Mahāyāna — Northern Canon · Linh Sơn Vietnamese Mahāyāna Canon

諸經要集

Chinese title:諸經要集

📖19,642 words · ~79 min read

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Editor-in-Chief: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XXVI. ALCOHOL AND MEAT

This section consists of three parts: Introduction, Drinking Alcohol, and Eating Meat.

XXVI.1. Introduction

Drinking alcohol opens the door to heedlessness. The Buddhas clearly know it to be a root of suffering; therefore, they avoid taverns, sever conditions connected with alcohol, keep far from drunken companions, draw near to Dharma friends, leave places of darkness, and enter places of light.

Eating meat cuts off the seed of great compassion. The Buddhas clearly know it to be a cause of the karma of killing; therefore, they renounce foul-smelling foods so that body and speech may be pure, eat simple vegetables and fruits to calm the mind and spirit, and constantly practice benevolence so that life may be prolonged. Thus, the Book of Rites^[1] states: “Upon seeing them alive, one cannot bear to see them die; upon hearing their cries, one cannot bear to eat their flesh.” [155c] This is also the meaning of refraining from killing.

Those who eat meat and drink alcohol are no different from animals. Jackals, wolves, tigers, and leopards likewise kill their own kin and eat the flesh of their own relatives; enmity and retribution continue through myriad kalpas without ever coming to an end.

The Vibhāṣā Treatise records: “There was a woman who, for five hundred lifetimes, killed wolf cubs, and the wolf cubs likewise ate her children for five hundred lifetimes. There was another woman who, for five hundred lifetimes, continually killed a demon, and the demon likewise took her life for five hundred lifetimes.”

Therefore, one should know that sentient beings revolving through the six realms undergo innumerable forms of hostile retribution. At times they have been teachers; at other times, parents, brothers, sisters, children, grandchildren, or friends. Now, bearing the body of an ordinary being and lacking the eye of the Way^[2], one cannot distinguish them and unknowingly continues to eat their flesh.

When their flesh is eaten, those animals, possessing sentience, immediately give rise to anger and return to exact revenge. Thus, those most intimately related by flesh and blood become enemies. Are such matters not worthy of reflection?

For the fleeting enjoyment of a little pleasant flavor upon the tongue, one forever becomes an enemy of one’s own kin, perpetually opposed and hostile. This is truly heartbreaking beyond words!

Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “No kind of meat whatsoever may be eaten. One must not eat even the flesh of an animal that has died naturally, much less the flesh of an animal one has killed oneself.”

The Lankavatara Sutra states:

For profit, sentient beings are killed;

For money, they are caught and taken.

Both kinds of karma are unwholesome;

After death, one falls into the Wailing Hell^[3].

What does it mean to catch and take animals for their flesh for the sake of profit? On land, traps are set; in the water, nets are spread.

What does it mean to catch and take animals for their flesh for the sake of money? It means that butchers buy and sell meat for money.

If a person today does not catch various creatures for money, but catches and kills sentient beings because of habitual adherence to evil rules of conduct^[4], that person does so solely to satisfy his own palate and in imitation of others. If one imitates others in eating the flesh of sentient beings, does one not participate in killing? How, then, can one say, “I do not kill sentient beings”? This clearly contradicts the words of the sutras, cuts off the seed of compassion, and creates an obstruction that prevents one from encountering a Buddha.

XXVI.2. Drinking Alcohol

This teaching contains the provisional teaching^[5] and the true teaching^[6]. The provisional teaching instructs and guides beings step by step, enabling them to avoid grave offenses by beginning with lesser offenses. Before the Buddha established the precept, drinking alcohol did not constitute a transgression; yet, considered in terms of obstruction to principle^[7], it was not without fault. According to the true teaching, however, both light and grave offenses are prohibited, and only one who never transgresses, from beginning to end, may be said to uphold the precepts.

First, this will be explained according to the provisional teaching.

The Sutra of Unprecedented Causes states: “At one time, Prince Jeta heard the Buddha teach that the ten wholesome actions^[8] bring inexhaustible karmic rewards. He immediately knelt, joined his palms, and addressed the Buddha:

‘In the past, the World-Honored One instructed me to receive and uphold the five precepts, but now I wish to relinquish them. Why is this? [156a] Of the five precepts, the precept against drinking alcohol is difficult to keep, and so I fear committing an offense.’

The Buddha asked:

‘When you drink alcohol, do you commit any evil deeds?’

Jeta replied:

‘The powerful and wealthy families of the kingdom often vie with one another in arranging drinking banquets, where they rejoice together. Because they experience joy, they commit no evil. Why is this? When I drink alcohol, I remain mindful of the precepts and therefore do not become heedless. Thus, although I drink alcohol, I commit no evil.’

The Buddha said:

‘Excellent! Jeta, you have now attained wisdom in skillful means^[9]. If everyone in the world were like you, what evil would there be in drinking alcohol throughout one’s life?

One who practices in this way gains merit and incurs no offense. If a person drinks alcohol without creating evil karma, his mind is joyful and afflictions do not arise. Because his mind is joyful, he receives wholesome karmic rewards.

What fault is there in observing the five precepts in this way? When one drinks alcohol while remaining mindful of the precepts, one’s merit increases all the more. Therefore, having previously upheld the five precepts and now additionally receiving the ten wholesome actions, one’s merit and virtue are many times more excellent than the karmic reward gained by receiving only the ten wholesome actions.’

At one time, King Prasenajit addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One! According to the Buddha’s teaching, when the mind is joyful and creates no evil karma, this is called wholesome action with outflows^[10]. Yet this is not correct. Why is this? When a person drinks alcohol, joy arises in his mind; because his mind is joyful, afflictions do not arise; because afflictions do not arise, he causes no distress or harm; because he harms no living being, the three kinds of karma^[11] are pure. The path of purity is precisely karma without outflows^[12].

‘World-Honored One! I remember that once in the past, when I entered the forest to hunt, I forgot to bring the cook. At that time, I became hungry and wanted food and drink.

My ministers reported: “When Your Majesty departed early this morning, you did not issue an order to bring the cook, so there is no food.” Upon hearing this, I spurred my horse back to the palace and ordered that food be served. At that time, the cook, named Śūkala, said: “Your Majesty, the food has not yet been prepared. Please wait a moment.” Faint with hunger, I became angry and, without taking time to reflect, ordered that he be beheaded.

Having received the order, my ministers conferred among themselves: “Even if we searched throughout the kingdom, we would find only this man who serves with loyalty and goodness. If he is killed now, there will be no second person able to satisfy the king.”

‘When Queen Mallikā^[13] heard that I had ordered Śūkala to be killed, she was deeply grieved. Knowing that I was hungry, the queen had all kinds of fine meat and excellent wine prepared. She then bathed in specially scented water, adorned herself, and came to me accompanied by female entertainers.

When I saw the queen beautifully adorned and accompanied by female entertainers, fine meat, and excellent wine, my anger immediately subsided. Why was this? Queen Mallikā upheld the Buddha’s five precepts and had renounced alcohol, never drinking it; yet because of my anger, she unexpectedly brought meat and wine and joined me in merriment, and so my heart became open and relieved. [156b] The queen and I drank wine and ate meat while music was performed.

We rejoiced and took delight, and my anger immediately diminished. Knowing that my anger had subsided, the queen ordered a eunuch to convey my command without delay: “Tell the ministers outside not to kill the cook.” The eunuch obeyed her order.

‘The following morning, I regretted my action and reproached myself. Sorrowful, I did not eat, and my appearance grew haggard. Seeing this, the queen asked me:

‘“Why is Your Majesty sorrowful? Is there something troubling you?”

‘I replied:

‘“Yesterday, overcome by hunger, I became angry and had Śūkala killed. In the entire kingdom, no one can prepare food to my liking as Śūkala did. Therefore, I am filled with regret and sorrow.”

‘The queen smiled and said:

‘“Śūkala is still alive. Your Majesty, please do not grieve!”

‘I then asked:

‘“Is this true, or are you jesting?”

‘The queen replied:

‘“It is true. I would not dare to jest!”

‘Upon hearing this, I ordered a minister to summon Śūkala. When I saw Śūkala before me, I rejoiced greatly and was sorrowful no longer.’

The king again addressed the Buddha:

– Lady Mallika observed the Buddha’s five precepts and fasted six days each month, yet on one occasion she violated two of the five precepts and the eight fasting precepts: drinking alcohol and false speech.^[14] How should this matter be understood? Were the offenses she committed light or grave?

The Buddha said:

– By violating the precepts in this way, she acquired great merit and incurred no karmic retribution for wrongdoing. Why? Because her actions brought benefit. As I previously explained, those who cultivate virtue are of two kinds: those whose virtue is with outflows and those whose virtue is without outflows.^[15] The precepts violated by Lady Mallika pertained to virtue with outflows. The precepts she did not violate are called virtue without outflows. If considered according to the words, violating a precept while cultivating virtue is called virtue with outflows. If considered according to the ultimate meaning, all wholesome dharmas arising from the mind are karma without outflows.

The king said to the Buddha:

– As the Blessed One has taught: ‘Although Lady Mallika violated the precept against drinking alcohol, she did not give rise to an evil intention; therefore, she acquired merit and incurred no karmic retribution for wrongdoing.’ If so, the same must also be true of everyone. Why? I recall that recently, the powerful clans and royal nobles of the kshatriya caste in the city of Shravasti allowed a minor dispute to develop into a great enmity. They plotted to raise troops and fight one another. Since the two sides were relatives within the kingdom, they could not be punished. They continued fighting and would not heed remonstrance, causing me great sorrow.

At that time, I recalled an incident from the past, when I was still the crown prince. Once, I became angry with the chief minister Devila. Unable to forget my resentment, I intended to kill him.

On that occasion, the queen mother offered me wine. After drinking it, I felt at ease. I then ordered a loyal minister to arrange a banquet with fine wine and delicious foods, and commanded all the powerful clans, ministers, officials, and people throughout the kingdom to assemble to [156c] deliberate upon an important affair of state.

The two contending groups of ministers each brought five hundred attendants to the assembly. At that time, I had grand music performed in the palace and ordered a loyal minister to bring glazed vessels, each holding three liters and filled with fine wine in those precious jars. Before everyone, I drank one vessel and then said: ‘Today we shall deliberate upon affairs of state.

I believe we must be of one mind. Each person should drink one vessel of this delicious, precious medicine, and then we shall deliberate.’ Everyone obeyed the command. I then had the grand music played.

As they drank and listened, their hearts became joyful, and they forgot their enmity. Thus, through wine the conflict ended and peace was restored. Is this not a beneficial use of wine?

I believe that the poor and destitute, the lowly, servants, and maidservants of this world sometimes gather at taverns to drink during festivals. Because their hearts become joyful, without anyone telling them to do so, each begins to dance. Before drinking wine, they do no such thing.

Therefore, we know that drinking wine brings people joy. When their hearts are joyful, they do not give rise to evil intentions. Not giving rise to evil intentions is itself a wholesome mind, and because of this they receive wholesome karmic results.

Even monkeys know how to dance after drinking wine, much more so human beings. As the Buddha has said, those who do good receive wholesome karmic results, while those who do evil reap evil karmic results. Because Lady Mallika performed many good deeds in previous lives, she now receives blessed karmic results.

Why, then, did the Blessed One instruct her to observe the five precepts and fast six days each month? During those six fasting days, she may not adorn herself with fragrances and flowers, sing songs, or enjoy musical entertainment; neither may she approach her husband nor embellish her beauty. In the end, what has she actually done that may be called meritorious?

Is this not merely inflicting suffering upon herself?

The Buddha said:

– The great king’s question is most appropriate! Yet when Lady Mallika was young, if I had not taught her to undertake and observe the precepts and cultivate wisdom, how could she have acquired the merit she possesses today, by which she delivered herself and delivered the great king? To whom, then, does this merit belong?”

The foregoing is a brief explanation according to the Provisional Teaching.

What follows is an explanation, according to the True Teaching, of whether an offense is grave or light. Only non-violation is called observance of the precepts. Therefore, the Buddhas, knowing the proper time and discerning the capacities of sentient beings, sometimes permit and sometimes prohibit. Such permission means that exceptions may be allowed according to the circumstances, but their benefits and harms must first be carefully weighed.

King Prasenajit wished to kill the cook, and the crown prince wished to harm the chief minister, but through wine they forgot their anger, preserved the lives of those men, and avoided grave offenses. Thus, by means of a light offense, they avoided a grave one and escaped calamity. This does not mean, however, that drinking alcohol is faultless or that it will incur no offense in future lives!

One must not see that an exception was permitted above, in the section on the Provisional Teaching, and then assume that one’s own case is the same and violate the precepts. One must carefully consider the intent of the teaching and further examine whether one’s own virtue is superior or inferior and whether one has already entered the ranks of the noble ones! The exceptions permitted to King Prasenajit and Lady Mallika [157a] were not the same.

