諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XXVIII. HELLS

This section consists of seven parts: Introduction, Compilation of Names, Experiencing Retribution, Duration of Punishment, Names of the Lords of Hell, Palace of King Yama, and Karmic Causes and Admonitions.

XXVIII.1. Introduction

[166a] Rather than damming a current, it is better to stop up its source; rather than stirring boiling water, it is better to extinguish the fire. This is because the source produces the current; if the source is not stopped up, the current will flow on. Fire makes water boil; if the fire is not extinguished, the water will continue boiling.

Therefore, when one stops up the source, there is no need to dam the current, for the water will dry up by itself; when one extinguishes the fire, there is no need to stir the boiling water, for it will cool by itself. By comparison with this, the severance of cause and effect becomes clear. Rather than loathing the result, it is better to sever its cause at once; rather than fearing suffering, it is better not to commit evil.

Causes produce results; so long as the causes have not been severed, the results remain. Evil gives rise to suffering; so long as evil has not ceased, suffering continues. Thus, when a worthy person severs the cause, there is no need to loathe the result, for the result perishes by itself; when the virtuous refrain from evil, there is no need to fear suffering, for suffering departs by itself.

Is this not why noble persons have written these words as an admonition?

XXVIII.2. Compilation of Names

Question: What is hell?

Answer: The Lokasthana Abhidharma Treatise states: “The Sanskrit term for hell is Niraya, meaning that there is no peace or happiness, no escape, and no merit; and because beings do not cease committing evil deeds, they fall into it.

It further says: Hell is the lowest place in the Desire Realm and is therefore called a non-path. Hence hell should be called Niraya.”

The Vibhāṣā Treatise calls hell “the state of having no autonomy,” meaning that sinners are imprisoned by the wardens of hell and have no freedom. Therefore, it is called hell and is also called “that which is undesirable.”

Furthermore, “earth” means the bottom, the lowest place among all things, and is therefore called the bottom. “Prison” means confinement, a place where there is no freedom; hence it is called an earthly prison, or hell.

Furthermore, Nili is a Sanskrit term translated into Chinese as “nonexistence,” meaning that there is no benefit in hell.

[166b] Question: There are many kinds of hells, some beneath the earth, some upon the earth, and some in the midst of space. Why are they all called hells?

Answer: The old translation “hell” refers to confined places and does not encompass those upon the earth or in space. According to the newly translated sutras and treatises^[81], the correct Sanskrit pronunciation is Naraka, or Nāraka, meaning every place in which human beings experience the painful results they have brought upon themselves.

Furthermore, the New Vibhāṣā Treatise states:

Question: Why is that place called Nāraka?

Answer: Because the sentient beings there have no peace or happiness, know no love, lead meaningless lives, have no benefit, and possess no joy, it is called Nāraka.

One explanation says that in the past those sentient beings committed deeply grave evil karma through body, speech, and mind, and upon reaching hell they continue to commit evil; therefore, it is called Nāraka.

Another explanation says that because the sentient beings there are suspended upside down, it is called Nāraka.

As the verse says:

Within the hells they hang inverted,

Feet suspended, heads pointing downward,

Because they slandered all the Buddhas

And pure practitioners of austerities.

One explanation holds that nāraka means “evil person.” Because evil persons are born in this place, it is called Nāraka.

Question: Why is the vast and lowest place called Avīci Hell, the Hell of No Interval?

Answer: Because beings there constantly undergo painful retribution without a single moment of happiness, it is called “No Interval.”

Question: In the other hells, do beings perhaps sing and dance, eat and drink, and experience pleasant ripened results, so that those hells are not called “No Interval”?

Answer: Although there are no pleasant ripened results^[82] in the other hells, there is pleasure arising from corresponding effects^[83].

As the Prajñapti Treatise states: “In the Reviving Hell, a cool wind sometimes blows and causes the flesh and blood of the sinners to grow back. At other times, the sound ‘Revive!’ is uttered, and the sentient beings there suddenly return to life. Only during the time when their flesh and blood are restored and they revive in this manner do the sinners temporarily experience pleasure and an interruption of their suffering; therefore, it is not called Avīci.”

XXVIII.3. Experiencing Retribution

The New Vibhāṣā Treatise states:

Question: Where are the hells located?

Answer: Most are beneath the continent of Jambudvīpa^[84].

Question: How are they arranged?

Answer: One explanation holds that forty thousand yojanas directly beneath this continent of Jambudvīpa lies the floor of Avīci Hell.

Avīci Hell measures twenty thousand yojanas in length, height, and breadth. Above this hell, within a span of nineteen thousand yojanas, are seven hells. In order from the lowest upward, they are the Great Scorching Hell, the Scorching Hell, the Great Wailing Hell, the Wailing Hell, the Crushing Hell, the Black-Rope Hell, and the Reviving Hell. Each of these seven hells is ten thousand yojanas in length and breadth. [166c] Of the remaining one thousand yojanas, five hundred yojanas consist of white clay and five hundred yojanas of mud.

One explanation holds that beneath this layer of mud, Avīci Hell lies at the center, while the other seven hells surround it, just as villages today surround a great city.

Question: If so, how should the question raised in the Prajñapti Treatise be explained? The treatise says that the circumference of Jambudvīpa is six thousand and three and a half yojanas, whereas here it is said that every hell has such length and breadth. How, then, could the region beneath this continent contain them all?

Answer: Jambudvīpa is narrow above and broad below, like a heap of grain, and therefore can contain them. For this reason, the sutras often say that the four great seas become deeper and deeper as they descend. Furthermore, each great hell has sixteen subsidiary Utsada Hells^[85]. That is, each great hell has four gates, and beyond each gate are four additional hells:

1. The Hot-Ash Hell: In this hell, hot ashes rise to the knees of the sinners.

2. The Excrement-and-Urine Hell: This hell is filled with excrement and urine.

3. The Sharp-Blade Hell: This hell has three forms: first, the Path of Blades, meaning that in this hell sharp blades are spread out to form a road; second, the Forest of Sword-Leaves, meaning that all the leaves of the trees in this forest are sharp sword points; and third, the Forest of Iron Thorns, meaning that this forest is filled with sharp iron thorns sixteen finger-widths long. Although these three differ in form, they are all iron forests and therefore belong to the Utsada Hells.

4. The Great Hot-River Hell: In this hell are four great rivers whose waters are both hot and salty.

The sixteen Utsada Hells together with the principal hell make seventeen hells. Thus, the eight great hells and their dependent minor hells amount altogether to one hundred and thirty-six hells. Therefore, the sutra says that there are one hundred and thirty-six Nārakas.

Accordingly, the Dīrgha Āgama states: There are eight great hells in all, and each great hell is surrounded by sixteen minor hells. Likewise, the four continents beneath heaven are surrounded by eight thousand world-realms. Beyond those eight thousand world-realms lies a great ocean. Beyond the great ocean stands the Great Vajra Mountain. Beyond this Great Vajra Mountain stands another mountain also called Vajra Mountain (called the Great Iron-Enclosing Mountain in the Lokodaya Sutra). Between these two mountains is a realm of darkness that cannot be illuminated by the light of the sun and moon or even by the radiance of the devas.

The eight great hells are: the Perception Hell; the Black-Rope Hell; the Crushing Hell; the Wailing Hell; the Great Wailing Hell; the Scorching Hell; the Great Scorching Hell; and Avīci Hell.

(The Lâu Thán Sutra and other sutras give different names because their transliterations differ.)

1. The Hell of Conception has sixteen minor hells. The beings in this hell have iron claws growing from their hands. Driven by anger, they claw and tear at one another, causing the flesh of their hands to fall away. They then conceive that they have died; therefore, it is called the Hell of Conception.

Furthermore, the beings in this hell harbor malicious thoughts, and so they wield knives and swords to stab and slash one another, flaying skin, carving flesh, and hacking bodies to pieces until they lie mangled upon the ground. They then [167a] conceive that they have died, but suddenly a cold wind blows upon them and brings them back to life, whereupon they think, “Now I have come back to life.”

