諸經要集

Chief Editor: Thích Nguyên Chơn
XX. SENSUAL DESIRE AND THE HINDRANCES^[36]

This section consists of three parts: Introduction, The Five Desires^[37], and The Five Hindrances.

XX.1. Introduction

According to the sutras and treatises, practitioners of the path all maintain that the five desires are the very roots that obstruct the noble path. Unless they are eliminated, one can never realize the noble fruit. Their roots are precisely the five faculties, the five sense objects, and the five consciousnesses, arising through contact between the faculties and their objects.

Because these three kinds give rise to defiled desire, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Good man! Suppose an untamed rogue elephant is mounted by someone. It will not obey but will leave the village and run into the wilderness.

Likewise, one who does not skillfully restrain the five faculties will be led away from the citadel of nirvana into the wilderness of samsara. Good man! Just as a treacherous minister incites a king to commit evil, so too the treacherous ministers of the five faculties constantly incite sentient beings to commit immeasurable evils.

Like a wayward child who refuses to heed the instruction of parents and teachers,[108c] and thus commits every manner of evil, one who does not discipline the five faculties and refuses to heed the wholesome instruction of teachers will likewise commit every manner of evil.

Good man! Ordinary beings who do not discipline the five faculties are constantly harmed by the bandits of the hells, hungry ghosts, and animals, just as enemies and thieves harm virtuous people.”

The Sutra of the Bequeathed Teaching states: “The five faculties bring calamity over many kalpas, and the harm they cause is exceedingly grave; one must therefore be vigilant! Hence, the wise restrain them, do not follow after them, and guard against them as they would against thieves. If the five faculties are allowed free rein, before long they will destroy everything.”

A hindrance is that which covers and obstructs. It obscures the practitioner, causing the mind and disposition to become deluded, preventing concentration and wisdom from shining clearly, and submerging the wholesome person. It is the principal obstacle for practitioners of the path.

Therefore, the Abhidharma-samuccaya states: “The hindrances prevent wholesome qualities from becoming manifest, obscure the mind and disposition, and obstruct wholesome states of mind from functioning.” The five desires discussed above arise from the five sense objects, while these five hindrances arise from the five faculties.

XX.2. The Five Desires

This section has three topics.

XX.2.1. The Suffering of Being Bound by Desire

Because there are five faculties, the five desires readily arise, binding sentient beings and preventing their liberation. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Ordinary beings are bound by the five desires and allow Mara Papiyan to lead them about at will, like a hunter who captures apes and monkeys and carries them home. Good man! A king dwelling within his own realm will naturally enjoy ease in body and mind, but if he travels to another realm, he must undergo suffering. Likewise, all sentient beings who remain within their own domain will enjoy freedom and peace, but if they enter another domain, they will encounter evil maras and undergo much anguish. Their own domain is the four foundations of mindfulness^[38]; the other domain is the five desires.”

The five desires are forms, sounds, odors, tastes, and tangible objects perceived in relation to the bodies of men and women. Desire means longing and pursuit; because one craves and clings to the five sense objects, it is called desire. All objects contacted by the mental faculty are called mental objects.

These six objects are not merely the sphere in which Mara operates; they are also evil bandits. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Just as six great bandits can plunder all the wealth of the populace, so too the bandits of the six sense objects can plunder all the wholesome riches of sentient beings. If six great bandits break into someone’s house, they will seize all the property found there, whether fine or inferior, causing a wealthy household suddenly to become impoverished.

Likewise, if the bandits of the six sense objects break into a person’s five sense faculties, they can plunder all wholesome dharmas. [109a] When all wholesome dharmas have been lost, that person becomes utterly destitute and forsaken, an icchantika. Therefore, bodhisattvas regard the six sense objects as six great bandits.”

XX.2.2. The Suffering Caused by the Obstruction of Desire

The faults of desire are the demonic evils of the five desires and the evil bandits of the six sense objects. The Buddha taught that these are deluded afflictions that obscure Buddha-nature.

The Nirvana Sutra states: “Although the five consciousnesses of sentient beings do not occur in a single thought-moment, they are all contaminated, perverted by wrong views, and cause the outflows to increase. All ordinary beings crave and cling to form, consciousness, and so forth. Because they cling to form, craving arises in their minds; only because craving arises are they bound by form through consciousness. Because they are bound, they cannot escape all the afflictions and sufferings of birth, old age, illness, death, sorrow, and grief.”

It further states: “A bodhisattva may consider himself to be observing the precepts purely. Although he neither engages in conversation nor laughs and jokes frivolously, he may delight in hearing a woman’s voice; or, upon seeing a man following a woman, or a woman following a man, he may give rise to craving and attachment. That bodhisattva has become defiled by the dharma of desire, ruined the pure precepts, sullied the holy life, and stained his moral discipline; it cannot be called perfectly pure morality.”

As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “A bodhisattva contemplates the various kinds of impurity and sees that, among dangers, women are the greatest danger. Things such as blades, fire, storms, thunderbolts, enemies, and venomous snakes may still be approached, but women, filled with greed, stinginess, anger, flattery, contentiousness, and jealousy, should not be approached. Why?

Because women are petty, shallow of mind, and delight only in intimacy and desire, heedless of reputation, wealth and rank, wisdom, or virtue. They devote themselves to evil desires and destroy the wholesome roots of others. Although it is difficult to escape from fetters, shackles, bonds, and imprisonment, escape is still possible; but once the lock of feminine beauty has fastened upon a person, it cannot be opened.

This is the gravest of illnesses.”

The Buddha taught:

Better to take a bar of glowing iron

And thrust it into one’s own eyes

Than, with a defiled mind,

To steal a glance at feminine beauty.

Women readily smile

And display alluring charms;

Often proud and coy,

They turn away and close their eyes,

Speak softly and feign displeasure,

And move with graceful steps,

Bewitching the hearts of others.

The net of lust is spread everywhere;

All who fall into it lose themselves.

Whether walking, standing, lying down, or sitting,

Casting sidelong glances and jesting,

They intoxicate foolish people

Whose wisdom is shallow.

One who takes up a blade against an enemy army

May still be able to prevail,

But when the female bandit harms a person’s heart,

There is no way to ward her off.

A venomous cobra

[109b] May still be seized,

But the passions of women bewitch people

And truly should not be touched.

Those possessed of lucid wisdom

Should not gaze upon women.

If they wish to look at them,

They must regard them as mothers or elder sisters.

Having looked closely, they should contemplate

And see that all is impure.

If the fire of lust is not extinguished,

They will certainly be consumed.

As it is with the faults of form, so too is it with odors, tastes, and tangible objects. From time immemorial, all sentient beings have wandered in samsara, unable to escape, entirely because they have been bound by feminine beauty and found it difficult to break free. The deluded lack the eye of wisdom and thus fall into the pit of samsara. Today, laypeople and monastics alike fail to recognize the calamity of desire and continue racing after it. When will they ever turn back and escape that calamity? Their minds remain perpetually attached and cannot relinquish it. They do not even possess moral discipline, much less concentration, wisdom, or Buddha-nature!

A verse in the Nirvana Sutra states:

One commits evil without remorse,

As milk curdles into cream^[39];

Like embers covered by ashes,

Upon which a fool treads.

XX.2.3. Censure of the Suffering Created by Desire

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Practitioners should reproach the five desires: Alas! Sentient beings are constantly troubled by the five desires, yet they pursue them endlessly, only to fall into a great pit of fire and suffer the agony of being roasted by flames. The five desires bring no benefit, like a dog gnawing a bone; the five desires increase contention, like crows fighting over meat; the five desires burn people, like holding a torch against the wind; the five desires harm people, like stepping on a venomous snake; the five desires are unreal, like scenes in a dream; the five desires do not endure, but abide only briefly.

Because people of the world are deluded, they crave and cling to the five desires, refusing to relinquish them even at death, and consequently must endure extreme suffering throughout many subsequent lives. These five desires bring only momentary pleasure, while their suffering continues without end. They are like honey smeared upon a blade: one who craves sweetness licks it, unaware of the danger of having their tongue cut.

These five desires are forms, sounds, fragrances, flavors, and tangible objects. These five are great impediments to practitioners of meditation; those who wish to cultivate concentration must relinquish them.”

1. Reproaching the Fault of Craving and Clinging to Forms

King Bimbisara, because of his craving for beauty, ventured into an enemy kingdom and stayed alone in the chamber of the courtesan Ambapali. King Udayana, because of his craving and attachment to beauty, cut off the hands of five hundred sages. For these and many other reasons, the fault of forms is reproached.

2. Reproaching the Fault of Craving and Clinging to Sounds

Sounds are impermanent: as soon as they are heard, they cease. Foolish people do not understand that the nature of sound is impermanent and changing, and so they deludedly give rise to fondness for it; [109c] even after the sound has passed away, their minds remain attached to it. Five hundred sages living in the mountains heard the singing of a Kinnara maiden bathing in a pool in the Snow Mountains.

They immediately lost their meditative concentration; their minds became intoxicated, infatuated, and deranged beyond control; they lost all their merit and later fell into the evil realms. The wise contemplate the arising and cessation of sound, seeing that its earlier and later moments are neither identical nor continuous. Having understood this, they no longer become attached or defiled.

Even celestial music cannot entice such people, much less mundane sounds. For these reasons, the fault of craving and clinging to sounds is reproached.

The Treatise states: “Five hundred sages were flying through the air when they heard the singing of a Kinnara maiden. Their minds became attached, defiled, and confused; they immediately lost all their supernatural powers and fell to the ground. When the Trun-luan-ma lute of the Kinnara king^[40] expressed the true character of all dharmas in praise of the Buddha, Mount Sumeru and all the trees trembled, while great disciples such as Kasyapa, though seated upon their seats, all began to dance along, unable to control their minds. Bodhisattva Good Fulfillment then asked Kasyapa:

– Master, you are a great and venerable elder who practices the dhutanga austerities. Why are you unable to control your mind today?

Kasyapa replied:

– My mind is never shaken by the desires of the celestial or human realms, but this sound arises from the bodhisattva’s immeasurable virtues and was created through the transformations of wisdom; therefore, I cannot restrain myself.