Here, one must rely upon the words of the sutras: the most excellent course is not to transgress by even the slightest degree.

Therefore, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya states: “My disciples must not allow even a tiny drop of alcohol on the tip of a blade of grass to touch their mouths, much less drink a large amount. Therefore, even merely tasting it constitutes an offense.”

The Satyasiddhi Shastra contains this passage:

Question: Is drinking alcohol itself an offense?

Answer: No. Why? Because drinking alcohol does not directly harm sentient beings, but it is a cause of offenses. If a person drinks alcohol, it opens the door to unwholesomeness and obstructs meditative concentration and other wholesome dharmas. Just as a garden planted with fruit trees must have a wall protecting it, it should be understood that the fault of alcohol is comparable to leaving fruit trees unprotected within a garden.

The Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts states: “If a person delights in drinking alcohol, in the present life he easily loses his wealth, suffers many illnesses of body and mind, constantly delights in quarrels, gains a notorious reputation, loses all wisdom, becomes shameless, declines in strength, is constantly reproached by others, becomes unpleasant to behold, and is unable to cultivate virtue. These are the unfortunate present-life results of drinking alcohol.

After relinquishing this body, he falls into hell and undergoes many sufferings, such as hunger and thirst. These are the results of evil karma in future lives. If he is reborn as a human, his mind will constantly be deranged, and he will be unable to collect his thoughts and contemplate wholesome dharmas.

The power of this unwholesome cause will bring about the destruction of all his material possessions and wealth.”

The Dirgha Agama states: “A person who drinks alcohol has six faults: loss of wealth, illness, delight in quarrels, a notorious reputation that spreads everywhere, proneness to anger, and diminishing wisdom.”

The Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra contains this passage:

Question: Drinking alcohol has thirty-five faults. What are they?

Answer:

1. One’s wealth is dissipated in the present life. Why? Intoxication makes the mind disordered and unrestrained, causing one to spend without moderation.

2. It opens the door to every kind of illness.

3. It is the source of quarrels.

4. One exposes one’s body without shame.

5. One’s notorious reputation spreads afar, and one is not respected by others.

6. One loses all wisdom.

7. One fails to obtain what one should obtain and loses what one has already obtained.

8. One divulges every secret to others.

9. All one’s undertakings fail and are not accomplished.

10. Intoxication is the root of sorrow. Why? While intoxicated, one commits many faults; only after becoming sober does one feel shame, anxiety, and sorrow.

11. One’s strength gradually declines.

12. One’s physical appearance deteriorates day by day.

13. One does not know to honor one’s father.

14. One does not know to honor one’s mother.

15. One does not honor shramanas.

16. One does not honor brahmins.

17. One does not honor one’s uncles and other elders. Why? When intoxicated, the mind is deluded and unable to make distinctions.

18. One does not venerate the Buddha.

[157b] 19. One does not venerate the Dharma.

20. One does not venerate the Sangha.

21. One befriends evil people.

22. One distances oneself from the virtuous.

23. One becomes a violator of the precepts.

24. Not knowing shame or remorse.

25. Being unable to control the six sense faculties.

26. Indulging heedlessly in beautiful forms.

27. Being hated and regarded with aversion by others.

28. Being hated by relatives, loved ones, and friends.

29. Committing evil deeds.

30. Abandoning wholesome deeds.

31. Not being trusted or employed by the wise. Why? Because alcohol causes heedlessness.

32. Becoming separated from nirvana.

33. Planting the causes of madness and delusion.

34. After death, falling into the lower realms and hell.

35. If reborn as a human being, often being born in places of madness and delusion.

Drinking alcohol has faults such as these; therefore, one must not drink it.

The Scripture on the Precepts for Śrāmaṇerīs records: “One must not drink alcohol, sip alcohol, or taste alcohol. Drinking alcohol has thirty-six faults. Losing the Dharma of the Way, ruining one’s household, endangering the body, and harming life—all arise from alcohol.

One staggers east and falls west, clings to the south and grasps toward the north; one cannot recite sutras, does not revere the Three Jewels, looks down upon teachers and friends, is unfilial toward one’s parents, and has a darkened mind. Life after life, one remains foolish, does not encounter the right path, and lacks understanding. Therefore, one must not drink alcohol.

If one wishes to leave behind the five skandhas^[17], the five desires, and the five hindrances^[18], attain the five superknowledges^[19], and transcend the five paths, one must not drink alcohol.”

The Sutra of Satyaka Nirgrantha contains this verse:

Drinking alcohol makes the mind heedless;

In this very life, one becomes deluded.

All affairs are entirely forgotten,

And one is constantly censured by the wise.

In the next life, one is again dull-witted

And loses all merit and virtue.

Therefore, those endowed with wisdom

Keep far away from the fault of drinking alcohol.

The Treatise on the Ten Stages of Abidance contains the following passage:

Question: If a person gives alcohol to another, does that person incur an offense?

Answer: The giver gains merit, but the recipient must not drink it.

Therefore, the treatise records: “This bodhisattva sometimes delights in relinquishing everything. Whenever someone desires food, the bodhisattva gives food; whenever someone desires drink, the bodhisattva gives drink. If giving alcohol, the bodhisattva should think: ‘Now is the time to practice generosity. I shall give according to what this person seeks, and afterward I shall employ skillful means to teach this person to abandon alcohol, attain wisdom, and cease being heedless.’ Why is this? The Dharma of the paramita of generosity^[20] is essentially intended to fulfill the wishes of others. When a lay bodhisattva gives alcohol, no offense is committed.”

The Brahma Net Sutra records: “If one personally hands a cup of alcohol to another to drink, [157c] one will be born without hands for five hundred lifetimes; how much more so if one drinks it oneself! Nor may one tell another person or any sentient being to drink alcohol; how much less may one drink it oneself!”

The Sutra on the Characteristics of the Five Precepts for Upasakas records: “When the Buddha was dwelling in the village of Bhadrapadī in the country of Cedi, there was a vicious dragon named Ambalabaddha. It was cruel and harmed people, so no one could go there. Elephants and horses could not approach it, and even birds could not fly across that place. When harvest time came, all the ripened grain was destroyed.

At that time, the Elder Sāgata, a bhikkhu who had attained arhatship, traveled to the country of Cedi and gradually made his way to the village of Bhadrapadī. Early the following morning, the Elder donned his robe, took up his alms bowl, and entered the village to seek alms. Hearing that this village had a vicious dragon that cruelly harmed people, birds, and animals and destroyed ripened grain, the Elder went to the dragon’s abode.

He spread out his sitting cloth and sat beneath a tree where birds were perching. When the dragon smelled his robe, it immediately became enraged and emitted smoke from its body. Elder Sāgata then entered samadhi^[21] and, through his supernormal powers, also emitted smoke from his body.

The dragon grew still more furious and emitted fire from its body. The Elder then entered the Samadhi of Blazing Radiance^[22], and his body likewise emitted fire. The dragon poured down a rain of hailstones, but the Elder transformed them into various kinds of cakes, such as śaṅku cakes, marrow cakes^[23], and others.

The dragon produced thunder and lightning, but the Elder transformed them into balls of joyful confectionery. The dragon rained down bows, arrows, spears, and lances, but the Elder transformed them into various flowers, such as utpala flowers^[24], padma flowers^[25], and others. The dragon conjured countless venomous snakes, cobras, centipedes, insects, and other creatures, but the Elder transformed them into garlands of utpala flowers, garlands of campaka flowers^[26], and others.

In this manner, none of the powers manifested by the dragon could surpass the Elder. The dragon then lost all its might and radiance. Knowing that the dragon’s power was exhausted and that it could do nothing more, the Elder made his body small, entered through the dragon’s two ears, and emerged from its two eyes; he then entered its nostrils and emerged from its mouth. He repeatedly went in and out upon the dragon’s head, yet did not injure its body.

Seeing this, the dragon was terrified. The scales over its entire body stood on end, and it joined its palms and said to the Elder:

– I take refuge in you, Venerable One.

The Elder said:

– Do not take refuge in me. You should take refuge in the Buddha, who is my teacher.

The dragon said:

– From this day forward, I take refuge in the Three Jewels and vow to remain throughout my life an upasaka^[27] who follows the Buddha.

After receiving the Three Refuges, the dragon became a disciple of the Buddha and no longer committed the violent and evil deeds it had formerly done. People and birds could all come to that place, and the ripened grain was no longer destroyed. At that time, all the neighboring countries learned that Elder Sāgata had subdued and converted the venomous dragon, making it gentle and wholesome.

From then on, the Elder’s fame spread far and wide, and people competed to invite him to vegetarian feasts. Among them was a poor but devout young woman who succeeded in inviting the Elder. She offered him milk-and-ghee porridge^[28].

As the Elder ate the porridge, the young woman thought: ‘After this śramaṇa eats this milk-and-ghee porridge, perhaps his stomach will become cold.’ She therefore brought some clear liquor and offered it to the Elder. Without looking, the Elder drank it. After drinking, he expounded the Dharma and then returned to the monastery.

Halfway there, the alcohol took effect. The Elder lost consciousness and collapsed near the monastery gate. His saṅghāṭī robe^[29], water-straining bag, alms bowl, staff, and other belongings lay scattered in different places, while his body lay elsewhere.

He was utterly drunk and knew nothing at all.

At that time, the Buddha and Venerable Ānanda approached and saw the bhikkhu Sāgata. Although the Buddha knew who he was, he nevertheless asked:

– Who is that?

Ānanda replied:

– Blessed One! This is Elder Sāgata.

The Buddha then told Ānanda:

– Set out a seat, bring water, and assemble the Sangha here.

Obeying the Buddha’s instruction, Ānanda did so and then said:

– Blessed One! The Sangha has assembled.

Knowing that the time had come, the Buddha washed his feet, sat upon the seat, and asked the bhikkhus:

– Have you ever heard of or seen the fierce and vicious dragon Ambalabaddha? Formerly, no one could go near it; even birds and animals could not approach, and the ripened grain at harvest time was destroyed. But now Sāgata has subdued and converted it, making it gentle and wholesome, so that birds and animals can dwell there.

Those who had seen it replied, ‘We have seen it,’ while those who had heard of it replied, ‘We have heard of it.’ The Buddha then asked the bhikkhus:

– What do you think? Is this good man Sāgata now capable of subduing a bullfrog?

They replied:

– He is not.

The Buddha said:

– Even a noble one who drinks alcohol loses all his powers in this way; how much more so an ordinary person! Faults such as these all arise from drinking alcohol. From this day forward, anyone who claims to be My disciple must not drink alcohol—not even a single drop of alcohol from the tip of a blade of grass.”

Afterward, the Buddha extensively reproached the faults of drinking alcohol.

According to the treatise, it was because of the incident involving Elder Sāgata that the Buddha established for the bhikkhus the precept against drinking alcohol.

Question: May I ask whether anyone in the heavens drinks alcohol?

Answer: There is certainly no alcohol brewed from rice there; there is only alcohol produced through the transformation of karma.

Therefore, the Scripture on the Contemplation of the True Dharma states: “One night, a male deva in the Yama Heaven^[30] entered a lake with the celestial maidens to amuse themselves. Together they drank celestial wine, which does not intoxicate. Thus, at present they enjoy meritorious bliss and delight, endowed with color, fragrance, flavor, and touch.

Among them, some devas used jeweled cups to drink wine and partook of sudha^[31], endowed with color, fragrance, flavor, and touch. They thought, ‘May this water become wine for us to drink.’ As soon as they formed this thought, the amrita turned into wine that did not intoxicate. [158b] Upon drinking it, their pleasure increased still further. Through the power of wholesome karma, their minds rejoiced.

Yet these devas, owing to the force of their own karma, merely experience such pleasures.

At that time, a bird named Ever-Joyful saw the devas drinking wine by the River of Joy and spoke this verse:

Submerged in the sea of heedlessness,

Attached to objects of the senses,

That wine confounds the mind;

Why must pleasure require drinking?

This is a realm of consuming fire,

Where one knows not what should or should not be done;

Gardens and groves nurture craving—

What need is there to drink wine?

Seeing the devas drinking wine by the river, the bird Ever-Joyful spoke the foregoing verse to admonish them.”

The Scripture on the Contemplation of the True Dharma states: “King Yama rebuked the sinners:

Wine disorders the human mind,

Making people like beasts,

Unable to know what should be done

And what should not be done;

Therefore, wine should be abandoned.

One who is drunk with wine

Is no different from a dead person.

If anyone does not wish to be so,

Then wine must be abandoned.

Wine is the root of wrongdoing,

Without the slightest benefit;

It leads to every evil destiny

And every realm of darkness.

Those who drink wine will fall

Into hell and among hungry ghosts;

The karma leading to animal birth

All arises from the fault of drinking wine.

