諸經要集

Editor-in-Chief: Thích Nguyên Chơn

XIX. KARMIC CAUSES

Consisting of five sections: Introduction, Generation of Karma, Unwholesome Conduct, Meritorious Conduct, and Other Kinds of Karma.

XIX.1. Introduction

[103a] How lamentable! Sentient beings are deluded, and their karmic obstructions are profound and heavy, yet they refuse to ride in the three vehicles^[1] of the Dharma. They rise and sink in the sea of suffering, allowing fierce flames to consume them without ever growing weary.

They are like flies that delight only in foul and putrid odors, or moths that ceaselessly plunge into flames. Because they are confused about causes and mistaken about results, unable to distinguish good from evil, they delight in creating causes of suffering and produce karma in accordance with conditions. Consequently, they taste every bitterness and endure manifold hardships.

Even now they continue to be scorched, never having ceased. Out of great loving-kindness and great compassion, the Tathagata cannot bear to abandon them; therefore, he teaches sentient beings to understand suffering clearly so that they may become disenchanted with it and relinquish it, and to understand happiness clearly so that they may aspire to it.

XIX.2. Generation of Karma

Question: What is a path of karma?

Answer: The intrinsic characteristics of the seven bodily and verbal karmas are paths of karma. The three mental karmas are states associated with mind^[2]. Because those seven karmas can produce paths leading to their results, they are called paths of karma.

Question: If karma is called a path because all karma can lead to hell and so forth, why are those three mental karmas not paths of karma?

Answer: Because the three mental karmas are the foundation of the seven karmas and are associated with mind, they cannot perform actions in the same manner as the seven karmas; therefore, they are not called paths of karma.

As the Abhidharma Treatise^[3] states: “Furthermore, there are four distinct kinds of karma: black karma with black maturation; white karma with white maturation; black-and-white karma with black-and-white maturation; and karma that is neither black nor white, has no maturation, and is capable of exhausting all karma.

1. Black karma with black maturation: unwholesome karma; arising from a defiled mind, it brings about an undesirable result of maturation.

2. White karma with white maturation: wholesome karma within the three realms; arising from an undefiled mind, it brings about a desirable result of maturation.

3. Black-and-white karma with black-and-white maturation: mixed karma in the Desire Realm, namely, wholesome and unwholesome karma intermingled with one another.

4. Karma that is neither black nor white, has no maturation, and is capable of exhausting all karma: the undefiled karmas on the path of preparation^[4] and the uninterrupted path^[5]. This is because the path of preparation and the uninterrupted path are dharmas that counteract karma. ‘Not black’ means freedom from all afflictions; [103b] ‘white’ means completely pure; ‘having no maturation’ means contrary to samsara; and ‘capable of exhausting all karma’ means that, through undefiled karma, the three kinds of defiled karma and the habitual tendencies of maturation are permanently and completely eradicated.”

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts states: “If a man does not clearly understand such karmic conditions, he will wander through birth and death for many lifetimes and many kalpas. Even if he is born in the Realm of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception and lives there for eighty thousand kalpas, when his meritorious reward is exhausted, he will again fall into the three evil destinies. Therefore, the Buddha taught:

—Good man!

Of all the many painters,

None is more skillful than the mind.

The mind paints the afflictions;

The afflictions paint karma;

And karma in turn paints the body.

Furthermore, the Chapter on Karma in the Treatise on the Miscellaneous Abhidharma Heart contains this verse:

Karma constructs the world,

Its realms and its various classes;

All indeed arise from volitional karma^[6].

Those who seek liberation from the world

Create karma through body, speech, and mind

Throughout every mode of existence^[7].

That karma consists of formations^[8]

That produce the various kinds of bodies.

Bodily karma is of two kinds:

Performed and non-performed karma.

Verbal karma is likewise;

Mental karma is precisely volitional karma.

Furthermore, the Treatise on the Sutra of the Questions of Bodhisattva Maitreya states: “All the evil dharmas among these ten unwholesome karmas arise from greed, anger, and delusion.

The karma of killing arises from the three poisons. For example, some people kill living beings out of greed because they crave meat, fish, wealth, and so forth. Some, moved by anger, go so far as to kill their enemies and others. Some, moved by delusion, say that killing snakes, centipedes, and so forth reduces suffering for sentient beings, and therefore, although one kills them, there is no offense. Or, in countries such as Persia, people believe that killing aged parents and those suffering from severe illness incurs no karmic retribution.

The karma of stealing arises from the three poisons. For example, someone moved by greed may steal for himself, for another person, for food and drink, and so forth. This is called the karma of stealing arising from greed.

Someone moved by anger may steal the possessions of a person toward whom he bears resentment, or even the possessions of that person’s relatives. This is called the karma of stealing arising from anger. Stealing may arise from delusion, as when a brahmin says: ‘All the wealth upon this earth belongs to me.

Why? Because the former king of this country already granted it to me, but because I lacked sufficient strength, outsiders seized it. Therefore, when I now take and use it, I am taking what is truly mine; it is not stealing.’ This is called stealing arising from delusion.

[103c] Sexual misconduct arises from the three poisons. For example, someone moved by greed develops lustful attachment toward sentient beings and fails to practice in accordance with the Dharma, and so forth. Sexual misconduct arising from anger occurs, for example, when someone entrusted with safeguarding another’s property becomes angry and then has sexual relations with the wife or concubine of an enemy, or with someone beloved by that enemy, and so forth.

Sexual misconduct arising from delusion occurs, for example, when someone says that all women are like blooming flowers, ripe fruit, food and drink, rivers, roads, and so forth, and that therefore having sexual relations with them is not an offense; or when, according to customs in countries such as Persia, people believe that committing sexual misconduct with one’s mother and so forth is not an offense. This is called sexual misconduct arising from delusion.

It can likewise be understood how false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech arise from greed, anger, and delusion. When an action arises from a mind of greed, and rebirth-linking^[9] occurs through a mind of greed, with two successive states of mind^[10] becoming present, it is called an action arising from greed. When rebirth-linking occurs through a mind of anger, it is called an action arising from anger; when rebirth-linking occurs through a mind of delusion, it is called an action arising from delusion. The same applies to greed, anger, and wrong views.

Question: Among the paths of karma, which karmas are preliminary accompaniments, and which are subsequent accompaniments?

Answer: When one undertakes the preparatory actions for killing, as when a butcher catches a sheep and leads the animal to the slaughterhouse, if the animal does not die from the first stroke of the knife or from the next two or three strokes, those evil karmas are called preliminary accompaniments. Whichever subsequent thrust of the knife kills the animal, whether performed karma or non-performed karma^[11] arises in the thought-moment at that time, is called the fundamental path of karma.

The bodily actions performed afterward are called the subsequent karmic accompaniments of killing. The same applies through frivolous speech. It should be understood that the other karmas of greed, anger, and delusion have no preliminary accompaniments, because the fundamental path of karma is accomplished as soon as the thought arises.

Thus, all ten unwholesome karmas of body, speech, and mind have both preliminary accompaniments and subsequent accompaniments. What does this mean? Suppose a person gives rise to the intention to end the life of a certain sentient being, and then kills another sentient being as well.

Or suppose someone wishes to make an offering to a deity and therefore slaughters a sentient being, thereby taking the life of another creature. Or suppose someone wishes to kill a man in order to engage in sexual misconduct with his wife; after giving rise to such an intention, he further incites the wife to kill her husband. He also uses many violent and disorderly words to destroy that man’s family.

