this, the prince immediately cut his own body, extracted blood and marrow, and gave them to the sick man. The prince made this sincere offering without the slightest regret.”

The Buddha told Ānanda:

– The prince of that time was none other than I. The waters of the four seas may still be measured, but the bones, marrow, blood, and flesh that I have given away cannot be counted. In seeking the Way of Perfect Awakening, I relinquished my body in this manner.

The Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra records: “At that time, there were five hundred bodhisattvas, including Bodhisattva Vast Wilderness, who manifested the form of a ghost; Bodhisattva Sāñcika, who manifested the form of a deer; Bodhisattva Torch of Wisdom, who manifested the form of a monkey; Bodhisattva Free from Attachment, who manifested the form of a goat; and Bodhisattva Exhaustion of the Outflows, who manifested the form of a king of geese…

Each manifested a different kind of bodily form. Their bodies all emitted fragrance and light. Each bodhisattva held a lamp in hand as an offering to the Buddhas of the ten directions.

From the time of the seven Buddhas of the past until the present, they had always been attendants of those seven Buddhas, constantly observing the five precepts and arousing the aspiration for bodhi. Because they wished to tame all sentient beings and cause them to arouse the aspiration for bodhi, they assumed all these various forms.”

The Sūtra of the Miscellaneous Treasures records: “Long ago, an arhat was caring for a young śrāmaṇera. [73a] The arhat knew that the śrāmaṇera would certainly die in about seven days. He therefore allowed him to return home for a visit and instructed him to come back to the monastery after seven days. The śrāmaṇera bade farewell to his teacher and set out for home. Along the way, he saw a colony of ants being swept away by water. Moved by compassion, he removed his robe and used it to carry earth, with which he built a barrier against the current; he then placed the ants on high, dry ground. In this way, the ants escaped death.

On the seventh day, he returned to the monastery. His teacher was greatly astonished to see him return. He immediately entered samādhi and, observing with the divine eye, understood that although the śrāmaṇera’s merit had been exhausted, he had gained blessed recompense by saving the ants. Not only did he avoid death during those seven days, but his lifespan was also prolonged.”

(Moreover, repairing an old stupa or patching cracks in a monastery wall also results in a prolonged lifespan.)

The Mahākaruṇā Sūtra records: “The Buddha told Ānanda:

– In the past, a merchant chief led a group of merchants out to sea in search of precious jewels. They filled their ship with the jewels they had found and began their return journey, but in the midst of the vast ocean, the ship suddenly broke apart. The merchants were terrified. Some clung to pieces of the ship’s planking, some drifted helplessly, and some had already died… At that time, I was that merchant chief. I was holding a float and could have reached the shore safely.

At that moment, however, five merchants who were drifting upon the water called out to the merchant chief:

– Great man! Please save us and help us reach safety.

The merchant chief told them:

– Friends, do not be afraid! I will deliver you from the sea and bring you safely to shore.

Ānanda! At that time, the merchant chief carried a sharp sword. He thought, ‘It is the nature of the sea never to retain a corpse. Therefore, I should relinquish this life so that these merchants may escape this calamity.’

The merchant chief then called to the merchants:

– Friends! Hold tightly to my body.

The merchants then did so: one sat upon his back, others grasped his shoulders, and another clung to his thigh… Wishing to save their lives, the merchant chief aroused mighty great compassion. Taking the sharp sword, he stabbed himself and embraced death. The sea then carried his corpse to shore, and through this the five men survived and safely returned to Jambudvīpa.”

Ananda! The caravan leader at that time was none other than I myself. Those five merchants are now these five bhikshus. Long ago, the five bhikshus were rescued by me from the sea; now, in the great ocean of birth and death, they have also been delivered by me, made secure and fearless, and brought to the shore of liberation and nirvana.

[73b]The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “Countless asamkhya kalpas ago, a great many birds and beasts lived in a certain forest. One day, a fire suddenly spread inward from outside and engulfed three sides of the forest, leaving only one side bordering a stream. The animals living in that forest fell into desperate straits and had no way to escape.

The Buddha said:

– At that time, I was a great deer endowed with mighty strength. I placed my two forelegs on the opposite bank and my two hind legs on this bank, allowing the animals to tread upon my back and cross safely to the other side. Consequently, the flesh and skin of my back were completely torn. Out of compassion, I endured the pain until death. A rabbit came last. By then, my strength was exhausted, yet I exerted myself to the utmost so that it could reach the other bank. After the rabbit had crossed, my spine broke, and I fell into the stream and died.

I performed deeds such as these throughout many past lives; it is not only today that I have done so. The animals who escaped danger in the past are now all my disciples. The rabbit that crossed last was Subhadra.

Life after life, the Buddha diligently delighted in performing deeds such as these, and even now he has not ceased.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “In the distant past, when the Tathagata was still a bodhisattva, a famine occurred. Arousing compassion and wishing to bring deliverance, he transformed himself into a great fish whose body was five hundred yojanas long, providing flesh for all the people throughout the land. Whether human or animal, any being could come and take his flesh for food; as soon as a portion was cut away, the flesh on his body immediately became whole again. I provided for them in this way for twelve years.”

The Sutra on Taking Birth records: “Long ago, there was a bodhisattva who was the king of the soft-shelled turtles and lived in the midst of the great ocean, where he taught and transformed those of his kind. All the turtle king’s subjects cultivated benevolence and virtue, while the turtle king practiced compassion, aiding sentient beings as though they were his own children. The vast ocean was boundless, and the turtle’s compassion extended throughout it.

At that time, the turtle came ashore to rest. After many days and months, his back had dried and hardened like the ground. Merchants arriving from afar stopped to rest upon his back. They split firewood, kindled a fire to cook their food, and even drove their loaded carts and tethered their horses and oxen upon him.

The turtle king then wished to crawl down into the water, but he feared that doing so would drown them all and violate his benevolent heart, so he sought another way. He crawled into shallow water to extinguish the flames scorching him without harming the merchants. The merchants became terrified, believing that the tide was rising, and cried out piteously, praying with all sincerity for the heavens to save them.

Seeing this, the turtle king felt even greater compassion and said to the merchants:

– Do not be afraid. The fire was burning and tormenting me, so I merely wished to move into the water to extinguish the flames and ease my pain. You remain safe; I will not harm you.

Hearing this and realizing they would survive, the merchants recited together: “Namo Buddha.”

The turtle king’s compassion thereby increased even further, and he carried everyone safely to shore. Having reached safety, they rejoiced greatly and praised the turtle’s benevolent kindness without cease: ‘You are the bridge that carries people across the river, the great vessel that conveys sentient beings beyond the three realms. [73c] When you attain the Way, please remember to deliver us from the peril of birth and death.’

The turtle king said:

– Excellent, excellent! I shall fulfill your wish!

After he had spoken, each went on his own way.

The Buddha said:

– The turtle king of that time was I myself. Those five hundred merchants are now my five hundred disciples, including Shariputra and the others.”

The Sutra of Mindfulness of the True Dharma records: “If someone sees a lawbreaker condemned to death, he should use his wealth to ransom that person, enabling him to escape without seeking repayment. One who acts in this way will, at the end of his life, be reborn in the Heaven of Joy^[28]. When his heavenly lifespan ends and he is reborn as a human, he will likewise never suffer oppression by kings or officials. When one who observes the precepts sees sentient beings being scorched by a fierce fire, he should use water to extinguish it and rescue them from danger. At the end of his life, he will be reborn in a heavenly realm and enjoy innumerable pleasures.”

The Sutra on Delivering the Dog records: “Long ago, in a certain country, the price of grain rose, causing the people to suffer from hunger. At that time, a shramana entered the city to beg for alms. He went from house to house but obtained nothing. Eventually, the shramana reached the home of a wealthy elder, where he received a little plain rice. Just as he was about to leave the city, he suddenly encountered a hunter carrying a dog in his arms to take home and slaughter for meat. Delighted to see the shramana, the hunter respectfully bowed to him, and the shramana offered prayers and blessings for his longevity.