Wine is poison among poisons,

A cruel prison among prisons,

A grave illness among illnesses—

Thus do the wise describe it.

If people habitually drink wine,

They may suddenly become joyful,

Then abruptly erupt in anger

And, without cause, create evil karma.

They cannot discern the Buddha-Dharma

And destroy worldly and supramundane Dharma;

Like fire consuming liberation,

All this is caused by wine.

Those who can abandon wine

And correctly observe the precepts

Will reach the supreme state,

Where there is neither death nor birth.”

Question: Drinking wine when one is not ill constitutes an offense. May one drink it when ill?

Answer: According to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, if a person is truly ill and medicine fails to cure the illness, there is no offense in using wine as medicine.

[158c] Question: How much may one drink?

Answer: The Scripture of Mañjuśrī’s Questions states: “According to the method of compounding medicinal preparations, if the physician directs that a large quantity of medicine be mixed with wine—that is, little wine and much medicine—it may be used.”

The Scripture of Śāriputra’s Questions states: “Śāriputra addressed the Buddha:

– Why did the World-Honored One say that under the restraining precept^[32], one must not drink even as much wine as a sesame seed^[33], calling this a violation of the precepts that opens the gateway to heedlessness?

– It was because there was a bhikshu in the monastery at Kalandaka Bamboo Grove^[34] who had been ill for many years and was gravely sick, on the verge of death.

At that time, Upāli said:

– What medicine do you need? I will go and find it. Even if I must travel throughout the human realm or ascend to the heavens, even throughout the ten directions, wherever the medicine may be, I will go and obtain it.

The bhikshu replied:

– The medicine I need contravenes the Vinaya and therefore cannot be used. That is why I have come to this condition. I would rather lose my life than violate a precept.

Upāli asked:

– What medicine is it?

The bhikshu replied:

– The physician said that I must take five liters of wine.

Upāli said:

– If it is for an illness, the Tathagata permits it.

Upāli immediately procured the wine. After the bhikshu drank it, his illness was completely cured. Nevertheless, the bhikshu remained ashamed, believing that he had violated a precept. He therefore went to see the Buddha and earnestly repented. The Buddha taught the Dharma, and after hearing it, the bhikshu rejoiced and immediately attained arhatship.

The Buddha taught:

– Wine has many faults and opens the gateway to heedlessness. Drinking even as much wine as a sesame seed causes offenses to accumulate.

If it can bring an end to the suffering of illness, the preceding section—the provisional teaching—does not prohibit it.

One must not see that the Buddha has granted an allowance and then drink in every circumstance. The illness must truly be severe and the patient gravely ill, on the verge of death. Other medicines must already have been used without effect; only then may wine be used, and even then it must be mixed with medicine.

In light of the allowance given above, we see that ignorant people, though physically robust, spend each day running about and fail to follow the Vinaya and proper conduct. At the slightest illness, they give rise to intense craving, do not safeguard their practice of the Way, and falsely cite the scriptures and Vinaya: ‘The Buddha permitted wine to be used as medicine, and fine garments to be offered to the Buddha and the Sangha.’ Such people exploit public matters for private gain and deceive both monastics and laypeople. Therefore, the wise guard the precepts as dearly as their own lives and dare not transgress them.”

Therefore, the Scripture of the Nirgrantha Satyaka contains this verse:

Wine is the root of heedlessness;

By not drinking, one bars the evil paths.

Better to relinquish a hundred thousand bodies

Than violate the Dharma of the precepts.

Better to let the body grow gaunt and withered;

One must resolutely refuse to drink wine.

Suppose one were to violate the precepts

And thereby live for a hundred years;

That would not equal dying at once

While preserving the prohibitions intact.

[159a] Even if I knew with certainty that it would cure me,

I still would not consent to drink it;

How much less now, when it is unclear

Whether the illness would be cured or not.

Giving rise to this resolute mind,

One truly rejoices within;

One then perceives the ultimate truth,

And every illness is eradicated.

One should know that all illnesses of sentient beings are caused by craving, anger, and self-conceit. From these causes come their effects, bringing suffering upon oneself; it is not because medicinal wine is unavailable that an illness remains uncured.

Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “All sentient beings possess four poisonous arrows that are the causes of illness: sensual craving, anger, delusion, and arrogance. When the causes of illness are present, illnesses arise, such as pulmonary fever, asthma, vomiting, sores and boils, mental derangement, diarrhea, hiccups, bed-wetting, painful and frequent urination, earaches, painful and aching eyes, abdominal distension and bloating, insanity and emaciation, and possession by demons and ghosts.

Thus, if one clearly understands the roots of bodily and mental illness, abandons evil, and cultivates goodness, one will forever eliminate the fruits of suffering throughout the three periods of time. If one fails to examine and understand this principle, but recklessly uses the various medicinal wines of the world as treatment, the illness will only worsen and will truly be difficult to cure.”

The Vinaya-mātṛkā states: “The Venerable Mahīśāsaka said:

– When the bhikshu Sāti was young, his life and body were sustained by wine. After he went forth, he was no longer permitted to drink wine, and the four great elements of his body fell out of balance. The bhikshus therefore reported the matter to the Buddha.

The Buddha taught:

– When he is ill, permit him to smell wine at the mouth of a jar. Once the illness has ended, he must no longer smell it. If this does not cure him, permit wine to be rubbed on his body. If that still does not cure him, permit wine to be mixed with rice and made into cakes for him to eat. If the illness still does not cease, permit him to immerse his body in wine.”

The New Vibhāṣā Treatise states: “As a sutra says: ‘When the Venerable Śāriputra was staying in a forest in the country of Kosala, a non-Buddhist renunciant who had gone forth in order to sustain his livelihood also dwelt in that forest near the venerable one. Whenever the inhabitants of nearby villages held a festival lasting four months, the non-Buddhist went from village to village, ate his fill of pork, drank wine to his heart’s content, stole the leftover food, and then returned to the forest.

On the way, he encountered the Venerable Śāriputra seated beneath a tree. Because he was drunk, the non-Buddhist gave rise to contempt and thought, ‘Now both he and I are renunciants, yet I am rich and prosperous while he is poor and destitute.’ The non-Buddhist then approached the venerable one and spoke this verse:

I have eaten my fill of meat and drunk my fill of wine,

And have also stolen food to bring back;

[159b] Grass, trees, earth, and stones

All appear to me as pure gold.”

Hearing this, Venerable Sariputra thought: ‘This wretched non-Buddhist truly has no sense of shame, yet still brazenly recites such a verse. I should now answer him as well.’ Having thought this, the venerable said:

I am ever filled with signlessness,

Constantly abiding in the gateway of the concentration on emptiness;

Grass, trees, earth, and stones,

I regard them all as phlegm and spittle.”

In this verse, Venerable Sariputra expounded the three gateways of liberation^[35] with a lion’s roar. The first line speaks of the gateway of liberation through signlessness; the second speaks of the gateway of liberation through emptiness; and the final two lines speak of the gateway of liberation through wishlessness.

XXVI.3. Eating Meat

This teaching also has the Provisional and the Real.

As for the Provisional Teaching, according to the Vinaya-pitaka, when the Blessed One had newly attained enlightenment, He wished to liberate coarse and unwholesome ordinary beings who were not yet capable of bearing the profound and wondrous principle. Therefore, within the gradual teaching, He spoke of three kinds of pure meat^[36], namely, meat free from seeing, hearing, and suspicion. This means meat from an animal not killed for one’s sake; He also permitted the eating of birds and beasts that had died naturally of old age.

Beginning with the coarse and proceeding to the subtle, He gradually helped beings distance themselves from wrongdoing. This is the purport intended for another time^[37] and is a teaching of provisional meaning^[38]. According to the Real Teaching, however, from the time He first attained enlightenment until the night He entered nirvana, the Buddha earnestly admonished that eating meat was never permitted, from beginning to end.

The Nirvana Sutra records: “All sentient beings who smell the odor of meat are terrified and conceive the fear of death. Creatures living on land, in water, or in the air all flee, saying: ‘This person is our enemy.’ Therefore, a bodhisattva should not eat meat. For the sake of liberating sentient beings, a bodhisattva may manifest the eating of meat; although appearing to eat meat, in truth the bodhisattva does not eat it.

It is only because sentient beings cling to their own views and fail to understand the Tathagata’s intent in teaching through skillful means that they rigidly cling to the limited teachings of the Vinaya and then claim that the Buddha permitted the eating of the three kinds of pure meat. They even slanderously assert that the Tathagata also ate meat. Such foolish persons create grave karmic obstructions, forever falling into places devoid of benefit.

They will not encounter disciples of sages and worthies in the present or the future, much less encounter the Tathagatas!

O Mahamati! The sravakas should always eat such things as rice, noodles, oil, honey, and so forth, which can sustain the body and life in purity. Vessels obtained through unlawful livelihood and food received through unlawful means are declared by Me to be impure and are not permitted to be used or eaten; how much less would I permit the consumption of impure blood and flesh? It is not only eating meat that destroys goodness and blocks the path; all forms of wrongheaded arrogance and deceit employed to seek a livelihood also obstruct the noble path.”

[159c] The Sutra of Manjusri’s Questions records: “If an animal was killed for one’s sake, its flesh must not be eaten. If it is the flesh of a wild animal that died naturally and has already decomposed, it may be eaten; but before eating it, one must recite this mantra three times: Da-diet-tha (thus), a-nai-ma a-nai-ma (no self, no self), a-thi-ba-da a-thi-ba-da (no lifespan, no lifespan), na-xa na-xa (lose, lose), da-a da-a (burn, burn), ba-phat ba-phat (break, break), tang-kha-lat-da-nhi (conditioned), ta-ha (remove killing and cast it away).”

There are even circumstances in which rice must not be eaten. Why is this? If one thinks that this rice is unfit to eat, one should not eat it; how much less should one eat meat?

The Buddha told Manjusri:

– Because sentient beings lack compassion and delight in killing, the eating of meat is prohibited. If one has no intention to kill, possesses great compassion, and eats meat for the sake of teaching and transforming all sentient beings, there is no offense.

This too was a provisional regulation established during the initial period. That is, one could not eat the flesh of animals killed for one’s sake. If they had died naturally or their flesh had decomposed, one was provisionally permitted to eat it while regarding it as one would grass or trees.

If one wished to eat it, one had to give rise to a sense of shame, recite the mantra, and only then could one eat. Later, when an absolute prohibition had been established, neither the flesh of animals that died naturally nor that of birds and beasts that died of old age could be eaten. Just as the Sutra of Unprecedented Events provisionally permits drinking alcohol and the Sutra of Manjusri’s Questions provisionally permits eating meat, and so forth, an examination of these sutras shows that when the Tathagata had newly attained enlightenment, He saw that the capacities of sentient beings did not allow them to abandon these things immediately.

He therefore could not prohibit them all at once, but had to grant provisional allowances and impose restrictions gradually. Later, knowing that their capacities had matured, He abolished and prohibited them completely, without permitting even the slightest exception.

If the underlying circumstances are not explained, foolish people who read only these sutras will freely violate the precepts, failing to understand that permission and prohibition, accommodation and restriction, differ according to circumstances. Therefore, passages concerning the gradual and sudden teachings are set forth so that their origins and development may be understood in full, thereby enabling people to put a complete end to unwholesome karma and manifest the holy life.

Question: Alcohol is a medicine that regulates the spirits, and meat is a savory food that relieves hunger. Both have been enjoyed from ancient times to the present, so why disparage them and refuse to consume them? Even if the Buddhist teaching strictly prohibits them, when mourning rites or seasonal ceremonies are observed, or when a king issues a decree requiring conformity with worldly customs, can the Sangha still resist and refuse to consume them?

Answer: Greed for wealth and fondness for sensual beauty are despised by true men; craving fine food and delighting in adornment are shunned by noble scholars. Severing attachment to follow the Way is praised by the worthy, while restraining desire and cherishing virtue are extolled by the wise. How much more so when meat results from taking life and alcohol can disorder the mind? Abstaining from them is proper; how could it be considered wrong? Even when pressured by those above, one must abstain from them completely. [160a] Though this may contravene the king’s command, it accords with the Buddha’s intent.

Question: Meat is obtained by taking life, so it is naturally right to abstain from it. Alcohol, however, does not harm living beings; why is it completely prohibited? If something that causes no harm is deemed an offense, and something free of wrongdoing is declared wrong, then eating rice and soup should also incur an offense. Yet that is not the case. Why, then, is alcohol alone prohibited?

Answer: Precepts are established according to circumstances, and offenses are judged according to the mind. Meat by its nature results from killing, so one incurs an offense merely by eating it. Although alcohol by its nature causes no direct harm, its fault lies in clouding reason and thereby giving rise to wrongdoing. Thus, offenses arise because of alcohol; when alcohol is renounced, those offenses are eliminated. This is why the prohibition differs; it is not because the intrinsic nature of alcohol itself is deemed sinful.