Coveting the man’s property, he gives rise to anger and wishes to kill him. Having conceived such wrongful actions, he then continually commits further wrongs in order to kill him and even wishes to kill his wife and children. [104a] In this way, the person successively gives rise to all ten unwholesome karmas. Such unwholesome karmas are called preliminary accompaniments.

The same applies to all ten unwholesome karmas.

Furthermore, merely abandoning unwholesome dharmas is not the preparatory means. Cultivating wholesome karma is itself the preparatory means, because one has abandoned both the fundamental act and its preparatory means. As an example of preparatory means, when a novice monk wishes to receive full ordination, he is brought to the ordination platform, bows at the feet of the quorum of Sangha members, requests a preceptor to preside over the ordination platform, receives and keeps the three robes, and undergoes the first and second proclamations.

All such acts are called preliminary accompaniments. From the third proclamation until the completion of the karma procedure, whether active karma or non-active karma arises…all are called the fundamental karmic path. Next come the teachings on the four reliances^[12], continuing through not abandoning the wholesome practices one has undertaken, together with the active or non-active karma of body and speech.

All such matters are called subsequent accompaniments.

Explanation: From the beginning up to this point, although many sutras and treatises have been cited to demonstrate the causes of karma, the relative gravity of offenses has not yet been clearly explained. Therefore, the Sutra on the Upasaka Precepts is cited and analyzed in order to explain the distinctions among karmas. Altogether, there are four categories: comparing the sentient being with the state of mind yields four cases; differences in gravity yield eight cases; distinctions among superior, middling, and inferior also yield eight cases; and according to the Sarvastivada Treatise, distinctions between acting intentionally and unintentionally likewise yield eight cases. Yet when offenses are adjudicated, all these factors are comprehensively included. Thus, the sutra states:

First, comparing the sentient being with the state of mind yields four cases:

1. The sentient being is weighty, but the mind is light: as when someone kills his father or mother without a malicious state of mind.

2. The sentient being is light, but the mind is weighty: as when someone kills an animal with a malicious state of mind.

3. The sentient being is weighty, and the mind is weighty: as when someone kills his father or mother with an extremely malicious state of mind.

4. The sentient being is light, and the mind is light: as when someone kills an animal without a malicious state of mind.

Second, such evil karma has eight further cases distinguished by relative gravity:

The preparatory means is weighty, while the fundamental act and the completion^[13] are light.

The fundamental act is weighty, while the preparatory means and the completion are light.

The completion is weighty, while the preparatory means and the fundamental act are light.

The preparatory means and the fundamental act are weighty, while the completion is light.

The preparatory means and the completion are weighty, while the fundamental act is light.

The fundamental act and the completion are weighty, while the preparatory means is light.

The preparatory means, the fundamental act, and the completion are all weighty.

The preparatory means, the fundamental act, and the completion are all light.

Even when only one kind of sentient being is involved, the force of the mind causes results of differing gravity to be experienced. As the Sutra on the Path of the Ten Wholesome Karmas states: “There are three aspects: preparatory means, fundamental act, and completion. Suppose someone diligently bows to and makes offerings to benefactors [104b] such as parents, teachers, and preceptors.

First, one gives rise to the intention to inquire after their well-being, and then speaks gentle words; this is the preparatory means. When all these acts have been completed and one’s mind remains joyful and free of regret, this is called the completion. To remain fully attentive while performing the act is called the fundamental act.” As it is with the ten wholesome karmas, so it is with the ten unwholesome karmas.

Third, these ten wholesome karmas also have three stages: an initial stage, a middle stage, and a final stage. In one case, the preparatory means is the initial stage, the fundamental act the middle stage, and the completion the final stage; in another, the preparatory means is the middle stage, the fundamental act the initial stage, and the completion the final stage; in another, the preparatory means is the final stage, the fundamental act the initial stage, and the completion the middle stage. (By rearranging them in this manner, eight cases are formed, which may be understood from the foregoing.)

Fourth, according to the Sarvastivada Treatise, the preparatory means, fundamental act, and completion may each be performed intentionally or unintentionally, yielding eight cases. The following discusses how the amount of karma produced differs throughout the three realms and six destinies.

In the first case, concerning the arising of unwholesome karma in the hells, the Abhidharma Treatise states: “There are five karmic paths: harsh speech, frivolous speech, covetousness, anger, and wrong view. Of these, when offenders undergo suffering, the three karmas of harsh speech, frivolous speech, and anger become manifest as they revile the hell wardens. When harsh speech becomes manifest, the offenders utter evil words that are untimely, contrary to proper conduct, and improper, and thus fall into frivolous speech; when rage then arises, it is the mind of anger.

These are the three unwholesome karmas that manifest in the hells. Covetousness and wrong view, however, are present in the mind but do not become manifest. Because the coarse minds of ordinary beings in those hells have not yet eliminated the afflictions, covetousness and wrong view remain present in their minds.

In the hells, males and females alike are constantly oppressed by suffering, so there is no sexual activity between them; consequently, covetous thoughts do not become manifest. Because they are constantly oppressed by suffering, their consciousness is obscured and dull, and they cannot investigate cause and effect, existence and nonexistence; therefore, thoughts of wrong view likewise do not become manifest. The other karmas—killing, stealing, false speech, and divisive speech—also do not become manifest at all in the hells.

Question: If the karmas of covetousness and wrong view do not become manifest in the hells, why are they said to be present?

Answer: If the afflictions belonging to these two mental dharmas have not been eliminated, then even though they do not become manifest, their nature is continuously present. They are unlike the seven karmas of body and speech, which belong to material form and are coarse, performed dharmas: they become established only when enacted, and where no act is performed, they are not established. Therefore, the Treatise on the Miscellaneous Mind states: “Because there is no circumstance of killing in the hells, there is no karma of killing; because property is not appropriated, there is no karma of stealing; because there is no infatuation with females, there is no karma of sexual misconduct.

Speech that differs from one’s thoughts is called false speech; because there is no such thing in the hells, there is no karma of false speech. Because beings there always wish to become disenchanted and depart, there is no divisive speech. Because they are oppressed by suffering, there is harsh speech.

Because they speak at improper times, there is frivolous speech. Covetousness and wrong view are present in the mind but do not become manifest.”

In the second and third cases, concerning the arising of unwholesome karma among hungry ghosts and animals, [104c] all ten evil karmas are present, but the seven evil disciplinary practices^[14] of body and speech are absent.

Question: Animals today do not know how to speak. Although they produce sounds, do these constitute karma of speech?

Answer: When an animal gives rise to anger and emits a sound from its mouth, although it is not speech, it still constitutes karma of speech.

Therefore, the Satyasiddhi Treatise states:

Question: Are the sounds of animals karma of speech?

Answer: Although there is no language, it still arises from the mind and is therefore also called karma. Some species possess all ten karmas; for example, dragon kings can know the thoughts of humans and thus possess all ten karmas. Ordinary animals, being foolish and dull-witted, possess only the six karmas of body and mind; they do not possess the four karmas of speech because they can neither speak nor understand language. If they are animals from the beginning of the kalpa who can understand and speak human language, they too may possess all ten unwholesome karmas.”

The fourth case concerns the arising of sinful karma among humans. Humans dwell on the four continents under heaven. Among them, the people of the three continents of Southern Jambudvipa, Eastern Pūrvavideha, and Western Aparagodānīya^[15] all give rise to many unwholesome karmas and therefore possess all ten unwholesome karmas.