The shramana knew that the hunter was carrying a dog and suspected that he intended to kill it, so he asked:

– What are you carrying?

The hunter replied:

– I am empty-handed; I am not carrying anything.

The shramana said:

– I have already seen it. There is no need for you to conceal it.

The shramana continued:

– You should know that taking life is an unwholesome deed. I ask to exchange this bowl of rice for the dog, thereby saving it and helping you gain immeasurable merit.

The hunter replied:

– I cannot exchange it with you, for I still have a family to feed. How could your little bowl of rice be enough for all of us?

The shramana earnestly tried to persuade him, but the hunter still refused the exchange.

The shramana then said:

– If you will not exchange it, could you at least let the dog see me for a moment?

The hunter immediately brought out the dog. The shramana gave the dog his bowl of rice to eat, stroked its head with his hand, and, shedding tears, made this vow:

– Because of your transgressions, you have taken the body of a dog, lacking freedom and destined to be killed and eaten by others. I pray that, life after life, your transgressions will be extinguished and merit will arise; that you will cast off the body of a dog and obtain a human body; and that wherever you may be, you will encounter the Buddha-Dharma and the Three Jewels.

Having received food, the dog gave rise to a wholesome mind, rejoiced beyond measure, and knew to take refuge of its own accord.

The hunter took the dog home, slaughtered it, and shared its meat with his family. After its life ended, the dog was reborn into the household of a wealthy elder. From the moment of birth, the child’s heart was naturally filled with loving-kindness.

At that time, the shramana was making his alms round in order and eventually arrived at the elder’s house. When the elder’s child saw the shramana, he suddenly remembered the events of his former life. He approached, bowed his head at the shramana’s feet, [74a] and asked to offer him fine food.

The child then went before his parents and said:

– I now wish to follow the great preceptor as his disciple and study the sutras and precepts. I ask my parents to grant me permission!

Because the child’s parents loved him deeply, they refused, saying:

– You are our family’s only child, the one who will continue our lineage and inherit our property. Why do you wish to leave?

The child wept, refused all food and drink, and said:

– If you do not consent, I will die.

Seeing this, his parents agreed to let the child follow the master and study the Way. He shaved off his hair and beard, donned the three Dharma robes, recited the scriptures, deeply understood their meaning, and soon attained samadhi. He became irreversible and taught and transformed others, causing them to give rise to the mind of the Way.

In this world, it is difficult to encounter a Buddha, and difficult to hear the teachings of the Dharma. If beings have the conditions to encounter the Buddhadharma, there is no species that cannot be delivered. Even animals can attain the Way; how, then, could human beings fail to realize the fruit of sainthood? If one has committed any transgression, one must know to give rise to a sense of shame. When the pure light shines upon one, the dark defilements naturally perish.”

The Samyukta Agama Sutra records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

– In the distant past, there was a bird named Lava that was seized by a hawk and carried into the sky. High above, the Lava bird cried out:

– I left the beloved place where I lived and went elsewhere. Because I was not vigilant, I was captured by another and deprived of my freedom.

The hawk said to Lava:

– Where would you have to be in order to be free?

Lava replied:

– I dwell among the mounds in the fields. That is truly a place of freedom, entirely free from dangers, and it is also where my parents live.

The hawk arrogantly said to Lava:

– If I release you and let you return to the mound in the field, are you certain that you will escape danger?

Thereupon, Lava escaped from the hawk’s talons and returned to the mound in the field. After reaching safety beneath the earthen mound, Lava climbed on top and challenged the hawk.

Seeing this, the hawk flew into a furious rage and said:

– You are merely a tiny bird, yet you dare challenge me?

Overcome by anger, the hawk plunged down to peck Lava. At that moment, Lava slipped beneath the earthen mound and hid. The hawk dove with all its strength, but its breast struck the mound, shattering its body and killing it.

Thereupon, Lava, hiding beneath the earthen mound, looked up and spoke this verse:

The hawk plunged down to peck,

While Lava hid within the mound.

Because of its excessive anger,

It brought upon itself the ruin of its body.

I possessed sufficient skill and wisdom,

And so concealed myself within the mound.

Taking revenge through skillful strategy,

I rejoice in my own strength.

You were fierce, yet foolish;

Even with the strength of a thousand dragons and elephants,

You still could not match my wisdom,

Not even one-sixteenth of it.

[74b] Behold how my wisdom surpassed yours

And brought about the hawk’s destruction.

XIV.5. Concluding Exhortation

All sentient beings fear death;

Who does not dread peril?

Like fish in a drying pond,

They can scarcely encounter a flowing stream.

Those near and distant have all been our parents;

Why, then, should we not cherish them?

Always compassionately relieve their suffering,

And blessed rewards will naturally come.”

XV. PERFORMING MERITORIOUS DEEDS

This section comprises seven parts: Introduction, Cultivating Merit, Acting in Accordance with the Dharma, Making Offerings, Preparing Water for the Sangha to Bathe, and Other Meritorious Deeds.

XV.1. Introduction

In ancient times, King Udayana was the first to carve an image of the Buddha from sandalwood, while King Prasenajit was the first to melt gold and cast an image. Every image depicted the Buddha’s true likeness and skillfully portrayed his wondrous marks. Thus, the images emitted light, manifested auspicious signs, and left their seats to reverently bow before the Buddha.

As for the two stupas enshrining the Buddha’s hair and fingernails, and the two shrines containing the Buddha’s robe and shadow-image, all had already been constructed while the Tathagata was still in the world.

The World-Honored One himself gathered in his spiritual power and entered nirvana beside the river, and his cremation rite was performed at the edge of the forest. Eight kingdoms each requested a share of his relics to take home and build stupas for their veneration. Those eight stupas, together with the two stupas enshrining the urn and the ashes, made ten stupas in all. Stupas were also erected at the four places where the Buddha was born, attained the Way, first taught the Dharma, and entered nirvana, as well as for the Buddha’s crown bone, four teeth, two footprints, alms bowl, staff, spittoon, and lower robe; steles were carved to record the miraculous events.

More than one hundred years later, King Asoka dispatched envoys across the seas to open the stupas and retrieve the relics. When their party encountered a violent storm on the return journey, a small number of relics fell into the sea. Thus, even today, people sometimes find relics in the bellies of creatures living in the ocean. Later, King Asoka built eighty-four thousand stupas to enshrine the relics.

The king’s two children successively resolved to renounce the household life. Together, they carved stone images, cast golden statues, and painted venerable likenesses; crossing rivers and seas, they carried them to spread the teachings in Sri Lanka. Although miraculous traces and responses also appeared, they remained concealed and few people knew of them. It was not until Thai Am and Qin Jing^[29] returned home from the Western Regions that painted images and statues of Sakyamuni Buddha first began to be transmitted. Thereafter, people frequently carved and painted his image in the Qingliang temples and at the Shou Mausoleum.

From that time onward, the movement to paint and carve images and establish stupas and shrines flourished greatly. By the Liang dynasty, it had become even more prosperous. Yet the Dharma-body is originally without form; it manifests a form in response to beings’ devotion.

Since their devotion differs, the forms manifested in response also vary. If the mind harbors doubt, the true likeness remains hidden; if one’s aspiration is earnest, even wood and stone open their hearts. Thus, Liu En’s utmost filial devotion elicited an inscription upon a cauldron.

Because Ding Lan’s heart was sincere, even the wooden image of his mother changed color. [74c] Lu Yang^[30] brandished his spear and caused the sun to reverse its course, while the tears of the father of Ji caused the city walls to collapse. All these events arose because deeply moving sentiments transformed their dispositions, causing auspicious signs to become clearly manifest for everyone to see and hear.