Question: Offenses comprise offenses evil by nature and offenses arising from prohibition^[39], and alcohol has the characteristic of readily giving rise to offenses. Suppose a person has a high tolerance for alcohol and can drink without becoming intoxicated, without disordering the mind, and without committing any offense. By reason, this person should incur no offense from drinking. If one can therefore drink without fault and does not bring offenses upon oneself, what does abstinence from alcohol have to do with establishing a wholesome precept? Could it be said that a person with a high tolerance for alcohol is observing the precepts, whereas one who drinks only a little but immediately becomes intoxicated incurs a grave offense?

Answer: Preventing offenses and guarding against faults are fundamentally ways of giving rise to goodness. Precepts bring all evils of body and speech to a halt. Only when one has ceased both offenses evil by nature and offenses arising from prohibition in every circumstance can this be called the goodness of precept observance.

A person with a high tolerance for alcohol does not disorder the mind and has not yet broken any other precept, so in principle that person has committed no such offense. Yet because drinking alcohol is a cause from which offenses arise, outwardly it contravenes the Buddha’s prohibition and inwardly it creates the cause for committing offenses; therefore, it is still said to constitute an offense. If one refrains from drinking merely out of defiance, this still cannot be regarded as observing the precepts!

First, considering cases in which actual harm occurs, the sutra teaches that a person who eats meat commits ten faults:

1. All sentient beings, since beginningless time, have been one’s own kin; therefore, one cannot bear to eat their flesh.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “I contemplate sentient beings revolving through the five destinies, being born and nurtured together within the cycle of birth and death, taking turns as parents, siblings, husbands and wives, male or female, as relatives of the six degrees, whether on the paternal or maternal side, or being born into other destinies. Whether good or evil, they have often been one another’s kin. For this reason, I see that sentient beings, though all related, eat one another’s flesh. Because of craving for the taste of flesh, they successively devour one another, give rise to thoughts of killing, increase the karma of suffering, and wander through birth and death, unable to escape.

When the Buddha had spoken thus, the vicious rakshasas, upon hearing it, all abandoned their evil intentions and ceased eating flesh. They encouraged one another to arouse bodhicitta, to protect sentient beings as they would protect themselves, and not to eat any kind of flesh. Then, weeping bitterly, they addressed the Buddha:

– Blessed One! Having heard your teaching and carefully considered it, I realize that the beings of the six destinies whose flesh I have eaten have all been my own relatives. Only now do I understand that eating the flesh of sentient beings creates the greatest enmity, severs the seed of great loving-kindness, increases unwholesome karma, and is the root of suffering. [160b] From this day onward, I shall not eat flesh, nor shall any of my kin be permitted to eat it. Whichever disciples of the Tathagata refrain from eating flesh, I shall remain close to them day and night and support and protect them. Whoever eats flesh, I shall cause that person to gain no benefit.

Great Wisdom! Even the vicious rakshasas, who habitually eat flesh, upon hearing Me speak in this way, aroused loving-kindness and renounced flesh, refusing to eat it. How much more, then, should My disciples who cultivate wholesome Dharma refrain from eating flesh! Know that anyone who eats flesh immediately becomes a great enemy of sentient beings and severs the seed of My noble lineage.

Great Wisdom! If My disciples, after hearing this teaching, fail to contemplate it carefully and continue to eat flesh, know that they are chandalas. They are not My disciples, and I am not their teacher.”

2. Sentient beings are terrified whenever they see those who eat flesh; therefore, flesh must not be eaten.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “When sentient beings smell the odor of one who eats flesh, they are all frightened and flee far away. Therefore, a bodhisattva who cultivates the practice of suchness should not eat flesh, for the sake of guiding sentient beings. It is like chandalas, hunters, butchers, bird trappers, fishers, and others: wherever they go, sentient beings see them from afar and immediately think, ‘I am certain to die now. This person is truly a greatly evil one who does not recognize wrongdoing, but kills sentient beings’ lives in the hope of immediate gain. Because these people wish to eat flesh, they have come here seeking us. Now we are going to die.’

Great Wisdom! Because they eat flesh, all sentient beings who see them are thus terrified.

Great Wisdom! All sentient beings living upon the earth or in the air are frightened and suspicious when they see a flesh-eater, thinking, ‘Today, I do not know whether I shall live or die. Such an evil person has no loving heart and is no different from a wolf roaming throughout the world in search of flesh to eat, like an ox eating grass or a dung beetle burrowing through excrement, never knowing satisfaction. My body is flesh and is precisely their food. I must not encounter them but must quickly flee far away, just as a person fears a rakshasa.’”

3. Those who eat flesh destroy the faith of others; therefore, flesh must not be eaten.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “Those who eat flesh cause sentient beings to lose all faith and to regard people in the world as untrustworthy. Therefore, those who eat flesh will receive the karmic result of severing sentient beings’ faith.”

Therefore, Great Wisdom! To protect the faith of sentient beings, bodhisattvas must not eat any kind of flesh. Why? Because when people of the world see a bhikshu eating flesh, they will slander the Three Jewels, saying: “Who would have thought that these shramanas and brahmins, who cultivate true pure conduct within the Buddha-Dharma, would abandon the diet of noble beings and instead eat the flesh of sentient beings like rakshasas!” [160c] Thus My Dharma wheel is halted and the noble lineage is extinguished—all because of the fault of eating flesh.

Great Wisdom! My disciples, in order to prevent evil people from slandering the Three Jewels, must not even entertain thoughts of flesh, much less eat and swallow it!

4. Those who cultivate loving-kindness and fewness of desires should not eat flesh.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “In seeking to escape birth and death, bodhisattvas must constantly remain mindful of the practice of loving-kindness and compassion, have few desires and know contentment, become weary of the suffering of the world, and seek swift liberation. They should avoid noisy places and go to secluded places, dwelling in a Śītavana charnel ground^[40] or an aranya^[41], sitting alone in contemplation beneath a tree or among burial mounds.

They should examine all worldly objects and see that none are worthy of delight: wives and children are like shackles, halls and palaces resemble prisons, precious treasures are like excrement and spittle, and food and drink should be regarded as blood and pus. When accepting food and drink, they should perceive it as nourishment for a festering sore, merely sustaining life so that they may concentrate upon the noble path, and not consume it out of greed.

They should renounce all alcohol and flesh and refrain from pungent foods such as onions, chives, and garlic. Only such people truly cultivate the path and are worthy to receive offerings from all devas and humans. If they do not arouse disenchantment and detach themselves from the world, but instead crave alcohol, flesh, and pungent foods, they are unworthy to receive the offerings of faithful donors.”

5. Those who eat flesh have all previously been vicious rakshasas; because of these habitual tendencies, they now crave flesh. Therefore, flesh must not be eaten.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “There are sentient beings who cultivated immeasurable causes and conditions in the past and who now possess some roots of goodness, enabling them to hear the true Dharma, give rise to faith, and renounce the household life within My teaching. Yet because in the past they were once kin of rakshasas, or were born as tigers, wolves, lions, cats, or foxes, even though they now dwell within My Dharma, their habitual tendency to eat flesh remains.

When they see people eating flesh, they joyfully approach them; and when they enter cities, towns, villages, monasteries, or stupas, they eat flesh and drink alcohol for pleasure. Devas and humans see such people as rakshasas fighting over a corpse to eat, yet they themselves remain unaware. These people are no longer admitted into My assembly but have become the kin of rakshasas.

Although they wear the kashaya robe and have shaved off their hair and beards, sentient beings who see them are terrified, just as they fear rakshasas.”

6. Those who eat flesh cannot succeed even in learning worldly spells, much less attain supramundane Dharma! Therefore, practitioners should not eat flesh.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “Even teachers of spells who hold wrong views in the world refrain from eating flesh because they wish to accomplish their deviant arts. How much more should My disciples refrain, when they seek [161a] the Tathagata’s unsurpassed noble path of supramundane liberation! If they cultivate great loving-kindness and compassion and diligently practice austerities, yet eat flesh, I fear they will not even attain these qualities, much less liberation! Such consequences arise because those foolish people eat flesh.

Therefore, Great Wisdom! My disciples who seek the joy of liberation beyond the world should not eat flesh.”

7. Sentient beings cherish their bodies and lives just as we cherish our own, without any difference. Therefore, practitioners should not eat flesh.

The Laṅkāvatāra Sutra states: “Eating flesh strengthens physical vigor and intensifies craving for food and drink; therefore, those who eat flesh have abundant attachment and desire. One should carefully consider that all living beings in the world cherish their own bodies and greatly fear death. Humans and animals alike cling to their bodies and lives; they would rather retain the body of a mangy wild fox than relinquish that body to receive the pleasures of the heavenly realms. Why? Because they fear death. Therefore, death should be regarded as a great suffering and a dreadful thing. Since you yourself fear death, why would you wish to kill other beings and eat their flesh?

Therefore, Great Wisdom! Those who wish to eat flesh should first contemplate their own bodies and then think of sentient beings; they should not eat flesh.”

8. Devas, sages, and noble beings all keep far away from those who eat flesh, and even evil spirits fear them. Therefore, practitioners should not eat flesh.

The Lankavatara Sutra states: “All heavenly beings keep their distance from those who eat meat, to say nothing of sages. Therefore, bodhisattvas, wishing to encounter sages, should cultivate a compassionate mind and must not eat meat.

O Mahamati! Those who eat meat suffer while sleeping and also suffer when awake. In their sleep, they dream of evil deeds, become terrified, and their hair stands on end; their minds are constantly uneasy. Because they lack loving-kindness, their wholesome power is weak. If they dwell alone in a secluded place, nonhuman beings often seek opportunities to harm them; tigers, wolves, and lions also stalk them, looking for a way to devour them. Therefore, their minds are always fearful, and they find no peace.”

9. Practitioners should not eat even pure meat, much less impure meat. Therefore, practitioners should not eat meat.

The Lankavatara Sutra states: “I teach that ordinary beings seeking to preserve a pure livelihood may eat pure meat, but they must contemplate it as though they were eating the flesh of their own child; how much less should they consume foods unfit for sages. Sages abstain from every kind of meat, because eating meat gives rise to immeasurable transgressions and destroys all supramundane merit. How, then, could it be said that I permit my disciples to consume impure substances such as blood and flesh? Whoever says that I permit this slanders me. Therefore, the Vinaya Pitaka states: Eating raw blood or flesh constitutes a Sthulatyaya offense^[42].”

10. After death, those who eat meat will be reborn among ferocious rakshasas. Therefore, practitioners should not eat meat.

The Lankavatara Sutra states: “Sentient beings eat meat because [161b] in the past they repeatedly habituated themselves to the karma of eating meat. Thus they are frequently born among rakshasas, lions, tigers, wolves, owls, vultures, kites, hawks, and other such creatures. All living beings protect their own bodies, unwilling to suffer hunger and thirst; yet these creatures give rise to malicious thoughts and delight in eating the flesh of others. When they die, they fall into the evil destinies and find it difficult to obtain a human body, much less attain the path to nirvana! Know that those who eat meat incur immeasurable transgressions such as these. Therefore, practitioners who refrain from eating meat accumulate immeasurable merit.”

The Angulimaliya Sutra states: “Manjusri addressed the Buddha:

‘World-Honored One! Is it because of the Tathagatagarbha that the Buddhas do not eat meat?’

The Buddha replied:

‘Indeed! Since beginningless time, all sentient beings have wandered through birth and death, and there is none who has not been one’s father, mother, elder or younger brother, or elder or younger sister. It is like actors in a play swiftly changing roles. One’s own flesh and the flesh of others are all the same kind of flesh. Therefore, none of the Buddhas eats meat.’

The Buddha further told Manjusri:

‘The realm of sentient beings and the realm of the Buddhas are one; the flesh that is eaten is likewise of the same kind. Therefore, none of the Buddhas eats meat.’

The Buddha said to Manjusri:

‘If an ox dies naturally and its owner uses its hide to make shoes as an offering to one who observes the precepts, should they be accepted? Refusing them accords with the Dharma of a bhikshu; accepting them is not compassionate. Although doing so does not violate the precepts, it will gradually lead to transgression. Therefore, one must remain far removed from the causes and conditions of killing.’”

The Angulimaliya Sutra states: “Within the body of a sentient being are eight hundred thousand nests of microorganisms. Thus, killing a single sentient being is to kill eight hundred thousand nests of microorganisms. During cooking, soaking, or drying, tiny creatures, moths, flies, and other insects may alight upon the food, and immeasurable lives are inadvertently and indiscriminately destroyed.

Although one does not personally do the killing, the butcher kills for one’s sake. Know, therefore, that those who eat meat share in the offense of killing. Some monks and nuns even openly gather laypeople in monasteries to drink alcohol, eat meat, or consume various impure and pungent foods, defiling the sangharama without feeling shame before the Buddha.