This is like Mount Sumeru, which cannot be shaken by winds blowing from the eight directions; yet at the end of a kalpa, when the Vairambha wind blows, it makes Mount Sumeru seem like withered grass. It is also like the lute of the asuras,^[41] which always produces sounds in accordance with their wishes even though no one plays it. These sounds neither scatter the mind nor help collect it. They are a karmic result born of merit and arise in accordance with their wishes. In the same way, a bodhisattva who has realized the Dharma-body has no discriminating mind, no distracted mind, and no notion of teaching the Dharma. This arises through immeasurable merit and wisdom.”

3. Reproaching the Fault of Craving and Clinging to Fragrances

People of the world believe there is little fault in craving fragrances, but attachment to fragrances actually opens the door to the fetters.^[42] Even one who has diligently observed the precepts for a hundred years may be harmed by it in a single moment. There was once an arhat who regularly entered a dragon’s palace. After eating, he would bring his bowl back and give it to a novice monk to wash. One day, as the novice washed it, a few grains of rice remained in the bowl. He smelled them, found their fragrance exceedingly delightful, and ate them with great relish. He then devised a way to descend with his master: he grasped the legs of the master’s rope-bed^[43] with both hands so that when his master entered the dragon’s palace, he would accompany him.

When they arrived, the dragon asked:

– This person has not yet attained the Way. Why did the Venerable One bring him?

The master replied:

– I did not know!

Thus, that novice monk was able to eat and drink his fill. He also saw the beautiful dragon maidens exuding fragrant scents and immediately became infatuated and defiled, giving rise to an evil vow: [110a] “I shall cultivate merit so that I may seize this dragon palace and dwell in this palace.”

At that moment, the dragon said:

– In the future, Venerable One, please do not bring this novice monk with you!

After returning, the novice wholeheartedly practiced generosity and observed the precepts, constantly wishing to become a dragon as soon as possible. Later, while the novice was walking in meditation within the monastery, water suddenly gushed forth beneath his feet. Knowing with certainty that he was about to become a dragon, he hurried to the shore of the great pool through which his master had previously entered the dragon palace, covered his head with his kasaya, leapt into the great pool, and died, transforming into a great dragon. Through the merit he had cultivated, that novice killed the dragon king, whose blood stained the pool red. Before this, his teachers and the Sangha had all reproached him, but the novice said:

– My resolve is fixed. When the sign in my mind manifests, I shall lead the Sangha to the pool to see it.

For reasons such as these, the fault of attachment to forms is reproached.

Again, there was a bhiksu walking in meditation beside a pool in a forest. When he smelled the fragrance of lotus blossoms, he immediately became attached to it. The spirit of the pool asked:

– Why did you leave your seated meditation beneath the trees over there and come to steal my fragrance? Because you have become attached to fragrance, the fetters that had subsided have arisen again.

At that moment, a man entered the pool and picked a great many lotus blossoms. He pulled up their roots, broke their stems, cast them about in disorder, and then departed. The spirit of the pool remained silent and said nothing.

The bhiksu said:

– That man devastated the entire lotus pool, yet you said nothing. Why, when I merely walk in meditation along the bank, do you scold me as a thief of fragrances?

The spirit of the pool said:

– Evil people of the world constantly dwell amid the filth of transgression, with impurity covering them to the crown of their heads. What would be the point of my speaking to them? But you are a good person practicing meditation. Becoming attached to this fragrance ruins your wholesome practice, and therefore I reproached you! It is like a piece of white silk: if it is stained, everyone can see it. An evil person, however, is like a piece of black cloth. Even if another black stain is added, no one can see it, so who would bother to question it? For reasons such as these, the fault of attachment to fragrances is reproached.

4. Reproaching the Fault of Attachment to Flavors

One should understand: it is solely because of craving delicious flavors that one must endure the suffering of drinking molten copper and swallowing red-hot iron balls. If one does not contemplate food and the mind remains continually attached to it, one will fall into rebirth as an impure worm.

There was once a novice monk who was very fond of curds. Whenever donors brought curds as an offering to the Sangha, the novice received a small portion of what remained. Delighting in them, he craved and clung to them without letting go. After his death, he was immediately reborn inside that jar of curds. The novice’s master, who had attained arhatship, knew this. Thus, when the Sangha divided the curds, he said:

– Be careful! Do not harm the novice monk!

The others said:

– This is a worm. Why does the Venerable One call it a novice monk?

The master replied:

– This worm was formerly my novice disciple. Merely because he craved the leftover curds, he was reborn inside this jar!”

At that time, the worm crawled out from within the master's curds. The master said:

– I am your preceptor. You should abandon your craving for milk and seek the supramundane path so that you may escape the body of a worm!

After saying this, the master conferred the Three Refuges upon it. The worm died and was immediately reborn in a heavenly realm.

[110b]Furthermore, the crown prince, son of King Sun-Moon Portion, was extremely fond of delicious flavors. Every day, the keeper of the king's garden brought fine fruit to the crown prince. At that time, there was a bird's nest in a great tree in the garden.

The mother bird often flew to Fragrant Mountain to gather fragrant and delicious fruit to feed her young. As the fledglings fought over the fruit, one piece fell to the ground. Early the next morning, the gardener saw that this fruit had an exceedingly extraordinary color, so he brought it and presented it to the king.

The king treasured the fruit greatly because its fragrance was most exceptional. When the crown prince saw it, he immediately began looking at it. Out of love for his son, the king bestowed it upon the crown prince.

After the crown prince tasted its flavor, his craving grew even stronger, and every day he longed to have this fruit to eat. The king then summoned the keeper of the garden and asked how he had obtained the fruit.

The keeper of the garden replied:

– No one planted this fruit. Your servant picked it up from the ground and does not know where it came from.

The crown prince wept and refused all food and drink, so the king commanded the keeper of the garden:

– Quickly find that fruit and bring it back here!

The keeper of the garden immediately went to the place where he had found the fruit the other day. Seeing a bird's nest in the tree, he realized that the fruit had been brought there by a bird. He concealed himself in the tree and lay in wait to seize the fruit. When the mother bird returned, he snatched the fruit from her and presented it to the king. This happened every day. The mother bird became angry and went to Fragrant Mountain, where she picked a poisonous fruit whose fragrance was identical to that of the other fruit. The keeper of the garden seized this fruit as well and presented it to the king. The king and the crown prince ate it, and before long their bodies putrefied and they died.

For reasons such as these, the fault of craving flavors is censured.

5. Censuring the Fault of Craving Touch

Touch is the cause of the fetters and the root that binds the mind. Why is this so? Each of the other four desires engages only its corresponding sense faculty, whereas touch pervades the entire body. Moreover, it is exceedingly difficult to abandon and frequently gives rise to grave offenses.

At that time, the Blessed One related a Jataka account^[44] to the bhikshus:

– In the distant past, in the kingdom of Varanasi, there was a sage who lived in the mountains. One night in the eighth month, the sage urinated into a bathing pool. Suddenly seeing deer mating, lust arose in his mind, and his semen fell into the pool. When a doe came to drink the water and encountered it, she became pregnant. When her term was complete, she came beside the sage's hermitage and gave birth to a being whose body resembled that of a human, but who had a horn upon his head and feet like those of a deer. Seeing that her offspring resembled a human, the mother deer left it with the sage and departed. The sage came out and saw this small being. Recalling the former circumstances, he knew that it was his child. He took it in and raised it. When it had grown, he taught it to study, and it mastered the eighteen classes of great scriptures. It also learned seated meditation, cultivated the four immeasurable states of mind^[45], and attained the five supernormal powers^[46]. One day, it went up the mountain during a heavy rainstorm. The path was muddy and slippery, and because its footing was unsteady, it fell, breaking its water jar and injuring its leg. In a great rage, it returned home, took up a water vessel, [110c] and uttered an imprecation that caused the rain to cease. Because of the sage's merit and virtue, the dragons, ghosts, and spirits all refrained from making rain. Since no rain fell, the five grains and five fruits could not grow, and the people suffered such extreme hardship that they seemed to have no means of survival. The king of Varanasi became distressed and assembled his great ministers for deliberation. One wise official said:

– It is rumored that a horned sage lives on Sage Mountain. One day, while climbing the mountain, he lost his footing and injured his leg. In his anger, he uttered an imprecation that no rain should fall for twelve years.

The king then thought, “If no rain falls for twelve full years, no people will remain in my kingdom, and it will surely perish!” The king therefore issued a proclamation: whoever could cause the sage to lose his supernormal powers and become an ordinary person would be given half the kingdom. In that kingdom, there was a courtesan named Shanta who was beautiful and exceedingly wealthy. She came forward to accept the king's commission. She asked everyone:

– Is he a human being?

They replied: Yes! He was born from a sage!

The courtesan said:

– If he is human, I can overcome him.

Having said this, she took a golden tray filled with precious objects and also said to the king:

– This humble woman will return here riding upon that sage's neck!

At once, the courtesan asked the king to grant her five hundred carriages carrying five hundred beautiful women and five hundred deer carts carrying many varieties of fine, highly intoxicating wine whose color resembled water, together with cakes of delight. They mixed various medicinal herbs with water and painted the cakes in many colors so that they resembled assorted fruits. Then they donned garments made of tree bark so as to resemble sages, entered the forest, and built thatched huts beside the sage's dwelling.

When the sage emerged, these sage-maidens welcomed him and made offerings of beautiful flowers possessing the most sublime fragrances. With pleasing words and a show of reverence, they inquired after the sage's well-being, led him into a room, invited him to sit upon a cushioned bed, served him fine wine in place of water from a jar, and offered cakes of delight in place of fruit. The sage was exceedingly pleased.

After he had eaten and drunk his fill, the sage said to the courtesans:

– From the time of my birth until now, I have never tasted such delicious fruit or such nourishing water!

The courtesans said:

– Because I wholeheartedly practice goodness, Heaven grants me these delicious fruits and nourishing water according to my wishes!

The sage asked:

– How did you attain such beautiful appearances?

The woman replied:

– It is because I eat these delicious fruits and drink this nourishing water that I have attained such an appearance.

The woman said to the sage:

– Will you remain here with me always?

He replied:

– Yes! I can remain here as well!

The woman asked:

– Will you bathe together with me?

He replied:

– I will!

Because the courtesan's hands were soft, when they touched his flesh, the sage's mind was stirred and lust immediately arose, leading them to engage in sexual intercourse. The sage instantly lost all his supernormal powers, and rain then fell continuously for seven days and nights. The people rejoiced to their hearts' content. After seven days had passed, the fine wine and nourishing food were exhausted, leaving only ordinary fruit and spring water, whose flavors were not at all pleasing. The sage demanded the same food and drink as before.