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Conception. In terror, they cry out for help, but unexpectedly enter the Hell of Black Sand. Then a fierce hot wind arises, blowing scorching black sand against their bodies and burning their skin and flesh down to the bones and marrow. Afterward, raging flames arise from their bodies, consuming them completely. Yet because their offenses have not been exhausted, they cannot die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Black Sand, only to enter the Hell of Urine and Feces. In this hell, iron pellets resembling urine and feces naturally fill the space before them. The wardens pursue and seize the offenders, forcing them to embrace the red-hot iron pellets, which burn their bodies, hands, and feet. They also compel them to pick up the red-hot iron pellets and put them into their mouths, burning everything from their throats through their bellies and straight down below. There are also iron-beaked worms that peck away their flesh down to the bones and marrow, causing immeasurable pain. Yet because their offenses have not been exhausted, they cannot die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Urine and Feces, only to enter the Hell of Iron Nails. The wardens force them to lie upon red-hot iron, stretch out their bodies, and drive nails through their hands and feet, while also hammering five hundred nails throughout their bodies. They cry out in agony, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Iron Nails, only to enter the Hell of Hunger. The wardens force them to lie upon beds of red-hot iron and pour boiling molten copper into their mouths, burning everything from their throats through their bellies and straight down below. Yet because their offenses have not been exhausted, they cannot die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Hunger, only to enter the Hell of Thirst. The wardens force them to lie upon red-hot iron and place red-hot iron pellets into their mouths, burning their lips and mouths and scorching everything straight down below. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Thirst, only to enter the Hell of a Single Cauldron of Boiling Copper. Glaring fiercely, the wardens seize the offenders by the feet and cast them headfirst into the cauldron. Tossed about in the violently boiling liquid, they rise and sink as their entire bodies are cooked through. Myriad torments assail them, yet still they do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of a Single Cauldron of Boiling Copper, only to enter the Hell of Many Cauldrons of Boiling Copper. The wardens seize them by the feet and cast them headfirst into a cauldron. Tossed about in the violently boiling liquid, they rise and sink as their entire bodies are cooked through. The wardens then use iron hooks to drag them out and cast them into another cauldron. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Many Cauldrons of Boiling Copper, only to enter the Hell of the Stone Mill. The wardens force them to lie upon a scorching stone, pull their arms and legs apart, and press a massive red-hot stone upon their bodies, grinding it back and forth until their bones and flesh are crushed to pulp. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of the Stone Mill, only to enter the Hell of Blood and Pus. The offenders run to and fro through boiling blood and pus, their entire bodies scalded and their heads and faces mangled. They are also forced to drink the blood and pus, which flows straight down through their bodies. Their suffering is unbearable, yet still they do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Blood and Pus, [167b] only to enter the Hell of Measuring Fire. There is a great heap of fiercely blazing fire. The wardens pursue and seize the offenders, forcing them to hold red-hot iron measuring vessels in their hands and use them to measure out the fire. Flames consume the offenders’ entire bodies. Tormented by scorching heat and pain, they moan and weep, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Measuring Fire, only to enter the River of Ash Hell. This hell measures five hundred yojanas in length, breadth, depth, and width. Its ashen waters boil violently, toxic vapors billow upward, and immense waves roll and surge, producing terrifying sounds. From the riverbed to the surface, it is filled with iron thorns, while along its banks stand forests of sword-trees whose branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits are all knives and swords. The offenders in the river are carried by the waves, rising and sinking, floating upward and plunging downward. Iron thorns pierce their entire bodies, and blood and pus stream forth. They suffer immeasurable pain, yet still do not die.

When the offenders emerge from the river of ash and step onto the bank, knives and swords stab and slash them, mangling their bodies. Wolves then come to bite them, devouring their bones and flesh while they are still alive. When the offenders climb the trees, the knives and swords point downward; when they slide down, the knives and swords point upward.

When their hands grasp the trees, their hands are severed; when their feet tread upon them, their feet are severed. Their skin and flesh fall away, leaving only bones and sinews joined together. Then iron-beaked crows upon the trees peck open their heads and devour their brains.

They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, yet still do not die, and they enter the river of ash once again. Tossed about by the waves, rising and sinking, their entire bodies are pierced by iron thorns. They suffer immeasurable pain; their skin and flesh are mangled, and blood and pus stream forth, leaving only white bones drifting upon the waters.

At that time, a cold wind blows upon them, and they immediately rise again.

Yet, drawn onward by their past offenses, the offenders unwittingly enter the Hell of Iron Pellets. The wardens pursue and seize them, forcing them to grasp red-hot iron pellets, which mangle their hands and feet and cause flames to erupt throughout their bodies. Myriad torments assail them, yet still they do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Iron Pellets, only to enter the Hell of Hammers and Axes. The wardens force them to lie upon red-hot iron and use red-hot iron hammers and axes to hack apart their hands, feet, ears, and noses. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Hammers and Axes, only to enter the Hell of Wolves. Packs of wolves rush toward them, fighting among themselves to bite and tear the offenders, crushing their bones, ripping away their flesh, and causing blood and pus to stream forth. They suffer immeasurable pain, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of Wolves, only to enter the Hell of the Sword Forest. When they enter the sword forest, a fierce wind arises and blows down the sword-leaves, which stab their bodies and wound their heads, faces, and torsos. Iron-beaked crows also peck out both of their eyes. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, yet still do not die.

After suffering for a long time, the offenders finally emerge from the Hell of the Sword Forest, only to enter the Hell of Freezing Cold. An icy wind blows upon them, freezing their entire bodies and causing their skin and flesh to fall away. They suffer immeasurable pain and wail piteously, after which their lives come to an end.

Those who commit many evil deeds with body, speech, and mind will fall into this Hell of Conception. Such suffering is terrifying beyond imagination!

[167c] 2. The Great Black-Rope Hell has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, each five hundred yojanas in length and breadth. Why is it called the Black-Rope Hell?

There, the hell wardens make the sinners lie upon heated iron, stretch out their bodies, and use red-hot iron ropes to mark straight lines upon them. Then, following the marks of the ropes, they use red-hot iron hammers to cleave the sinners into hundreds of thousands of pieces. Again, they use iron ropes to mark lines and then saw them apart.

They also suspend innumerable red-hot iron ropes crosswise and lengthwise, chasing and forcing the sinners to pass among them. Suddenly, a whirlwind arises and blows the iron ropes around the sinners’ bodies, burning their skin, stripping away their flesh, scorching their bones, and boiling their marrow, causing immeasurable agony. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die.

Therefore, it is called the Black-Rope Hell.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Black-Rope Hell, only to enter the Black-Sand Hell, continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Their passage in and out in this way is beyond reckoning. The punishments and sufferings in those sixteen hells are similar to those described above, but their suffering is many times greater. Because they harbored malicious thoughts toward their parents, the Buddha, and the sravakas, these people fall into the Black-Rope Hell and suffer agony beyond description.

3. The Great Crushing Hell also has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, each five hundred yojanas in length and breadth. Why is it called the Crushing Hell? In this hell, there are great stone mountains standing opposite each other in pairs. When sinners enter, the mountains naturally close together and crush their bodies, reducing their bones and flesh to pulp; afterward, the mountains return to their original positions. The sinners suffer immeasurable agony, yet they cannot die.

There are also great iron elephants whose entire bodies blaze with fire. Roaring, they charge forward and trample the sinners again and again, crushing their bodies and causing blood to gush forth. In agony, the sinners scream, wail, and weep piteously, yet still they do not die.

The hell wardens also make the sinners lie upon a great slab of stone and then press another great slab down upon them. Again, they make the sinners lie upon the ground and pound them from head to foot with iron pestles, crushing their skin and flesh and causing blood to gush forth as myriad sufferings assail them. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die. Therefore, it is called the Crushing Hell.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Crushing Hell, only to enter the Black-Sand Hell, [168a] continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because they committed the three evil karmas—killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct—and did not cultivate the three wholesome karmas, they fall into the Crushing Hell and suffer agony beyond description.

4. The Great Wailing Hell also has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, each five hundred yojanas in length and breadth. Why is it called the Wailing Hell? There, the hell wardens seize the sinners and cast them into great cauldrons, then place them in great iron pots in which water boils furiously, cooking them until their bodies disintegrate. The sinners scream and weep in anguish and torment. The wardens also place them upon great iron grates and turn them over and over above blazing flames.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Wailing Hell, only to enter the Black-Sand Hell, continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because of anger, malicious intent, and the commission of evil deeds, they fall into the Wailing Hell.

5. The Great Wailing Hell likewise has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, their dimensions being the same as described above. Why is it called the Great Wailing Hell? There, the hell wardens seize the sinners and place them in great iron pots and iron cauldrons in which water boils furiously, cooking them until their bodies disintegrate. They also cast the sinners upon iron grates and turn them over and over above blazing flames. The sinners scream, wail, and weep in anguish and torment. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, they cannot die. Therefore, it is called the Great Wailing Hell.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Great Wailing Hell and continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because they cultivated wrong views, were dragged along by the net of craving, and performed base deeds, they fall into the Great Wailing Hell.

6. The Scorching Hell also has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, their dimensions being the same as described above. Why is it called the Scorching Hell? There, the hell wardens seize the sinners and cast them into an iron citadel. The iron citadel bursts into flame and glows red-hot both within and without, scorching the sinners. They also place the sinners in an iron tower, which bursts into flame and glows red-hot both within and without. They further cast them into a great iron furnace, which bursts into flame and glows red-hot both within and without, scorching the sinners until their skin and flesh dissolve as myriad sufferings assail them. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die. Therefore, it is called the Scorching Hell.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Scorching Hell and continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because they scorched living beings, they fall into the Scorching Hell and, for many kalpas, endure such torment by scorching.

7. The Great Scorching Hell also has sixteen minor hells surrounding it, their dimensions being the same as described above. Why is it called the Great Scorching Hell? There, the hell wardens seize the sinners and cast them into an iron citadel. The iron citadel bursts into flame and glows red-hot both within and without, scorching the sinners until their skin and flesh dissolve as myriad sufferings assail them. There is also a great fire pit blazing fiercely red. On both sides of this pit stand great mountains of fire. The hell wardens impale the sinners upon iron tridents and hold them upright amid the flames. The great fire burns them until their skin and flesh are destroyed. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Great Scorching Hell and continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because they abandoned what is wholesome and performed evil deeds, they fall into the Great Scorching Hell.

8. The Avici Hell also has sixteen minor hells surrounding it. Why is it called Avici, the Uninterrupted Hell? There, the hell wardens flay the sinners from their feet to their heads, wrap their bodies in their own skin, and cast them upon a red-hot iron floor. Wheels of fire then grind back and forth over them, [168b] reducing their bodies and mangling their skin and flesh as myriad sufferings assail them. Yet because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die.