Those of the eastern and western continents, however, are lighter, while those of the southern continent are extremely grave because its inhabitants undertake unwholesome disciplinary observances. In Northern Uttarakuru^[16], there are only four unwholesome karmas: frivolous speech, covetousness, anger, and wrong views. Because there is singing, frivolous speech exists there.

Covetousness, anger, and wrong views are present as latent attainments but do not become manifest.

Question: In the northern continent, sexual intercourse is practiced. Why is it said that there is no karma of sexual misconduct?

Answer: In that land, husbands and wives do not engage in intercourse with one another. Although sexual activity occurs, there is no coercion or mutual violation; therefore, there is no sexual misconduct.

Question: Since sexual activity exists, sensual desire must become manifest. Why, then, is it said to be merely present as a latent attainment and not manifest?

Answer: The sensual desire that arises in that land is not a habitual practice and can therefore be brought to an end. Although it becomes manifest, the Buddha taught that it is not an offense. Even the sexual karma produced by this covetous mind is not an offense and does not lead to painful retribution; how much less would mere covetousness arising in the mind do so? It is like husbands and wives in the world, whose mutual affection and desire are not prohibited.

Question: Since the people of the northern continent engage in singing and so forth, which is contrary to the Dharma and thus constitutes false speech, why is it said that they have no karma of false speech?

Answer: The people of that land are simple and truthful, without deceit or cunning, and do not deceive others; therefore, they have no false speech. The people of that land live for a thousand years, so they do not take life. Their food, clothing, and fine grain are produced by the earth, and precious garments flow naturally from trees. Since there is no need to store possessions, there is no theft. The people of that land are harmonious, gentle, and mild; therefore, they do not commit the karmas of divisive speech, harsh speech, and so forth.

The Treatise on the Miscellaneous Mind states: “Uttarakuru has four wholesome karmas. Because the inhabitants’ lifespans are fixed, there is no karma of killing. Because they do not covet wealth or possessions, there is no karma of stealing. Because there are no beloved women involved in promiscuous relations, there is no karma of sexual misconduct. Because they do not deceive others, there is no karma of false speech. Because they always live in harmony, there is no karma of divisive speech. Because they are gentle and compliant, there is no harsh speech. Because there is [105a] singing, there is frivolous speech. As for the karmas of mind, although they are present, they do not become manifest.”

The fifth case concerns the arising of offenses in the heavenly realms. First, concerning the six heavens of the Desire Realm,^[17] there are the karmas of killing and stealing. Although all ten unwholesome karmas exist there, the seven unwholesome disciplinary observances of body and speech do not.

Thus, the Treatise on the Miscellaneous Mind states: “The six heavens of the Desire Realm possess the ten paths of karma but are free from undisciplined conduct. Although heavenly beings do not harm their fellow devas, they kill beings of other kinds, such as asuras. If their hands or feet are severed, they immediately grow back; but if their heads are cut off, they die at once.

Thus, they take one another’s lives in turn, and all ten paths of karma are fully present. There are also devas of meager merit who lack goods, wealth, and possessions, and therefore secretly take one another’s property; hence, the karma of stealing exists. Some devas betray their own wives and engage in sexual intercourse with other beautiful celestial maidens; hence, the karma of sexual misconduct exists.” The presence of the other seven karmas may be understood accordingly.

Distinguishing them on the basis of the ten wholesome karmas, the Abhidharma Treatise states: “Beings in the hells possess only the three wholesome karmas of mind, but these are merely present in the mind as latent attainments and do not become manifest. It is the same in the northern continent. Everywhere else, all ten are fully present.” This may be understood from the text.

If the Form Realm and Formless Realm are discussed, according to the Abhidharma, all their karmas are wholesome. Examined according to principle, however, there are also three subtle unwholesome karmas—mental karmas such as wrong conceit and so forth. Regarding faults in bodily and verbal karma, in the First Dhyāna, King Baka Brahmā said to the Brahmā assembly:

– You may remain here. I can free you from old age and death; you need not go to Gautama!”

The bhikshu Black-Tooth asked:

– Upon which samādhi does the samādhi of the First Dhyāna Realm depend for its arising, and from which samādhi does it cease?

The Brahmā king replied:

– I am the most honored one in the Brahmā assembly.

The bhikshu Black-Tooth said:

– I did not ask whether the Brahmā king was honored or lowly. I asked only from which samādhi the samādhi of the First Dhyāna arises and from which samādhi it ceases.

Unable to answer, that Brahmā king expelled the Venerable Black-Tooth from the assembly and then said to him:

– I do not know from which samādhi the samādhi of the First Dhyāna Realm arises or from which samādhi it ceases. How could you humiliate me before the Brahmā assembly in this way?

The Brahmā king’s words were deceitful, unwholesome, and afflicted. By saying that the Buddha was incapable of helping people attain liberation, he engaged in frivolous and harsh speech that slandered the Buddha. In these two realms, only such deceitful speech exists, subtly setting bodily and verbal actions of unwholesome karma in motion; however, coarse actions that harm others do not arise.

Those born in these two realms previously attained meditative concentration and abandoned the minds of covetousness, anger, and so forth belonging to the Desire Realm; hence, they receive the retribution of birth in those realms. Moreover, they constantly cultivate meditative concentration. Thus, although they possess afflictions, these consist only of deluded states of mind.

Because they have not awakened to the Way, craving, conceit, and so forth arise; they delight in cultivating wholesome dharmas and hope to surpass others. [105b] These afflictions are subdued by meditative concentration, so they neither damage things nor harm one another. According to the Abhidharma, the afflictions of these two realms are not unwholesome but karmically indeterminate. This subtle covetous mind can defile a pure mind; although karmically indeterminate, it is defiled.

It is unlike resultant arising,^[18] in which dharmas of form and mind, pain and pleasure, and deportment are all pure and karmically indeterminate. The treatise calls it defiled karmic indeterminacy, for through this defilement, karma is moistened and gives rise to rebirth.^[19] If these afflictions did not moisten karma, the seeds of karma would be destroyed and would no longer be capable of producing retribution. Beings in the two higher realms are not free from rebirth; it is precisely because karma is moistened that they are reborn.

Question: Since the afflictions of the two higher realms have the power to moisten karma, sustain rebirth, and bring about the experience of retribution, why are they considered karmically indeterminate?

Answer: Although the afflictions of the two higher realms moisten karma, they pertain only to the general retribution^[20] of a shared mode of rebirth. These delusions are not the principal causes that bring about pleasant results or painful results. Therefore, they are karmically indeterminate, unlike the unwholesome afflictions of the lower realms, which bring about painful results as both general and particular retribution.

According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, wrong views arising in the two higher realms are all called unwholesome. As the treatise states: “Sentient beings in the Form Realm and the Formless Realm take these realms to be nirvana. At the approach of death, upon seeing an intermediate-state body in the Desire Realm or the Form Realm, they immediately give rise to the wrong view that there is no nirvana and then malign the unsurpassed Dharma.” Therefore, one should know that unwholesome karma exists there.

Furthermore, the treatise states: “Wrong views in the two higher realms are causes and conditions of suffering.” In principle, the two higher realms should be judged according to their respective levels. The minds of sentient beings there are subtle, and the afflictions they arouse are minute; for the most part, these do not constitute karma and are therefore called indeterminate. In a general discussion, however, coarse wrong views may also arise in the intermediate existence^[21] and constitute unwholesome karma.

This accords with the meaning previously stated in the Abhidharma Treatise and is also consistent with the meaning that the Satyasiddhi Treatise will explain below.