The courtesan said:

– They are all gone! Let us go together to find more; there will be some not far from here!

The sage agreed.

Thus, they set out together. When they were not far from the city, the woman lay down in the middle of the road and said:

– I truly cannot walk any farther!

The sage said:

– If you cannot walk, I will carry you on my back!

The woman had previously sent someone to inform the king so that he might come and witness her ability. The king therefore ordered his royal procession to be made ready and went to see.

The king asked:

– By what means were you able to accomplish this?

The woman replied to the king:

– I employed my skillful arts. Now that he has become like this, he can never regain his former supernormal powers. Let him dwell within the city, provide him fully with respectful offerings according to his wishes, and appoint him to a high official position.

After living in the city for a few days, his body became thin and sickly. He recalled the joy of meditative concentration and grew weary of worldly sensual pleasures. Seeing this, the king asked:

– Why are you unhappy, causing your body to become so thin and sickly?

The seer replied:

– Although I possess all five sensual pleasures, I constantly remember the tranquil mountains and forests where the seers wander, and I cannot forget them!

The king thought: “If I compel him to remain, I will cause him suffering; if his suffering becomes extreme, he will die. The calamity I wished to eliminate has already been eliminated, so why should I compel him any further?” Having thought thus, the king ordered someone to escort him back to the mountain. Upon reaching the mountain, the seer practiced diligently and before long once again attained the five superknowledges.

The Buddha told the bhikkhus:

– The one-horned seer of former times was none other than I myself. That courtesan was none other than Yasodhara. At that time, she beguiled Me with cakes of delight, and because I had not yet eliminated the fetters and delusions, I was beguiled. Now she still tries to beguile Me with cakes of delight, but she cannot.

From this, one should understand that the touch of softness can move even a seer, how much more so an ordinary person?

For reasons such as these, one should censure the fault of attachment to touch. In this way, one can censure the five sensual pleasures and eliminate the five hindrances.

XX.3. The Five Hindrances

Question: What are the five hindrances?

Answer: Sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.

XX.3.1. Sensual Desire

Suppose a person practicing meditative concentration suddenly gives rise to thoughts of sensual desire^[47]. Deluded thoughts continue without interruption, and craving and seeking never cease, until illness arises. As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “Because Shubhaga thought of the princess, sensual desire arose within him and burned his body, and the flames spread even to the temple of the gods. How, then, could one kindle the poisonous fire of desire without burning away all wholesome dharmas? Once the mind is defiled by desire, how can it draw near to the Path?” Therefore, the verse says:

A practitioner of the Path, with shame and conscience,

Begs for food and teaches others;

[111b] Why then pursue the objects of desire,

And remain forever submerged therein?

Having already left the five sensual pleasures,

Cast them aside without looking back;

Why would you wish to obtain them again,

Like a fool eating phlegm and spittle?

While seeking desires, one suffers;

Having obtained them, one has many fears;

When they are lost, distress grows greater still;

In all of this, there is no joy.

Such are their calamities;

How can they be cast away?

Cultivate merit and delight in meditation,

And surely none will despise you.

XX.3.2. Ill Will

Anger is the root of losing all wholesome dharmas, the cause of falling into the evil destinies, the enemy of the bliss of Dharma, the great thief of the wholesome mind, the storehouse of harsh speech, and the blades and axes of calamity. If a person cultivating the Path thinks, “This person has harmed me and those dear to me and has praised my enemies; upon careful consideration, it was so in the past and will also be so in the future,” these are the nine grounds of affliction from which anger arises. Thoughts of anger obscure the mind, and therefore they are called a hindrance. One should swiftly abandon them and not allow them to increase.

As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “Shakra Devanam Indra asked the Buddha in verse:

By abandoning what dharma is one at peace?

By destroying what dharma does sorrow cease?

What dharma is the root of poison,

Devouring all wholesome dharmas?

The Buddha replied in verse:

By leaving anger, one attains peace;

By destroying anger, sorrow ends.

Anger is the root of poison;

Anger destroys every wholesome dharma!

Having understood this, one should cultivate a mind of loving-kindness and compassion and use patience to eliminate anger so that the mind becomes pure. Contemplate sounds as empty and provisional, and do not give rise to anger. Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “The bodhisattva knows that all dharmas neither arise nor cease and that their essential nature is originally empty.” If someone angrily reviles, beats, or kills me, I regard it all as an illusion or magical transformation.

Contemplating that sound is originally empty, merely the noise of wind arising through conditions, why should I become angry? Therefore, the treatise records: “When one is about to speak, the Udana wind^[48] moves downward from the mouth to the navel. Upon touching the navel, it produces a resonance.

This resonance travels outward and comes into contact with seven places—the neck, gums, teeth, lips, tongue, throat, and chest—thereby producing sound; this is called speech.” As the verse says:

The Udana wind,

Touches the navel and then rises;

It travels outward through seven places:

Neck, gums, teeth, lips, and tongue,

The throat and then the chest,

Only then producing sound.

[111c] Fools do not understand this;

Deludedly clinging, they give rise to anger.

Furthermore, the Upasaka Sutra records: “If a wise person is reviled, he immediately reflects that these abusive words are not uttered all at once. When the earlier words are uttered, the later words do not yet exist; by the time the later words are uttered, the earlier words have already passed. Since they do not occur simultaneously, how can this be considered reviling? They are merely sounds of wind passing by; why should I become angry?”

Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “When a bodhisattva contemplates sentient beings, even if reviled for hundreds of thousands of kalpas, he does not give rise to anger; even if praised for hundreds of thousands of kalpas, he does not rejoice. The bodhisattva clearly knows that sounds arise and cease like dreams and illusions, like echoes.”

XX.3.3. Sloth and Torpor

Mental obscurity within is called torpor; when the five consciousnesses become dull, the body grows languid, and one lies down and sleeps deeply, this is called sloth. This sloth and torpor has the power to destroy the true joy of this life and future lives; therefore, it is the most evil and unwholesome dharma. Why is this so? Sentient beings can recognize and eliminate the other hindrances, but during sloth and torpor, one is like a dead person and the mind cannot recognize anything. Because it cannot recognize anything, sloth and torpor are difficult to eliminate.

As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom records: “The bodhisattva spoke verses admonishing his disciples concerning sloth and torpor:

Do not embrace a corpse and sleep;

These impure things are provisionally called a person.

Like one gravely ill or pierced by an arrow,

With sufferings amassed, how can one sleep?

Like one bound and awaiting execution,

With calamity descending, how can one sleep?

Afflictions are not yet destroyed, and harm is not yet removed.

Like sharing a house with a venomous snake,

Or standing amid a battle of a thousand sharp blades,

How could one be at ease at such a time?

Sleep is dark and allows one to see nothing;

Every day it deceives and robs people of wisdom.

Because sleep obscures the mind, one cannot see;

With faults so great, how can one sleep?”

XX.3.4. Restlessness and Remorse

There are three aspects. Restlessness and remorse of speech consist of delighting in chanting and recitation, arguing over right and wrong, engaging in useless discussions, and talking about worldly matters. Restlessness and remorse of the body consist of enjoying horseback riding, driving chariots here and there, wrestling, and fighting. Restlessness and remorse of the mind consist of indulging one’s emotions, allowing the mind to pursue objects, and pondering and investigating worldly skills, literature, and arts. In general, restlessness refers to evil conceptual thoughts^[49] that destroy the mind of renunciation.

Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom contains this verse:

You have shaved your head and donned the kasaya,

Carrying an alms bowl from house to house;

Why are you attached to restlessness and remorse,

Indulging your mind and falling into false dharmas?

[112a] Not only does this bring no benefit concerning the true Dharma, but it also causes one to lose worldly joy. Upon recognizing this fault, one must eliminate it at once. If there is only restlessness without remorse, it does not constitute a hindrance. While restless, the affliction still remains engaged with its object, but upon entering meditative concentration, one gives rise to remorse over what one has done. Thus, distress obscures the mind, and it is therefore called a hindrance. Here there are two cases. The first is when restlessness is followed by remorse, as explained above. The second is when a person has committed a grave offense and is constantly afraid, like a poisoned arrow lodged deep in the heart that cannot be removed.

As the Treatise on Wisdom says in verse:

One does what should not be done,

And fails to do what should be done;

The fire of remorse burns within,

And in a future life one falls into an evil destiny.

A person who has sinned should know remorse;

Having repented, do not grieve.

With the mind peaceful and joyful in this way,

One should not keep recalling it.

There are two kinds of remorse:

Failing to do what should be done,

What should not be done is done again,

Such indeed is a foolish person;

Because the mind feels no remorse,

One does what should not be done.

The evil deeds already committed

Cannot be said to be undone.

XX.3.5. Doubt

Because doubt obscures the nature of the mind, one cannot settle the mind upon the dharmas; because one cannot settle the mind, one obtains no result within the Buddha-Dharma. It is like a person entering a mountain of treasures: if he has no hands, he cannot take anything. Generally speaking, there are many kinds of doubt, but not all of them necessarily obstruct meditative concentration. Here, only three kinds of doubt that obstruct meditative concentration are presented: doubt in oneself, doubt in the teacher, and doubt in the Dharma.

a. Doubt in oneself: One thinks, “I am ignorant and dull, and my offenses are deep and grave; am I not an unsuitable person?” Once one doubts oneself, concentration and wisdom do not arise. If one wishes to study the Dharma, one should not look down upon oneself, for the wholesome roots planted in previous lives are truly difficult to fathom.

b. Doubt in the teacher: One thinks, “His deportment and appearance are like that, and he himself has not yet realized the Way; how could he possibly instruct me?” When such doubtful and arrogant thoughts arise, they obstruct meditative concentration. To eliminate doubt, one should regard the situation as gold contained in a foul-smelling leather pouch: because one desires the gold, one does not discard the pouch. Likewise, although one’s teacher may be impure, the practitioner should contemplate him as a Buddha.

c. Doubt in the Dharma: Most people in the world cling to their own original views and lack reverence and faith when practicing the Dharma they have received. If they hesitate, the Dharma will not penetrate deeply into their minds. Why? Because doubt obscures the mind.

As the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states:

Like a person at a crossroads

Who does not know which road to take,

[112b] So too, regarding the true nature of all dharmas,

One is confused by doubt.