There is also an iron citadel with flames rising on all four sides. The fire burns from east to west and from west to east; the same occurs from south to north, from north to south, from above to below, and from below to above. Fierce flames burn everywhere, leaving no place untouched. The sinners run east and west, their entire bodies scorched, their skin and flesh dissolving amid anguish and torment.

After the sinners have remained in this hell for a long time, a gate naturally opens. They immediately run toward it, every joint and bone in their bodies blazing with fire; but when they draw near the gate, it naturally closes. Because their former karma has not been exhausted, the sinners cannot die.

Furthermore, while dwelling in this hell, the sinners’ eyes behold only dreadful sights, their ears hear dreadful sounds, their noses smell foul odors, their bodies experience painful contact, and their minds conceive evil thoughts. Their suffering continues without interruption, not ceasing even for an instant. Therefore, it is called the Avici Hell, the Uninterrupted Hell.

The sinners endure suffering for a long time before emerging from the Avici Hell and continuing as far as the Freezing Hell; afterward, their lives end. Because they created evil karma and bear exceedingly grave offenses, they fall into the Avici Hell and endure suffering beyond description.

These are the eight great hells. Each has sixteen minor hells, and the sinners undergo the sufferings described above.

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Ocean-Like Samadhi of the Contemplation of the Buddha^[86] states: “The Avici Hell is eight thousand yojanas in length and breadth, with seven iron walls and seven layers of iron netting. Beneath them are eighteen compartments, each surrounded by seven rows of knife forests and seven rows of sword trees. At the four corners are four great bronze dogs, whose bodies are forty yojanas in length and breadth.

Their eyes are like flashes of lightning, their tusks like sword trees, their teeth like mountains of knives, and their tongues like iron thorns. All the hair covering their bodies blazes with fierce fire and emits foul-smelling smoke. There are eighteen wardens of hell, whose mouths resemble those of yakshas and who have sixty-four eyes glowing red like heated iron balls.

Their tusks jut upward to a height of four yojanas. From the tip of each tusk fire pours forth, burning the iron carts before them. The spokes of the carts also emit fire and produce sharp blades and swords, making the city of Avici glow red like molten copper.

Each warden has eight heads and sixteen horns. From every horn fire pours forth; the fire turns into steel and then into bladed carts, which follow one another, revolving within rings of blazing fire and filling the entire city of Avici.

Within the seven walls are seven iron banners. From these banners fierce flames surge upward like boiling water, while molten iron overflows throughout the city of Avici. Above its four gates are eighteen cauldrons of boiling copper, which overflow throughout the city.

In each compartment of the hell are eighty-four great iron serpents that spew venom and fierce fire, their enormous bodies filling the entire city. These serpents roar like thunder and pour forth great iron balls that fill the city. There are also five hundred yakshas and fifty billion insects, each insect having eighty-four beaks.

From the tips of their beaks fire pours forth like torrential rain throughout the city of Avici. When these insects descend, fierce flames blaze up, illuminating eighty-four yojanas. The flames rise directly from the Avici Hell to Mount Vadava^[87] in the great ocean and penetrate downward to the very bottom of the sea, [168c] in the shape of a cart axle.

If anyone kills his father, harms his mother, or dishonors the six classes of close kin, then at the end of his life the bronze dogs open their mouths and magically produce eighteen carts resembling golden carriages covered by jeweled canopies. The fierce flames transform into jeweled maidens. Seeing them from afar, the offender becomes delighted and wishes to approach.

At that moment, a cold wind blows upon him, making him numb with cold, and he cries out: ‘I would rather sit upon the cart and endure being burned by fierce flames.’ Then the fire flares up violently, and his life immediately ends. The offender then sees himself seated upon a golden cart, gazing at the jeweled maidens; but the maidens take up iron axes and hack his body apart. In no more time than it takes to bend and extend an arm, he falls straight into the Avici Hell.

Like a wheel of fire revolving, the offender falls from an upper compartment into a lower one, his body filling the entire compartment. The bronze dogs bark loudly, then chew his bones and swallow his marrow. The rakshasa wardens take up great iron tridents, pierce the offender through the head, and force him to rise. His entire body bursts into flame, filling the whole Avici Hell.

At that time, King Yama shouts loudly: ‘Foolish one, you planted the causes of hell. While in the human realm, you were unfilial toward your parents, held wrong views, and were arrogant and malicious. Therefore, you have now fallen into the Avici Hell.’ Thus, he passes repeatedly through innumerable torments that cannot be fully described.

In a single day and night, this person undergoes punishment in hell equal to sixty minor kalpas in Jambudvipa. Thus, his lifespan there lasts until the end of one great kalpa^[88]. One who has committed all five heinous offenses^[89] must undergo punishment for five great kalpas.

There are also beings who violate the four grave precepts^[90], wrongfully accept offerings given in faith, slander the Three Jewels, hold wrong views, disbelieve cause and effect, fail to study prajnaparamita, disparage the Buddhas of the ten directions, steal property belonging to the Sangha, indulge in sexual misconduct, act violently and tyrannically, violate bhikshunis who maintain pure precepts, defile their own sisters or female relatives, and commit various other evil deeds. At the end of their lives, these people must undergo retributive suffering for forty-eight thousand great kalpas.

They then enter the ten compartments of hell in the east and undergo the same sufferings described above; it is likewise in the south, west, and north. The offender’s body fills the entire Avici Hell, and his four limbs extend throughout its eighteen compartments.

The Avici Hell contains eighteen lesser hells. Each lesser hell, in turn, contains eighteen Freezing Hells, eighteen Dark Hells, eighteen Lesser-Heat Hells, eighteen Bladed-Cart Hells, eighteen Sword-Cart Hells, eighteen Flaming-Cart Hells, eighteen Boiling-Feces Hells, eighteen Boiling-Water Hells, eighteen Ash-River Hells, fifty billion Sword-Forest Hells, fifty billion Thorn-Forest Hells, fifty billion Copper-Pillar Hells, fifty billion Iron-Machine Hells, fifty billion Iron-Net Hells, eighteen Iron-Cavern Hells, ten Iron-Ball Hells, eighteen Sharp-Stone Hells, and eighteen Hells of Drinking Boiling Copper.

Thus, within the great Avici Hell there are eighteen lesser hells. Each lesser hell, in turn, has eighteen compartments, beginning with the Freezing Hell and ending with the Hell of Drinking Boiling Copper, for a total of one hundred and forty-two compartments of hell. Although offenders have created different kinds of karma, [169a] they must all pass through these hells and undergo suffering.”

The Sutra on the Arising of the World states: “The Buddha said:

– Bhikshus! Surrounding and subordinate to the extremely great Avici Hell are also sixteen lesser hells. Each lesser hell is five hundred yojanas in length and breadth. Among the beings there, some have newly arrived, some are dwelling there, some are leaving, and some are undergoing punishment. Because of the retribution for the evil karma they have created, they naturally fall into this hell. The wardens seize the offenders and cast them upon a scorching iron floor, from which fiercely blazing flames surge straight upward. They then turn the offenders facedown upon the ground, use sharp knives to cut open their heels and expose the sinews, and pull the sinews by hand all the way to the neck, causing pain that pierces the heart and liver. After pulling out the sinews, they hook them to iron carts and force the offenders to pull the carts at a run. These carts blaze fiercely with fire. Wherever the offenders pass, the paths are perilous, made of scorching iron and glowing red with fire. They go back and forth at the wardens’ command, never resting even for a moment. Whichever direction the offenders wish to go, the wardens immediately drag them there and never leave them. Wherever they go, they are burned, and all the blood and flesh of their bodies are consumed. Because formerly, whether as humans or as other beings, they created evil karma, they must receive such retribution.

Because of the retribution of unwholesome karma, a great mass of fire suddenly arises in the east of the beings in this hell, glowing red and blazing without cease. The same occurs in the south, west, and north, in the four intermediate directions, and above and below. These great masses of fire surround the offenders and gradually close in upon them, causing immeasurable pain.

From the eastern wall a fiercely blazing flame arises, shoots directly toward the western wall, and remains there. From the western wall a fiercely blazing flame arises, shoots directly toward the eastern wall, and remains there. From the southern wall a fiercely blazing flame arises and shoots directly toward the northern wall.

From the northern wall a fiercely blazing flame arises and shoots directly toward the southern wall. Flames shoot upward from below and downward from above, crossing horizontally and vertically and joining above and below, emitting intense heat and light. At that time, the wardens seize the offenders and cast them among these six great masses of fire.

The offenders suffer the utmost agony, yet they still do not die. Because the retribution for their unwholesome karma has not yet been exhausted, they remain there continually, undergoing every manner of torment.”

Because of the karmic retribution of unwholesome deeds, the beings in this great Avici Hell pass through innumerable kalpas in darkness. After the sinners have undergone every manner of suffering, the four gates of the hell naturally open. As soon as the gates open, the sinners hear and see this, immediately run toward them, and think, “Now we have surely attained release.” Having thought thus, they rush forward, whereupon their bodies turn into fiercely blazing flames.

It is like a strong man holding a bundle of dry torches and walking against the wind: once the torches have caught fire, they burn ever more fiercely. In the same way, [169b] as the beings move to and fro in this hell, every part of their bodies bursts into flame. When a sinner is about to lift a foot, the flesh and blood are completely mangled; when the foot is about to be set down, the flesh and blood grow back again.