In such disorder, how are they any better than followers of non-Buddhist paths?”

The Sutra of the Nirarbuda Hell describes: “Their bodies resemble insensible lumps of flesh. Who are these beings? They are all those who drank alcohol.

Why do monks and nuns who have renounced the household life not place deep faith in the sutras and give rise to a sense of shame, but instead abandon the true Dharma and become like followers of non-Buddhist paths? If one eats the flesh of a sentient being’s father, that sentient being will in turn eat the flesh of one’s own father; if one eats the flesh of a sentient being’s mother, that sentient being will in turn eat the flesh of one’s own mother.

In the same way, elder and younger brothers and sisters, the six kinds of relatives, men and women, all harbor enmity toward one another; [161c] grievance repays grievance without end, and they cannot escape.”

The Sutra of the Precepts for Sramanerikas states: “One must not kill living beings but should cherish them as parents cherish their children, regarding even tiny insects as newborn infants. What does it mean not to kill? It means guarding body, speech, and mind.

With the body, one must not kill people or animals, even the smallest insects; one must neither kill personally nor tell others to kill. If one sees that a being has been killed, one must not eat its flesh; if one hears that it has been killed, one must not eat it; and if one suspects that it has been killed for one’s sake, one must not eat it. With the mouth, one must not say, ‘It should be killed; it should be harmed,’ in order to take revenge.

Nor may one say, ‘How delightful that it was killed! This one is fat, that one is thin; this meat is delicious, that meat is unpalatable.’ With the mind, one must not entertain thoughts of killing, but should regard sentient beings with affection as one’s own bones and marrow, no different from one’s own parents and children. With single-minded devotion, one should constantly recollect the Mahayana.”

The Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish states: “The Buddha said to King Prasenajit: In the distant past, immeasurable asamkhya kalpas ago, there was a vast kingdom in this Jambudvipa named Varanasi. The king at that time, Brahmadatta, led the four divisions of his army into the mountains to hunt. Riding alone on horseback in relentless pursuit of wild beasts, the king became lost deep in the forest.

Exhausted, he dismounted and rested for a while. At that time, a lioness in the forest was overcome by intense lust and had been searching in vain for a mate. Suddenly seeing the king seated alone in the forest, her lust flared fiercely, and she wished to mate with him.

With this thought, the lioness approached the king, flicked her tail, and turned her back toward him. Understanding her intention, the king thought: ‘She is a ferocious beast capable of killing me. If I do not comply with her desire, my life will surely be endangered.’ Overcome by fear, the king mated with the lioness.

When it was over, the lioness departed. Only then did the divisions of the army find the king, and he returned with them to the royal city.

Thereafter, the lioness became pregnant and, when the full term had passed, gave birth to a child who had a human form, except that his feet were spotted. Recalling what had happened, the lioness knew that he was the king’s son. She therefore carried the child in her mouth and brought him before the king. The king also remembered the incident and knew that the child was indeed his son, so he took him in and raised him. Because his feet were spotted, he was named Kalmasapada. As Kalmasapada grew, he became a man of exceptional talent, resolve, and courage. After his royal father died, he succeeded to the throne.

At that time, King Kalmasapada had two wives: one was born into a royal lineage, while the other belonged to a brahmin lineage. One day, Kalmasapada went outside the city for recreation and told his two wives: ‘Whichever of you arrives first shall enjoy a day of pleasure with me; the one who arrives later I shall disregard.’

When they set out, the second queen adorned herself magnificently and boarded her carriage. Along the way, she saw a temple dedicated to a deity of the Brahmanical lineage, so she descended from the carriage to pay homage. Because of this act of worship, she arrived late. [162a] The king kept his word and paid her no attention. The queen therefore resented the heavenly deity and reproached it, saying: ‘Because I stopped to worship you, I arrived later, causing the king to treat me so coldly. If you possess divine power, why did you not protect me?’ She then smashed the temple. The deity guarding the temple became distressed and wished to go and demolish the royal palace, but another heavenly deity barred the way and would not allow it to enter.”

There was an immortal dwelling in the mountains who flew into the palace each day to receive the king’s offerings. He did not accept delicacies, but partook only of coarse fare. As it happened, one day the immortal did not come. Knowing this, a deity transformed himself into the immortal and sat in the place where the immortal usually sat. He ate nothing, but desired only meat and fish. The king immediately complied, and after eating, the deity departed. The next day, when the immortal arrived, the king again set out nothing but meat and fish. The immortal became angry. The king said:

– Great Immortal, yesterday you instructed us to do this; why will you not eat it today?

The immortal said:

– Yesterday I was ill and did not come. Who told you this? Or did you slight me and seek to test me? I shall cause you, from this day onward, to eat human flesh continually for twelve years!

Having said this, the immortal returned to the mountains. Later, one day, the cook again forgot to prepare any meat. As the hour for presenting the meal approached, he did not know what to do, so he went outside in search of meat and saw the corpse of a plump, fair-skinned child lying on the ground. In his urgency, the cook cut off the head and feet, brought the body back to the royal kitchen, cooked it with various precious herbs, and presented it to the king. Upon eating it, the king found it many times more delicious and asked:

– Never before have I eaten meat as delicious as this. What kind of meat is it?

Terrified, the cook prostrated himself before the king and truthfully reported the matter, begging the king to pardon his offense. The king declared:

– So long as you tell the truth, I shall not punish you.

The cook then related the entire matter in detail. The king said:

– This meat is exceedingly delicious! From now on, continue to prepare it in this way.

The cook replied:

– Previously I happened upon the corpse of a child, but it will now be difficult to find another.

The king said:

– Obtain it secretly. If anyone should discover you, I shall adjudicate the matter.

Having received the order, every night the cook secretly abducted children, killed them, and presented their flesh to the king. At that time, throughout the city the people wailed over their missing children and questioned one another in turn about the cause. The chief ministers then assembled to deliberate and appointed men to investigate secretly in various places so as to put the people’s minds at ease. They discovered that the king’s cook was abducting children. They seized and bound him, led him before the king, and reported the entire affair. The king said:

– It was done at my command!

The ministers were filled with indignation and went out to deliberate together: ‘The king himself is a bandit who eats the flesh of our children. If the king eats human flesh, how can he rule the realm? Let us together eliminate this calamity.’ Thereupon, all the ministers united their minds and strength, devised a plan, rose against him as one, and sought to seize and kill the king. Seeing the soldiers surrounding him, the king was terrified and asked:

– Why do you seek to put me to death?

The ministers replied:

[162b] - Whoever is king must make the care of the people his foremost duty. Yet you ordered the kitchen to kill people and use their flesh as food, without regard for the people’s suffering. Therefore, we wish to kill you.

The king said to the ministers:

– From this day onward, I shall do so no more. I ask only that you forgive me; I shall strive to reform.

The ministers said:

– We will certainly not spare you. Say no more!

Upon hearing this, the king knew that he must die and said:

– Even if you are determined to kill me, please wait a moment and hear one thing I have to say.

The king then made a vow:

– All the wholesome deeds I have cultivated and performed until now—the merit of being an enlightened ruler and of making offerings to the immortal—I now dedicate in their entirety so that I may become a flying rakshasa.

As soon as he had spoken these words, the king became a rakshasa in accordance with his vow. He flew into the sky and called down to the ministers:

– You joined forces to put me to death, but by good fortune I have escaped on my own. From now on, you must patiently endure it, for one by one I shall devour your beloved wives and children.

Having said this, the rakshasa flew away and hid in the mountain forests, where each day he seized people, carried them back, and ate their flesh. All the people fled and hid in fear. Day by day, the rakshasa king killed and devoured ever more people. Later, bands of rakshasas joined him as his retinue, so his followers grew increasingly numerous and their depredations increasingly widespread. One day, the rakshasa host said to King Spotted Feet:

– We serve Your Majesty and wish to form an assembly.

The king immediately consented and ordered:

– Capture a full five hundred kings so that we may form an assembly.

The rakshasas then dispersed and captured four hundred and ninety-nine kings, whom they imprisoned deep in the mountains, but they still lacked one. Later, they captured Sudasa, a king of great virtue. He asked King Spotted Feet to grant him a respite of seven days.

When the appointed time had elapsed, Sudasa returned and taught the Dharma to the rakshasas. He clearly explained the offense of killing and its karmic retribution, and also taught the blessed reward of a loving heart that refrains from killing. King Spotted Feet rejoiced, bowed his head in homage, and followed his teaching.

No longer harboring the intention to kill, he released the kings and allowed them to return to their countries. Sudasa then ordered his troops to escort Spotted Feet back to his former kingdom and restore him to the throne. After the twelve years had elapsed, King Spotted Feet no longer ate human flesh and returned to governing his people as before.

Sudasa at that time was none other than I. King Spotted Feet was Angulimala^[43] of the present day, while those whom Spotted Feet devoured during those twelve years were the people slain by Angulimala today. Life after life, these people were continually killed by Angulimala. Life after life, I too subdued Angulimala through the wholesome Dharma.

At that time, King Prasenajit again addressed the Buddha:

– The bhiksu Finger-Garland killed and ate the flesh of so many people, yet he still attained the Way. Does he nevertheless undergo karmic retribution?

The Buddha taught:

[162c] - Great King! Whatever is done necessarily bears its retribution. This bhiksu is now in his room, where the fires of hell are issuing from his pores. He is in terrible pain and cries out piteously.

The Buddha told a bhiksu:

– Take the key and open the door to Finger-Garland’s room.

Obeying this instruction, the bhiksu opened the door and entered the room, where he saw Finger-Garland’s body burning of itself. Astonished, the bhiksu returned and reported this to the Buddha. The Buddha said:

– Such is his karmic retribution!

The king and the entire assembly believed and understood.”

There is a verse:

Wealth, lust, and wine—

These are the three poisons.

Great ministers bring their houses to ruin;

Kings cause their kingdoms to fall.

Meat obstructs the heart of loving-kindness;

The five pungent plants^[44] impair virtue.

Those who truly cultivate the Way

Do not crave these defilements.

XXVII. EXAMINING CHARACTERISTICS

This section consists of three parts: Introduction, Examining Characteristics, and Faith.

XXVII.1. Introduction

The Buddha-Dharma is inherently impartial, and those of lofty virtue comprehend it alike; ordinary beings follow their karma, and therefore the methods of teaching are many. Because mind and its objects are opposed, the suffering and happiness experienced differ. It is like pressing a seal of wax into mud: once the impression is made, its lines become visible. Once the marks of karma have been distinguished, its present retribution can be known by observation. Thus, humans and animals can be recognized by their voices; the Hu and the Han can be distinguished by their physical forms; the lowly and the noble are differentiated by rank; and sages and ordinary beings differ in what is wholesome and unwholesome.

XXVII.2. Examining Characteristics

The Sutra of Right View records: “At that time, in the Buddha’s Dharma assembly, there was a bhiksu named Right View. Having only recently received the full precepts, he still harbored this doubt in his mind: ‘The Buddha says that there is a life hereafter, but when people die, they do not return to report on it. How, then, can this be known?’ Before the bhiksu had an opportunity to ask, the Buddha knew his thought and said:

– Bhiksus! Suppose a tree grows from a single seed and, through the four great elements, sprouts, forms a trunk, puts forth branches and leaves, and then develops into a great tree. The tree in turn bears fruit, the fruit in turn gives rise to trees, and as the years pass they increase until they become countless in number.

The Buddha asked:

– Bhiksus! If one wished to gather all the trunks, branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits and return them to the original seed, could it be done?

The bhiksus replied:

“World-Honored One, that is impossible. The tree continually changes and gradually decays, while its seed gives rise to another tree that grows large. Through continuous growth and transformation, it ultimately decays and cannot return to the original seed.”

The Buddha said:

“Bhiksus, birth and death are also like this. [163a] They originally arise from ignorance; through cyclic existence and the convergence of conditions, consciousness undergoes transformation through the twelve links of dependent origination^[45]. Led by one’s karma, one comes to have a father and mother and then receives a body. Thus one cannot return to one’s original consciousness, nor can one return to report what has happened. It is like a metalworker who smelts ore into iron or steel and then melts the iron or steel to cast an implement. Can that implement return to being ore?”

Right View replied:

“It truly cannot.”

The Buddha said:

“Consciousness undergoes transformation and abides in the intermediate-state body, just as ore has become iron or steel. It enters a mother’s womb and receives a new body, just as iron or steel has become an implement. Its form has changed, so it cannot return to its original consciousness.

Therefore, when consciousness receives a human body, it once again has a father and mother. Once it has parents, there are six obstructions: first, while abiding in the intermediate-state body, it cannot return; second, it receives a body in the womb according to its karma; third, because of the pain of being newly born, it forgets all former events; fourth, as soon as it is born and touches the ground, its former knowledge disappears and new cognition arises; fifth, as soon as it is born, it becomes attached to food and drink, so its former knowledge disappears; sixth, as it is born and grows, it becomes habituated to new things and forgets the old.