Because of doubt, one does not diligently seek

The true nature of all dharmas.

Doubt arises from delusion

And is evil among evil dharmas.

Wholesome and unwholesome dharmas,

Samsara and nirvana—

These are certainly existent dharmas;

Regarding the Dharma, do not give rise to doubt.

Those who harbor doubt

Are bound by the messengers of death and the wardens of hell,

As a lion seizes a deer,

And cannot escape death.

Although doubts arise in the world,

One should gladly follow wholesome dharmas,

As a person standing at a crossroads

Chooses the good road and proceeds.

Question: Unwholesome dharmas are innumerable; why are only five dharmas to be eliminated?

Answer: Although the designation “five dharmas” is limited, their meaning encompasses the three poisons and also includes all eighty-four thousand defilements. The hindrance of sensual desire is the poison of greed; anger is the poison of hatred; sloth-and-torpor and doubt are the poison of delusion; and restlessness-and-remorse is an equal combination, containing all four kinds of affliction. Each hindrance contains twenty-one thousand defilements; the four kinds together comprise eighty-four thousand defilements.

Therefore, if these five obstructing afflictions are eliminated, all unwholesome dharmas are abandoned. It is like a person who has finished repaying his debts, a sick person who has recovered, or a hungry person who has reached a prosperous country; it is also like being rescued from a dangerous place infested with vicious bandits and brought to a safe place free from calamity. Likewise, when a practitioner eliminates the five obstructing afflictions, the mind becomes pure.

It is like the sun and moon, which cannot shine when obscured by five things: smoke, clouds, dust, mist, and the hand of an asura. The mind is likewise; this can be understood from the analogy.

Verse:

The five desires cloud spiritual awareness,

The five hindrances obscure merit and virtue;

The six faculties are the source of suffering,

The six thieves disturb the conscious mind.

Waves of desire rise according to feelings,

The net of craving is woven according to the mind;

The three poisons obstruct the emptiness of self^[50],

The four currents^[51] flow without cease.

Though cast gold changes its form,

Calculations continue without end;

Even the pigeon still does not understand,

How could the leaping ape ever remain still?

Until the hindrance of desire is completely severed,

How can one transcend to lofty and distant realms?

Together we shall reach the jeweled city

And behold the Mighty Sage.

XXI. THE FOUR MODES OF BIRTH

[112c] This section comprises six parts: Introduction, Reconciliation of Names, Mutual Inclusion, Five Kinds of Birth, Intermediate Existence, and Conception.

XXI.1. Introduction

Practicing good brings the pleasant recompense of, in the near term, being born among humans or devas and, ultimately, attaining Buddhahood. Committing evil brings painful results: in the near term, one falls into the three evil destinies, and ultimately, one turns away from the fruit of sagehood. Fools do not believe this, but the wise understand it. Thus, the four classes of beings have dissimilar characteristics, and the bodily forms within the six destinies differ; the paths of light and darkness are separate, and the myriad ways of rising and sinking diverge. The principle of karma, causes, and conditions is perfectly clear, and throughout myriad ages, karmic cause and recompense never deviate.

XXI.2. Reconciliation of the Names of the Four Modes of Birth

As the Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Birth from an egg, birth from a womb, birth from moisture, and birth by transformation.”

The Sutra Explaining the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination in the Agamas states: “There are four modes of birth: those born from the belly are humans and animals (womb-born); those born through the combination of heat and cold are insects, butterflies, fleas, and lice (moisture-born); those born through transformation are devas and hell beings (transformation-born); and those born from eggs are birds, fish, and so forth (egg-born).”

The Sutra of the Contemplation of the True Dharma states: “Animals are innumerable, but may be grouped into three kinds: those living in water, such as fish; those walking upon the ground, such as elephants; and those flying through the air, such as birds. With the divine eye, one may also see that animals have four modes of birth: womb-born, such as elephants, horses, buffaloes, and goats; egg-born, such as snakes, centipedes, geese, ducks, chickens, and pheasants; moisture-born, such as fleas and ants; and transformation-born, such as dragons with elongated bodies.”

Therefore, a sutra states: “Birth is the arising of new faculties; death is the disintegration of the old faculties.”

The Treatise on the Good View states: “First, birth with form^[52]; second, formless birth^[53]. What is born with form undergoes disintegration, whereas what is born without form does not disintegrate. Formless birth arises in dependence upon form; form and mind depend upon each other and constitute a provisional entity, and this is called birth. When the former body does not perceive the subsequent body, and the subsequent body has no connection with the former body, this is called death.”

The Nirvana Sutra states: “The Buddha-nature of sentient beings abides within the body of the five skandhas. To kill the body of the five skandhas is called taking life; having taken life, one falls into an evil destiny.”

On the basis of this birth and death, there are four modes of birth. Birth from an egg is called egg-born; birth from a containing vessel is called womb-born; birth dependent upon moisture is called moisture-born;[113a] and sudden appearance is called transformation-born. These four classes encompass all sentient beings.

XXI.3. The Correspondence Between the Four Classes of Birth and the Six Destinies

The Vibhasa Treatise states: “The Desire Realm includes all six destinies, while the Form Realm and the Formless Realm also constitute part of the six destinies. This division exists because the Desire Realm is a place of disorder, where sentient beings, mixed with evil, produce impure karma that may be either wholesome or unwholesome. Because their karma differs, they receive recompense according to their karma, giving rise to many distinctions. The Form and Formless Realms, however, are places where the mind is readily settled in concentration. Their sentient beings are pure and produce exclusively wholesome karma; therefore, there are not many different destinies there.”

Question: How do the four classes of birth correspond to the six destinies?

Answer: The Miscellaneous Abhidharma Heart Treatise states: “Devas and hell beings are only transformation-born. Hungry ghosts are womb-born or transformation-born. Humans and animals possess all four modes of birth.”

Therefore, that treatise asks: “Do the modes of birth encompass the realms, or do the realms encompass the modes of birth?” The same treatise then answers:

The modes of birth encompass all the realms;

The realms do not encompass all modes of birth.

As for a body in the intermediate existence,

It belongs to no realm.

Thus, it should be understood that the four classes of birth are broad in scope, while the six realms are limited. Because transformation-born beings are extremely numerous, this mode of birth encompasses two entire realms and part of the third realm, the Desire Realm; all beings in the hells are transformation-born.

Question: Sentient beings in the six heavens of the Desire Realm engage in sexual intercourse as humans do; why, then, is there no birth from the womb?

Answer: Although their experience of desire is similar, their conduct differs. Therefore, the Lâu Thán Sutra of Right Dharma Mindfulness records: “In the two heavens of the Four Heavenly Kings and the Thirty-three, when males and females engage in sexual intercourse, their bodies unite as in the human realm, but no semen is emitted. In the higher heavens, it is entirely different.

In the Yāma Heaven, sexual union is accomplished merely by forming the intention to embrace one another or by holding hands. In the Tuṣita Heaven, it is accomplished when, with joyful minds, they speak and laugh together. In the Heaven of Delight in Creation, it is completed merely by gazing at one another, without any need for speech or laughter.

In the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations, sexual union is accomplished merely by hearing a voice or smelling a fragrance. Thus, the mode of birth in the heavenly realms is entirely different from that in the human realm, and beings are spontaneously born from their mother’s knees.”

Spontaneous birth among hungry ghosts can readily be understood. Birth from the womb is somewhat more difficult to observe, as recorded in the section on the Contemplation of Impurity: “Long ago, in the city of Rājagṛha, a young woman was impregnated by the semen of a ghost and consequently gave birth to five hundred ghost children.” Furthermore, the Kośa Treatise records: “A ghost said to the Venerable Maudgalyāyana: ‘By day I give birth to five children, and by night I give birth to five children. As soon as each child is born, I devour it completely, yet I am still not satisfied.’ This is a ghost born from the womb.”

[113b] Asuras are also spontaneously born and born from the womb. Because husbands and wives mate, there is birth from the womb. At the beginning of the kalpa, asuras were born from the heavens; this is spontaneous birth. Furthermore, according to the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha Samādhi: “The female asuras originally arose from muddy eggs beneath the great ocean and were born through moisture. These are precisely egg birth and moisture birth. Therefore, asuras possess all four modes of birth.”

Humans possess all four modes of birth. Birth from the womb is directly observable and may readily be known. Regarding egg birth, the Nirvana Sutra records: “The mother Tỳ-xá-khư gave birth to a fleshy egg, within which another thirty-two eggs were produced.”

As recorded in the Vibhāṣā Treatise:

Question: How is it known that egg birth occurs among humans?

Answer: The Buddha taught: “Many merchants from the continent of Jambudvīpa entered the ocean in search of precious jewels. They captured two cranes and brought them home, training them according to their wishes. Later, one of the birds died. Every day, a merchant amused himself with the remaining bird; at night, they slept in the same house and coupled with each other, producing two eggs. When the time came, two boys hatched from the eggs. One was named Thi-bà-la and the other Ưu-bát-thi-bà. After they grew up, they were permitted to leave the household life and train in the path, and they attained the fruit of arhatship.”

Question: How is it known that moisture birth occurs among humans?

Answer: As a sutra teaches: “King Đỉnh Sinh, the Venerable Già-la, the Venerable Ưu-ba-già-la, the woman Lê, and the woman Nại” were all moisture-born humans.

Question: How is it known that spontaneous birth occurs among humans?

Answer: It occurred among humans at the beginning of the kalpa and among those who have attained the noble Dharma. Those who have realized the noble Dharma are no longer born from eggs or moisture.

Question: Why are they no longer born from eggs or moisture?

Answer: Because egg birth and moisture birth belong to the animal realm.

Animals possess all four modes of birth. Among these, birth from the womb, birth from eggs, and birth from moisture can readily be understood. Regarding spontaneous birth, the Lâu Thán Sutra records: “The four kinds of garuḍas—egg-born, womb-born, moisture-born, and spontaneously born—devour the four kinds of dragons—egg-born, womb-born, moisture-born, and spontaneously born. Among them, spontaneously born garuḍas devour all four kinds of dragons; womb-born garuḍas devour three kinds of dragons, excluding spontaneously born dragons; egg-born garuḍas devour two kinds, excluding spontaneously born and womb-born dragons; and moisture-born garuḍas devour only one kind, the moisture-born dragons.”