Therefore, one should know that the Way is widely propagated through people, while spiritual power manifests in response through material things. How could this be called false or deceptive? Thus, if one serves a deity as though the deity were present, one receives a response from that deity; if one reveres an image as one reveres the Buddha, the Dharma-body manifests in response. Therefore, in studying the Way, one must take wisdom as the root, while wisdom must certainly take merit and virtue as its foundation. It is like a bird, which must possess both wings before it can fly ten thousand fathoms, or a cart, which must have both wheels before it can travel a thousand miles. How could one not be diligent? How could one fail to exert oneself?

XV.2. Cultivating Merit

The Sutra Spoken by the Buddha on Fields of Merit records: “The Buddha told Sakra, Lord of the Gods:

– There are seven forms of giving that are called fields of merit. Those who practice them acquire merit and, after death, are reborn in the Brahma Heaven. They are:

1. Building monasteries, casting images, and establishing Sangha residences, stupas, and shrines.

2. Creating orchards and bathing ponds, and planting trees to provide shade.

3. Regularly giving medicines to treat the sick.

4. Making boats and rafts to ferry people across rivers.

5. Building bridges and culverts to help the elderly and infirm cross rivers.

6. Digging wells beside roads so that travelers may quench their thirst.

7. Building latrines near roads so that people may relieve themselves.

At that time, among the assembly was a bhiksu named Thinh Thong. Having heard the Dharma, he rejoiced and addressed the Buddha:

– I recall that in a former life I was born as an elder in the city of Varanasi. I built a monastery beside the road and offered food, drink, and beds to the Sangha. Even weary travelers could enter and rest there. Through this merit, when my life ended, I was born in heaven as Sakra, and when born in the human realm, I became a wheel-turning sage king. I ascended and descended, came and went, thirty-six times. Throughout ninety-one kalpas, I constantly ruled over humans and gods. Hair grew on the soles of my feet, I walked without touching the ground, and food and drink appeared naturally whenever needed. Now I have encountered the Buddha, who has compassion for sentient beings. He has helped me completely eradicate ignorance, attain pure wisdom, sever the root of birth and death, and wither the seed of samsara. I am called an arhat. Through the blessed reward of that meritorious deed, I have attained liberation in this way.

There was also a bhiksu named Bakula, who addressed the Buddha:

– I remember that in a past life I was born as a householder in the city of Kaunajit. At that time there was no Buddha in the world. When the Sangha expounded the Dharma to an assembly, I went there to listen. After hearing the Dharma, I rejoiced greatly and offered the Sangha a medicinal fruit called haritaki. Through this karmic reward, after my life ended I was born in heaven; [75a] when born among humans, I always held an honored position surpassing everyone else, and for ninety-one kalpas I never suffered illness. Through the remaining merit, I encountered the Buddha and attained the fruit of arhatship.

Another bhiksu named Sudaya addressed the Buddha:

– I remember that in a former life I was born as an ordinary citizen in the city of Vaisali. At that time there was no Buddha, and only the Sangha taught and transformed beings. One day, I was taking curds^[31] into the city to sell when I came upon the Sangha holding an assembly to expound the Dharma. I went there to listen, and after hearing it my heart was filled with joy. I offered my jar of curds to the Sangha. The venerable ones accepted it and also pronounced a blessing for me, which made me rejoice all the more. Through that meritorious cause and condition, after my life ended I was born in heaven or descended to be born among humans, where I always held an honored position. This continued for ninety-one kalpas. In my final life, because of residual evil karma, I was born among humans. When my mother had been pregnant for only a few months, she fell ill and died, so I was buried together with her. Yet when the full term of pregnancy had elapsed, I was born. For seven years I lived in the burial mound, sustaining myself by suckling milk from my mother’s corpse. Through that wondrous karmic reward, I encountered the Buddha and attained arhatship.

Another bhiksu named Ananda addressed the Buddha:

– I remember that during one kalpa I was born in the kingdom of Rajagrha as an ordinary citizen. One day, a boil appeared on my body and could not be cured. A practitioner of the Way who was a close friend came and told me:

– Prepare water for the Sangha to bathe in, and afterward use that water to wash the boil. Then your illness can be cured, and you will also gain merit.

After hearing this, I rejoiced and went directly to the monastery. With a sincere heart, I followed his instruction: I dug a well to draw water, mixed fragrant oil into it, and prepared all the implements needed for the Sangha to bathe. I then used that water to wash the boil, and through this my illness was cured. Because of this merit, whenever I was born in the world I was always handsome, my body radiated brilliant golden light, and no dust or grime adhered to me. For ninety-one kalpas I continually enjoyed the blessing of purity, and my merit increased. Now I have encountered the Buddha, the defilements of my mind have been eliminated, and I have attained the state of a Worthy One^[32].

At that time, among the assembly was a bhiksuni named Nainu, who addressed the Buddha:

– I remember that in a former kalpa I was a poor young woman in the kingdom of Varanasi. At that time, the Buddha Kasyapa was in the world. One day, I sat listening to the Dharma in an assembly where he was teaching, and my heart rejoiced greatly. I wished to make an offering, but when I looked at myself, I saw that I did not possess a single thing. Saddened by my poor and humble condition, I went to another person’s garden intending to ask for a melon to offer to the Buddha, but instead I was given a large nai fruit that gave off an exceedingly fragrant aroma. I therefore offered a bowl of water and one nai fruit to the Buddha and the Sangha.

The Buddha knew the sincerity of my heart, so he accepted the offering and pronounced a blessing. He then crushed the nai fruit, mixed it into the water, and distributed it among the entire Sangha. Through that merit, after my life ended I was born in heaven and became a queen; when born in the human realm, I was not born from a womb. For ninety-one kalpas I was always born from a nai blossom^[33], beautiful and pure, and I continually remembered my former lives. Now I have encountered the Blessed One, who has opened my Dharma-eye.

[75b] At that time, Sakra, Lord of the Devas,^[34] rose from his seat, bowed to the Buddha, knelt with palms joined, and addressed him:

– Blessed One! I remember that in a former kalpa I was born in the kingdom of Kuru as the son of a householder. A servant carried me into the city for an outing, and we came upon the Sangha going on almsround. When I saw the people making abundant offerings, I thought to myself, ‘If I possessed treasures to offer to the Sangha, would that not be a great joy?’ Having thought this, I immediately removed my jeweled necklace and offered it to the Sangha. The venerable ones pronounced a blessing, and I departed with a joyful heart. Through that cause and condition, after my life ended I was born in heaven as Sakra, Lord of the Devas, and for ninety kalpas I was always free from the eight difficult circumstances.

The Buddha told Sakra and the great assembly:

– Listen attentively as I relate a deed from one of my former lives. In one lifetime, I lived in the kingdom of Varanasi. Beside a great road, I built many latrines so that the people of the kingdom would no longer suffer the distress of being pressed by the need to urinate or defecate. Everyone remembered my kindness. Through this merit, lifetime after lifetime I have remained pure. Throughout many kalpas of practicing the Way, I have not been tainted by filth. My body has acquired a brilliant golden color, dust and grime never adhere to it, food digests naturally, and urination and defecation proceed freely.

The Buddha further told Sakra:

– Among the ninety-six paths, the Buddha’s path is the most worthy of reverence. Among the ninety-six teachings, the Buddha-Dharma is the truest. Among the ninety-six classes of practitioners, the Buddha’s disciples are the most genuine. Why is this so? For innumerable kalpas, the Tathagata sincerely made vows, relinquished body and life, accumulated merit, and vowed to act for the sake of sentient beings. He has perfected the six paramitas, the four immeasurable minds, and every wholesome quality, and his wisdom is complete. Among all the honored ones of the three realms, none can equal him. If a sentient being turns toward the Tathagata and gives rise to a mind of sincere reverence, that merit is greater than offering jewels filling the entire great trichiliocosm. The thirty-seven factors conducive to enlightenment and the twelve divisions of scripture explain transgression and merit with perfect clarity and truth. They reveal the Three Vehicles,^[35] enabling beings of every capacity to practice. All who hear them rejoice, delight in becoming sramanas, have faith in the Buddha and practice the Dharma, elevate their aspirations, abandon worldly greed and contention, and bring blessings and benefit to the world. Sentient beings enjoy the blessings of heavenly and human realms because of the Sangha. This is the path most worthy of reverence, unequaled by anything else.”