“Bhiksus, consciousness depends upon good and evil. At death it follows karma, so its seeing and knowing are no longer as before, and the body cannot recover its former knowledge. Therefore, it cannot return to report to its relatives.

If people have not yet developed the aspiration for the Way^[46] and lack the pure eye, when they die their consciousness leaves the body, transforms according to their karma, and receives another body; they cannot return to report what has occurred. Suppose that on a moonless night an object of five colors is placed in darkness. Even a thousand, ten thousand, or a hundred million people could not see it.

But if someone holds a torch to illuminate it, everyone can clearly distinguish its five colors. In the same way, foolish people, obscured by darkness and not yet having attained the wisdom-eye^[47], fall into the evil realms and revolve back and forth. They are like those who wish to see an object of five colors on a moonless night; it is utterly impossible.

Those who cultivate the path, recite the sutras, uphold the precepts, and gather in their minds are like people holding a torch to illuminate and see an object. It is like wishing to write without hands, demanding to see when blind, threading a needle in darkness, or seeking fire in water—it is entirely impossible.

“Bhiksus, wholeheartedly uphold the sutras, observe the precepts, and carefully contemplate whence birth and death originally come and where they ultimately go. Then body and mind will become pure, afflictions will be eliminated, and doubts will be resolved.”

After hearing this, Right View rejoiced and accepted and upheld the teaching.”

The Sutra on the Causes and Conditions of the Blinding of Dharma-Increase, Crown Prince of King Ashoka, records: “Within the six realms, each realm has its own distinctive signs.

1. Signs of the hell realm:

The origin of human beings,

Adrift through birth and death,

Rising, sinking, going and coming,

Within the five realms.

Dying there and born here,

All occurs through causes and conditions;

I shall now clearly explain

The signs of each person.

Walking with an unsteady gait,

Without being aware of it,

Fond of watching illusions,

Always merry and forgetful,

[163b] Light in movement,

Roaming through open fields—

Such a person has come from

The Reviving Hell^[48].

Joints aching painfully,

Often startled while asleep,

Dreaming of ominous portents—

Such a person has come from

The Black-Rope Hell^[49].

Eyes bulging, hair coarse,

Teeth long, prone to anger,

Voice harsh, illnesses severe—

Such a person has come from

The Crushing Hell^[50].

Speaking loudly in a high voice,

Knowing no shame,

Fond of fighting and reviling others,

Unable to distinguish truth from falsehood.

Lamenting while asleep,

Often crying out in terror in dreams—

Such a person has come from

The Wailing Hell^[51].

Often grieving and weeping,

Climbing high and gazing afar,

Quarreling with family members,

Making no distinction between familiar people and strangers.

Speaking wrathfully,

Going hungry for many days—

Such a person has come from

The Great Wailing Hell^[52].

Large body and small feet,

Sinews and bones weak and feeble,

Voice continually choking off,

Its sound like broken tiles,

Heart devoid of filial devotion,

Mind unsettled—

Such a person has come from

The Avici Hell^[53].

Body coarse and ugly,

Suffering bitter cold,

Fond of heat and always thirsty,

Jealous, miserly, and greedy.

Seeing others give alms,

Their mind becomes vexed—

Such a person has come from

The Burning Hell^[54].

Terrified upon seeing fire,

Yet fond of warming themselves,

Walking and standing heedlessly,

Without regard for the proper time,

Regretting deeds once done,

Yet wishing to do them again—

Such a person has come from

The Great Burning Hell^[55].

Small-eyed and prone to anger,

Forgetting what they have received,

Base in conduct,

Narrow of mind,

Fearful on seeing the great,

Yet delighted on seeing the small—

Such a person has come from

The Utpala Hell^[56].

Red-eyed and ugly-bodied,

Always fond of contention,

Slandering sages and worthies

And those who have attained the Way,

Searching day and night

For the faults of others—

Such a person has come from

The Padma Hell^[57].

Eyes with three corners,

Unfilial to mother and father,

Born to a short life—

Such a person has come from

The Kumuda Hell^[58].

Fond of carrying sharp blades,

Provoking others into fights,

Certain to be killed by someone—

Such a person has come from

The Bin-tri Hell^[59].

Body covered with sores and scabs,

Breath foul-smelling,

Without any relatives—

Know that such a person

Has come from the Vast Hell^[60].

Large in bodily form,

Walking with feeble steps,

Sparse-haired and thin-skinned,

Continuously afflicted by illness,

Becoming angry upon seeing others,

Gluttonous and never satisfied—

Such a person has come from

[163c] The Hell of Measuring Fire.

White-skinned and blue-eyed,

Spraying saliva while speaking,

Speaking without beginning or end,

Fond of playing with earth and sand,

And, upon seeing mud,

Liking to lie upon it—

Such a person has come from

The Ash-River Hell.

Head drawn in and eyes yellow,

Hated and rejected by others,

Terrified whenever something occurs—

Such a person has come from

The Forest-of-Swords Hell.

Always holding a knife in hand,

Delighted upon hearing of combat,

And harmed by a blade—

Such a person has come from

The Mountain-of-Blades Hell.

Black-bodied and constricted at the throat,

Fond of dwelling in dark rooms,

Uttering cruel words—

Such a person has come from

The Hot-Ash Hell.

Weak in strength and short of breath,

Unable to act as they wish,

Whether affairs are gained or lost

Is not theirs to decide.

If they encounter a butcher,

They immediately follow close beside him—

Know that such a person

Has come from the Skinning Hell.

Unpredictable in joy and anger,

Knowing to repent and reform,

Often apologizing for wrongdoing

Without letting the night pass,

Reproaching their own mind

As though undergoing punishment—

Such a person has come from

The Ball-Beating Hell.

Fond of dwelling in filthy places,

Liking to eat poor food,

Wearing ugly garments—

Such a person has come from

The Excrement-and-Urine Hell.

Terrifying in appearance,

Violent in speech,

Fond of disparaging and striking others—

Such a person comes from the Fragrant Hell.

One should examine bodily appearance

And know whence one has come,

Then keep far away,

As one avoids the Burning Eon^[61].

The signs of the hell realm

Have thus been briefly explained.

2. Signs of the animal realm:

As for animals,

The bodies they receive differ;

Wholeheartedly examine and reflect,

And do not create these conditions.

Speaking slowly and gently,

Not giving rise to anger or delusion,

Respectfully yielding to elders and superiors—

Such a person has come from elephants.

Large-bodied and foul-smelling,

Able to endure heat and cold,

With anger difficult to eliminate—

Such a person has come from camels.

Traveling far and eating heartily,

Not fearing danger,

Remembering matters and knowing what is right—

Such a person has come from horses.

Magnanimous and grateful,

Skilled at enduring heat and cold,

Not remembering what they have done—

Such a person has come from oxen.

Loud-voiced and shameless,

Their heart filled with attachment,

Unable to distinguish right from wrong—

Such a person has come from donkeys.”

Fearing neither great nor small,

Always craving flesh,

Doing things with ease,

Such a one comes from the lion kind.

Large-bodied, with round eyes,

Roaming across open fields,

Disdaining wife and children,

Such a one comes from the tiger kind.

Long-haired, with small eyes,

[164a] Seldom harboring anger or resentment,

Never dwelling in one place,

Such a one comes from the bird kind.

By nature neither deceitful nor fickle,

Delighting in killing,

Preferring only caves and mounds,

Such a one comes from the fox kind.

Soft-voiced and feeble,

Lightly engaging in sexual misconduct,

Showing no affection for wife and children,

Such a one comes from the wolf kind.

Taking no delight in beauty,

Lying in wait to catch wrongdoers,

Sleeping little and often angry,

Such a one comes from the dog kind.

Short-bodied, with long hair,

Gluttonous and fond of sleep,

Disliking clean places,

Such a one comes from the pig kind.

Yellow-haired and restless,

Delighting in mountains and forests,

Craving flowers and fruits,

Such a one comes from the monkey kind.

With a deceitful countenance,

Never shrinking from hardship,

Often treacherous and faithless,

Such a one comes from the crow kind.

Infatuated with sensual desire,

Caring nothing for affection or loyalty,

With a mind that retains nothing,

Such a one comes from the pigeon kind.

By nature contrary and defiant,

Fond of disputation, yet patient,

Unfilial toward mother and father,

Such a one comes from the cuckoo kind.

Knowing neither rules of conduct,

Nor what is wrong,

Remaining foolish throughout life,

Such a one comes from the goat kind.

Fond of deception and chatter,

Drawing close to the rich and powerful,

Beloved by everyone,

Such a one comes from the parrot kind.

Acting hastily,

Delighting in crowded places,

Speaking at tedious length,

Such a one comes from the myna kind.

Walking with measured steps,

With a mind full of schemes,

Harming many living beings,

Such a one comes from the crane kind.

Small-bodied and lustful,

With an unfocused mind,

Becoming infatuated upon seeing beauty,

Such a one comes from the sparrow kind.

Red-eyed, with short teeth,

Spitting saliva while speaking,

Curling up the body when lying down,

Such a one comes from the snake kind.

Words filled with wrath and resentment,

Showing no regard for kindness or gratitude,

The mouth pouring forth poisonous speech,

Such a one comes from the zhen bird^[62].

Dwelling alone and craving food,

Speaking in a choked and stifled voice,

Usually sleeping little at night,

Such a one comes from the cat kind.

Breaking through walls to steal,

Greedy for money and fearful,

Making no distinction between stranger and acquaintance,

Such a one comes from the rat kind.

By carefully examining these features,

One may clearly know their origins.

3. Characteristics of hungry ghosts:

Tall-bodied and often fearful,

With hair covering the body,

And filthy clothing,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Licentious and miserly,

Resenting the accomplishments of others,

Taking no delight in giving,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Unfilial toward mother and father,

[164b] And toward elders and juniors in the household,

Quarreling at the slightest provocation,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

With neither sincerity nor faith,

Acting only for oneself,

Weak in strength and inferior in wisdom,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Voiceless and hoarse,

Unpredictably enraged,

Fond of eating hot food,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Possessing little wealth,

Poor and destitute,

Ridiculed by the wise,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

With no shrine to the Buddha at home,

Taking no delight in hearing the Dharma,

Cutting off the path to heavenly rebirth,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Failing to instruct wife and children,

Brothers and sisters,

And despised by everyone,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Living a solitary life,

With no one to provide care,

Ultimately undergoing due retribution,

Never departing from former conditions,

Narrow in aspiration,

Taking no delight in adornment,

Base and inferior in conduct,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Acting without achieving results,

Only bringing trouble upon oneself,

And being driven away by others,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Failing in one’s undertakings,

Never examining their causes,

And refusing to heed admonition,

Such a one comes from the hungry ghosts.

Taking no delight in secluded places,

Preferring to dwell in latrines,

With a filthy countenance,

Such a one comes from the wind spirits^[63].

Large-bodied and always merry,

Craving to eat flesh,

Delighting only in spirit shrines,

Such a one comes from the yakshas^[64].

Often angry and fond of fighting,

Becoming attached upon seeing an object,

And unable to forget it,

Such a one comes from the yakshas.

Causing those who see them to shudder,

Staring fixedly,

As though something had been lost,

Such a one comes from the rakshasas.

Thin-bodied, with delicate skin,

A bright and harmonious complexion,

Delighting in hearing music,

Such a one comes from the gandharvas^[65].

With a mind delighting in wandering,

Anointing oneself with fragrant perfumes,

And possessing many talents and arts,

Such a one comes from the gandharvas.

Always delighting in song and dance,

Men and women walking shoulder to shoulder,

Speaking first and laughing afterward,

Such a one comes from the kinnaras^[66].

Gentle in temperament,

Clearly understanding the seasons,

And often severing afflictions,

Such a one comes from the kinnaras.

These are the characteristics of hungry ghosts,

Yakshas, and rakshasas.

4. Characteristics of asuras:

The following is a brief account

Of the characteristics of asuras:

A square face and round eyes,

Reddish hair and a golden body,

Skilled in every craft,

Such a one comes from the asuras^[67].

Looking straight ahead,

Bearing a self-assured demeanor,

And fighting as soon as an enemy is encountered,

Such a one comes from the asuras.

[164c] 5. Characteristics of human beings:

Knowing the place to which one will be reborn,

Holding firmly to it and never forgetting,

Clearly understanding one’s occupation,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Clearly recognizing falsehood,

And not committing it oneself,

Acting with impartiality,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Never forgetting

Words of good and evil,

And placing no trust in deception,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Greedy for sexual pleasure and envious,

With attachments difficult to relinquish,

Clearly understanding customs,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Giving with a faithful mind,

Understanding Dharma and what is contrary to Dharma,

With a mind free of partiality,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Never wasting time,

Nor being indolent,

Revering sages and noble ones,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

When encountering a shramana

Who observes the precepts and is learned,

Devoting oneself wholeheartedly to his service,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Making offerings to the Buddhas,

The true Dharma, and the Sangha,

And hearing the Dharma at appropriate times,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

Clearly understanding the Dharma upon hearing it,

And refraining from evil upon seeing it,

Quickly proceeding toward nirvana,

Such a one returns from the human realm.