When they run near the gates of the hell, the gates naturally close, and they cannot escape. Their minds become confused and disordered; covering their faces with both hands, they fall to the ground. The sinners’ skin and flesh, down to their bones and marrow, are burned.

Smoke and fire fill the air; smoke billows upward, flames blaze crimson, and smoke and fire mingle together, multiplying the sinners’ agony many times over. They undergo the utmost suffering therein, but because their evil karma has not yet been exhausted, they must endure all these torments.

In this exceedingly great Avici Hell, there is never even a moment of ease and joy as brief as the snapping of one’s fingers. The sinners undergo, one after another, every manner of suffering such as these.

The Buddha further told the bhiksus:

– You should know that among these worlds there are also ten hells:

1. Arbuda Hell.

2. Nirarbuda Hell.

3. Aho Hell.

4. Huhuva Hell.

5. Atata Hell.

6. Saugandhika Hell (Sugandha).

7. Utpala Hell.

8. Padma Hell (Patuma).

9. Pundarika Hell (Pundarika).

10. Kumuda Hell (Kumudotpala).

Why is it called Arbuda Hell? The bodies of the sinners in this hell resemble bubbles of water; therefore, it is called Arbuda Hell.

Why is it called Nirarbuda Hell? The bodies of the sinners in this hell resemble lumps of flesh; therefore, it is called Nirarbuda Hell.

Why is it called Aho Hell? When the sinners in this hell are oppressed by extreme torment, they cry out “Aho” in unbearable pain; therefore, it is called Aho Hell.

Why is it called Huhuva Hell? When the sinners in this hell are oppressed by extreme torment, they cry out “Huhuva”; therefore, it is called Huhuva Hell.

Why is it called Atata Hell? Because extreme suffering oppresses the bodies of the sinners in this hell, they can only utter the sound “Atata,” yet their voices are choked and cannot emerge; therefore, it is called Atata Hell.

Why is it called Saugandhika Hell? The sinners in this hell [169c] are burned by fierce fire, whose flames are black like the color of the Saugandhika flower; therefore, it is called Saugandhika Hell.

Why is it called Utpala Hell? The sinners in this hell are burned by fierce fire, whose flames are blue like the color of the Utpala flower; therefore, it is called Utpala Hell.

Why is it called Kumuda Hell? The sinners in this hell are burned by fierce fire, whose flames are pink like the color of the Kumuda flower; therefore, it is called Kumuda Hell.

Why is it called Pundarika Hell? The sinners in this hell are burned by fierce fire, whose flames are white like the color of the Pundarika flower; therefore, it is called Pundarika Hell.

Why is it called Padma Hell? The sinners in this hell are burned by fierce fire, whose flames are red like the color of the Padma flower; therefore, it is called Padma Hell.”

The Lokasthana Abhidharma Treatise records: “The Blessed One taught:

– Beyond the worlds there is a great hell called Darkness. Nothing obstructs their view, yet the beings there cannot even see their own hands. Even the mighty radiance of the sun and moon cannot shine upon that place. When Buddhas appear in the world, they emit rays of light that illuminate it throughout, and by this light the beings are able to see one another.

Between two worlds, outside the Iron Encircling Mountains, lies the Freezing Hell.

Between two Vajra Mountains there are also ten hells, the first being Arbuda and the tenth Padma. The sinners in Arbuda Hell move horizontally, yet conceive that they are moving upward, like persons guarding a palace. Outside the Iron Encircling Mountains, the sinners constantly move horizontally, and their bodies resemble great bubbles of water.

When the cold wind blows upon them, their bodies disintegrate, like overripe melons falling apart or like reeds toppling over. When burned by fierce fire, the sinners groan, ‘Tata.’ In the same way, when the cold wind touches them, their bones shatter, and the sound ‘Tata’ resounds everywhere. Through these groans and by touching one another as they move to and fro, they become aware of one another and think, ‘There are beings born here.’ Most beings who die here are reborn in the Freezing Hell.

Beings from other worlds, mostly those worlds beyond the Iron Encircling Mountains, fall into the Freezing Hell after death. Between two worlds, the narrowest place measures eighty thousand and ten yojanas; below there is no bottom, and above there is no covering. [170a] The widest place measures one hundred and sixty yojanas.”

XXVIII.4. Duration of Punishment

The Sutra on the Arising of the Worlds records: “The Buddha taught: Suppose there were twenty hu^[91] of sesame seeds, and once every hundred years a person picked up a single sesame seed and cast it elsewhere. Even after all the sesame seeds in those twenty hu had been cast away, the lifespans of the sinners in that hell would still not be exhausted. Moreover, that span is reckoned as one lifetime in Arbuda Hell.

Thus, twenty lifetimes in Arbuda Hell equal one lifetime in Nirarbuda Hell; twenty lifetimes in Nirarbuda Hell equal one lifetime in Aho Hell; twenty lifetimes in Aho Hell equal one lifetime in Huhuva Hell; twenty lifetimes in Huhuva Hell equal one lifetime in Atata Hell; twenty lifetimes in Atata Hell equal one lifetime in Saugandhika Hell; twenty lifetimes in Saugandhika Hell equal one lifetime in Utpala Hell; twenty lifetimes in Utpala Hell equal one lifetime in Kumuda Hell; twenty lifetimes in Kumuda Hell equal one lifetime in Pundarika Hell; and twenty lifetimes in Pundarika Hell equal one lifetime in Padma Hell, which is one intermediate kalpa.”

The Sutra of the Bhiksu Nagasena’s Questions to the Buddha records: “The heat of fire in the human world cannot compare with the fire of hell. If a small stone is placed in worldly fire, it will still not be consumed even from morning until evening; but if a great boulder is placed in the fire of hell, it is immediately burned away. Likewise, when evildoers die and fall into hell, they may remain there for tens of millions of years without dying. Or consider dragons, great serpents, and other such creatures that take sand and stones as food, yet the food is digested immediately. Likewise, when a woman is pregnant, the fetus is not digested away.”

All this depends upon the power of wholesome and unwholesome karma, whether it is exhausted or not. The wholesome and unwholesome deeds people have performed always follow them as a shadow follows the form. When a person dies, only this body is lost, but that person’s active karma is not lost. It is like lighting a lamp at night to write characters: although the lamp is extinguished, the characters remain; when the lamp is lit again, the characters appear. Wholesome and unwholesome karma created in this life brings its retribution only in a subsequent life.

In the Padma Hell, flames blaze fiercely. Even if sinners stand one hundred yojanas from the flames, they are still scorched by the fire. If they are sixty yojanas away, both their ears become deaf and they can hear nothing. If they are fifty yojanas away, both their eyes become blind and they can see nothing.

Because the bhiksu Gopali harbored a malicious mind and [170b] slandered Sariputra and Maudgalyayana, after his life ended he fell into this Padma Hell.”

The Sutra on the Arising of the World states: “If sentient beings are one hundred yojanas from the Padma Hell, they are burned by its raging fire. If they are fifty yojanas away, the surging flames blind both their eyes. If they are twenty-five yojanas away, their flesh and blood are burned and utterly destroyed. This calamity is brought upon them because they gave rise to a defiled mind, a harmful mind, a malicious mind, a mind devoid of beneficence, a mind devoid of compassion, and an impure mind toward renunciants who practice the holy life. Therefore, toward all who practice the holy life, you should cultivate gentle and loving karma of body, speech, and mind, so that you may always dwell in peace and happiness.”

XXVIII.5. The Rulers of the Hells

The Sutra of Questions Concerning Hell and the Sutra of the Samadhi of the Pure Land state: “Altogether, there are one hundred and thirty-four hells. First are described the name and dwelling place of the lord of the hells. In a former life, King Yama was the king of the country of Visa. He once fought against King Vaidhasisa, but after being defeated, he made this vow: ‘I vow to become the lord of hell.’ There were also eighteen great ministers commanding one thousand horned men. All harbored resentment and together made this vow: ‘In the future, we shall help the king punish those people.’

The king of Visa at that time is now King Yama; the eighteen great ministers are now the lesser kings; and the one thousand men are the wardens of hell.”

The Sutra of Questions Concerning Hell states: “The eighteen lesser kings are the eighteen rulers who govern the eighteen hells:

1. Jiayan governs the Avici Hell

2. Quxun governs the Mountain of Knives Hell

3. Feijinshou governs the Hot Sand Hell

4. Feiqu governs the Boiling Excrement Hell

5. Jiashi governs the Black Ears Hell

6. Gaita governs the Flaming Cart Hell

7. Tangwei governs the Cauldron of Boiling Water Hell

8. Tiejairan governs the Iron Bed Hell

9. Esheng governs the Canopy Mountain Hell

10. The Freezing Hell (the sutra omits the name of its ruler)

11. Pijia governs the Skinning Hell

12. Yaotou governs the Animal Hell

13. Diba governs the Weapons of War Hell.

14. Yihuo governs the Iron Mortar Hell

15. Yuetou governs the Freezing Hell

16. The Iron Tube Hell (the sutra omits the name of its ruler)

17. Mingshen governs the Maggots Hell

18. Guanshen governs the Molten Copper Hell.”

The Sutra of the Samadhi of the Pure Land states: “There are thirty hells, each with its own ruler, but their names are not recorded. Only the names of five officials who govern the hells are given:

1. The Celestial Official punishes the offense of killing living beings

2. The Water Official punishes the offense of stealing

3. The Iron Official punishes the offense of sexual misconduct

4. The Earth Official punishes the offense of divisive speech

5. The Heavenly Official punishes the offense of drinking intoxicants.”

[170c] XXVIII.6. The Palace of King Yama

The Sutra on the Arising of the World states: “Outside the two Cakravada Mountains, to the south of Jambudvipa, stands the palace of King Yama. It is six thousand yojanas in length and breadth and has seven layers of walls, seven tiers of railings, and seven layers of netting. On the outermost perimeter, seven rows of tala trees^[92] encircle it. There are also innumerable beautiful sights, all fashioned from the seven treasures. On the four sides of the palace city are four gates. Each gate has towers, palaces, flower gardens, and ponds. Within the gardens grow many kinds of trees, their branches laden with delicious fruit. Fragrances carried by the wind pervade the entire place, and countless birds sing melodiously.