Furthermore, in terms of principle, all those subtle afflictions run contrary to reason and are therefore unwholesome. According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, evil and unwholesome karma arises alike throughout the three realms, differing only in whether it is more or less, increasing or decreasing.

Explanation: Up to this point, the offenses and hindrances arising from body and speech have been presented only from the standpoint of ordinary beings. If discussed from the standpoint of noble ones, stream-enterers, for example, may still, upon emerging from meditative concentration and losing right mindfulness, give rise to subtle unwholesome intentions, produce various evil aspirations, and possess the afflictions of the Desire Realm.

Although their greed and anger may be strong and somewhat resemble those of ordinary beings, and although they may directly give rise to greed, desire, anger, and conceit, they do not deliberate or calculate so as to produce wrong views, nor do they give rise to intentions of killing, stealing, and so forth. According to the Abhidharma Treatise, if they strike members of their retinue, these are merely subtle unwholesome acts.

According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, however, even if they have an unwholesome thought that moves body and speech, it does not constitute karmic retribution, just as a drop of water falling upon a hot drying furnace, though it wets it, immediately dries up.

XIX.3. Sinful Conduct

[105c] Explanation: This section speaks of noble ones. In relation to the meritorious conduct discussed below, it speaks here of sinful conduct. The sinful conduct here consists precisely in falsely perceiving defiled objects, clinging to a self and a person, becoming attached to favorable and adverse objects, and discriminating between self and others; all of these become evil karma. Therefore, the scripture states:

Craving neither arises nor ceases,

Nor does it cause the mind affliction.

If a person clings to an “I”

And a person clings to “attainment,”

That person will be dragged by craving

Down into hell.

Therefore, there are no objects outside the mind; yet through delusion, one falsely perceives them as existing and then gives rise to an attached and defiled mind. It is like a person who, upon seeing objects in a dream, gives rise to thoughts of greed and anger because the dreamer takes those objects to be real. In truth, there are no objects at all; they are merely falsely perceived by the mind.

Thus, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “It is like a person in a dream who feels pleasure though there is nothing pleasurable, gives rise to anger though there is nothing provoking anger, and feels fear though there is nothing frightening. Sentient beings in the three realms are likewise. Because they are obscured by ignorance, they become angry at what is not worthy of anger.” One should therefore know that there are no objects outside the mind; yet because of delusion, one falsely perceives them and then gives rise to attachment and defilement.

Although outside the mind there are no characteristics of hell and so forth, when evil karma matures, one falsely perceives oneself as undergoing suffering.

As the Scripture on the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “The wardens in Yamaloka are not sentient beings, but those undergoing punishment perceive them as sentient beings holding red-hot iron pincers in their hands. When the evil karma of beings in hell is exhausted and their bodies disintegrate and their lives end, they no longer perceive the wardens within that hell. Why?

Because those wardens are not sentient beings. Just as a lamp ceases to burn when its oil is exhausted, so it is when karma is exhausted; therefore, they no longer perceive the wardens of Yama. Just as darkness vanishes when the light of the sun appears in Jambudvipa, so too, when evil karma is no more, the wardens of Yama likewise vanish.

Their fierce eyes and vicious mouths, resembling the terrifying physical features of sentient beings, gradually disappear. Just as the painted images disappear when a mural is destroyed, so too, when the mural of evil karma is destroyed, the terrifying appearances of the wardens of Yama are no longer perceived.”

This passage from the scripture demonstrates that when sentient beings create evil karma and thereby incur painful results, they naturally and falsely perceive the objects of hell within empty space.

Question: The hells and such objects as the wardens, tigers, wolves, and so forth perceived there may be regarded as false perceptions. But within those hells, King Yama truly sits in judgment over offenders. Why, then, is it said that he does not exist?

Answer: Their perception of a lord of hell is also a false perception. It is precisely because the evil karma of offenders has perfumed their minds that their minds are transformed, causing them falsely to perceive something within empty space. In truth, there is no Yama in hell. Therefore, the Treatise on Consciousness-Only states: “Just as in hell there is no lord of hell, yet sentient beings in hell, solely through the natural operation of their karma, perceive a lord of hell and various sufferings. Arising from the mind, they perceive: this is hell, this is night, this is day. [106a] Or, because of evil karma, they perceive dogs and birds, or mountains, hills, rivers, and lakes.”

This passage demonstrates that wholesome and evil karma perfume the mind, causing it to manifest different objects, while in truth no hell exists at all. Thus, although there is no hell outside the mind, when evil karma matures, one naturally and falsely perceives it.

Question: This painful karmic retribution is not wholesome. Are you not teaching wholesome deeds so that sentient beings may cultivate them? Why is it necessary to assess the mind and explain the karma of suffering?

Answer: The causes and effects of good and evil are mutually opposed dharmas. If greed and so forth were not described as evil, by what could generosity and so forth be revealed as wholesome? If the three evil destinies were not taught to be realms of suffering, by what could the realms of devas and humans be revealed as states of happiness?

Therefore, it is necessary to explain the sinful conduct of ordinary beings so that practitioners may clearly understand it, abandon evil, and return to goodness. When those of dull faculties hear of this karma of suffering, they immediately give rise to a mind of renunciation and seek worldly happiness; they then devote themselves to cultivating various meritorious deeds. When those of sharp faculties hear of this karma of suffering, they immediately give rise to a mind of renunciation and seek liberation; they then devote themselves to contemplative cultivation and, amid the very afflictions, give rise to the causes of transcendence.

Therefore, the scripture says: “All afflictions are seeds of Buddhahood!” One should know that the karma of suffering is precisely the foundation of renunciation and the cause and condition for giving rise to a wholesome mind; therefore, it must be clearly explained. If this sinful conduct and evil karma were not clearly explained, sentient beings would not recognize them but would continue creating them endlessly without cutting them off.

Although various evil karmas are discussed by assessing the mind, in truth there is no karma of suffering apart from the mind: there is only consciousness and no external object, while the essence of mind is ever pure. Therefore, the scripture states: “Although the faults of craving are explained, in truth no dharma is seen that is worthy of craving; although the faults of anger are explained, in truth no dharma is seen that is worthy of anger; although the faults of delusion are explained, it is known that all dharmas are free from delusion and obstruction; although the fearful suffering of falling into the three evil destinies is described, in truth there are no characteristics of hell beings, hungry ghosts, or animals.”

This passage demonstrates that the causes and effects of sinful conduct are not apart from the mind. The ignorant do not understand this; therefore, expedient means are established by assessing the mind, and the suffering of karma must be clearly explained through the two approaches above. According to the teaching of ultimate truth, the essence of sin is originally true reality, with nothing that can be destroyed. Yet because the ignorant do not understand, sin must still be clearly explained. This teaching is presented solely for the ignorant, who, deluded about the true, give rise to the false; therefore, sinful conduct must necessarily be clearly explained.

XIX.4. Meritorious Conduct

Explanation: This discusses meritorious conduct in contrast to the sinful conduct described above.

First, we discuss ordinary beings cultivating goodness in the Desire Realm. When people, with distracted minds, cultivate various meritorious deeds and are born in the lower realm, these are called karmic deeds of the Desire Realm. Such karma arises in all five destinies.

1. The Hell Realm

According to the Abhidharma, beings in hell also possess the three kinds of wholesome karma, namely [106b] the mind’s three wholesome roots. These three wholesome roots are merely present as attainments within the mind and do not become manifest, because beings in this perilous state^[22] generally have no opportunity to hear the Dharma or contemplate and turn toward the path; therefore, they do not become manifest. Nevertheless, if the arising of wholesome roots is considered, they are also present in hell.