This is a brief account

Of the characteristics of the human realm.

6. Characteristics of heavenly beings:

Around Mount Sumeru

There are five levels of heavens;

Because beings follow the karma they have created,

Their characteristics are not the same.

With a slender back and large feet,

Often smiling,

Know that this person

Comes from the Khúc Heaven^[68].

Delighting in subtle principles,

Lacking material possessions,

And fearing the sight of conflict,

Such a one comes from the Thi-khí Heaven^[69].

White-skinned, tall, and large,

With an upright and handsome appearance,

Disliking the light of fire,

Such a one comes from the Kì-bà Heaven^[70].

Always joyful,

Unfrightened upon hearing of evil,

Yet never committing evil,

Such a one comes from the Heaven of Delight in Transformation^[71].

Contemplating patience and suffering,

Skillfully discerning meanings,

And honoring mother and father,

Such a one comes from the Tì-sa Heaven^[72].

Disliking sleeping indoors,

Delighting in roaming through mountains and forests,

And remaining indifferent to feminine beauty,

Such a one comes from the Second Heaven^[73].

Though possessing abundant wealth,

Being born into a lowly family,

With a mind delighting in purity,

Such a one comes from the Third Heaven^[74].

Acting according to one’s own wishes,

Failing to comprehend one’s work,

Yet hoping one’s aspirations will be fulfilled,

Such a one comes from the Yama Heaven^[75].

Delighting in improper sexual conduct,

Failing to remain faithful to one’s own wife,

And being controlled by ghosts,

[165a] Such a one comes from the Heaven of Enjoying Others’ Emanations^[76].

Serving mother and father,

Always observing proper conduct,

And learning by following others,

Such a one comes from the Tushita Heaven^[77].

Seeking the path through what is contrary to Dharma,

With a mind free of greed and miserliness,

And taking no delight in household life,

Such a one comes from the Brahma Heaven^[78].

With a mind aspiring to truth,

Yet inclined toward sleep and rest,

And not understanding the Buddha-Dharma,

Such a one comes from the Heaven of Non-Perception^[79].

Sentient beings of the six destinies

All have their causes and origins;

Their dispositions and conduct differ,

And their aspirations are not the same.

XXVII.3. Faith

The Scripture of the Questions of Bhikshu Nagasena to the Buddha records: “At that time, King Milinda asked the arhat bhikshu Nagasena:

– If a person in the world commits evil throughout his life but, when approaching death, is able to be mindful of the Buddha and is afterward reborn in heaven, I do not believe this. Furthermore, if one kills a single living being and, upon death, immediately falls into hell, I do not believe that either.

Bhikshu Nagasena asked:

– If someone throws a small stone into the water, will it float or sink?

The king replied:

– The stone will sink.

Nagasena asked:

– If one loads a hundred large stones onto a boat, will the boat sink?

The king replied:

– It will not sink.

Nagasena then asked:

– Because they are supported by the boat, the stones do not sink. Although a person has committed evil, through being mindful of the Buddha even briefly, that person does not fall into hell but is reborn in heaven. Why do you not believe this? That small stone sinks, just as one who commits evil and does not know to recite sutras or be mindful of the Buddha immediately falls into hell after death. Why do you not believe this either?

The king said:

– Excellent! Excellent!

Bhikshu Nagasena said:

– It is like two people who die at the same time: one is reborn in the Brahma heaven, while the other is reborn in the land of Kashmir. Although the places of their rebirth differ in distance, both are reborn at the same moment after death. It is also like two birds, one perched high above and the other on a low branch. When the two birds take flight together, both their shadows are cast upon the ground.

Bhikkhu Nagasena continued:

– When a foolish person commits evil, he incurs great calamity; when a wise person commits evil, he undergoes lesser calamity. Suppose a heated iron bar is lying on the ground. One person knows that it is heated iron, while another does not. Both come and pick up the iron bar, but the one who does not know is severely burned, while the one who knows is not burned. The commission of evil is likewise. Because a foolish person is unable to repent on his own, he incurs great calamity. Although a wise person commits evil, he knows that it is something he should not have done and repents of his offense every day; therefore, he undergoes lesser calamity.”

The Sutra on the Four Stages of Training records: “Among people in the world, some are inferior to animals, while among animals, some are superior to people. Why is this? Those who commit evil offenses without knowing when to stop fall into hell after death.[165b] When their offenses in hell have been exhausted, they become hungry ghosts.

When their offenses as hungry ghosts have been exhausted, they become animals. Only when their offenses as animals have been exhausted do they return to human birth. Because one obtains human birth only after exhausting the offenses of the animal realm, one must diligently practice goodness, follow the teachings of the Three Jewels, forever distance oneself from the three evil destinies, enjoy the blessings of gods and humans, and ultimately attain liberation.”

The Sutra in Forty-Two Sections records: “The Buddha taught that there are five difficult things in the world:

1. It is difficult for the poor and destitute to practice giving

2. It is difficult for the wealthy and honored to study the Way

3. It is difficult to preserve one’s life and not die

4. It is difficult to encounter Buddhist sutras

5. It is difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world.”

The Sutra of Miscellaneous Parables records: “There are eighteen difficult things in the world:

1. It is difficult to encounter a Buddha appearing in the world

2. Even if one encounters a Buddha, it is difficult to obtain human birth

3. Even if one obtains human birth, it is difficult to be born in a city

4. Even if one is born in a city, it is difficult to be born into a family of noble lineage

5. Even if one is born into a family of noble lineage, it is difficult to possess all one’s faculties intact

6. Even if one possesses all one’s faculties intact, it is difficult to have abundant wealth

7. Even if one has abundant wealth, it is difficult to encounter a spiritual friend

8. Even if one encounters a spiritual friend, it is difficult to possess wisdom

9. Even if one possesses wisdom, it is difficult to have a wholesome mind

10. Even if one has a wholesome mind, it is difficult to delight in giving

11. Even if one delights in giving, it is difficult, while aspiring to become a virtuous person, to encounter one endowed with virtue

12. Even if one becomes a virtuous person and encounters one endowed with virtue, it is difficult to approach and take refuge in that person

13. Even if one succeeds in approaching, it is difficult to become attuned

14. Even if one has become attuned, it is difficult to hear the Dharma taught

15. Even if one hears the Dharma taught, it is difficult to possess the wisdom to understand it correctly

16. Even if one understands correctly, it is difficult to receive and uphold sutras of profound meaning

17. Even if one can receive and uphold sutras of profound meaning, it is difficult to practice in accordance with them

18. Even if one can receive and uphold sutras of profound meaning and practice in accordance with them, it is difficult to realize the noble fruit.”

The Sutra on the Retributions of Sinful Karma contains this verse:

Flowing streams are never full,

A fierce fire does not burn forever,

The sun rises and then sets,

The full moon wanes again;

Even wealth, honor, and power

Pass away in but a moment.

Therefore, the human body is difficult to obtain but easily lost. Because it is easily lost, one should not give rise to attachment to it. One should know that with each thought, the human body draws nearer to death, like pigs and goats being led to the slaughterhouse. Thus, the Nirvana Sutra records: “Contemplate how this life and body are constantly assailed and harmed by innumerable enemies. Life diminishes with every thought, like swiftly flowing water that cannot be halted, [165c] like morning dew that quickly vanishes, and like a condemned prisoner being led to the execution ground, drawing closer to death with every step.”

The Mana Sutra contains this verse:

Just as a Chandala^[80]

Drives cattle to the slaughterhouse,

Each step drawing nearer to death,

Human life passes swifter still.

The Suka Sutra records: “The brahmin Suka addressed the Buddha:

– If a householder cultivates merit and virtue and plants wholesome roots, will that person surpass one who has gone forth? How should this matter be understood?

The Buddha taught:

– This matter is not fixed. A renunciant who does not cultivate wholesome roots is inferior to a householder who continually plants wholesome roots.”

The Three Thousand Rules of Deportment records: “The activities that renunciants should regularly perform are seated meditation, sutra recitation, and exhorting and guiding others. One who fully carries out these three activities is a renunciant in accordance with the Dharma. One who does not practice them merely lives in vain and dies without purpose, creating only causes of suffering.”

The Sutra of One Hundred Parables records: “Long ago, a man needed both fire and cold water. He therefore placed a pot of cold water over a banked fire and left it there overnight. Later, when he wanted the fire, it had already gone out; when he wanted the cold water, the water had become hot. He obtained neither cold water nor fire. People of the world who go forth to seek the Way within the Buddha-Dharma yet continue thinking of wives, children, and the five sensual desires lose both the fire of merit and virtue and the water of moral discipline. Practitioners who think of sensual desire are likewise.”

There is a verse:

Good and evil differ,

Noble ones and ordinary beings share the same realm;

Though the five skandhas are alike,

The six destinies follow different paths.

By examining one’s characteristics and circumstances,

One may know one’s former karma;

Suffering and happiness take differing forms—

How could they be prevented?

Notes:

^[1] Book of Rites 禮記: a general designation for the three ancient Chinese works Ceremonial Rites, Rites of Zhou, and Book of Rites, which prescribe the proper conduct between people.

^[2] Eye of the Way 道眼: the eye that contemplates and discerns the Dharma of the Way.

^[3] Wailing Hell (Khiếu Hô Hell 叫呼地獄): one of the eighteen levels of hell. Because the offenders in this hell cry out in anguish, it is called the Wailing Hell.

^[4] Evil discipline 惡律儀: the opposite of wholesome discipline. Evil discipline refers to unmanifest unwholesome form that arises when, out of greed for profit or as a means of livelihood, one commits acts of killing.

^[5] Provisional teaching 權教: a teaching employing skillful means, provisionally expounded in accordance with the capacities and conditions of sentient beings.

^[6] True teaching 實教: the true teaching, which is not confined to provisional or expedient means.

^[7] Obstruction of principle 理障: delusion concerning principle, which obstructs right view and prevents one from penetrating original awakening and true suchness.

^[8] Ten wholesome actions 十善: ten wholesome actions performed through the three kinds of karma of body, speech, and mind. They comprise refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, frivolous speech, covetousness, anger, and wrong views.

^[9] Wisdom of skillful means (skillful-means wisdom 智慧方便): provisional wisdom that discriminates among the dharmas.

^[10] Wholesome actions with outflows (outflow-associated goodness 有漏善): pure dharmas belonging to worldly goodness, in which the afflictions have not yet been severed. The five precepts, the ten wholesome actions, and wholesome roots from the stage of the Path of Seeing downward are all wholesome actions with outflows. Cultivating these wholesome dharmas with outflows has the power to bring about the outflow-associated rewards of birth among gods and humans.

^[11] Three kinds of karma (three karmas 三業; S: trīni-karmāṇi): bodily karma, verbal karma, and mental karma.

^[12] Karma without outflows (outflow-free karma 無漏業; S: anāsravaḥ): it is undefiled in nature and does not bring about a ripened karmic result. This is pure, outflow-free karma, unmixed with the characteristics of black or white karma; namely, the cultivation that leads to the realm of nirvana.

^[13] Queen Mallika (Queen Mallika 末利夫人; S: Mallikā): queen of King Prasenajit and mother of Prince Virudhaka, also known as Prince Evil-Born.

^[14] Eight precepts of the one-day retreat (八關齋戒): eight fasting precepts, or training rules, established by the Buddha for lay disciples temporarily undertaking the practice of renunciation. Those who receive them must temporarily leave their families for one day and one night and stay with the Sangha to learn the way of life of monastics. The eight fasting precepts are: not to kill living beings; not to steal; not to engage in sexual activity; not to speak falsely; not to drink intoxicants; not to adorn the body with perfumes and flowers or watch or listen to singing and dancing; not to sit or lie upon broad, high, luxurious beds; and not to eat at improper times.

Of these eight, the first seven are precepts, while the last—refraining from eating at improper times—is the fast; together they are called the eight precepts of the one-day retreat.

^[15] Undefiled wholesome qualities (無漏善): the kind of wholesome qualities that arise in noble ones from the Path of Seeing onward; they are also the wholesome qualities through which bodhi and nirvana are attained.

^[16] Grand music 大樂: solemn and refined music used on ceremonial occasions such as sacrificial offerings, court audiences and congratulations to the king, and banquets given by the king for his ministers.

^[17] Five skandhas (五陰): form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness.