Because of his unwholesome karma, King Yama must undergo an unwholesome retribution. Throughout the six periods of day and night, molten copper spontaneously appears before him. At that moment, the king’s palace immediately turns into iron, and the meritorious rewards of the five sensual pleasures all disappear.

Seeing this, the king becomes frightened and distressed, and the hair on his body stands on end; he then goes outside. When the king returns to the palace, the wardens of hell seize King Yama, lift him up, and place him upon a red-hot iron floor where raging flames blaze brilliantly. After forcing the king to lie down, the wardens use iron pincers to pry open his mouth and pour molten copper into it, causing King Yama to be burned from his lips and mouth to his tongue, throat, large intestine, small intestine, and so forth; from top to bottom, everything is burned away.

At that time, the king thinks: ‘Because all sentient beings in previous lives committed evil deeds with the body, spoke evil words with the mouth, and entertained evil thoughts in the mind, I and these sentient beings, having together created such unwholesome karma, must now undergo this suffering. I vow that from this day onward, after relinquishing this body and assuming another, I shall be born as a human being who has faith in and understands the Tathagata’s teachings. I shall shave off my hair and beard, don the kasaya robe, and leave the household life to cultivate and study. After going forth, I shall attain the fruit of the path; birth and death shall end, the holy life shall be fulfilled, what must be done shall be accomplished, and I shall assume no further existence.’

After King Yama gives rise to these wholesome thoughts, the palace in which he dwells immediately becomes adorned with the seven treasures once more, resembling a heavenly realm. The meritorious rewards of the five sensual pleasures manifest in full, and through the wholesome karma of the three modes of action he obtains peace and happiness. (The Dirgha Agama states that King Yama undergoes suffering during all three periods; its general meaning is the same as that of this sutra.)”

The New Vibhasa Treatise contains the following passage:

Question: In hell, what is sentient and what is insentient?

Answer: Those who have just fallen into hell, who are bound and confined in iron fetters and [171a] brought before King Yama, are called sentient beings. The dreadful instruments used to torment sinners in hell are called insentient things.

Beneath the continent of southern Jambudvipa lies the great hell, while upon this continent there are the peripheral hells and the isolated hells, located either in caves, within mountains, upon open plains, or in midair. The other three continents have only peripheral hells and isolated hells; they have no great hell. Why is this? It is because the people of southern Jambudvipa create extremely great wholesome karma, but they also create a great deal of unwholesome karma, unlike the people of the other continents.

One explanation holds that Uttarakuru also has no hell, because it is a place where the fruition of entirely pure karma is experienced.

Question: If the other three continents have no great hell, where will sentient beings from those continents who commit the karma of immediate retribution and sever their roots of goodness undergo retribution?

Answer: They will undergo retribution in the great hell beneath this continent of southern Jambudvipa.

Question: What is the appearance of sentient beings in hell?

Answer: Their appearance resembles that of human beings.

Question: What is their speech like?

Answer: When they are first reborn there, they all speak the language of the noble ones. Later, while undergoing suffering, they utter sounds of pain and anguish until they can no longer speak a single word, and only terrifying sounds of stabbing, hacking, sawing, and dismemberment remain.

XXVIII.7. Karmic Causes

The Sutra on the Retribution of Sinful Karma and the Transformative Teachings Concerning Hell states: “At that time, Bodhisattva Faith-Marks, for the sake of sentient beings, addressed the Buddha:

1. “World-Honored One! There are now sentient beings undergoing punishment who are stabbed and hacked by the wardens of hell, their bodies sawn apart from head to foot. Even after their heads are severed, a cold wind immediately blows upon them and restores them to life, whereupon they are hacked apart as before. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people did not reverently believe in the Three Jewels, were unfilial toward their parents, and worked as butchers, slaughtering sentient beings. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

2. “There are sentient beings whose bodies are ugly and crippled, whose hair and beards fall out, and whose entire bodies are scorched and discolored. They dwell in crows’ nests and sleep in deer caves, far removed from all human traces. They bring disgrace upon their families, and no one wishes to look at them. This is called leprosy. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people did not reverently believe in the Three Jewels, were unfilial toward their parents, destroyed monasteries and stupas, exploited practitioners of the Way, shot and hacked holy sages, harmed their teachers and elders, refused to submit to goodness, forgot kindness and violated righteousness, behaved coarsely and rudely, and engaged in sexual misconduct without regard for rank or propriety, showing not the slightest restraint. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

3. “There are also sentient beings with enormous bodies who are stupid and deaf and have no legs. They move upon their bellies and sustain themselves solely by eating mud. Moreover, small creatures gnaw at them, [171b] causing unbearable agony. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people were trusted and employed by others, yet they would not heed good words or benevolent counsel. They were unfilial toward their parents and rebelled against their sovereign. If appointed as great ministers of the king, charged with governing the four quarters, administering provinces and commanderies, and protecting the royal palace, they relied upon their authority and power to seize the people’s property without regard for law, causing the people such suffering that they lamented and fled. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

4. “There are sentient beings whose eyes are blind and who cannot see anything. They either collide with trees or fall into ditches and subsequently die. Upon taking another body, they suffer the same fate again. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people did not believe in offenses and merits. They obstructed the Buddha’s light, blinded birds and beasts, bound and confined sentient beings, and covered their heads tightly with leather sacks. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

5. “There are also sentient beings who are crippled, mute, and unable to speak. If they wish to communicate something, they must close their eyes and gesture with their hands. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people slandered the Three Jewels, disparaged the noble path, discussed the virtues and faults of others, pried into other people’s strengths and weaknesses, falsely accused the virtuous, and envied the wise and capable. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

6. “There are sentient beings with large bellies and narrow throats who cannot eat or drink. If they consume anything, the food immediately turns into pus and blood. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people stole food belonging to the Sangha, either taking it secretly from secluded places or surreptitiously consuming food offered at great assemblies of generosity. They begrudged their own possessions, coveted the property of others, constantly harbored malicious intentions, and gave people poison to drink so that they would cease breathing. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

7. “There are sentient beings into whose hundred joints the wardens of hell constantly drive red-hot iron nails. As soon as the nails have been driven in, flames spontaneously arise and burn their entire bodies to ashes. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people practiced acupuncture, inserting needles into people’s bodies. Yet they failed to cure their illnesses and deceitfully took their money, causing them only greater pain, sorrow, and suffering. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

8. “There are also sentient beings who constantly remain in cauldrons of boiling water. Ox-headed wardens of hell pierce these offenders with iron tridents, cast them into the boiling cauldrons, and cook them until their bodies disintegrate. A cold wind then blows upon them and restores them to life, whereupon they are boiled again until they disintegrate. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people followed wrong views and worshiped ghosts and spirits. They slaughtered sentient beings, poured boiling water over their bodies to pluck out their hair or feathers, and then cast them into cauldrons of boiling water to be cooked. The number of beings they treated in this way was beyond measure. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

[171c] 9. “There are sentient beings who constantly remain within a city of fire, with burning coals rising to their chests. All four gates of the city stand open, but whenever they try to escape, the gates immediately close. They run east and west but cannot get out and are burned by the flames. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people set fire to mountains and rivers and burned sentient beings, charring their bodies and stripping away their skin. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

10. “There are also sentient beings who constantly remain amid snowy mountains. Cold winds blow upon them, causing their skin to peel and their flesh to split apart. Though they wish to die, they cannot. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people were vicious brigands who stripped and tore the clothes from others, causing them to freeze to death on bitterly cold winter days. They also flayed oxen and goats alive, causing them boundless agony. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

11. “There are also sentient beings who constantly remain within forests of swords and mountains of knives. Whenever they come into contact with them, they are immediately cut apart and their bodies are shattered. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people worked as butchers. They boiled, cut apart, and flayed sentient beings, shattering their bones and flesh, leaving their heads in one place and their feet in another. They then hung them up high to weigh and sell them, or suspended sentient beings while they were still alive, causing them extreme agony. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

12. “There are also sentient beings whose five faculties^[93] are incomplete. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people hunted birds and beasts while they were flying or running. They cut off their heads and feet or plucked out birds’ feathers while they were still alive. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

13. “There are also sentient beings with contracted legs and hunched backs who have difficulty bending and extending their limbs. Their legs are lame, and their hands are gnarled so that they can neither grasp things nor walk. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people obstructed the paths of birds and beasts in the wilderness. They set firearms, shot arrows, dug pits, and laid traps, causing the animals to fall into holes, split their heads open, break their legs, and sustain grievous injuries. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

14. “There are also sentient beings whose bodies are constantly shackled and bound by the wardens of hell so that they cannot escape. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people spread nets to capture sentient beings, imprisoned people, and confined animals, leaving them to suffer hunger, thirst, and pain. Or, as prime ministers or district officials, they greedily seized money and property and oppressed good people. Even when cries of resentment spread everywhere, they were still not satisfied. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

15. “There are also sentient beings who are insane, deranged, foolish, or witless and cannot distinguish good from bad. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people drank alcohol until they became intoxicated and disorderly, thereby committing the thirty-six faults. Consequently, they now receive foolish and witless bodies. They resemble drunken people, knowing neither superior nor inferior and unable to distinguish right from wrong.”