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Arising of the World records: “To the north of the great ocean dwell dragon kings and garuḍa kings, and there stands a great tree called Cư-trá-xa-ma-ly. The circumference of its base measures seven yojanas; its roots extend two yojanas into the earth; its trunk rises one hundred yojanas high; and its branches and foliage spread across fifty yojanas. To the east of that tree dwell egg-born dragons and egg-born garuḍas.

To its south dwell womb-born dragons and womb-born garuḍas. To its west dwell moisture-born dragons and moisture-born garuḍas. To its north dwell spontaneously born dragons and spontaneously born garuḍas.

In each of the four directions are palaces covering an area of six hundred yojanas, adorned with seven tiers of walls and the seven treasures. [113c] Subtle and wondrous fragrances permeate everywhere, and many kinds of birds sing there. Furthermore, when an egg-born garuḍa king dwelling there wishes to seize an egg-born dragon, he flies to a branch on the eastern side of the Cư-trá-xà-ma-ly tree and gazes over the great ocean.

He then descends and beats his wings forcefully, parting the waters for two hundred yojanas. He seizes an egg-born dragon, carries it out of the ocean, and devours its flesh. An egg-born garuḍa king can seize only egg-born dragons; he cannot seize womb-born, moisture-born, or spontaneously born dragons.

If a womb-born garuḍa wishes to seize an egg-born dragon, he goes to the waters east of that tree to capture it. If he wishes to seize a womb-born dragon, he goes to the waters south of that tree and parts the waters for four hundred yojanas to capture it. A womb-born garuḍa can seize only womb-born and egg-born dragons; he cannot seize moisture-born or spontaneously born dragons.

“Furthermore, when a moisture-born garuḍa wishes to seize an egg-born dragon, he goes to the waters east of that tree, captures it, and devours it. If he wishes to seize a womb-born dragon, he goes to the waters south of that tree and parts the waters for four hundred yojanas to capture and devour it. If he wishes to seize a moisture-born dragon, he goes to the waters west of that tree and parts the waters for eight hundred yojanas to capture it. A moisture-born garuḍa can seize only womb-born, egg-born, and moisture-born dragons; he cannot seize spontaneously born dragons.

“Furthermore, when a spontaneously born garuḍa king wishes to seize an egg-born dragon, he goes to the waters east of that tree to capture it. If he wishes to seize a womb-born dragon, he goes to the waters south of that tree to capture it. If he wishes to seize a moisture-born dragon, he goes to the waters west of that tree to capture it. If he wishes to seize a spontaneously born dragon, he goes to the waters north of that tree and parts the waters for one thousand six hundred yojanas to capture it. All kinds of dragons are food for the garuḍa kings.”

The Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha Samadhi records: “The Buddha taught: In Jambudvipa and throughout the four continents, there is a kind of golden-winged bird named King Garuda, which is sovereign among all birds. As the karmic retribution of this bird, it delights in eating the flesh of dragons. On the first day, in Jambudvipa, it eats one dragon king and five hundred young dragons; on the second day, in Purvavideha; on the third day, in Godaniya; and on the fourth day, in Uttarakuru, it likewise eats one dragon king and five hundred young dragons.

Continuing in succession through this cycle for eight thousand years, the bird then approaches death. At that time, the dragons release their venom so that it can no longer eat them. Tormented by hunger and thirst, the bird frantically searches for food, [114a] flying all about the mountains, yet finds none.

It flies to Mount Vajra and stops there; from there it flies straight to the Water Disk^[54]. From the Water Disk it flies to the Wind Disk, where the wind blows it back to Mount Vajra. After going back and forth seven times in this manner, it dies.

After its death, the venom in its body causes ten jeweled mountains to burst into flames simultaneously. At that time, Dragon King Nanda, fearing that the mountains will burn, pours down a torrential rain. The bird’s flesh dissolves completely, leaving only its heart.

Its heart likewise rises and falls seven times as before. Afterward, the heart comes to rest upon the summit of Mount Vajra. Dragon King Nanda takes the bird’s heart and makes it into a radiant jewel.

Later, a wheel-turning king obtains this jewel and regards it as a wish-fulfilling gem.”

Furthermore, the Lokaprajnapti Sutra records: “The dragon kings throughout the four continents are scorched by three kinds of heat; only Dragon King Anavatapta is spared. There are three reasons: the other dragon kings are struck on their bodies by rains of hot sand, which scorch them and cause intense pain; when the other dragon kings give rise to lustful thoughts, a hot wind immediately blows upon and scorches their bodies, ruining their appearance and turning their bodies into those of snakes, so they become fearful and joyless; and the other dragon kings are eaten by golden-winged birds and are therefore greatly terrified. Thus, all the other dragon kings throughout the world are scorched by poisonous heat; only Dragon King Anavatapta is not scorched.”

The Samantapasadika records: “The Buddha taught: There are five occasions when dragons cannot relinquish their dragon bodies. First, when engaging in sexual intercourse: if a dragon engages in intercourse with another dragon, it retains its dragon body, but if a dragon engages in intercourse with a human, it does not manifest its dragon body; second, at birth; third, when shedding its skin; fourth, when sleeping; and fifth, at death.”

Question: How do the four kinds of nutriment correspond to the various realms?

Answer: The Abhidharma Treatise records: “All six destinies have the four kinds of nutriment, but their characteristics differ. For example, in the hells, material nutriment consists of red-hot iron pellets and boiling molten copper; although these increase suffering, hunger and thirst still remain. In the Hell of Light Restraints, two winds, one hot and one cold, blow upon the body; these constitute material nutriment^[55]. Only the Form Realm and Formless Realm lack material nutriment, because the bodies there are extremely subtle and light.”

A verse in the treatise states:

The Desire Realm has four nutriments:

Contact, material food, consciousness, and meditative joy.

The four classes within the six destinies

Are likewise fully endowed with them.

The Form and Formless Realms

Have only three nutriments,

For they have never possessed material food.

Question: It is not yet clear by what nutriments beings in the six destinies grow and develop.

Answer: The Abhidharma Treatise records: “Among beings in the six destinies, ghosts, egg-born beings, and devas in the three lower heavens of the Formless Realm all grow and develop solely through the nutriment of volition^[56]. [114b] Why is this? Because beings among the hungry ghosts engage extensively in mental activity^[57]. While egg-born beings are still within their eggs, the eggs do not spoil because they remain mindful of their mothers. The devas of the three lower heavens in the Formless Realm likewise engage extensively in mental activity and thought; therefore, they all grow and develop through the nutriment of volition.

“Furthermore, beings in the human realm and the six heavens of the Desire Realm all grow and develop through material nutriment. Why is this? Because beings in these two realms depend upon material food to sustain their bodies and lives.

“All beings in the hells and in the Realm of Neither Perception nor Non-perception grow and develop through the nutriment of consciousness^[58]. Why is this? Beings in the hells depend upon consciousness to sustain name (mind) and form (body), while beings in the Realm of Neither Perception nor Non-perception use consciousness to sustain name (mind).

“Furthermore, beings in the Form Realm and moisture-born beings all grow and develop through the nutriment of contact. Why is this? Beings in the Form Realm experience the bliss of cultivating meditative concentration to nourish their bodies, while moisture-born beings depend upon contact with moisture to sustain their lives.”

XXI.4. The Five Kinds of Birth

The Bodhisattvabhumi Treatise records: “There are five kinds of bodies assumed in birth by bodhisattvas abiding in the practices, through which they bring peace and happiness to all beings: a birth-body that ends suffering; a birth-body in accordance with each kind of being; a supreme birth-body; an increasingly exalted birth-body; and a final birth-body.

“Through the power of vows, in an age of famine a bodhisattva assumes the body of a great fish and the like, using their own flesh to save all beings. In an age rife with disease, the bodhisattva becomes a great king of physicians who cures the illnesses of beings. In an age of warfare, the bodhisattva becomes a powerful king who ends the fighting and uses the true Dharma to teach and transform the wicked. In this way, the bodhisattva saves immeasurable beings and enables them to attain rebirth in a favorable realm; therefore, this is called a birth-body that ends suffering.

“Through the sovereign power of vows, when various beings such as devas, dragons, ghosts, and spirits disturb one another, and when followers of non-Buddhist paths give rise to wrong views, the bodhisattva manifests a body among them, becomes their leader, and instructs and guides them onto the right path. This is called a birth-body in accordance with each kind of being.

“Because the bodhisattva assumes a body according to their innate nature, the lifespan and physical appearance of that body surpass those of worldly people; therefore, it is called a supreme birth-body.

“From the bodhisattva abiding in Purity of Mind up to the bodhisattva abiding in the Supreme Stage, they freely take birth in Jambudvipa. Every place in which they take birth is exceptional; this is an increasingly exalted body.

“When a bodhisattva abiding in the Supreme Stage takes birth, they bring karma under control, fully develop bodhi, are born into a kshatriya or brahmin family, realize unsurpassed complete and perfect enlightenment, and perform all the deeds of a Buddha. This is the final birth-body.

“Throughout the three times, bodhisattvas possess these five kinds of birth-body. All are supremely exalted bodies, and by means of them they swiftly attain unsurpassed complete and perfect enlightenment.”

[114c] The Yogacarabhumi Treatise records: “Broadly speaking, bodhisattvas have five kinds of birth-body, encompassing all birth-bodies. Whenever bodhisattvas assume a birth-body, it is free from fault and brings benefit, peace, and happiness to sentient beings. These five birth-bodies are: a birth-body that eliminates calamities; a birth-body in accordance with each kind of being; a birth-body possessing great power; an increasingly exalted birth-body; and a final birth-body.

“When there is famine, a bodhisattva becomes a great fish and helps all beings obtain sufficient food. If beings fall ill, the bodhisattva becomes a great king of physicians and cures their diseases. If warfare occurs, the bodhisattva becomes a powerful king and skillfully employs expedient means to end the fighting. If a country is ruled by a wicked king who governs contrary to principle, the bodhisattva, through the power of vows and loving-kindness for all, may give rise to views opposed to that ruler in order to eradicate wickedness. This is a brief explanation of the birth-body that eliminates calamities.

“Through the power of great vows, the bodhisattva is born in realms containing many different kinds of beings and uses expedient means to teach and transform them, causing them to practice goodness. This is a brief explanation of the birth-body in accordance with each kind of being.”