For example, King Xianyu killed five hundred brahmins and fell into hell, but through giving rise to a mind of faith, he was born in the Land of Amrita. Thus, it is known that wholesome roots can still become manifest. The Satyasiddhi Treatise likewise holds that wholesome roots become manifest in hell.

Although beings there lack the power of expedient cultivation of goodness by which to attain the noble path, they may nevertheless give rise to wholesome minds through their innate wholesome roots. That is, since beginningless time, beings in the world have cultivated such qualities as faith, diligence, and mindfulness. So long as they have not given rise to wrong views denying and maligning cause and effect, these wholesome qualities do not perish.

Therefore, they possess them as soon as they are born; these are called innate wholesome qualities. Relying upon these wholesome roots, they then give rise to wholesome minds. If past karma brings about powerful conditions and they encounter a manifestation of the Buddha, he may transform them so that their suffering ceases, teach them the Dharma, and enable them to acquire methods of expedient cultivation.

Beings in the animal realm, such as dragons, can also cultivate goodness. As recorded in the Nirvana Sutra: “When the Buddha taught the Dharma, immeasurable numbers of birds and beasts gave rise to the aspiration for bodhi and were born in the heavenly realm.” According to the Abhidharma: “The ten wholesome deeds of hungry ghosts and animals belong to non-restraint^[23], because all classes of sentient beings can give rise to the seven wholesome restraints of body and speech, but ghosts and spirits alone cannot give rise to them.” Therefore, the Sarvastivada Treatise holds that animals, being ignorant and dull, cannot give rise to restraint. According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, however, ghosts, spirits, animals, and so forth are all capable of receiving the precepts.

1. Regarding the human realm, the three kinds of wholesome karma among the people of Uttarakuru are merely present as attainments within the mind and do not become manifest or cease. When the renewed kalpa^[24] arrives, everyone practices meditative concentration. The people of this continent alone never completely abandon desire, whereas the people of the other three continents all possess the ten wholesome karmic deeds, though some do not possess them in full.

The six heavens of the Desire Realm entirely lack the pratimoksha precepts^[25] of monastics; they possess only the ten wholesome deeds and the precepts of householders. Therefore, the Satyasiddhi Treatise records: “Heavenly beings such as Sakra, as well as dragons and others, also undertake the eight fasting precepts; these are not restricted to the human realm alone.” Concerning the heavens of the Form Realm, the Abhidharma Treatise states: “When beings are born in a higher heaven, they lose the wholesome karma of the lower heaven.” This means that in a higher heaven they do not give rise to the wholesome karma of a lower heaven, because the causal fruition pertaining to that heaven has ceased.

Once the body is born in a higher heaven, the dharmas of the lower heaven no longer remain. This refers to cultivating the contaminated karma of a lower heaven in order to be born in a higher heaven. Once born in that higher heaven, beings lose all the wholesome karma of the lower heaven and can no longer cultivate or give rise to it.

According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, however, attainment in a higher heaven is accomplished through the lower realm and thus also depends upon wholesome karma of the lower realm. For example, when Brahma gods see the Buddha, they bow their heads in homage and utter words of praise; this is dispersed goodness^[26]. Through this dispersed goodness, they give rise to wholesome karma of the Desire Realm.

According to the Abhidharma and Vibhāṣā treatises, when Brahma gods bow to and praise the Buddha, this is not goodness of the Desire Realm. It arises from the mind associated with the deportment of the First Dhyana. With respect to its basis, it is indeterminate rather than wholesome, while the bodily and verbal acts themselves are karma of the Form Realm. [106c] This explains the scattered, wholesome, meritorious karma of the Desire Realm that arises in dependence upon the body.

2. Explanation of how the karma of the four dhyanas^[27] of the Form Realm arises in dependence upon a basis: When ghosts or animals encounter the Buddha, through powerful conditions they may also awaken to the path and acquire wholesome karma arising from cultivation. Because this uncontaminated karma arises in dependence upon meditative concentration, even though they do not possess the essential substance of profound fundamental concentration, they must at least possess the shallow future concentration.

This future concentration is karma of the Form Realm. When, relying upon this future concentration, they eliminate the afflictions of the Desire Realm, this karma brings about the fruition of the First Dhyana among the Brahma gods. With respect to humans and heavenly beings, they cultivate karma of the Form Realm.

Except for the people of Uttarakuru, who do not practice dhyana, the people of the other three continents, as well as the gods of the Desire Realm, all possess the ten wholesome deeds of the Form Realm that arise from cultivation. Those who attain the First Dhyana possess three qualities in their minds: non-greed, non-hatred, and right view. As for the seven wholesome bodily and verbal karmic deeds, meditative restraint arises in dependence upon the concentrated mind.

This meditative restraint is precisely the seven wholesome bodily and verbal karmic deeds. Therefore, upon attaining dhyana, one still possesses the ten wholesome karmic deeds of the Form Realm. Regarding the Formless Realm, according to the Abhidharma, the gods of the Formless Realm do not possess the karma of meditative concentration of the Form Realm arising from cultivation, because upon birth in the higher realm, goodness belonging to the lower realm ceases.

According to the Satyasiddhi Treatise, however, beings born in the Formless Realm still possess karma of the Form Realm. This explains the meritorious karma of meditative concentration and the ten wholesome deeds of the gods of the Form Realm that arise in dependence upon the body.

Regarding the karma of the four formless concentrations of the Formless Realm that arises in dependence upon the body, heavenly beings and humans throughout the three realms possess it through cultivation. The foregoing explains the various meritorious forms of conduct that arise in dependence upon the body. The meritorious karma generated by noble ones does not concern ordinary beings and is therefore not discussed here.

XIX.5. Other Karma

Commentary: The Buddhas did not assign fixed names to these forms of karmic conduct. Some sutras call sinful conduct black-and-black karma, while others call it unwholesome karma. Some sutras call the meritorious conduct of ordinary beings black-and-white karma, while others call it wholesome karma. Although the names are many, the essence of the conduct does not differ.

What is the nature of action? As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Killing and so forth are unwholesome karma; giving and so forth are wholesome karma. These are the two kinds of action: demeritorious and meritorious.” “Killing and so forth” includes all ten evil deeds, all of which are called demeritorious actions.

“Giving and so forth” includes all precepts, meditative concentrations, and so forth, which are worldly wholesome karma and are all called meritorious actions. Among worldly wholesome karma, the eight meditative concentrations^[28], when discussed in relation to the dispersed wholesome practices of the Desire Realm, are actions of imperturbability^[29]. When considered in relation to the supramundane wisdom that contemplates principle, however, these meditative concentrations are established in dependence upon phenomena and are therefore called meritorious actions. [107a] The meditative concentration among the six perfections is likewise called merit.

Yet the demeritorious and meritorious actions of each person differ. Some exclusively cultivate merit, some exclusively commit demeritorious deeds, and others create both demerit and merit. Those who exclusively cultivate merit possess pure minds and perform deeds that benefit others, such as giving and observing the precepts.

Those who exclusively create demerit do not give rise to loving-kindness; whenever they speak, act, or think, they harm others. Those who create both merit and demerit are people whose minds are impure while cultivating merit and who sometimes even cause harm to living beings. This is precisely the mixed karma of the Desire Realm; it is not wholly pure and is also called impure.