[172a] 16. “There are also sentient beings whose bodies are small but whose genital organs are exceedingly large and must be dragged along by their bodies. Burdened and exhausted, they are obstructed whether walking, standing, lying down, or sitting. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people earned their livelihood through trade. They praised their own goods and disparaged those of others, falsified measures and switched measuring vessels, bought by overstating maturity and sold by understating it, and deceived everyone. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

17. “There are also sentient beings whose male organs are incomplete and who are born as eunuchs, unable to take wives. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people castrated animals such as elephants, horses, oxen, goats, pigs, and dogs, causing them to hover between death and life. Therefore, they incur this punishment.”

18. “There are also sentient beings who remain childless throughout their entire lives and dwell alone in solitude. What offense caused this?”

The Buddha said:

– “In a former life, these people were cruel and did not believe in offenses and merits. During the season when birds were breeding, they carried containers along riverbanks and searched for the eggs of such birds as cranes, parrots, geese, and wild geese. They brought the eggs home, cooked them, and ate them, causing the birds to lose their offspring. The birds wailed piteously, and tears of blood streamed from their eyes. Therefore, these people incur this punishment.”

19. Again, there are sentient beings who are orphaned and impoverished from childhood, having neither parents nor siblings. They become servants to others and labor arduously merely to survive each day. When they grow up, they make their living by hunting, bring about many calamities, are seized and bound by officials, and are confined in prison. With no one to visit or provide for them, they suffer extreme hunger and misery, not knowing to whom they can appeal. What offense caused this?

The Buddha taught:

– In a former life, such a person delighted in capturing eagles, vultures, hawks, panthers, bears, tigers, leopards, and other creatures, bringing them home and keeping them confined. Thus they were left isolated, with no one to feed them, constantly suffering hunger and thirst until their skin clung to their bones, yet unable even to die. Their parents and siblings, missing them, grieved and suffered, wailing and lamenting so piteously as to move the hearts of others. Therefore, that person incurs this retribution.

20. Again, there are sentient beings whose forms are ugly, whose bodies are black as lacquer, whose faces and eyes are bluish, whose foreheads and cheeks protrude, whose faces are covered with sores, whose noses are flattened, whose eyes are yellow and red, and whose teeth and gums are sparse and incomplete. Their breath is foul and fetid; they are short and stunted, swollen and ulcerated, with large bellies and broad hips.

Their hands and feet are contracted, their backs are hunched, and their ribs are crooked. Their clothing is slovenly; they are afflicted with sores oozing blood and pus, edema, headaches, leprosy, skin disease, abscesses, and every manner of malignant illness. Although they approach others, no one likes them; moreover, they are beaten and imprisoned by others. [172b] They have never encountered a Buddha, cannot hear the Dharma, and know nothing of the Sangha.

What offense caused this?

The Buddha taught:

– In a former life, such a person was unfilial toward their parents and disloyal to the sovereign; despised those beneath them; failed to keep their word; and showed no respect for relatives or neighbors. At court, they disregarded rank and title, constantly pursued evil affairs, harbored deluded and inverted intentions, and observed no rules. They had no faith in the Three Jewels, slew the sovereign, harmed teachers, seized kingdoms, injured the people, stormed cities, demolished fortifications, raided encampments, and committed theft and countless other evils. Furthermore, they praised themselves and disparaged others, oppressed the elderly and solitary, slandered sages and saints, treated their superiors with contempt, and deceived their inferiors. Having transgressed by committing every manner of evil, the resulting retributions have gathered together; therefore, they incur this suffering.

Upon hearing the Buddha teach in this way, all those undergoing retribution wailed bitterly and shed copious tears. They then addressed the Buddha:

– We beseech the World-Honored One to remain in the world for a long time and teach the Dharma, so that all of us may attain liberation.

The Buddha taught:

– If I were to remain in the world for a long time, those of meager virtue would refuse to plant roots of goodness. Believing that the World-Honored One would always remain, they would not contemplate impermanence.

Good man! It is like a child whose mother is always beside him: he does not consider how difficult it is to encounter his mother. Only when she travels far away does the child begin to long for her; when the mother then returns, the child rejoices greatly. Good man! I am likewise. Knowing the wholesome and unwholesome karmic conditions of all sentient beings and the favorable and unfavorable retributions they undergo, I therefore enter nirvana.

At that time, the World-Honored One spoke these verses for those undergoing retribution:

A flowing stream is never filled;

A raging fire does not burn long;

The sun rises and then sets;

The full moon wanes again.

Even wealth, honor, and power

Pass away in but a fleeting moment.

Ever mindful, one should diligently strive

And reverently bow to the World-Honored One.”

The Sutra of Old Miscellaneous Parables records: “Long ago, six men became companions. Because they committed offenses together, they all fell into hell, where they shared a single cauldron of boiling water. Each wished to recount the offenses he had formerly committed. The first said ‘sa,’ the second said ‘na,’ the third said ‘te,’ the fourth said ‘she,’ the fifth said ‘gu,’ and the sixth said ‘tuo-luo.’ Seeing this, the Buddha smiled. Maudgalyayana asked:

– Why did you smile?

The Buddha replied:

– Six men became companions and all fell into hell, where they undergo retribution in a single cauldron of boiling water. Each wished to recount his former offenses, but because the water was boiling violently, they could not say much. Each managed to utter only one syllable before sinking beneath the surface.

The first said ‘sa,’ meaning that six hundred kotis of thousands of years in the human world equal only one day in hell, and he does not know when he will emerge.

The second said ‘na,’ meaning that there is no appointed time for leaving hell, [172c] and he does not know when he will attain release.

The third said ‘te,’ meaning: Alas! Alas! What need was there to conduct trade and business? Thinking in this way, I failed to restrain my mind and seized the wealth of others to make offerings to the Three Jewels. Greedy and never content, what use is regret now?

The fourth said ‘she,’ meaning: I conducted business dishonestly, and so my property came to belong to others, while I must endure suffering.

The fifth said ‘gu,’ meaning: How can I be certain that, after leaving hell, I will refrain from violating the prohibitions and be reborn in heaven to enjoy bliss?

The sixth said ‘tuo-luo,’ meaning: In the past, I never contemplated the suffering of this hell. It is like a cart driver who strays onto a dangerous road and breaks the axle of his cart; regret then comes too late.”

The Sutra of the Ten Wheels records: “The five heinous offenses are the gravest forms of evil karma. They are intentionally killing one’s father, killing one’s mother, killing an arhat, disrupting the harmony of the Sangha, and maliciously causing the body of a Buddha to bleed. Anyone who commits one of these five heinous offenses must not be permitted to go forth or receive full ordination. If such a person has already gone forth and received full ordination, that person should be expelled, but must not be beaten or imprisoned. Anyone who permits such a person to go forth commits a grave offense.

There are also four great offenses equivalent to the four heinous offenses; these are root offenses. They are killing a pratyekabuddha, forcibly violating an arhat bhiksuni, misappropriating the property of the Three Jewels, and, while holding wrong views, disrupting the harmony of the Sangha. Anyone who commits one of these four root offenses must not be permitted to go forth in the Buddha-Dharma. If such a person has already gone forth, that person must not be permitted to receive full ordination. If that person has already received full ordination, that person should be expelled, but must not be beaten, imprisoned, or killed. This is called committing a root offense that is not a heinous offense.

There are cases in which an act is both a root offense and a heinous offense. For example, if one takes the life of a person who has gone forth, received full ordination, and realized the fruit of sainthood, one commits both a heinous offense and a root offense. Such a person must be expelled from my Sangha.

There are cases in which an act is a root offense but not a heinous offense. For example, taking the life of a person who has gone forth but remains an ordinary being constitutes only a root offense.

The offense of distributing the property of the Sangha of the four directions unequally is neither a root offense nor a heinous offense.

If sentient beings who harbor doubts about the Three Jewels go forth in the Buddha-Dharma and, upon seeing others read and recite the scriptures, deliberately subject them to hostile questioning, even concerning a single verse, [173a] this is neither a root offense nor a heinous offense, but is an extremely evil offense approaching a heinous offense. If they do not repent and thereby eliminate the karmic obstruction of this offense, they must never be permitted to go forth in the Buddha-Dharma.

If such a person has already gone forth and received full ordination but does not repent of the offense, that person should also be expelled. Why is this? Because this person does not believe in the true Dharma, maligns the Three Vehicles, destroys wisdom concerning the true reality, wishes to extinguish the lamp of the true Dharma and sever the lineage of the Three Jewels, diminishes the benefit of devas and humans, and will fall into the lower realms.