The Ekottarika Agama records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

– There are four meritorious deeds that lead to birth in the Brahma heaven. They are:

1. A person with faith who resolves to build a stupa in a place where no stupa yet exists

2. A person with faith who resolves to restore monasteries

3. A person with faith who continually brings harmony to the Sangha

4. One who requests the Buddha to turn the Dharma wheel for the first time

At that time, a bhiksu addressed the Blessed One:

[75c] - Blessed One! Is the karmic reward of Brahma ultimately great or small?

The Blessed One replied:

– The combined merit of all sentient beings in Jambudvipa, together with the merit of the Four Heavenly Kings and even the karmic reward of the Heaven of Freely Enjoying Manifestations by Others, does not equal the karmic reward of Brahma. If one wishes to seek the karmic reward of Brahma, such is the measure of that merit.”

XV.3. In Accordance with the Dharma

If one wishes to undertake construction, it must be done in accordance with the Dharma. Though what is made may be little, the karmic reward will be immeasurable. If it is not done in accordance with the Dharma, then even if much is made, there will be no benefit.

Therefore, the Sutra on the Buddha in the Golden Coffin and Reverently Cultivating Merit records: “Those who commission the engraving of sutras or the making of images should not debate doctrinal principles; artisans hired to engrave sutras or make images should not say that they are merely working for hire. If images made in this way are offered in veneration, both parties will obtain immeasurable merit. Even if one wished to describe this merit, it could never be fully expressed.

Those who follow my teaching are true disciples of the Buddha. When sincerity is this profound, though what is made may be little, the merit is great.

Someone asked:

– Ordinarily, artisans who carve sutras or images receive material compensation. Are they permitted to set a price?

The Buddha replied:

– They are not permitted to set a price. It is like a person who sells his parents for material gain. Such a person is violently rebellious and incurs an extremely grave offense; he is truly a heavenly Mara. Such a person is also no kin of Mine; he should quickly depart from the Buddha-Dharma.

Those who drink alcohol, eat meat, and consume the five pungent plants, failing to follow the Buddha’s teachings, may create sutras and images as numerous as motes of dust, yet the merit they gain is exceedingly slight and not worth mentioning. When the conflagration at the end of the kalpa occurs, they will be unable to enter the palace of the ocean dragon king. Although they labor greatly, the merit they obtain is scant. For the offense of irreverence, after death they will fall into hell. Neither the patron nor the artisan gains any benefit, nor are they protected by the devas. It would be better not to create sutras or images at all, but merely to bow in wholehearted reverence, for this too brings immeasurable merit.

As stated above, though many images are made, little merit is gained. If an image is made without all the proper marks and excellent characteristics, its maker will undergo the karmic retribution of being continually deficient in the faculties for five million lifetimes. It is best to devote one’s entire sincerity to the work; one will then enjoy excellent blessed rewards.”

The Sutra on Resolving Doubts Concerning Offenses and Merits states: “Suppose monastics or laypeople either relinquish their own property or obtain offerings through exhorting others and then present them to the Buddha, but the steward uses those things to make images of birds or beasts as decorations before the Buddha. If the estimated value expended amounts to five coins, the steward commits an offense of immediate retribution that cannot be repaid and will fall into Avici Hell for one kalpa. However, if the offerings are used to purchase incense, oil, or lamps for worship, no offense is committed. Although the Buddha does not covet offerings or material support, no one is worthy of using those things.

When offerings are presented to the Buddha, the senior, middle-ranking, and junior monastics must instruct the laypeople to present them to the Buddha and the Sangha. After they have been offered to the Buddha, they may be given to the Sangha for use, and no offense is committed. If this is not done, and one consumes the Buddha’s food or uses the Buddha’s possessions, one will fall into Avici Hell for a thousand billion years. If laypeople do not follow the instructions of the senior, middle-ranking, and junior monastics, they too will incur the offense described above. If they are reborn as human beings, they will undergo the karmic retribution of living as lowly persons for nine million years. Why is this? Because no one can set a value upon anything belonging to the Buddha.”

[76a] (Note: The meaning here is that since the donor has resolved to make an offering to the Buddha, the item must be redeemed before it may be used. At present, during ceremonies of offering to the Buddha, laypeople often place food and drink upon the Buddha’s table; after the offering, they take and consume it at their own discretion, and afterward return it to the donor without redeeming it. Likewise, on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, offerings are presented to the Buddha and the Sangha.

If neither the Buddha nor the Sangha is present, the offerings may be used temporarily, but they must be redeemed, because according to the sutras, such foods are offerings presented to the Buddha and the Sangha on the day of the Pravāraṇā^[36]. The Buddha and Sangha are excellent fields of merit, exalted beings of the Way who can help the deceased, one’s parents of the past seven generations, and one’s living relatives to be freed from calamities and reborn in a blessed realm.

Because the fields of merit of worldly people are barren and cannot assist in the teaching of the Way, it is said that laypeople must not use such things at their own discretion. Having repeatedly witnessed laypeople taking and consuming offerings after presenting them to the Buddha, I have therefore added this separate note.)

The Sutra on the Samadhi of Contemplating the Buddha states: “At that time, King Udayana, because he longed for the Buddha, had an image cast in gold. Hearing that the Buddha was about to rise from His jeweled seat, the king hastily had an elephant carry the golden image forth to welcome Him. At that moment, the golden image descended from the elephant’s back as though it were the Buddha Himself.

Its feet moved above the ground, supported by flowers, and the image emitted brilliant light as it went to welcome the World-Honored One. It joined its palms and bowed its head at the Buddha’s feet. At that moment, the World-Honored One also knelt, joined His palms, and faced the image.

In empty space, hundreds of thousands of transformation Buddhas likewise joined their palms, knelt, and faced the image. The World-Honored One then said to the image: ‘In the future, you will perform many Buddha-works. After I enter extinction, all My disciples shall be entrusted to you.’ The transformation Buddhas in empty space also spoke these words in unison.

After the Buddha enters extinction, if any sentient being makes an image and wholeheartedly presents offerings to it, that person will certainly attain the Samadhi of Pure Recollection of the Buddha in a future life.”

The Record of Foreign Lands states: “When the Buddha ascended to the Trayastrimsa Heaven and taught the Dharma to His holy mother, Maya, for ninety days, King Prasenajit wished to behold His honored countenance. He therefore had an image of the Buddha carved from ox-head sandalwood and placed it upon the seat where the Buddha ordinarily sat. Later, when the Buddha returned to the monastery, the Buddha image left its seat to welcome Him. At that time, the Buddha said to the image: ‘Return to your former seat! After I enter nirvana, you must perform Dharma services in My stead for the fourfold assembly.’ Hearing this, the Buddha image immediately returned to its former seat. This was the first Buddha image.

Later, the Buddha moved into two small monasteries on either side, about twenty paces from the place where the image had been installed. The Jetavana Monastery originally had seven stories, and the various kingdoms took turns making uninterrupted offerings to it. Lamps were always kept burning within the tower.

One day, a mouse dragged away a lampwick, and the burning flame set fire to banners and silk canopies. The fire spread, completely consuming the seven-story monastery. The people throughout the kingdom were overcome with grief and distress; everyone believed that the sandalwood Buddha image had been reduced to ashes.