Some bodhisattvas, by virtue of the nature of their rebirth, enjoy exceptionally excellent karmic rewards such as longevity, physical form, noble lineage, autonomy, and wealth. All their deeds benefit both themselves and others. This is a brief account of a birth-body endowed with great power.

Some bodhisattvas at the stage of the Ten Grounds^[59] receive the supremely excellent and perfectly fulfilled resultant rewards of the Ten Kings^[60]. This is brought about by the responsive effect of their ascendant meritorious karma. This is a brief account of a birth-body corresponding to ascendant conditions.

Some bodhisattvas have already perfected the provisions for bodhi in this very life, or are born into a noble royal family, where they are able to manifest the rank of Equal Enlightenment and perform many Buddha-works. This is a brief account of the final birth-body.

All the pure, virtuous, and excellent places of birth of bodhisattvas in the past, present, and future are included within these five bodies. Apart from these five birth-bodies, there is no superior birth-body, except for the rebirths assumed by bodhisattvas on the ordinary ground^[61]. The intention here is to explain the bodhisattva birth-body, which serves as the basis for the fruit of great bodhi and enables bodhisattvas swiftly to realize the fruit of bodhi.”

XXI. 5. Intermediate Existence

As stated in the New Vibhāṣā Treatise: “The intermediate existence has many names: intermediate being^[62], gandharva, seeker of existence, and mind-made.

Question: Why is it called the intermediate being?

Answer: Because this body exists during the interval from the moment immediately after the present body dies until the moment immediately before rebirth is assumed. That is, its own essence exists during the period between death-existence^[63] and birth-existence^[64].

Question: Why is the intermediate being called a gandharva?

Answer: Because the body of intermediate existence sustains itself merely by smelling fragrances. This name applies only to the body of intermediate existence in the Desire Realm.

Question: Why is the body of intermediate existence also called a seeker of existence?

Answer: Because it seeks birth-existence in the six realms.

Question: Why is the body of intermediate existence also called mind-made?

Answer: Because it is born from mind. That is, sentient beings may be born from mind, from karma, [115a] from the ripened fruit of karmic retribution, or from sexual desire. Those born from mind include human beings at the beginning of the kalpa, bodies of intermediate existence in the Form and Formless Realms, and transformation bodies.

Those born from karma are beings in the various hells. As stated in a sutra: ‘Sentient beings in the hells are bound by the power of karma and cannot escape; they are born from the power of karma, not from mind.’ Those born from ripened fruit include birds, ghosts, and spirits; because the force of their ripened karmic retribution is light, they are able to fly through the sky without obstruction. Those born from sexual desire include beings in the six heavens of the Desire Realm and human beings.

Because bodies of intermediate existence are born from mind, all their activities also follow the mind. Therefore, they are called mind-made.”

Furthermore, the Vibhāṣā Treatise states:

Question: Does the body of intermediate existence possess all the faculties?

Answer: All bodies of intermediate existence possess all the faculties. As soon as they first assume their ripened karmic retribution, they are already complete. However, another explanation holds that their faculties are not entirely complete, just as when a seal is pressed upon an object, its image appears. The transition from intermediate existence to fundamental existence^[65] is likewise; at the stage of fundamental existence, the faculties are incomplete.”

Of these two explanations, the first is correct: the body of intermediate existence that seeks rebirth in one of the six realms possesses all the faculties. Here, “faculties” refers to the eyes and so forth, not to the male and female faculties. The body of intermediate existence in the Form Realm does not possess sexual faculties, whereas that in the Desire Realm does, although these faculties are not fixed. Bodies of intermediate existence destined for either womb birth or egg birth possess both male and female faculties; upon entering the womb, one becomes absent. Were this not so, womb birth and egg birth would be impossible.

Question: What are the forms of bodies of intermediate existence in the various destinies?

Answer: The body of intermediate existence destined for hell has its head pointing downward and its feet upward. Therefore, the verse states:

Falling into the hells,

Feet above and head turned downward,

Because they reviled the sages

Who practiced austerities in solitude.

Bodies of intermediate existence destined for the heavens have their feet pointing downward and their heads upward, like an arrow shot into the sky; in this posture they proceed directly toward the heavenly realm. Bodies of intermediate existence destined for the other realms all travel horizontally, like a bird flying across the sky toward its nest, or like depictions of flying sages painted upon a wall; their entire bodies fly horizontally as they seek the places where they will be born.

Question: Do all bodies of intermediate existence move in this manner?

Answer: Not necessarily! Moreover, this is explained with reference to the death of a human being. If a being in hell dies and is reborn in hell, it does not necessarily move with its head downward and feet upward. If a heavenly being dies and is reborn in a heaven, it does not necessarily move with its feet downward and head upward. If a being in hell dies and is reborn in the human realm, it moves with its head upward. If a heavenly being dies and is reborn in the human realm, its head points downward. It should be understood that the manner in which the bodies of intermediate existence of ghosts and animals move depends upon the place where they are to be reborn.

[115b] Question: When a body of intermediate existence arises, is it clothed?

Answer: Intermediate beings in the Form Realm are generally clothed, because beings in the Form Realm possess a profound sense of shame and moral dread, and shame and moral dread are precisely the garments of the Dharma-body. Just as the Dharma-body is adorned with fine garments, so too is the birth-body; therefore, all bodies of intermediate existence in that realm are clothed. Bodies of intermediate existence in the Desire Realm are mostly unclothed, because beings in the Desire Realm generally possess little sense of shame and moral dread.

The only exceptions are bodhisattvas and the nun Utpalavarṇā, who always possess exceedingly beautiful robes when they assume a body of intermediate existence. Another explanation states that the body of intermediate existence of a bodhisattva may sometimes be unclothed, but that of the nun Utpalavarṇā is always clothed.

Question: Why is the body of intermediate existence of a bodhisattva unclothed, while that of the nun Utpalavarṇā is clothed?

Answer: Because the nun Utpalavarṇā constantly offered robes to the Sangha of the four directions, her body of intermediate existence is always clothed.

Question: If that is so, bodhisattvas in the past also offered beautiful robes to the Sangha of the four directions. Even if the nun Utpalavarṇā made offerings as numerous as particles of dust, they could not compare with those of bodhisattvas. Why, then, is the body of intermediate existence of a bodhisattva unclothed while hers is clothed?

Answer: The power of her vows differed from that of the bodhisattvas. After offering robes to the Sangha of the four directions, the nun Utpalavarṇā immediately made this vow: ‘May I be clothed in life after life, so that even in the body of intermediate existence my form will never be exposed.’ Because of the power of that vow, wherever she was born she was always fully clothed. In her final body, when she assumed the body of intermediate existence, she entered her mother’s womb clothed, and her garments never left her body, even when she emerged from the womb.

As her body gradually grew, she later renounced the household life and received full ordination; her garments then transformed into the five robes^[66]. She diligently cultivated right conduct and before long attained the fruit of arhatship. Later, when she entered nirvana, these very robes were used to cover her body for cremation.

Throughout three asankhyeya kalpas in the past, the bodhisattva cultivated immeasurable, excellent wholesome practices and dedicated them all to unsurpassed bodhi for the benefit and happiness of all sentient beings. Because of these practices and vows, although he attained the excellent marks, he had no clothing. This was due to the superior power of the bodhisattva’s vows and is not a valid objection.

Question: Is the food of the body of intermediate existence solid food?

Answer: Intermediate beings in the Form Realm do not consume solid food. Bodies of intermediate existence in the Desire Realm do consume solid food.

Question: How does an intermediate being in the Desire Realm partake of solid food?

Answer: One account states: “An intermediate being in the Desire Realm eats whenever it comes to a place where there is food and drinks whenever it comes to a place where there is drink. It relies upon that food and drink to sustain its life and continue to exist.”

This account is incorrect! Why? Because intermediate beings are exceedingly numerous, and it would be difficult to provide for them all.

Therefore, the sutra records: [115c] “It is as though a great cauldron were filled with grain and rice. The beings of the five destinies who assume intermediate existence everywhere are many times more numerous than those grains of rice. Even if all the food and drink in the world were gathered together, it would suffice only to provide for the intermediate beings of dogs.

If there is not enough to provide for even the intermediate beings of a single class of beings, how could there be enough to provide for the intermediate beings of all the other classes of beings?” Furthermore, intermediate beings are extremely light and subtle; if they were to partake of coarse and heavy food, their bodies would disintegrate. More accurately, intermediate beings subsist only upon fragrances and cannot consume coarse material forms.

Therefore, those without transgressions from the past are called meritorious beings, and they subsist upon the pure fragrances and delicate scents of various flowers and fruits. Beings without merit subsist upon impure and foul-smelling substances. Moreover, these intermediate beings partake of only a very small amount of fragrance; hence, even though they are numerous, there is still enough to provide for them.

Furthermore, the Mahavibhasa Treatise cites the teaching of the Blessed One: “When three conditions come together, entry into the mother’s womb occurs: first, the parents unite while both harboring defiled minds; second, the mother’s body is healthy, free from illness, and at the proper time; third, the gandharva^[67] is present there. At that time, this gandharva successively gives rise to two thoughts^[68] and enters the mother’s womb.” That is to say: the parents lovingly engage in intercourse; the mother’s body is healthy and at the proper time; and the gandharva is present.

“The parents unite while both harboring defiled minds” means that both parents give rise to lustful desire and then engage in intercourse with one another.

“The mother’s body is healthy and at the proper time” means that the mother gives rise to lustful desire and experiences pleasure in both body and mind. The masters of the Vinaya hold that, because the mother gives rise to lustful desire, her body and mind become turbid, like water flowing in spring and summer that cannot be restrained; this is called bodily turbidity. The mother’s abdomen is not afflicted by disorders of wind or heat that oppress it in turn, and thus she is said to be free from illness.

From that point, the fetus can be sheltered within the mother’s womb for approximately nine or ten months without being harmed. “At the proper time” means that the mother’s body contains impure substances, with vital energy and blood ordinarily flowing out each month. If too much vital energy and blood flow out, excessive moisture prevents a fetus from forming; if too little flows out, excessive dryness likewise prevents a fetus from forming.

Only when this vital energy and blood are present in the proper amount, being neither too dry nor too moist, can a fetus form; this is called the proper time. The moment when the intermediate being enters the womb is precisely when the mother’s final two drops of blood unite with the father’s final drop of semen. Only when this semen and blood blend together does a fetus form.