These two kinds of people are said to malign the true Dharma, disparage sages and saints, and increase evil dharmas; they will remain in hell for a very long time. This is called committing an exceedingly grave root offense."

There are also offenses against the fundamental precepts, such as a bhikkhu engaging in sexual intercourse, intentionally killing an ordinary person, taking what has not been given, or speaking falsehoods. If anyone commits one of these four offenses, he may not receive property belonging to the Sangha of the four directions^[94], nor may he share the articles used by the Sangha, such as food, drink, bedding, and so forth.

Nevertheless, kings and officials should not punish, chastise, or even put such persons to death. Why are these called fundamental grave offenses? Because those who create such karma will fall into an evil destiny when their lives end.

These offenses are the roots of the evil destinies and are therefore called fundamental offenses. It is like a ball of iron which, though cast into empty space, cannot remain there but swiftly falls to the ground.

The foregoing are the five heinous offenses, the four grave precept violations, the offense of destroying the true Dharma, and the offense of disparaging sages and worthies. If anyone commits one of these eleven offenses, when his life ends, he will fall into the Avici hell.”

The Sutra of the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “The suffering in the Avici hell is a thousand times greater than that described previously, for the offenders must pass an entire kalpa in the seven great hells. The bodies of the offenders are five hundred yojanas in size. The bodies of those who have committed four heinous offenses are four hundred yojanas in size; the bodies of those who have committed three heinous offenses are three hundred yojanas; the bodies of those who have committed two heinous offenses are two hundred yojanas; and the bodies of those who have committed one heinous offense are one hundred yojanas.

When those who have committed the five heinous offenses are about to die, they scream, discharge excrement, cease breathing at the throat, and die. They immediately assume an intermediate-state body, yet cannot see the person standing before them. Their intermediate-state body resembles that of an eight-year-old child.

King Yama winds a red-hot iron rope around their necks, binds both their hands, and suspends them upside down. Because they travel inverted for two thousand years, scorching flames burn their heads and completely consume their hair, then burn their bodies, releasing such a foul, charred stench that even the devas of the six heavens of the Desire Realm^[95] must keep far away. Why?

Because the beings in the Avici hell are exceedingly foul and malodorous.”

The Sutra of the Ocean-like Samadhi of the Contemplation of the Buddha states: “The Buddha told Ananda: If any being [173b] kills his father, harms his mother, or reviles his six kinds of relatives, then, amid the dimming of consciousness at the end of life, he falls directly into the Avici hell as swiftly as a strong man bends and extends his arm.

“At that time, King Yama appears and sternly proclaims: ‘Foolish person, you planted the causes of hell. While in the human realm, you were unfilial toward your parents, held wrong views, were arrogant, and possessed no virtue. Therefore, you have now fallen into this hell.’ Having spoken, King Yama vanishes. The hell wardens then drive and seize the offender, taking him from the lowest compartment to the highest over the course of eighty-four thousand years. The offender must swing himself across until he reaches the edge of the iron net, taking an entire day and night to traverse it.

“One day and one night in the Avici hell are equal to sixty minor kalpas in Jambudvipa. Thus, the full lifespan there is one great kalpa. Those who have committed all five heinous offenses must endure punishment for five great kalpas.

“There are also beings who violate the four grave precepts, wrongfully accept the offerings of the faithful, slander the Three Jewels, hold wrong views, disbelieve cause and effect, refuse to study prajnaparamita, disparage the Buddhas of the ten directions, steal property belonging to the Sangha, indulge in lust, act violently and tyrannically, rape bhikkhunis who uphold the pure precepts, violate and disgrace their sisters and female relatives, know no shame, malign their kin, and commit evil deeds.

When these people’s lives end, a cold wind rends their bodies. In but an instant, their bodies become like iron flowers filling all eighteen compartments. Each flower has eighty-four thousand petals, and upon every petal are a head, torso, and four limbs extending throughout the compartment.

The offender’s body becomes just large enough to fill the entire Avici hell, where he remains for eighty-four great kalpas.

“When this Avici hell is destroyed, the offenders enter the eighteen compartments of hell in the eastern direction, where they undergo the same sufferings as above. In each of the southern, western, and northern directions of the Avici hell, they likewise pass through eighteen such compartments.

“Those who malign the Mahayana sutras, commit all five heinous offenses, violate the precepts, defile bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, and sever their roots of goodness—their bodies fill the entire Avici hell, and their four limbs extend throughout its eighteen compartments. This Avici hell burns only those beings who have committed the grave offenses described above.

“When the kalpa is about to end, the eastern gate of the hell opens, and the offenders see outside it cool, clear springs, forests, trees, flowers, and fruits, all fully manifest. Looking out from the lowest compartment, their eyes suddenly brighten. They drag themselves upward from the lowest compartment, twisting their bodies and crawling toward the highest, their hands clutching wheels of blades.

At that time, red-hot iron pellets rain down from the sky. When the offenders run to the eastern gate and have just reached it, rakshasa hell wardens immediately use iron forks to gouge out their eyes, while iron dogs bite their hearts, causing them to lose consciousness and die. After dying, they revive and see the southern gate of the hell open, whereupon they undergo the same punishment as before.

The western and northern gates are likewise the same. In this way, the offenders endure suffering for half a kalpa.

“After dying in the Avici hell, [173c] the offenders fall into the Freezing Hell. After dying in the Freezing Hell, they fall into the Hell of Darkness, where for eighty thousand years their eyes cannot see anything. When their kalpa there is complete, they assume the bodies of enormous worms, moving by crawling upon their bellies.

Their minds are foolish and benighted, devoid of the slightest understanding, while hundreds of thousands of foxes and jackals contend with one another to devour their flesh. When their lives end, they are born among animals, taking the bodies of birds and beasts for fifty thousand kalpas. Afterward, they are born as human beings but are blind, deaf, mute, stammering, covered in scabies and abscesses, impoverished, and lowly, with every grievous infirmity embodied in them.

They endure such lowly bodies for five hundred lifetimes and are then born among hungry ghosts, where great bodhisattvas and virtuous spiritual friends admonish them: ‘Throughout immeasurable past kalpas, you committed countless offenses, slandered the Three Jewels, and disbelieved cause and effect. Therefore, you fell into the Avici hell and underwent sufferings and afflictions beyond reckoning. You must now arouse the mind of bodhi.’

“After hearing these words, the hungry ghosts recollect and recite, ‘Namo Buddha.’ Through this merit, before long their lives end and they are born in the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings^[96], where they repent, reproach themselves for the offenses they committed, and arouse the mind of bodhi.

“The compassionate radiance of the Buddha does not forsake these hungry ghosts. He receives and delivers them just as he did Rahula, teaching them to remain far from the hells...” Therefore, the Sutra on the Arising of the World contains these verses:

If through the three karmas a person commits wrongs,

When life ends, he will fall into an evil destiny,

Enduring suffering in the Reviving Hell,

Terrified and horrified, with every hair standing on end.

For countless thousands of kotis of years,

After dying, he revives again in an instant;

Accumulated enmities are endlessly repaid,

And thus beings continually kill one another.

If one gives rise to an evil mind toward one’s parents,

Or toward Buddhas, bodhisattvas, or shravakas,

One thereby falls into the Black-Rope Hell,

Where suffering is endured without end.

Those who cause the upright and chaste to commit sexual misconduct,

And deliberately ruin those who practice goodness,

Will likewise fall into the Black-Rope Hell.

Divisive speech^[97], harsh speech^[98], and false speech^[99],

Delighting in evil deeds through the three karmas,

And refusing to turn toward wholesome karma—

Such foolish people will certainly fall

Into the Crushing Hell and long endure suffering.

Those who slaughter sheep, horses, and cattle,

Chickens, pigs, and other birds and beasts,

And also kill worms, ants, and tiny creatures,

Will fall into the Crushing Hell.

Those who in life cause many beings fear

And constantly torment and disturb living beings

Will after death fall into the Rocky-Mountain Hell,

Enduring the pain of crushing and grinding.

[174a] Through the three fetters^[100] of greed, anger, and delusion,

They distort the true Dharma into what is false,

Creating disputes contrary to the precepts and Dharma,

Such a person suffers in the Sword-Blade Hell.

Relying on influence and power to seize others’ possessions,

One cannot remain healthy and is often afflicted by illness;

Those who constantly commit such oppressive deeds

Receive the retribution of being trampled by iron elephants.

If one delights in killing living beings,

With an evil mind and a body stained with blood,

And constantly creates such unwholesome karma,

That person will fall into the Screaming Hell.

For harming living beings in myriad ways,

One is burned and boiled in the Screaming Hell.

Because of a deceitful and treacherous mind,

One confines living beings deep within the forest;

Caught in nets, they struggle but cannot escape.

Those who constantly create such evil karma

Will fall into the Great Screaming Hell.

Once fallen into this realm of bitter suffering,

There are red-hot iron citadels, truly terrifying,

And also iron houses and iron chambers;

All who enter therein are burned.

If one creates evil karma in the world,

Constantly troubling and tormenting living beings,

That person will fall into the Burning Hell,

And for myriad kalpas must endure being consumed by flames.

Those who constantly afflict and cause sorrow

To shramanas and brahmins,

To parents, elders, and the aged,

Will all fall into the Burning Hell.

Those who, while in the world, refuse to cultivate the ten wholesome deeds,

And cast aside their parents and loved ones—

Those who delight in doing such things

Will certainly fall into the Burning Hell.