Four or five days later, however, when people opened the door of the small eastern monastery, they suddenly saw that the sandalwood image had moved there. Everyone was therefore filled with joy and united their efforts to restore the monastery. They rebuilt it with two stories and respectfully invited the image back to be installed in its former place.”

The Sutra on King Udayana’s Creation of a Buddha Image states: “Long ago, while the Buddha was still in the world, King Udayana of the kingdom of Vatsa came to see the Buddha. Bowing his head and face at the Buddha’s feet, he joined his palms and addressed Him:

– World-Honored One! After You enter extinction, if anyone creates an image of the Buddha, what merit will that person obtain?

[76b] The Buddha told King Udayana:

– Anyone who creates an image of the Buddha will obtain immeasurable merit beyond calculation. Life after life, that person will not fall into the evil destinies. Whether born among devas or humans, that person will enjoy incomparable happiness. The entire body will radiate brilliant purple-golden light; the eyes will be dark, the face radiant, and the body, hands, and feet exceedingly beautiful. That person will always be loved by devas and humans. If born as a human being, that person will always be born as the child of virtuous elders, high ministers, kings, rulers, or into wealthy, noble, and honored families. Their wealth, riches, and jewels will be beyond measure, and they will be cherished by their parents, brothers, and sisters. If that person becomes a king, they will be supremely honored, and the kings of other lands will submit to them. They may even become a wheel-turning sage king who governs the four continents, naturally possesses the seven treasures, has a great many children, and travels throughout the heavenly realms. If born in heaven, that person will become the most excellent of devas and foremost among those in the Six Desire Heavens. If born in the Brahma Heaven, that person will become a Great Brahma King of peerless beauty, surpassing all other Brahma devas and always honored by them. Thereafter, that person will be born in the Land of Amitayus as a great bodhisattva held foremost in reverence. After passing through countless kalpas, that person will become a Buddha and enter nirvana. Anyone who creates an image of the Buddha will certainly receive such blessed rewards.”

The Lotus Sutra contains this verse:

If there is anyone who, for the sake of the Buddha,

Fashioning images,

Even children at play,

Using grass, wood, and brushes,

Or using their fingernails,

To draw images of the Buddha—

People such as these

Will all attain the Buddha Way.

The Sutra on the Meritorious Rewards of Fashioning Images records: “King Udayana of the kingdom of Kausambi was only fourteen years old when he heard that the Buddha was coming to his country, and he immediately ordered his close ministers to go out and welcome the Buddha. When the Buddha arrived, the king bowed his head at the Buddha’s feet, knelt, joined his palms, and said:

– Blessed One! In the human and heavenly realms, no one is equal to the Buddha. Your radiance towers magnificently; only you possess such splendor. I fear that after the Buddha departs, it may be difficult to see you again. Therefore, I now wish to fashion an image of the Buddha to revere and worship. Out of compassion, please tell me what meritorious rewards will be gained by revering the Buddha.

The Blessed One then replied in verse:

Great King, listen as I speak

Of the merit of the Supreme Person,

Whom no one in the world can equal.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

[76c] Is always to be born into a wealthy house,

With unsurpassed honor and nobility,

And always beloved by one’s relatives.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is always to obtain the divine eye,

Clear and bright beyond compare.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is always to be cherished by one’s parents,

Handsome or beautiful, with great majestic virtue,

Loved without weariness or separation.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is for one’s body to emit golden light,

And resemble the form of a lion,

Gladdening all beings who behold it.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is to be born into a noble lineage,

Among kshatriyas or brahmins,

As a person endowed with merit.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is not to be born in a borderland,

Nor blind, nor ugly,

But always complete in all six faculties.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is to know one’s former lives at death,

To see the Buddha before oneself,

And not experience the suffering of dying.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is to become a renowned king,

Or a wheel-turning monarch,

Ruling the four continents.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is to become Lord Shakra,

Ruling the second heaven^[37],

And revered by the gods of Trayastrimsha.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is for that person to transcend the Desire Realm,

Become a Brahma king,

And receive the reverence of the Brahma hosts.

The reward for fashioning a Buddha image

Is to enjoy blessings such as these.

Whether one carves or paints a Buddha image,

Heaven and earth may still be measured,

But that merit cannot be fathomed.

Therefore, make offerings to the Buddha

With flowers, incense, and fragrant water;

By making offerings to the Great Being,

One attains undefiled liberation.

XV.4. Making Offerings

The Sutra on the Wheel-Turning of the Five Destinies records: “The Buddha said:

– When cultivating and creating merit, one must personally perform the deeds, such as lighting incense and lamps, thereby gaining immense merit. Lighting incense, performing meritorious deeds, and even reciting and reading scriptures must not be entrusted to others. If one invites someone else to eat a meal, how could one oneself become full? Lighting incense, sweeping and cleaning, keeping lamps burning, offering incense at vegetarian assemblies, and reading sutras as offerings [77a] are practices that should be performed regularly. By making offerings, one gains merit, the devas give protection, myriad evils are extinguished, and all maras submit. If a person is indolent and unwilling to be diligent, then only when illness suddenly arises or some misfortune occurs does that person wish to light incense and cultivate merit. Before the devas have time to descend to the human world, the maras will already be vying with one another to come and cause disturbances, manifesting myriad strange phenomena. For this reason, one must diligently cultivate merit. The transgressions and merits one has planted follow one as a shadow follows its form. Sowing seeds in the field of merit is like the Kuni tree: only a single seed is planted at first, but it gradually grows and produces innumerable flowers and fruits.

The Buddha told Ananda:

– From a single offering, one obtains a reward ten thousandfold. My words are never false.

He further spoke this verse:

The virtuous delight in making offerings

And receive the protection of heavenly spirits.

Giving once, they receive ten thousandfold,

Living long in peace and happiness.

Those who now make offerings to the virtuous

Gain merit beyond all calculation;

They will afterward attain the Buddha Way

And bring liberation throughout the ten directions.”

XV.5. Preparing Bathing Water for the Sangha

The Sutra of Parables records: “On the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month, the Buddha used his spiritual power to subdue the six non-Buddhist teachers^[38]. Unable to prevail against the Buddha, they leapt into a river and took their own lives. The Buddha then taught the Dharma to guide and transform the other non-Buddhists, and they all submitted. Together they said to the Buddha:

– Blessed One! You have used the water of the true Dharma to wash away all the defilements in our minds. We now invite the Sangha to bathe, so that all bodily impurities may be cleansed.”

This became an established observance. (According to this sutra, water is offered for the Sangha to bathe on the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month.)

The Mahasatou Sutra^[39] records: “The Buddha told everyone:

– All Buddhas throughout the ten directions are born, leave the household life, attain the Way, and enter nirvana at midnight on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month.

The Buddha further said:

– The eighth day of the fourth lunar month was chosen because it falls at the transition between spring and summer, when all calamities disappear, myriad things flourish, no poisonous vapors arise, and it is neither hot nor cold, but the climate is mild. Therefore, all Buddhas are born on this day.

The people throughout the country remembered the Buddha’s merit and virtue, and thus bathed images of the Buddha as though he were still present in the world.

Furthermore, wishing to instruct everyone, the Buddha said:

– When I was a bodhisattva, I became Lord Shakra, king of the gods, thirty-six times; a Golden Wheel-Turning King thirty-six times; and a Flying Emperor^[40] thirty-six times.

Today, anyone who sincerely recollects the kindness of Shakyamuni Buddha and bathes a Buddha image with flowers and incense will gain the most excellent merit, witnessed by the devas, ghosts, and spirits. For the Buddha-bathing rite on the eighth day of the fourth lunar month, three kinds of aromatics should be used: dulang incense^[41], [77b] patchouli, and ainaxiang incense.