“The gandharva is present” means that the intermediate being is present at that very place and at that very time—not elsewhere, neither too early nor too late. [116a] At that time, this gandharva gives rise to two thoughts and immediately enters the mother’s womb. That is, when the gandharva is about to enter the womb, if it is male, it gives rise to affection for the mother and anger toward the father; if it is female, the reverse occurs.

Question: Through what place does an intermediate being enter the mother’s womb?

Answer: One account states that, since an intermediate being is unobstructed, it may enter the womb through any place it desires.

Question: If an intermediate being is entirely unobstructed, why must it rely upon the mother’s womb?

Answer: It relies upon the mother’s womb because it is led by the power of karma. The power of beings’ karma is inconceivable: it transforms what is unobstructed into what is obstructed. Therefore, one should not press this question. It should be said that an intermediate being necessarily enters the womb through the birth passage, for that is the place it desires. According to this principle, in the case of twins, the one born later is the elder brother or sister. Why? Because the one who enters the womb first is necessarily born later.

Question: Through what place does a bodhisattva in intermediate existence enter the womb?

Answer: A bodhisattva enters the womb through the mother’s right side. Fully aware of entering the womb, the bodhisattva clearly knows the mother to be the mother and does not give rise to lustful attachment. Another account states that the bodhisattva enters through the birth passage, because all beings born from eggs and from wombs do so.

Yet another account states that a bodhisattva possesses immense merit and wisdom; therefore, when about to enter the womb, the bodhisattva’s mind is entirely free from delusion and does not give rise to lustful attachment. Although a wheel-turning sage king or a pratyekabuddha also possesses merit and wisdom, these are not as great; therefore, when about to enter the womb, although not deluded, such a being still gives rise to lustful attachment.

Consequently, entry into the womb must necessarily occur through the birth passage.

Furthermore, this treatise cites: “If the parents possess abundant merit but the child possesses little merit, the child cannot enter the womb. If the parents possess little merit but the child possesses great merit, the child likewise cannot enter the womb. Only when the merit and karma of the father, mother, and child are equal can the child enter the womb.”

Question: If a wealthy and honored man has intercourse with a poor woman, or a wealthy and honored woman has intercourse with a poor man, how does the intermediate being enter the womb?

Answer: If a wealthy and honored man has intercourse with a poor woman, he conceives of himself as lowly and gives rise to a respectful regard for that woman. If a wealthy and honored woman has intercourse with a poor man, she conceives of herself as lowly and gives rise to a regard for that man as noble. [116b] If a poor man has intercourse with a wealthy and honored woman, he conceives of himself as noble and regards the woman as lowly. If a poor woman has intercourse with a wealthy and honored man, she conceives of herself as noble and regards that man as lowly. When the child is about to enter the womb, its attitude toward its parents is likewise. Therefore, at the time of entry into the womb, there is in every case a sense of equality.

The treatise asks: The body of an intermediate being is subtle, and no walls, mountains, hills, trees, or plants can obstruct it. Can one intermediate being obstruct another intermediate being?

Answer: One account states that one intermediate being does not obstruct another. Because their bodies are exceedingly subtle, they remain unaware even when their bodies come into contact. Another account states that one intermediate being can obstruct another, because when they come into contact, the two parties exchange words with one another.

Question: If that is so, how can it be said that intermediate beings are unobstructed?

Answer: They are unobstructed by material objects; it is not said that they are unobstructed by other intermediate beings.

Question: Do all intermediate beings obstruct one another?

Answer: Those of the same class obstruct one another, while those of different classes do not. That is, intermediate beings destined for hell obstruct intermediate beings destined for hell; and so forth, up to intermediate beings destined for the heavenly realm, which invariably obstruct other intermediate beings destined for the heavenly realm. One account states that inferior intermediate beings obstruct superior intermediate beings because their bodies are coarse and heavy.

Superior intermediate beings do not obstruct inferior ones because their bodies are light. The intermediate beings of hell beings obstruct the intermediate beings of all five destinies; the intermediate beings of animals obstruct the intermediate beings of four destinies; the intermediate beings of hungry ghosts obstruct the intermediate beings of three destinies; the intermediate beings of humans obstruct the intermediate beings of two destinies; and the intermediate beings of heavenly beings obstruct only the intermediate beings of heavenly beings.

Furthermore, the Sutra on the Mindfulness of the True Dharma states: “There are seventeen kinds of intermediate existence. You should focus your mindfulness and cultivate the path of quiescent extinction. If a deva or human being keeps this path in mind, they will never fear harm from the messengers of Yama. What are the seventeen bodies of intermediate existence?

1. When a being in the human realm dies and is to be born in a heavenly realm, that being sees blissful signs. At that time, the intermediate-state body resembles a sheet of pure white silk, soft and delicate, descending from above.

The being also sees gardens, forests, flowers, and ponds; hears the sounds of singing, dancing, amusement, and laughter; and smells various fragrances. Such pleasing things are immeasurably numerous. The being in the intermediate state experiences ever-increasing joy, makes contact with them, and is immediately born in a heavenly realm.

Through wholesome karma, the being now obtains the pleasures of heaven; the mind is joyful, the mouth smiles, and the body is pure. Although relatives grieve, weep, and lament, because of these auspicious signs the being neither hears nor sees them, nor does the mind think of them. After death, the being is immediately born in a place of bliss, with a body resembling that of the devas, as though reproduced from a seal.

Seeing the excellence of the heavenly realm, the being develops delight in its celestial objects and immediately assumes a heavenly body.

2. If, after death, the intermediate-state body of a person from Jambudvipa is to be born in Uttarakuru, [116c] the person sees a soft and pleasing sheet of red silk, becomes attached to it, and reaches out to grasp it as though grasping empty space. The relatives think that the person’s hands are flailing in the air.

A wind then blows toward the person. If the sick person dies during the cold of winter, a warm wind blows forth and dispels the suffering of cold; if during hot weather, a cool wind blows forth and alleviates the heat, making the mind joyful. Because the mind is absorbed in that happiness, the person does not hear the sounds of grieving and lamentation.

If that person’s karma is stirred, the mind is stirred as well; upon hearing those sorrowful cries, the person is immediately blown away to another place. Therefore, when a relative dies, grieving and lamenting become a great obstruction. If no obstruction occurs, the person will be born in Uttarakuru.

During that interval, auspicious signs successively appear. The person sees a blue lotus pond containing many geese, ducks, and mandarin ducks. The intermediate-state body immediately runs toward it, enters it, and plays joyfully there.

When about to enter the mother’s womb, the intermediate being goes from this lotus pond onto dry land, just as the parents, driven by lust, engage in intercourse. Because of this impure act and the simultaneous arising of inverted views, the being sees the father as a male goose and the mother as a female goose. If the being is to be born male, it sees its own body as a male goose; if it is to be born female, it sees its own body as a female goose.

If it is to be born male, it hates the father and loves the mother. If it is to be born female, it loves the father and hates the mother.

3. If a being in Jambudvipa dies and is to be born in Godaniya, then, as death approaches, that being sees all the houses colored yellow, as though covered by clouds of pure gold. Seeing a strip of yellow silk in the sky, the being immediately reaches out to grasp it.

Siblings and relatives think that the sick person’s hands are clawing at empty space. At that time, as this person’s auspicious signs are about to cease, the person sees their own body as an ox and sees herds of cattle, as though in a dream. If the being is to be born male, it sees the parents engaging in intercourse, performing an impure act, and sees human figures and many rooms and houses.

Seeing the father’s form as resembling a bull, the being drives the father away in order to mate with the mother. If the being is to be born female, it sees its own body as resembling a cow and thinks: “Why does that bull mate with this cow and not with me?” Having thought thus, it immediately assumes a female body.

4. If, after death, a person from Jambudvipa is to be born in Purvavideha, the person sees a strip of blue silk whose blue color fills the whole sky, and also sees empty rooms and houses. Fearing that the blue silk will disappear, the person raises a hand to stop it. [117a] Siblings and relatives think that the person is warding off empty space.

As death approaches, the intermediate-state body has the form of a horse. The person sees the father as a stallion and the mother as a mare. When the parents lovingly engage in intercourse, if the being is to be born male, it thinks: “I am mating with this mare.” If the being is to be born female, it sees its own body in the form of a mare and thinks: “Why am I not mating with such a stallion?” Having thought thus, it immediately assumes a female body.

5. When a person in Uttarakuru whose karma is of the inferior grade approaches death, the intermediate state displays the sign of moving upward. If the person’s mental karma is powerful and the person is to be born freely in a heavenly realm, the person reaches out to grasp empty space. As in a dream, the person smells the exquisite fragrance of flowers and holds in the hands beautiful flowers of unsurpassed color and fragrance. Seeing the flowers, the person becomes attached to them and thinks: “I should climb this beautiful tree!” Having thought thus, the person climbs the tree, which is in fact the ascent of Mount Sumeru, and sees the exceedingly beautiful flowers and fruits of the heavenly realm. The person thinks: “I am wandering about in enjoyment.”

6. When a person in Uttarakuru, through karma of the intermediate grade, approaches death and is to be born in a heavenly realm, the person sees a pond filled with exquisitely blooming lotuses. There are also many handsome men, and every place emits fragrance. The person steps upon a lotus and, in a single instant, soars into the sky. As though being born in a heavenly realm within a dream, the person then thinks: “Now I shall go to this most beautiful lotus pond!”

7. A person in Uttarakuru whose karma is excellent is born in the Hall of Excellent Dharma^[69] in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. As death approaches, this person sees that Dharma hall, supremely beautiful and adorned. The person immediately flies up into the Dharma hall and is born as a divine prince within that palace.

8. When a person in Uttarakuru is about to die and be born in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, the person sees themselves amusingly wandering through gardens and forests. Their pleasing fragrances become ever more delightful upon being perceived. There is no suffering or affliction, and the mind is undefiled. Because the mind is pure, the person flies up into a palace in the sky and also sees devas flying through the sky. As though in a dream, the person sees the Heaven of the Thirty-Three in all its beauty, fully endowed with the five kinds of sensual pleasure. Thus, when this person dies, the person is immediately born in the Uttarakuru heaven. [117b]

9. When a person from Godaniya dies and is born in a heavenly realm, there are two kinds of karma: residual karma and birth-producing karma. When the person is to be born in heaven, because of wholesome karma, as the person is about to relinquish life, the breath is not obstructed, the pulse is not severed, and the faculties remain pure.