Those who harbor evil intentions toward brahmins,

Shramanas, their father and mother, and virtuous people,

Or who harm those worthy of honor,

Will be consumed by fire in the Burning Hell.

Those who habitually create evil karma

And have never aroused even the slightest wholesome intention

Will fall directly into the Avici Hell

And must endure countless torments.

Those who call the true Dharma false Dharma,

And call false Dharma the true Dharma,

Thus failing to increase wholesome deeds,

Will fall into the Avici Hell.

Revival, Black Rope, and Crushing Together,

Screaming and Great Screaming make five;

Tormenting and Burning are the sixth and seventh,

And the Avici Hell is the eighth.

These are the eight great hells,

Each surrounded by sixteen lesser hells;

Their fierce suffering is unbearable,

And all arises from the creation of evil karma.”

XXVIII.8. Admonition

[174b] The Sutra on the Arising of the World records: “The Buddha taught: ‘Bhikshus, in the human realm there are three heavenly messengers: old age, sickness, and death. If any living being lives heedlessly and creates evil through the three kinds of karma, after death that being will fall into hell. At that time, the hell wardens lead the offender before King Yama and report:

‘Great King! Formerly, while in the human realm, this living being was utterly heedless and created evil through the three kinds of karma. Now he has fallen here. We humbly ask the Great King to admonish and instruct him.’

King Yama asks the offender:

‘When you were in the human realm, did you not see the first heavenly messenger appear in the world, skillfully instructing and reproaching you?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did not see him!’

The king asks again:

‘Formerly, when you were a human being in the human realm, did you not see men and women displaying the signs of old age? Their hair was white, their teeth loose, their skin wrinkled, and age spots resembling sesame seeds covered their bodies. Their hands were crooked, their backs hunched, and they walked with a stoop.

Their legs no longer obeyed their bodies, and they swayed and stumbled from side to side. Their necks were thin, and their loose skin sagged on both sides like a cow’s dewlap. Their lips and mouths were dry with thirst, their throats parched, and their tongues rough.

Their bodies were emaciated, their strength exhausted, and their breathing rasped like the sawing of wood. Leaning forward as though about to fall, they had to walk with staffs. As they grew still older, they became even more feeble; their flesh and bones withered, and they became gaunt, frail, and sickly.

When walking on the road, their movements were ponderous and no longer as they had been in youth. Their minds were scattered, their bodies constantly trembled, and all their joints were weary and weak. Did you see this?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King! I truly did see this.’

The king then says:

‘You are a foolish person, devoid of wisdom. Having formerly seen such things, why did you not reflect: “I too cannot escape these signs of old age. Therefore, I should perform wholesome deeds so that I may obtain benefit and happiness for a long time”?’

The offender replies again:

‘Great King! I truly did not reflect in this way because my mind was heedless and I acted recklessly.’

King Yama says:

‘You are foolish and heedless, and you did not perform wholesome deeds; therefore, you must now bear punishment. This painful retribution was not created by another. It is the result of the evil karma you yourself created, and now you must reap it yourself.’

For the second time, King Yama asks the offender:

‘Did you not see the second heavenly messenger appear in the world?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did not see him!’

The king asks again:

‘Formerly, when you were a human being in the human realm, you must have seen men and women whose four great elements had been in harmony, but suddenly became disordered, so that illness oppressed them and suffering bound them. Some lay in bed, urinating and defecating where they lay, rolling about in their filthy excrement and urine. [174c] Unable to do anything for themselves, they required others to support them whether standing, sitting, sleeping, or resting. They needed others to wash and clean for them, and in all matters, inside and outside, including eating and drinking, they had to rely upon others. Did you see this?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did see this.’

The king says again:

‘Foolish person! Having seen this, why did you not reflect: “I too am subject to this same law and cannot escape these illnesses. Therefore, I should perform wholesome deeds so that afterward I may obtain benefit and happiness for a long time”?’

The offender replies:

‘I truly did not reflect in this way because my mind was heedless and I acted recklessly.’

King Yama says:

‘Foolish person! Because you were heedless and did not perform wholesome deeds, you have brought this painful retribution upon yourself. It was not created by another; it is the retribution arising from what you yourself did, and you alone must bear it.’

For the third time, King Yama reproaches the offender:

‘You are a foolish person! Formerly, while in the human realm, did you not see the third heavenly messenger appear in the world?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did not see him!’

The king asks again:

‘Formerly, when you were a human being in the human realm, you must have seen men and women whose bodies had perished and whose lives had ended. They were laid upon beds, enshrouded in multicolored garments, and carried out of their villages amid raised banners and streamers. Their relatives surrounded them, tearing at their hair with their hands, their heads covered in dust, overcome by grief. They wailed loudly and lamented piteously, beating their breasts, weeping and crying out in anguish, their voices choked with sorrow. Did you not see this?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did see this.’

The king then says:

‘Foolish person! Having previously seen this, why did you not reflect: “I too must die and cannot escape it. I should now perform wholesome deeds so that I may forever obtain great benefit”?’

The offender replies:

‘Great King, I truly did not reflect in this way because my mind was heedless.’

The king then says:

‘Because you were heedless and did not perform wholesome deeds, you yourself created this evil karma; it was not created by another. Therefore, you must reap its retribution.’

After using the analogy of the three heavenly messengers to instruct and reproach the offender, King Yama orders the hell wardens to take him away. The hell wardens immediately seize the offender upside down and hurl him from afar into the hells.

There is a verse:

From birth one is led onward to death,

As days and months revolve without cease;

The wind of impermanence arises,

And one is swept away upon the mighty waves.

The fool abandons the true path,

Rising and sinking in the deep abyss;

No sooner has he fallen into darkness

Than he endures suffering for myriad kalpas.

[175a] Reborn throughout the six realms,

He performs no good through the three kinds of karma;

Drifting helplessly, who will rescue him?

How tragic! He can only grieve for himself.

By closely contemplating all phenomena,

One comes to know that they are not truly real;

To cross the profound ocean of suffering,

One must board the vessel of prajnaparamita.”

Notes:

^[81] New translations 新譯: sutra translations produced from the time of Master Xuanzang onward.

^[82] Heterogeneous maturation 異熟 (S: vipāka): the matured result brought about by wholesome or unwholesome karma from the past, whose nature as a result differs from that of its cause.

^[83] Uniform outflow 等流 (S: niṣyanda): belonging to the same stream; this refers to dharmas that share the same characteristic.

^[84] Jambudvīpa (Southern Jambudvīpa 南贍部州): that is, Jambudvīpa, a general designation for the human world.

^[85] Utsada hell (Utsada hell 蕕增地獄): a hell that intensifies the suffering and anguish of sinners.

^[86] Sutra on the Ocean-like Samādhi of the Contemplation of the Buddha (觀佛三昧海經; S: Buddha-dhyāna-samādhisāgara-sūtra): a sutra in ten fascicles and twelve chapters, translated by Buddhabhadra during the Eastern Jin dynasty in China and included in volume 15 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. This sutra recounts how the Buddha taught the Dharma to liberate his royal father Śuddhodana and his maternal aunt Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī in the Nyagrodha Grove at Kapilavastu. He taught them to abide in the samādhi of contemplating the Buddha and praised this samādhi for its power to lead to liberation.

^[87] Vaḍavāmukha 沃燋: the enormous rock at the bottom of the sea said in the Avataṃsaka Sutra to absorb water. Because the fires of hell beneath it burn continuously, this rock is always scorching hot and has formed into a vast mass; it is therefore called Mount Vaḍavāmukha.

^[88] Great kalpa 大劫: the span from the beginning to the end of heaven and earth, equivalent to eighty minor kalpas.

^[89] The five heinous offenses (五逆罪): five supremely evil offenses contrary to moral principle. According to the teachings of the Śrāvakayāna, the five heinous offenses are killing one’s mother, killing one’s father, killing an arhat, causing the Buddha’s body to bleed, and creating a schism in the harmonious Sangha. The first two destroy the field of gratitude, while the latter three destroy the field of virtue.

^[90] The four grave precepts (四重禁): the four weighty precepts, namely, killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech.

^[91] Hú 斛: an ancient unit and vessel of measurement used for measuring grain and rice; one hú was equal to ten dǒu.

^[92] Tāla palm (多羅行樹; also called pattra leaf; S: pattra): a tree whose leaves were used as writing material for recording documents or scriptures.

^[93] The five faculties (五根; S: pañcendriyāṇi): the eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body.

^[94] Property of the Sangha of the four directions 四方僧物: property held in common by all bhikṣus, such as monasteries, granaries, fields and gardens, food and rice, robes, medicines, and so forth.

^[95] The six heavens of the Desire Realm (六欲天; S: Cāturmahārājakāyika-deva): the Heaven of the Four Great Kings, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the Yāma Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Creation, and the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations.

^[96] The Four Great Kings (四天處): the first of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[97] Divisive speech 兩舌: double-tongued speech—telling one person what another has said and then telling the other what the first has said, with the aim of creating discord between them.

^[98] Harsh speech 惡口: speaking malicious words, reviling others, and causing them distress.

^[99] False speech 妄語: deceitful and untrue words.

^[100] Fetters and tempters 結使: another name for afflictions. Afflictions are called “fetters” because they bind sentient beings, preventing them from transcending birth and death; they are called “tempters” because they drive sentient beings to commit evil deeds.