Blend these three aromatics and steep them in water, which will become blue-green. If all three aromatics are not available, blue-purple ash-tree bark may be substituted. Next, crush turmeric incense and steep it in water, which will become red. After pouring clean water over the image, wipe it dry with white cotton or white silk. Finally, examine oneself and then pour the fragrant water described above over the image. Only this constitutes purity and brings the foremost meritorious reward.”

The Sutra of the Bathhouse records: “The Buddha told the householder Jivaka:

– When preparing a bath, seven things must be provided in full; this eliminates seven illnesses and brings seven meritorious rewards. The seven things are fire, clean water, soap beans^[42], oil ointment^[43], clean ashes, willow twigs, and a lining for the bathing pool.

The seven illnesses eliminated are disorders of the four great elements, wind and cold, paralysis, chill, heat, and bodily impurity; the body becomes light and at ease, and the eyes become clear and bright.

The seven meritorious rewards obtained are:

1. The body is free from illness, and wherever one is born, one always enjoys peace and security.

2. In life after life, one is born with a body that is always clean and a handsome or beautiful appearance.

3. The body always gives forth a delicate fragrance, and one’s garments are clean and orderly.

4. The body is smooth and lustrous, possessing majestic radiance and great virtue.

5. Many attendants follow one and brush the dust from one’s body.

6. One’s teeth are white and even, one’s mouth gives forth a delicate fragrance, and one’s words are trusted by many people.

7. Wherever one is born, garments are naturally provided.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “Bathing has five benefits:

1. The body becomes clean.

2. The skin becomes uniform in color.

3. Heat and cold are dispelled.

4. The downward-moving wind^[44] is regulated.

5. Illnesses are few.

During the summer, when the weather was exceedingly hot, a gardener carrying water to irrigate the trees saw Shariputra and gave rise to a small wholesome thought. He called out:

– Please remove your robe and come beneath the tree. I will bathe you so that your body may become cool.”

After the gardener’s life ended, he was immediately reborn in the Trayastrimsa Heaven and possessed great spiritual power. Although the merit of his deed was small, because he had encountered an excellent field of merit, the karmic reward he obtained was exceedingly great.

That deva then flew down to where Venerable Sariputra was and scattered flowers as an offering. Seeing the deva’s sincerity, Venerable Sariputra immediately taught him the Dharma, enabling him to attain the fruit of stream-entry.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish records: “At that time, a deva from the Suddhavasa Heaven^[45] descended to Jambudvipa, went to the Buddha, and invited him and the bhiksus to bathe and receive offerings. The Buddha silently accepted the invitation. Having made his request, the deva prepared food, drink, and bathing necessities. The bathing chamber, suitably warm water, clarified butter and oil, and grass for scrubbing the body were all fully provided.

[77c] The Buddha and the bhiksus accepted this offering. After bathing, they partook of delicious and nourishing foods exceedingly rare in the world. When they had finished eating and rinsed their mouths, each returned to his own seat.

At that time, Venerable Ananda said to the Buddha:

– What meritorious deed did this deva perform in the past that his present form is so extraordinarily beautiful and majestic, radiating brilliant light like a great jeweled mountain?

The Buddha told Ananda:

– Long ago, in the time of Vipasyin Buddha, this deva was a poor man who worked as a hired laborer to sustain his life. One day, he heard the Buddha teach about the merit of providing baths for the Sangha. Joy arose in his heart, and he worked diligently until he earned a small sum of money. With that money, he purchased food and bathing supplies, then invited the Buddha and the Sangha and reverently presented them as offerings. Through this merit, after his life ended, he was reborn in the Suddhavasa Heaven and acquired this excellent appearance. From the time of the seven Buddhas until now, and continuing until the appearance of the thousand Buddhas, he has likewise provided baths for the Buddha and the Sangha. The Buddha bestowed a prediction upon him, saying that after two asamkhyeyas and one hundred kalpas in a future age, he would become a Buddha named Pure Body, endowed with all ten epithets.”

The Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, in the time of Vipasyin Buddha, Nanda, the Buddha’s younger brother, gained merit by providing a bath for the Sangha on a single occasion. Consequently, in the present life he was born into the Sakya clan, possessed thirty noble marks, and had a body radiating brilliant golden light. He was born in the same era as the Buddha and, through diligent cultivation, attained the six supernormal powers.

People of old made an offering only once and still received such a great karmic reward; how much more so may donors today make offerings many times. The practice of universal giving will assuredly lead to Buddhahood, the attainment of great bliss, and the liberation of all sentient beings.”

The Sutra on Fields of Merit records: “The bhiksu Ananda said to the Buddha:

– I recall that in a former life I was a commoner in the kingdom of Rajagrha. A malignant boil grew on my body and could not be healed. A close friend who was a practitioner came and told me: ‘You should prepare bathing water for the Sangha and then use that water to wash the sore. It will heal, and you will also acquire merit.’

Upon hearing this, I rejoiced and immediately went to the monastery. With a reverent heart, I dug a well and prepared cleansing oils and bathing implements. After the Sangha had bathed, I used that water to wash the sore, and it healed very quickly. Through this cause and condition, in life after life I was born with a handsome appearance, my body radiating brilliant golden light and remaining unstained by dust. For ninety-one kalpas I continually received blessings; that joyful result was truly vast and enduring. Now I have encountered the Buddha, eradicated my afflictions, and attained the fruit of arhatship.”

The Ten Recitations Vinaya records: “Bathhouses in foreign lands are round like storehouses, with ventilation openings above and drainage channels below to carry the water outside. A vessel divided into three equal compartments is also placed where people can use it. [78a] This vessel contains three kinds of water: the upper compartment holds hot water, the middle compartment holds warm water, and the lowest compartment holds cold water. Bathers may use them as they wish. Because hot water is not separately heated for each bath, it is called pure water^[46].”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

– Constructing a bathhouse brings five merits: it dispels wind ailments; illnesses are swiftly healed; dirt is removed; the body becomes light and at ease; and the complexion becomes rosy.

If anyone among the fourfold assembly wishes to obtain these five merits, that person should construct a bathhouse.”

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “When bathing is desired, attendants and others should be instructed to sprinkle water, sweep, and clean the place, prepare firewood, and heat the water to a suitable temperature. Only then should the wooden gong be struck to inform everyone. Upon entering to bathe, each person must tie a cord to his robe as a marker and hang it on a rack.

One must not enter the bathhouse with both arms swinging freely, but should use one hand to cover the front of the body while entering. If one wishes to enter and scrub one’s teacher, one must first ask permission in order to avoid an offense. One must not tell the teacher to raise both arms at once while being scrubbed.

One arm should be scrubbed while the other covers the front; afterward, the other arm and the remaining parts of the body may be scrubbed. Upon entering to bathe, one should close the door and sit so that perspiration may leave the body. One must use water in moderation and not use too much.

If bathing in a pond, one may use water freely without offense. Bathing naked in an open place is not permitted. If the water reaches the waist or armpits, one may bathe naked without committing an offense.

If, when seated, the water reaches above the navel, one may also bathe naked. After bathing, upon leaving the water, one must put on one’s robe, arrange it properly, and only then depart.”

XV.6. Other Meritorious Deeds

The Sarvastivada Treatise records: “Those who build Sangha dwellings, stupas, or images; dig wells along major roads; or construct bridges or boats will, wherever they are born, always become wealthy donors, except for three reasons: first, the work previously completed is destroyed; second, they die before completing it; and third, they give rise to deviant and evil intentions. If none of these three reasons is present, they will acquire merit.”