With respect to demeritorious actions, their coarse outward manifestations can be clearly recognized. With respect to actions in which demerit and merit are intermingled, compared with pure actions their merit is partly similar and partly different, being somewhat concealed and difficult to discern. That is, when people cultivate merit, their outward appearance shows the same confidence, delight, and conduct in relation to what they do; yet when their inner intentions are examined, their aspirations for themselves or for others differ in each case, and their subtlety or coarseness is not the same.

Since the outward acts of cultivating merit are alike while the inner intentions differ, there are thus pure and mixed kinds of karma. If one can discipline the mind with loving-kindness and compassion, take pity on sentient beings, and practice giving in accordance with their needs, one accomplishes great wholesome karma. If one does not restrain the mind but cultivates merit by attending merely to appearances, then inwardly one is coarse though outwardly one appears refined.

One creates only mixed karma, which is suited to the ignorant. Although it far surpasses worldly principles, it runs contrary to the path and is not pure merit. Because one cultivates merit without contemplating the principle of the emptiness of persons^[30], the inverted attachment to self^[31] constantly operates throughout the three moral natures^[32].

All the karma one creates corresponds with this inversion. This is the deluded attachment to inherent nature and therefore obscures the path. Because one lacks wholehearted sincerity and seeks chiefly worldly rewards and fame, this is not pure merit.

Since most people do not clearly understand the intermingling of pure and mixed forms of conventional karma, it is briefly discussed here so that everyone may understand and practice accordingly.

Mixed karma will be presented first, followed by pure meritorious karma. Mixed karma may be coarse or subtle. The coarse kind is both evil and harmful to others.

The subtle kind merely seeks worldly meritorious rewards. First, concerning coarse mixed karma: someone may use unlawfully obtained wealth to practice giving, such as property stolen from another. The karmic result of this deed is that, in a later life, the person’s possessions will constantly diminish.

The same result befalls one who regrets having given. Therefore, the Upasaka Sutra states: “If a person regrets giving after having made a gift, or plunders another’s property in order to give it away, then although that person may obtain wealth in a later life, it will constantly diminish and be dispersed. Or one may give while also harming others—that is, while giving, one does not keep wholesome thoughts in mind but instead gives rise to anger or arrogance.

Such a person will fall into an evil destiny. Although obtaining a meritorious reward, that person will take birth only among animals and will not obtain the reward of birth among gods or humans.” Therefore, the Sutra on the Analysis of Karmic Retribution contains this verse:

Though one practices great giving,

Being hot-tempered and full of anger,

And not relying upon right mindfulness,

In a later life one assumes a dragon’s body.

Though one has practiced giving,

Being haughty and insulting others,

[107b] Through the recompense brought by this karma,

One is born as a golden-winged bird^[33].

One may cultivate merit while seeking worldly rewards—for example, when relinquishing wealth, one may hope for favorable rewards in a future life; one may give because one fears the impermanence of life and possessions; or one may practice giving in hopes of becoming renowned and securing benefits for oneself. Such giving does not arise from compassion that seeks to aid the poor and afflicted; it is merely like commerce in a marketplace.

It is therefore not wholly pure karma and is called impure giving in the sutras. As the Hundred Treatise^[34] states: “When a person practices giving in hopes of obtaining a reward, that giving is impure, like commerce.” The rewards of such giving are of two kinds: present-life retribution, such as gaining fame in this life and being respected and loved by others; and subsequent retribution, such as obtaining wealth in a future life.

All such giving is called impure giving. It is like a merchant traveling to a distant land: although he carries many different goods and provides many benefits, he does so not out of compassion for sentient beings but solely in pursuit of his own profit. This is impure karma.

Giving in hopes of obtaining a reward is likewise. From this evidence, it is clear that whenever giving is practiced without compassion, solely in pursuit of fame or future rewards, even if the gifts are vast, the act is not pure karma. Since the karma is impure, its reward is likewise impure.

Therefore, the Sutra on the Analysis of Karmic Retribution states: “If a person practices giving because he wishes to be born in a heavenly realm, seeks fame, wishes to repay a kindness, hopes to receive recompense, or acts out of fear, the resulting reward is impure and entails many adverse circumstances. Since this is true of giving, wholesome practices such as observing the precepts are likewise impure when performed in the same manner.”

Thus, the Hundred Treatise states: “To observe the precepts with an impure mind means observing them in hopes of obtaining the rewards of sensual pleasure. For example, one may observe the precepts in hopes of being born in a heavenly realm and enjoying pleasure with celestial maidens, or in hopes of gaining wealth and high status in the human realm so as to enjoy the five sensual pleasures. Motivated by lust, such a person resembles one who is deceitful: inwardly coveting another’s beauty while outwardly displaying a friendly demeanor. This is called impurity. This is precisely how followers of non-Buddhist paths observe the precepts with subtly impure minds.”

As in the verse spoken by Venerable Ananda to Nanda:

Like two rams butting each other,

Charging forward, then being driven back,

One who keeps the precepts for desire

Acts in just this way!

A person who opens the heart expansively solely for the benefit of others gains very great merit. Furthermore, when one gives to the poor, the sick, or those who understand the Dharma but lack the conditions needed for practice, thereby bringing them great benefit, the giver will obtain abundant merit.

Therefore, the Sutra of the Wise and the Foolish states: “The Buddha praised five kinds of giving that yield immeasurable merit: giving to those who have come from afar, giving to those about to travel far away, giving to the sick, giving to the hungry and thirsty, and giving to those who understand the Dharma. One who gives to these five kinds of recipients obtains abundant meritorious rewards in the present life.” This manner of giving accords with the Dharma and is unlike giving in pursuit of fame. If one gives to unsuitable recipients, then although one relinquishes great wealth, one does not obtain a pure reward.

Furthermore, when a person sees another giving alms and rejoices accordingly, compared with one who commits grave unwholesome deeds, that person may also be called good; but compared with one who is free from desire and always acts for the benefit of others, this karma is itself an offense. Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: [107c] “One whose conduct is coarse commits coarse offenses; one whose conduct is subtle commits subtle offenses. Thus, this mixed karma comprises both sinful and meritorious conduct. A mind that seeks with impure motives constitutes impure karma.”

The foregoing has presented conduct in which sin and merit are intermingled, namely, mixed impure karma in the Desire Realm.

As for pure karma, it is the opposite of what was described above. Therefore, the Hundred Treatise states: “One who gives alms with purity is honored and cherished by everyone and also gains abundant merit.”

The Sutra on Cause and Effect contains this verse:

If there is a person who is poor,

Possessing nothing to give,

Yet, upon seeing another give,

Brings forth a mind of sympathetic joy,

The meritorious reward of that rejoicing

Equals that of the giver.

Furthermore, the Treatise on the Great Man contains this verse:

With a heart of genuine compassion,

Giving alms to a single person

Brings immeasurable merit.

If seeking only one’s own benefit,

Though one gives to many people,

The merit is but a mustard seed.

Saving one person in distress

Surpasses giving to many people;

How could the light of many stars

Equal that of a single moon!

When ordinary beings create sinful and meritorious karma without understanding cause and effect, and regard good and evil as having intrinsic nature, this is precisely delusion regarding phenomena and attachment to inherent nature, whereby they remain bound within the three realms. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Just as flies alight everywhere except upon a blazing fire, so too do sentient beings cling to these wholesome and unwholesome dharmas, even as far as the Realm of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception, except for the blazing fire of the emptiness of intrinsic nature in prajnaparamita.” This passage demonstrates that if good and evil had permanent intrinsic natures, beings would continually revolve through the five destinies,

and consequently there would be neither Buddha-nature nor sentient beings.