^[18] Five hindrances (五蓋; S: pañca āvaraṇāni): five afflictions that obscure the mind and prevent wholesome dharmas from arising. They are sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.

^[19] Five superknowledges (五神通): five extraordinary powers naturally attained through cultivating the four fundamental dhyanas. “Supernatural” means inconceivable, while “knowledge” means free and unhindered. First, the superknowledge of miraculous powers, whereby one can freely travel anywhere; second, the divine eye, whereby one can see what ordinary human eyes cannot see; third, the divine ear, whereby one can hear sounds that ordinary people cannot hear; fourth, knowledge of others’ minds, whereby one can clearly discern the thoughts in another person’s mind; fifth, recollection of past lives, whereby one can clearly know past events.

^[20] Perfection of giving (檀波羅蜜; S: Dānapāramitā): one of the six consummate practices that a Mahayana bodhisattva must cultivate to attain Buddhahood. The perfection of giving means giving in an ultimate and perfect manner and comprises the giving of material goods, the giving of Dharma, and the giving of fearlessness.

^[21] Samadhi 三昧 (also: concentration, meditative absorption, right concentration; S: samādhi): settling the mind upon a single place or object; that is, the state of meditative concentration.

^[22] Fire-radiance samadhi 火光三昧: a meditative absorption in which fire issues forth from one’s body.

^[23] Marrow cake (髓餅): a kind of cake made from wheat flour mixed with fat and honey.

^[24] Utpala flower (優鉢羅華; S: utpala): the blue lotus.

^[25] Padma flower (波頭摩華): the red lotus. Indians regard this flower as the most precious of all aquatic plants.

^[26] Campaka flower (瞻蔔華): a golden-yellow flower whose fragrance carries for several miles and which can be used to make medicine or fragrant oil.

^[27] Upasaka 優婆塞 (S: upāsaka): a male lay devotee who draws near to and reveres the Three Jewels and observes the five precepts; one of the two lay assemblies and one of the fourfold or sevenfold assemblies of the Buddha’s disciples.

^[28] Milk porridge (蘇乳糜): porridge cooked with cow’s milk.

^[29] Sanghati robe (僧伽梨衣; S: saṅghātī): a bhikkhu’s Dharma robe consisting of nine or more panels. This robe is worn when entering a royal palace, entering a settlement to beg for alms, ascending the Dharma seat to teach, or subduing adherents of other paths.

^[30] Yama Heaven (夜摩天): the third of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[31] Sudha 蘇陀 (S: sudhā): food made from tree sap, consumed in the heavenly realms.

^[32] Prohibitory precepts (遮道法): precepts concerning minor offenses that society ordinarily does not regard as crimes, but that Buddhism established to forestall worldly criticism and prevent the commission of other offenses.

^[33] Peppergrass (葶藶): a plant with poisonous seeds, as small as grains of rice and yellowish-black in color, used medicinally.

^[34] Kalandaka Bamboo Grove (迦蘭陀竹林; S: Veṇuvana-kalandakanivāsa): a bamboo grove north of the city of Rajagriha in Magadha, Central India.

^[35] Three gates of liberation 三解脫門 (S: vimokṣa-mukhāni): three entrances to liberation. First, the liberation of emptiness: contemplating that all dharmas arise through causes and conditions, that their intrinsic nature is originally empty, and that there is neither an agent nor a recipient, one realizes nirvana. Second, the liberation of wishlessness: regarding all dharmas of birth and death, one seeks to abandon thoughts of fabrication and does not seek rebirth in a future life; thus one realizes nirvana.

Third, the liberation of signlessness: clearly knowing that the four great elements and the five skandhas are all empty and that the body composed of the faculties is a provisionally assembled appearance, one abandons attachment to the signs of person and self and realizes the quiescence of nirvana.

^[36] Three kinds of pure meat (三種淨肉): three kinds of meat that a bhikkhu may eat without violating the precepts. They are meat from an animal that one did not see being killed, did not hear crying out while being killed, and does not suspect was killed specifically to provide food for oneself.

^[37] Intention referring to another time (別時之意): the intention of teaching the Dharma with reference to another time; that is, a meaning whose benefit is realized at a different time.

^[38] Teachings of provisional meaning (不了之說): Dharma teachings that employ skillful means and guiding doctrines in accordance with the capacities of sentient beings.

^[39] Naturally wrongful offenses and prohibited offenses (罪有遮性): a naturally wrongful offense is an offense intrinsically wrong by nature; regardless of the circumstances, the act constitutes an offense when committed, without awaiting its prohibition by the precepts. Conversely, an act that becomes an offense only because it is prohibited by the precepts is called a prohibited offense.

^[40] Shitavana Forest (尸陀林; S: śītavana): a dense forest north of the city of Rajagriha in Magadha, Central India. Gloomy and cold, this forest was originally a place where local people abandoned corpses and later became a dwelling place for criminals.

^[41] Aranya 阿蘭若 (S: araṇya): a secluded place suitable for spiritual practitioners; that is, a quiet place approximately 2.5 kilometers from a village.

^[42] Thullaccaya 偷蘭遮 (S: thullaccaya): among the offenses belonging to the five divisions, all causal and resultant offenses, whether grave or minor, apart from dushkrita offenses, are collectively called thullaccaya.

^[43] Angulimala 央掘摩羅 (S: Aṅguli-mālya; Ch.: Finger Garland): a violent man who lived in the city of Shravasti and revered Manipadatra as his teacher. When his teacher’s wife falsely accused him of violating her, his teacher ordered him to kill one thousand people and cut off one finger from each to string into a garland before he would transmit the Dharma of nirvana to him. Angulimala obeyed. After killing nine hundred and ninety-nine people, he resolved to kill his own mother to complete the thousand. The Buddha knew of this and, moved by compassion, came to convert him. Angulimala then repented of his offenses and requested ordination; later, he attained arhatship.

^[44] Five pungent plants (幸遮淨德): the five pungent plants are scallions, Chinese chives, garlic, shallots, and Chinese onions (or asafoetida).

^[45] Twelve links of dependent origination (十二因緣; S: dvādaśāṅgapratītya-samutpāda): twelve interconnected conditions that serve as causes and effects for one another, bringing about the arising and cessation of sentient existence. They are ignorance, formations, consciousness, name-and-form, the six ayatanas, contact, feeling, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, and aging-and-death.

^[46] Aspiration for the Path 道意 (also: mind of the Path, bodhicitta): the mind that seeks the unsurpassed Path.

^[47] Wisdom eye 慧眼 (S: prajñā-cakṣus): the eye of wisdom realized by practitioners of the two vehicles; that is, the wisdom that thoroughly comprehends the equality and emptiness of all dharmas, clearly illuminates their true nature, and delivers sentient beings to the shore of awakening.

^[48] Saṃjīva Hell (Saṃjīva Hell 等活地獄; S: Saṃjīva): the hell of continual death and revival. Whenever the sinners in this hell encounter one another, they tear at each other with iron claws, leaving their bodies mangled until they die. When a cool wind blows over them, they are revived in an instant and then continue to undergo suffering. This is the first of the eight hot hells.

^[49] Black-Rope Hell (Kāla-sūtra Hell 黑繩地獄; S: Kāla-sūtra): a hell where iron cords mark lines upon the sinners’ bodies, along which they are then sawn apart. This is the second of the eight hot hells.

^[50] Crushing Hell (Crushing Hell 合會地獄; also called: Saṃghāta Hell): a place where the distinctive punishment is to crush the sinners’ bones and flesh into pulp. This is the third of the eight hot hells.

^[51] Wailing Hell (Raurava Hell 啼哭地獄): the fourth of the eight hot hells.

^[52] Great Wailing Hell (Mahāraurava Hell 大啼哭地獄): the fifth of the eight hot hells.

^[53] Avīci Hell (Avīci Hell 阿鼻地獄): the eighth of the eight hot hells.

^[54] Burning Hell (Tapana Hell 熱地獄): the sixth of the eight hot hells.

^[55] Great Burning Hell (Pratāpana Hell 大熱地獄): the seventh of the eight hot hells.

^[56] Utpala Hell (Utpala Hell 優鉢羅地獄; S: Utpala): one of the eight cold hells. The cold in this hell is exceedingly severe, causing the sinners’ entire bodies to turn blue like the color of the utpala flower; hence it is called Utpala Hell.

^[57] Padma Hell (Padma Hell 鉢頭摩地獄; S: Padma): one of the eight cold hells. Everything in this hell is red like the color of the padma flower.

^[58] Kumuda Hell (Kumuda Hell 拘牟陀地獄; also called: Câu-vật-đầu Hell): one of the eight cold hells. Everything in this hell is pink like the color of the Câu-vật-đầu flower.

^[59] Bân-trì Hell (Bân-trì Hell 邠持地獄; also called: Puṇḍarīka Hell): one of the eight cold hells. Everything in this hell is white like the color of the puṇḍarīka flower.

^[60] Isolated Hell (Isolated Hell 曠地獄): a hell found scattered through empty space or desolate fields, arising in accordance with the sinful karma incurred by each individual.

^[61] Kalpa Conflagration 劫燒: the period of the fire calamity, when seven suns appear in the heavens and all celestial realms from the First Dhyāna downward are consumed by the kalpa fire.

^[62] Zhèn 鴆: the name of a bird whose feathers contain an extremely potent poison.

^[63] Wind Deity (wind deity 風神): a deity in the retinue of the Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara, numbered among the twenty-eight classes of attendant beings. The image of the Wind Deity depicts him carrying a bag upon his back and appearing to release wind from it.

^[64] Yakṣa 夜叉 (S: yakṣa): a class of spirits dwelling upon the earth or in empty space, who use their power either to afflict people or to safeguard the true Dharma. They are one of the eight classes of beings.

^[65] Gandharva 乾闥婆 (also called: càn-đạp-hoà; S: gandharva): a deity who specializes in performing music at banquets in the celestial court. According to tradition, the gandharvas have a king and a vast retinue; they neither eat meat nor drink alcohol, but subsist solely on fragrances.

^[66] Chân-đà-la 甄陀羅: the seventh of the eight classes of beings.

^[67] Asura 阿修羅 (S: Asura): a class of warlike spirits in India, regarded as malevolent deities and often engaged in battle with the god Śakra.

^[68] Khúc Celestial 曲天: a flute-playing deity who dwells in the Vajra-family court outside the Womb Realm maṇḍala of Esoteric Buddhism.

^[69] Śikhin Celestial 尸棄天: the king of the Mahābrahmā Heaven in the First Dhyāna of the Form Realm. The Brahmā king is named Śikhin; he has profound faith in the true Dharma and often encounters Buddhas appearing in the world.

^[70] Jīva Celestial 耆婆天: a long-lived deity who attends on either side of the god Śakra.

^[71] Nirmāṇarati Heaven 化樂天 (S: Nirmāṇarati-deva): the fifth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[72] Vaiśravaṇa Celestial 毘沙天 (S: Vaiśravaṇa): a deity who protects the Buddha-Dharma, dwelling north of Mount Sumeru and guarding the northern quarter of Jambudvīpa.

^[73] Second Dhyāna Heaven 二禪天 (S: dvitīya-dhyāna): the second of the four levels of heaven in the Form Realm.

^[74] Third Heaven 三天 (explained as: Third Dhyāna Heaven): the third of the four levels of heaven in the Form Realm. Because beings there have left behind the joy of the second dhyāna and have given rise to subtle, serene bliss, it is called the Stage of Wondrous Bliss Apart from Joy. The consciousness of this realm is exceedingly serene and subtle; hence it is called the feeling of bliss.

^[75] Yama Heaven 炎摩天 (S: Yama): the third of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[76] Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven 他化天 (S: Para-nirmita-vaśa-vartin): the sixth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[77] Tuṣita Heaven 兜率天 (S: Tuṣita): the fourth of the six heavens of the Desire Realm.

^[78] Brahmā Heaven 梵天 (S: brahmā): the deity dwelling on the third level of the First Dhyāna in the Form Realm.

^[79] Heaven of Non-Perception 無想天 (S: Asaṃjñisattvāḥ): one of the heavens of the Form Realm, namely, the resultant maturation brought about through the cultivation of the concentration of non-perception.

^[80] Caṇḍāla 旃陀羅 (S: caṇḍāla): the lowest class in Indian society, perpetually serving as slaves to the three castes of Brahmins, Kṣatriyas, and Vaiśyas. These three higher castes possess the right to recite the Vedas and perform sacrificial rites, and it is held that after death they may be reborn in the human realm, whereas the Śūdras are neither permitted to recite scriptures or perform sacrificial rites nor able to be reborn through transmigration.

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Translation source: Linh Sơn Pháp Bảo Đại Tạng KinhLicense: Linh Sơn Pháp Bảo Đại Tạng Kinh (Việt dịch) · nguồn: rongmotamhon.net (Liên Phật Hội) · EN: AI translation from Vietnamese source, awaiting source English

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