The Ekottarika Agama Sutra records: “At that time, the Buddha told the bhiksus:

– There are five kinds of giving that bring no merit:

1. Giving a knife to someone.

2. Giving poison to someone.

3. Giving a wild ox to someone.

4. Giving a prostitute to someone.

5. Constructing a shrine for the worship of spirits.

There are also five deeds that bring merit and lead to rebirth among devas and humans:

1. Establishing public parks.

2. Planting groves.

3. Constructing bridges and roads.

4. Building large boats.

5. Constructing dwellings and rest houses.”

[78b] At that time, the Buddha spoke this verse:

Establishing gardens that provide shade,

And constructing bridges and roads,

Building boats to ferry people across,

And erecting dwellings and rest houses—

Such a person at all times

Continually acquires merit.

Having perfected morality and concentration,

That person will assuredly be reborn in heaven.

The Mahasanghika Vinaya records: “Certain sons of devas asked the Buddha in verse:

Who will be born in a fortunate realm?

Who will attain rebirth in heaven?

Who, throughout both day and night,

Nurtures and increases wholesome merit?

At that time, the Blessed One replied in verse:

Digging wells along deserted roads,

Establishing gardens of fruit trees,

Planting groves that provide shade,

And bridges and ferries for people to cross;

Practicing giving and cultivating pure morality,

With wisdom abandoning stinginess and greed—

Such merit increases day by day,

And one is continually reborn as a deva or human.”

The Sutra of the Contemplation of the True Dharma records: “If sentient beings give clean water to everyone, or cover the mouths of wells out of concern that venomous snakes might fall into them and cause travelers who drink the water to be poisoned, those who continually perform such deeds will, after death, be reborn in the Heaven of the Three Empty Marquis and enjoy the five kinds of sensual pleasure. When their lifespan there ends and they are reborn in human form, they will be loved by the king.”

If a person is afflicted by illness, breathing with difficulty, yet their life has not come to an end, and someone gives them water to drink or wealth with which to treat their illness, then after death the donor will be born in the Heaven of Deep Waters and enjoy bliss like that of Shakra. When their heavenly lifespan comes to an end, although they will be reborn according to their karma, they will not fall into the three evil realms. They will obtain a human body and, life after life, will be born free from the suffering of illness and even from all sorrow and distress.

If any being who observes the precepts offers fans to the Sangha of bhikshus, helping them remain cool while reciting sutras, then after death that person will be born in the Wind-Coursing Heaven, where fragrant breezes constantly blow upon them, bringing incomparable peace and joy.

If beings build bridges and boats, using a wholesome mind to assist those who observe the precepts and others in traveling back and forth, and if they also refrain from evil deeds, then after death they will be born in the Mani-Bearing Heaven and enjoy the five sensual pleasures. When their lifespan there ends, they will be born in the human realm and entrusted with overseeing the king’s treasury.”

The Sutra of Parables records: “Long ago, a mother and her two children regularly performed three deeds:

1. They built a large boat and placed it on a river to ferry everyone across.

2. In a city, they dug a well of clear water to supply the entire populace.

3. At each of the city’s four gates, they built latrines for everyone’s use.

By cultivating these merits, after death all three were born in heaven and naturally enjoyed blessings. When born in the human realm, they possessed wealth, honor, high rank, and longevity; wherever they were born, they never fell into the three evil realms. [78c] Although the merit they created was small, its fruits were immeasurably abundant. How much more so for one who extensively cultivates merit, erects stupas, builds monasteries, establishes assemblies for giving, and performs various meritorious deeds! Such karmic rewards are hundreds of thousands of myriads of times greater and cannot be reckoned.

The Satyasiddhi Treatise cites a verse from a sutra:

Those who plant groves and orchards,

Dig wells and build bridges—

The merit such people create

Constantly increases day and night.

The Flower Hand Sutra records: “The Buddha told Shariputra:

– A bodhisattva has four practices through which there will be absolutely no regression from unsurpassed bodhi. They are:

1. On seeing a monastery or stupa in disrepair, one should repair it with earth or plaster, even if only by replacing a single brick.

2. At a crossroads where many people can see it, one should build a stupa or carve an image. Within the stupa, one should paint scenes of the Buddha turning the Dharma wheel, the Buddha renouncing the household life, and even the Buddha entering nirvana between the twin sala trees, thereby enabling people to recollect the Buddha’s benevolent virtues.

3. If two groups of bhikshus in the Sangha are engaged in a dispute, one should earnestly seek every possible means to help the Sangha restore harmony.

4. If one sees that the Buddhadharma is about to decline and perish, one must constantly read, recite, and expound the scriptures, even if only a single verse, so that the true Dharma will not be lost. Moreover, to preserve the true Dharma, one should make offerings to Dharma teachers and single-mindedly protect the Dharma without begrudging even one’s own body and life.

If a bodhisattva accomplishes these four practices, then life after life that bodhisattva will become a holy wheel-turning king, possess a mighty body, and have strength like Narayana. Later, relinquishing dominion over the four continents, the bodhisattva will renounce the household life and perfectly cultivate the four brahmaviharas. After death, that bodhisattva will be born in heaven as a Great Brahma King and will ultimately attain the unsurpassed fruition. Wise persons who seek the Buddha Way must train and cultivate in this manner.”

The Sutra on Herding Cattle^[47] records: “The Buddha told the bhikshus:

– There are eleven matters in which a cowherd who does not know how to tend cattle properly fails to understand how to nurture them. They are:

1. Not knowing the condition indicated by a cow’s complexion.

2. Not knowing how to examine its physical characteristics.

3. Not knowing how to wash it.

4. Not knowing how to care for its wounds.

5. Not knowing how to fumigate with smoke to drive away mosquitoes.

6. Not knowing how to choose a path.

7. Not knowing how to handle the cattle.

8. Not knowing how to choose a place for the cattle to cross a river.

9. Not knowing how to find good grass and clear, cool water for the cattle.

10. Not knowing how to milk a cow without draining all its milk.

11. Not knowing how to distinguish which food should be given to the cattle and which should not.

In these eleven matters, the cowherd does not know how to nurture and protect the cattle, causing the herd to be unable to multiply and instead to diminish day by day.”

This is an analogy for the eleven harmful failings of a bhikshu, which cannot be presented here in full.

[79a] The Buddha then spoke this verse:

A careful herdsman

Is a blessing to his master;

Six cattle, breeding for six years,

Become a herd of sixty.

An intelligent herdsman

Knows how to distinguish every characteristic…

Such a herdsman

Was often praised by Buddhas of former ages.

XV.7. Concluding Verses of Exhortation

When the shadow is upright, the form is straight;

An empty cavern echoes every sound.

Wholesome merit brings favorable fortune;

Where there is a cause, there is a fruit.

Giving up one’s body in offering to the Buddha,

One is praised for utmost sincerity;

Quietly performing the virtue of giving,

Blessings arrive unseen.

Notes:

^[13] Jambudvipa 閻浮提 (S: Jambu-dvīpa): the continent of Southern Jambu, one of the four great continents, situated south of Mount Sumeru. Jambudvipa originally referred specifically to India but later came to denote this world in general.

^[14] Eastern Purvavideha 東弗于逮 (S: Pūrva-videha): the eastern continent of Superior Bodies. This continent lies in the salt ocean east of Mount Sumeru. Because the bodies of the people on this continent are beautiful, it is called “Superior Bodies.”

^[15] Western Aparagodaniya 西拘耶尼 (S: Apara-godānīya): the western continent of Cattle Exchange. This continent lies west of Mount Sumeru. Because cattle and oxen are used there in trade and exchange, it is called “Cattle Exchange.”

^[16] Northern Uttarakuru 北欝單越 (S: Uttara-kuru): the northern continent of Kuru. This continent lies north of Mount Sumeru. Kuru means “supreme place.” Because both the circumstantial and direct karmic rewards of the people in this realm are excellent, it bears this name.

^[17] Eunuch 黃門 (S: paṇḍaka): here, this refers to a man who has been castrated and deprived of the male organ so that he may enter the palace and attend to affairs in the inner quarters.

^[18] Joyful ball 歡喜丸: a type of food made by thoroughly mixing milk, flour, ginger syrup, and other ingredients, then rolling the mixture into balls.