This concludes the brief citation of sutras and treatises demonstrating the two kinds of conduct—sinful and meritorious—performed by ordinary beings through delusion regarding phenomena and attachment to inherent nature.

Furthermore, the Sutra of Miscellaneous Treasures states: “When the Buddha was in the world, King Prasenajit had a daughter named Good Radiance, who was intelligent and graceful. The king and queen loved her dearly, and all the consorts in the palace respected and cherished her. Her royal father said to Good Radiance:

– It is through my power and prestige that everyone in the palace respects and cherishes you.

Good Radiance replied:

– I have my own karma; why should I need to rely upon my royal father?

When her royal father heard Good Radiance say this, he became angry and said:

– Now I shall test how capable you are of sustaining yourself!

The king then ordered a close minister to find an extremely lowly and impoverished beggar and gave Good Radiance in marriage to that poor man.

The king said:

– You have your own karma and need not rely upon me. From this day onward, it can be put to the test!

– I have my own karma!

Good Radiance still answered in this way, and then departed hand in hand with the poor man. Good Radiance asked her husband:

– Do you have parents?

Her husband replied:

– My parents were formerly the foremost wealthy householders in this city of Sravasti.[108a] Now they have both passed away, and I have no one upon whom to rely; therefore, I have had to beg for food.

Good Radiance asked:

– Do you still remember your former home?

Her husband replied:

– I do! But the house has fallen into ruin, and only an empty plot remains!

Having said this, the husband led his wife back to his former home. As Good Radiance walked around it, wherever she passed, treasure vaults^[35] spontaneously appeared. Good Radiance then used those jewels to build houses. In less than a month, a residence like a royal palace was completed, with innumerable female entertainers, male and female servants, and attendants.

One day, the king suddenly remembered his daughter and thought: “I wonder what my daughter’s life is like now?”

At that time, someone reported:

– Today Princess Good Radiance possesses palaces and wealth no less splendid than Your Majesty’s!

One day, the princess asked her husband to invite her royal father. The king accepted the invitation and went to visit his daughter. When he saw how magnificently adorned her houses and palaces were, he rejoiced as never before. The king then went to ask the Buddha about this matter:

– Blessed One! What meritorious karma did this daughter create in a former life, such that in this life she was born into a royal lineage and her body radiates light?

The Buddha taught:

– In the distant past, ninety-one kalpas ago, after the Buddha Vipasyin entered nirvana, King Bandhu venerated the Buddha’s relics in a stupa made of the seven precious substances. Seeing this, the king’s consort placed a celestial crown upon the head of the image and hung the wish-fulfilling jewel from that crown above the entrance to the stupa. She then made this vow: “May I, in future lives, possess a body that radiates the color of pure gold, be born into a wealthy and noble household, and never fall into the three evil destinies or the eight difficult circumstances.” That consort of long ago is Good Radiance today.

Later, in the time of Buddha Kasyapa, the wife used delicious food to make offerings to the Buddha and the Sangha, but her husband tried to prevent her. The wife then pleaded:

– I have already extended the invitation, and all the arrangements have been made!

The husband consented.

The wife at that time is Good Radiance today. The husband then is Good Radiance’s present husband. Because he formerly obstructed his wife from making offerings, he was habitually poor; because he consented to his wife’s offering, that became the principal cause enabling him to become the husband of the wealthy and noble Good Radiance. Whenever he was no longer her husband, he again became poor. For this reason, wholesome and unwholesome karma follows the person, bringing corresponding karmic results, and never fails or deviates.

Furthermore, the Sutra of Miscellaneous Treasures states: “When the Buddha was still in the world, King Prasenajit, while asleep, heard two attendant officials debating a principle. One said:

– I depend upon the king for my livelihood.

The other said:

– I have always lived according to my own karma and do not depend upon the king.

When the king heard the man say that he depended upon the king for his livelihood, he wished to reward him. He immediately sent an attendant to inform the queen:

– I shall now send someone to you; bestow wealth upon him as a reward!

The king then ordered the man who had said, “I depend upon the king for my livelihood,” to carry wine and present it to the queen. Just as this man went out through the gate, his nose began bleeding so heavily that he could not continue. He therefore asked the man who had said, “I live according to my karma,” to go in his place. When the queen met this man, [108b]she bestowed upon him abundant wealth, clothing, and necklaces. When he returned to the king, the king was astonished and summoned the man who had said, “I depend upon the king for my livelihood,” and asked:

– I ordered you to go; why did you not go?

The man then reported the entire matter to the king. After hearing it, the king rejoiced greatly and said:

– The words of the Buddha are indeed true! One creates one’s own karma and receives its results oneself; no one can take another’s place.

Therefore, one should clearly understand that wholesome and unwholesome retribution is brought about by karma, not bestowed by heaven or granted by a king. One personally performs the deeds and personally experiences their results. Give rise to right view and understand that karmic results arise from karma: in the near term, one attains the rewards of birth among humans and devas; ultimately, one attains the fruit of Buddhahood. If one opposes the sacred teachings, one undergoes all the sufferings described above.

Examining their causes, the paths differ;

When relinquished, the realms are the same.

When suffering ends, happiness at once arises;

When happiness ends, suffering is born again.

Do sin and merit truly differ?

Both arise from the mind’s attachment.

If one severs outflow-tainted karma,

One constantly beholds the Dharmakaya clearly!

Notes:

^[1] Three vehicles (tam xa 三車): The Parable chapter of the Lotus Sutra speaks of three vehicles. The goat cart symbolizes the śrāvakas, who cultivate the Four Noble Truths and seek to escape the three realms, but wish only to liberate themselves without thinking of others; the deer cart symbolizes the pratyekabuddhas, who contemplate the twelve links of dependent origination in order to escape the three realms and possess an altruistic mind; the ox cart symbolizes the bodhisattvas, who cultivate the six pāramitās and perfectly fulfill both self-benefit and the benefit of others.

^[2] Concomitant mind 相應心: the deluded mind associated with afflictions and confusion.

^[3] Abhidharma Treatise (Đối pháp luận 對法論): namely, the Abhidharmakośa, composed by Vasubandhu, which encompasses the profound meanings of the Six Pāda Treatises, the Jñānaprasthāna Treatise, and others.

^[4] Path of preparation 方便道: one of the four stages in the process of eliminating afflictions and realizing truth.

^[5] Uninterrupted path 無間道: the practice that begins to eliminate the afflictions that must be eliminated, without being obstructed by those afflictions, and thereby proceeds without interruption to the path of liberation.

^[6] Karma of volition 思業: deliberating beforehand upon what must be done and forming the intention to do something.

^[7] All forms of existence (chư hữu 諸有): all karma created by sentient beings, whereby fruit arises from cause. These causes, conditions, and karmic results truly exist and are not false; hence they are called “existence.” Existence may be classified in various ways: the three forms of existence, four forms of existence, seven forms of existence, nine forms of existence, and twenty-five forms of existence, collectively called all forms of existence.

^[8] All conditioned formations (chư hành 諸行): all conditioned dharmas. “Formation” denotes a dharma produced through the conjunction of causes and conditions.

^[9] Rebirth-linking 結生 (S: pratisaṃdhi): the intermediate-existence body taking birth in the mother’s womb.

^[10] Two minds (nhị tâm 二心): the true mind and the deluded mind.

^[11] Produced karma and unproduced karma 作業,無作業: dharmas produced through activity and dharmas not produced through activity.