^[19] Tiaoda 調達 (S: Devadatta; also: Devadatta): the bhikshu who committed the five heinous offenses, disrupted the Sangha, and opposed the Buddha. He was a son of King Dronodana, the uncle of Prince Siddhartha; other accounts say that he was a son of King Amritodana or of the elder Suprabuddha.

^[20] The country of Vaishali (維耶離國; also: the city of Vaishali; S: Vaiśāli): an ancient state in central India. The great being Vimalakirti resided in this country. It was also the place where seven hundred sages and noble ones held the Second Council to compile the scriptures one hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvana.

^[21] Buddha Weiwei (維衛佛): namely, Vipashyin Buddha, a Buddha of a past kalpa.

^[22] Yang Sheng 楊生: a native of Hongnong during the Eastern Han dynasty. When he was young, he rescued a golden sparrow. Later, a boy dressed in yellow gave him four rings of white jade, as a result of which his descendants attained distinction and honor, rising in rank to the Three Excellencies.

^[23] The Kong clan (孔氏): refers to Confucius.

^[24] Three Assistants 三輔: a collective designation for three official posts that jointly governed a region during the Western Han dynasty.

^[25] Maudgaliputra Tishya 目犍連子帝須 (S: Maudgaliputra Tiśya): an arhat who lived during the reign of King Ashoka in India. According to tradition, he was the Great Brahma deity Tishya, who descended from the Brahma heaven and was born into the brahmin Maudgalyayana family; hence he was called Maudgaliputra Tishya.

^[26] Generative organ 生根: namely, the male organ.

^[27] Generative member 生支: namely, the male organ.

^[28] Heaven of Joy (Heaven of Joy 歡喜天; S: Nandikeśvara): the name of a heavenly realm. Heaven of Joy is also another name for the Indian deity Śiva. In Buddhism, Gaṇapati is said to be the son of Śiva and Pārvatī. Gaṇapati is translated by meaning as “army,” signifying that the Heaven of Joy and his younger brother Skanda together command the retinue of their father, Maheśvara; hence he is called the Heaven of Joy.

^[29] Cai Yin and Qin Jing 蔡愔, 秦景: two officials whom Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty sent to the Western Regions to procure scriptures and images in the tenth year of the Yongping era.

^[30] Lu Yang 魯楊: refers to Duke Lu Yang, a man of the state of Chu during the Warring States period. According to legend, he was a hero who brandished his spear and caused the sun to reverse its course.

^[31] Condensed milk (lạc tô 樂酥): a kind of milk cooked until thick.

^[32] Worthy One 應眞: the fruition of arhatship.

^[33] Nai flower (Nai flower 花柰): a flower whose fruit resembles a pear. The Kê Chích Collection records: “Long ago, in a country of the Western Regions, there was a kind of tree upon which, when it bore fruit, a maiden would be seated. The king brought her back and made her his wife. She later offered that garden to the Buddha as a monastery.”

^[34] Lord of the Devas 天帝: the king of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven. Because his clan name is Śakra, he is commonly called Śakra, Lord of the Devas.

^[35] Three vehicles (tam thừa 三乘, S: trīṇi yānāni): three means of delivering sentient beings, suited to three kinds of spiritual capacity: śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas.

^[36] Invitation for admonition 自恣 (S: pravāraṇā): following the wishes of others by openly declaring before the Sangha the transgressions one has committed. On the final day of the rains retreat, each bhikshu declares the offenses he has committed concerning the three matters of what has been seen, heard, or suspected, and repents before the other bhikshus. Through repentance he becomes pure and gives rise to joy; therefore, this is called the invitation for admonition.

^[37] Second heaven 第二天 (S: Trāyastriṃśa; also called the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven): the second of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[38] Six non-Buddhist teachers 六師外道: the six non-Buddhist schools, comprising:

1. Pūraṇa Kāśyapa 富蘭那迦葉 (S: PūraṇaKāśyapa): Pūraṇa is his given name, and Kāśyapa his family name. This school maintains that all dharmas are annihilated and empty in nature, repudiating the moral principles governing ruler and subject, father and son, loyalty and filial piety.

2. Maskārī Gośaliputra 末伽梨拘賒梨子 (S: MaskārīGośaliputra): Maskārī is his given name, and Gośali is his mother’s name. This school maintains that the suffering and happiness of sentient beings do not arise from causes and conditions but occur spontaneously.

3. Sañjaya Vairaṭīputra 刪闍夜毘羅胝子 (S: SañjayaVairaṭīputra): Sañjaya is his given name, and Vairaṭī is his mother’s name. This school maintains that there is no need to seek the path of liberation; one need only pass through a fixed number of kalpas of birth and death, after which suffering will cease by itself, like a round bundle of thorns rolling down from a high mountain and stopping by itself once the bundle has completely unwound.

4. Ajita Keśakambala 阿耆多翅舍欽婆羅 (S: Ajitakeśakambala): Ajita Keśa is his name, and kambala refers to coarse, inferior clothing. This school maintains that one should wear poor garments and scorch the body with the five kinds of heat, taking ascetic suffering to be the path.

5. Kakuda Kātyāyana 迦羅鳩馱迦旃延 (S: KakudaKātyāyand): Kakuda is his given name, and Kātyāyana his family name. This school maintains that dharmas both possess characteristics and lack characteristics. Cognition arises in response to objects. If someone asks whether something exists, the answer is that it does not; if someone asks whether it does not exist, the answer is that it does.

6. Nirgrantha Jñātiputra 尼犍陀若提子 (S: NirgrantaJñātiputra): Nirgrantha is a general designation for renunciants, and Jñāti is his mother’s name. This school maintains that suffering and happiness, wrongdoing and merit, are all determined by previous lives and must inevitably receive their corresponding recompense; they cannot be eliminated by cultivating the path in the present life.

^[39] Mahāsattva Sūtra (Mahāsattva Sūtra 摩訶剎頭經; S: Mahāsattva Sūtra): a scripture on contemplating images of the Buddha.

^[40] Flying Emperor 作飛行皇帝: a king of such power and authority that he rules all four continents under heaven, possesses the seven treasures, and has a thousand sons as his retinue.

^[41] Duliang fragrance 都梁香: another name for the marsh orchid. During the Northern Wei dynasty, there was a small mountain west of Duliang County. On the mountain was a shallow stream with crystal-clear water, in which many orchids grew. Because they grew beside the stream, people called the plant “marsh orchid.” Since this plant grew west of Duliang County, it was also called “Duliang fragrance.”

^[42] Cleansing beans 澡豆: a cleansing substance similar to modern soap.

^[43] Creamy balm 酥膏: a washing substance similar to modern body wash.

^[44] Passing wind 下風: flatulence. Long ago, when the Buddha was residing in the city of Śrāvastī, the group of six bhikshus failed to maintain dignified conduct and behaved badly. They deliberately ate large quantities of beans and flour and drank much milk; then, in their room, they took turns loudly passing wind, using the sounds to jest and provoke the elder bhikshus. Because of this, the bhikshus asked the Buddha to give instructions concerning the passing of wind. The Buddha taught: “Anyone who is about to pass wind should restrain it. If he cannot, he should go and sit at the lowest place. When passing wind, he must not make a sound that disturbs the bhikshus seated nearby.”

^[45] Śuddhāvāsa Heaven (Śuddhāvāsa Heaven 首陀會天): the Pure Abodes, heavenly realms within the Form Realm that belong to the heavens of the fourth dhyāna.

^[46] Pure water 淨水: clean water, meaning water used in accordance with the rules established by the Buddha.

^[47] Discourse on Herding Cattle (Phóng ngưu kinh 放牛經): a scripture consisting of a chapter extracted from the Ekottarika Āgama whose contents are identical to those of this discourse.