^[12] Four reliances 四依 (S: catvāri pratisaraṇāni): four practices upon which practitioners must rely in order to enter the path, serving as supports for those of superior faculties and keen capacity: first, wearing rag robes, also called patched robes, made by gathering five kinds of garments discarded in the fields as filthy rags used for wiping away excrement, then sewing them together and wearing them; second, always going on almsround to sustain one’s life; third, dwelling beneath trees or in caves to practice; fourth, when medicine is needed, using putrid medicine, or medicines prepared from substances excreted by animals, or burying cow urine and rhubarb fruit in the earth, waiting for them to ferment, and then drinking the preparation.

If a bhikṣu practices these four dharmas, he lives freely and in liberation.

^[13] Preparation, fundamental act, and completion 方便根本成已: the process of creating karma is divided into three stages: preparatory action, the fundamental act, and subsequent action.

^[14] Immoral discipline 惡律儀: unwholesome unmanifest form arising when, out of greed for profit or as a means of livelihood, one engages in killing and other such karma. The Sutra of the Buddha’s Requital of Kindness through Great Skillful Means sets forth twelve kinds of immoral discipline: working as a butcher; being the leader of killers; raising pigs; raising chickens; fishing; hunting; setting nets to catch birds; catching snakes; casting spells upon dragons; serving as a prison warden; being a bandit; and serving as a royal agent sent to apprehend criminals.

^[15] Southern Jambudvīpa, Eastern Pūrvavideha, and Western Aparagodānīya 南閻東弗西耶: three of the four great continents. According to the worldview of ancient India, the four great continents lie on the four sides of Mount Sumeru, within the salt ocean between the seven ranges of golden mountains and the great Iron Encircling Mountain.

^[16] Northern Uttarakuru 北單 (also called: the continent of Northern Kuru; translated meaning: Superior Region): this continent lies in the salt ocean north of Mount Sumeru. It is square, each side measuring two thousand yojanas, and resembles the lid of a box. It is surrounded by the Seven Golden Mountains and the Great Iron Encircling Mountain.

Its ground is made of pure gold and shines brilliantly day and night. The land possesses four qualities: it is level, tranquil, pure, and pleasant. The people of this continent have square faces resembling the shape of the land they inhabit; all have the same complexion and stand one zhang and four chi tall (4.8 meters).

They live in equality and happiness, free from all constraint… and enjoy a full lifespan of one thousand years. After death, they are reborn in the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven or the Heaven of Controlling Others’ Emanations.

^[17] Six heavens of the Desire Realm (Lục Dục thiên 六欲天): the Heaven of the Four Great Kings; the Heaven of the Thirty-Three; the Yāma Heaven; the Tuṣita Heaven; the Heaven of Delight in Emanations; and the Heaven of Controlling Others’ Emanations.

^[18] Resultant birth 報生: a karmic result that arises naturally and is not attained through cultivation. For bodhisattvas of the eighth bhūmi and above, when they assume a transformation body, they naturally possess concentration from the moment of birth; this is called the samādhi of resultant birth.

^[19] Karma moistened for rebirth 潤業受生: using the arising of innate afflictions to moisten previously created karma, thereby producing the fruit of suffering in the future.

^[20] General retribution 總報: through the power of karma that propels the eighth consciousness, sentient beings are led to experience the overall ripened result represented by the five destinies and four modes of birth. For example, when human beings are alike born to experience the karmic result of the human realm, this is called general retribution.

^[21] Intermediate existence 中有 (S: antarā-bhava): the body of a sentient being during the interval between death and rebirth; one of the four forms of existence and one of the seven forms of existence.

^[22] Difficult circumstances 難處 (expanded: the eight difficult circumstances): eight circumstances in which it is difficult to cultivate the Buddhadharma. They are hell beings, hungry ghosts, animals, the heaven of long-lived gods, border regions, gods in the Form and Formless Realms, the continent of Northern Kuru, people learned in worldly doctrines, and those born before or after a Buddha.

^[23] Absence of moral discipline 非律儀: A bhikṣu, like a farmer, associates with the virtuous, listens to the true Dharma, reflects upon what is good and right, and takes it as the object of cultivation, thereby causing wholesome seeds to arise. If that person’s disposition is deeply greedy, if he has never practiced and has never known shame, then upon encountering a pleasing object he gives rise to greed, clings tightly, and will not let go. Bound by greed, he does not observe the precepts, abandons himself to worldly ways, and entertains unreasonable thoughts, like an ox entering a field and destroying another person’s rice crop. In the same way, this bhikṣu destroys all wholesome seeds.

^[24] Newly formed kalpa 劫新: a newly formed kalpa.

^[25] Prātimokṣa precepts 別解脫戒: one of the three kinds of moral discipline; the precepts individually received and upheld by each of the seven assemblies in order to abandon the evils committed through the seven branches of body and speech.

^[26] Dispersed wholesome practice 散善: wholesome karma cultivated with a distracted mind. Master Shandao held that the cultivation of the three meritorious practices and the nine grades of rebirth all constitutes dispersed wholesome practice.

^[27] Four dhyānas 四禪 (also called: the four dhyāna concentrations; S: catvāri dhyānāni): four fundamental types of meditative concentration used to counteract deluded karma and generate merit and virtue. They are the first dhyāna, second dhyāna, third dhyāna, and fourth dhyāna of the Form Realm; hence they are also called the concentrations of the Form Realm.

^[28] Four dhyānas and eight concentrations 四禪八定 (S: catvāri-dhyānāni): the four dhyānas of the Form Realm and the four concentrations of the Formless Realm together constitute the eight concentrations. When the Form Realm and Formless Realm are contrasted with each other, those of the Form Realm are called dhyānas, while those of the Formless Realm are called concentrations. When the Form and Formless Realms are contrasted with the “dispersed” state of the Desire Realm, both are called concentrations. If the meditative concentrations of the Form Realm and Formless Realm are distinguished, those of the Form Realm possess “equal concentration and wisdom,” while those of the Formless Realm are subtle in character and possess “more concentration and less wisdom.”

^[29] Imperturbable action 不動行: the wholesome but contaminated actions associated with the four concentrations of the Formless Realm.

^[30] Emptiness of beings 生空 (S: ātma-śūnyatā): sentient beings are provisionally constituted by the conjunction of the five skandhas—form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness—and possess no permanent, unitary self-essence.

^[31] Inverted view of self 我倒: the false and inverted view that holds a real self to exist.

^[32] Three natures (tam tính 三性): wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate.

^[33] Golden-winged bird (garuḍa 金翅鳥; S: suparṇa): a type of bird resembling a hawk in Indian mythology. It is a mythologized bird, enormous in body and fierce, and serves as the celestial mount of Viṣṇu. According to tradition, when it was newly born, its body emitted a dazzling light; the devas mistook it for a transformation deity and gathered to pay homage. This bird is frequently mentioned in Buddhist scriptures.

^[34] The Hundred Treatise 百論 (S: Śataśāstra): a treatise in two fascicles, composed by Āryadeva in India and translated by Kumārajīva; it is included in volume 30 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. The treatise expounds the Mahayana Buddhist principles of emptiness and non-self in order to refute the views and attachments of the non-Buddhist Sāṃkhya school.

^[35] Hidden treasure (concealed repository 伏藏): a place established underground for storing precious objects or scriptures. The hidden treasure is a metaphor for sentient beings who do not know that Buddha-nature is present within themselves and only awaken when the Buddha teaches and instructs them in the Dharma.