The person sees a great pond whose water is cool and pleasant, flowing continuously toward the opposite shore. The person also sees supremely beautiful celestial maidens, adorned in many ways, singing, dancing, laughing, and playing. Upon seeing these scenes, the person desires to draw near.

The person approaches and embraces a maiden, and is immediately born in a heavenly realm, where pleasures are enjoyed as though in a dream, while the intermediate-state body immediately ceases. (People from Godaniya who are born in a heavenly realm may possess karma of superior, intermediate, or inferior grade, but their intermediate-state bodies and radiance are all alike. This differs from the three kinds of people from Uttarakuru, whose modes of birth are different.)

10. When a person from Purvavideha approaches death and sees the signs of death, the person sees their own karma or the karma of others, or sees a magnificent and supremely adorned palace. Joy arises in the person’s mind, and the person wishes to be born there. Outside the palace, the person sees many palace maidens amusing themselves and singing together with men. At that very moment, the intermediate-state body thinks: “I wish to enjoy myself with them,” and immediately enters their company. As though falling asleep, the person is instantly born in a heavenly realm.”

11. When the evil karma of hungry ghosts has been exhausted, they experience the fruits of wholesome karma. This wholesome karma was originally created in other realms.

Just as signs appear to parents when they are about to be reborn in a heavenly realm, so too, when beings in the realm of hungry ghosts die and are reborn in a heavenly realm, while still in the hungry ghost realm they are scorched by hunger and thirst, constantly craving food and continually thinking of drink. Yet when they are about to die, these thoughts no longer arise; they all cease, and the beings become free from all evil karma.

Although they now see food and drink, they merely look upon them with their eyes. As though in a dream, they see food and drink and this beautiful heavenly realm; they run toward it and are immediately reborn in the heavenly realm.

12. Because of delusion, beings assume the bodies of animals, undergo hundreds of thousands of kotis of bodies in birth and death, and fall into the hells, the realm of hungry ghosts, and the animal realm, wandering through the world without end. Because some wholesome karma remains, after relinquishing the body of an animal [117c], they may immediately be reborn in the realm of the Second Dhyana or in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings.

When the painful retribution of animals is about to end, they will be liberated from their animal bodies. As they approach death, because some wholesome karma remains, they see a light appear and their deluded minds gradually become less obscured. Or they see a realm of peace and happiness, like scenes perceived in a dream, and immediately run toward it, whereupon they are reborn in a heavenly realm.

13. It is difficult for beings in the hells to be reborn in a heavenly realm. Yet because wholesome causes and conditions remain, when their karma has matured and its retribution has been exhausted, they will attain liberation.

When the lives of these beings in the hells are about to end, various signs appear. If the wardens cast them into a cauldron, it seems to them as though they are bathing; their offenses are exhausted, and they are no longer reborn in the hells. If they are beaten with clubs and die at the very moment they are struck, they are no longer reborn in the hells.

If they are cast into an iron vat and die at the very moment they are thrown in, they are no longer reborn in the hells. If they are cast into the river of ashes and dissolve as soon as they are thrown into it, they are no longer reborn in the hells. If they are struck with iron clubs and immediately die, they are no longer reborn in the hells.

If iron birds or ferocious beasts devour their flesh, they are no longer reborn in the hells. When the evil karma of these beings in the hells has been exhausted, after death they no longer see Yama or the wardens of hell. Just as a lamp goes out when its oil is exhausted, their intermediate bodies in the hells do not appear.

Suddenly, they hear singing, dancing, and joyful laughter in the midst of space, and fragrant breezes blow upon their bodies. These beings experience supreme bliss and are immediately reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three or the Heaven of the Four Great Kings.

14. If beings die in the human realm and are reborn as humans, at that time they see the shadow of a great rocky mountain looming above their heads. They then think, “This mountain is going to crush my body!” and so raise their hands, wishing to hold the mountain back.

Their relatives see this and think that they are grasping at empty space. After seeing this, the person again sees the mountain as though it were a strip of white silk and flies up onto that strip of silk. Then the person sees a strip of red silk…

Seeing these things successively, when death approaches the person sees a light and sees the future parents joined together in intimate union, whereupon a deluded thought arises. If the person is to be born male, he sees himself coupling with the mother and regards the father as an obstruction. If the person is to be born female, she sees herself coupling with the father and regards the mother as an obstruction.

At that very moment, the intermediate body perishes and the subsequent body is formed, like a wax seal pressed into clay: when the wax seal is removed, its pattern has been formed.

[118a] 15. When devas in a heavenly realm die and are reborn in a higher heavenly realm, they experience no suffering or distress. Other devas, when about to die, experience the anguish of separation from those they love and thus fall into the hells, the realm of hungry ghosts, or the animal realm. These devas, however, do not lose the adornments of their bodies, nor does another deva occupy their seats; they are immediately reborn in a finer heavenly realm. For example, when devas in the Heaven of the Four Great Kings die and are reborn in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three, auspicious and delightful signs appear.

16. If devas are reborn from a higher heavenly realm into a lower heavenly realm, they then see scenes of lotuses, gardens, ponds, and so forth, all unlike those of the places where they presently dwell. Having seen these things, they become hungry and thirsty, and in their distress they long to be reborn in that realm. Thus, although both are rebirths in heavenly realms, the intermediate state has two different kinds of signs of rebirth.

17. When beings from the continent of Purvavideha are reborn in the continent of Godaniya, such signs appear. What signs, then, appear when beings from the continent of Godaniya are reborn in the continent of Purvavideha?

When people of these two continents are reborn in one another’s lands, the signs are the same. As they approach death, they see a dark cave. Within that cave, a red flash of lightning shines downward like a streamer, either red or white.

Upon seeing it, the person reaches out to grasp it, clings to the streamer, and enters the cave. The birth-existence then ceases, and the intermediate body is assumed. When the subsequent body is about to be assumed, the process is also as explained above.

Or the person sees two buffaloes or two horses joined in intimate union and immediately gives rise to sexual desire; as soon as sexual desire arises, the birth-existence is assumed.”

XXI.6. Conception

The Vinaya of the Good Seer states: “When a woman is about to conceive, the menstrual fluid—a kind of blood—flows forth, and a clot of blood forms at the place of conception. After seven days, it ruptures by itself and flows out. If the blood continues to flow, the man’s semen cannot adhere and flows out together with it. If the bleeding ceases, the semen remains in that region and only afterward forms an embryo. Furthermore, there are seven circumstances through which a woman may conceive: first, bodily contact; second, receiving a garment; third, the depositing of semen; fourth, rubbing with the hand; fifth, seeing a form; sixth, hearing a sound; and seventh, smelling a scent.”

Question: How does conception occur through bodily contact?

Answer: When a woman is menstruating, she feels a strong attraction toward a man. If the man [118b] touches a part of the woman’s body with his own body, she immediately gives rise to desire and conceives.

Question: What is meant by conception through receiving a garment?

Answer: Udayin and his wife had both gone forth into homelessness, but their sensual desire had not yet ceased. Thus, when the two visited and inquired after each other, lust suddenly flared up, and semen was discharged onto a garment. The wife licked the semen from it with her tongue and placed it into her female organ, thereby conceiving.

Question: How does conception occur through the depositing of semen?

Answer: The Deer Mother, moved by sexual desire, drank the semen of an ascetic and thereby conceived and gave birth to the ascetic Deer Son.

Question: What is meant by conception through rubbing with the hand?

Answer: When the parents of the bodhisattva Syama were about to become blind, Sakra learned of this, descended to meet them, and said, “Only through the union of male and female can a child be born!” The husband and wife, however, had already gone forth into homelessness, and so they said to Sakra, “We have already gone forth. According to the precepts, we are not permitted to do such a thing.” Sakra then said, “In that case, the navel should be rubbed with the hand.” The couple followed Sakra’s instruction and thereby conceived and gave birth to Syama.

Question: What is meant by conception through seeing a form?

Answer: There was a woman who, when her menstrual period arrived, was unable to have intercourse with a man. Because her sexual desire was exceedingly intense, merely seeing a man caused her to conceive, as in the case of a palace woman.

Question: What is meant by conception through hearing a sound?

Answer: White cranes have only females and no males. When spring arrives and yang energy begins to pervade the air, as soon as thunder sounds, the female cranes listen to the thunder and immediately conceive. Hens, too, may sometimes conceive upon hearing the call of a rooster.

Question: What is meant by conceiving immediately upon smelling a fragrance?

Answer: Just as a cow may become pregnant merely by smelling the scent of a young bull.

The Ekottarika Agama states: “At that time, the Blessed One told the bhiksus that there are three conditions under which consciousness cannot enter a womb: First, if the mother experiences sexual desire and the father and mother come together, but the consciousness from outside has not yet arrived, conception does not occur; if the consciousness arrives but the father and mother do not come together, conception likewise does not occur. Second, if the mother does not experience sexual desire, while the father’s sexual desire is intense, and the mother takes no pleasure in sexual intercourse, conception does not occur. Third, if the father and mother come together and the mother’s sexual desire is intense, but the father takes no pleasure in it, conception likewise does not occur.

“There are also three cases: First, if the father and mother come together, but the father suffers from a wind disorder and the mother from a cold disorder, conception does not occur. Second, if the mother suffers from a wind disorder and the father also suffers from a wind disorder, conception likewise does not occur. Third, if the father’s body contains an excess of fluids, even though the mother does not suffer from this disorder, conception does not occur.

“There are also three cases: First, if the father and mother come together, but the father bears the marks of one who will have children while the mother does not, conception does not occur. Second, if the mother bears the marks of one who will have children while the father does not, conception likewise does not occur. Third, if neither the father nor the mother bears the marks of one who will have children, conception does not occur.

“There are also three cases: First, if the proper time has come and the consciousness arrives, but the father has traveled far away, conception does not occur. Second, if the proper time has come and the father and mother should come together, [118c] but the mother has traveled far away, conception likewise does not occur. Third, if the father and mother come together, conception occurs.

“There are also three cases: First, if the proper time has come and the father and mother come together, but the father’s body is gravely ill, then even if the consciousness arrives, conception does not occur. Second, if the mother’s body is gravely ill, conception likewise does not occur. Third, if both father and mother are gravely ill, conception does not occur. If the father and mother are free from illness, the consciousness arrives, and both possess the marks of those who will have children, conception occurs.”

The Yogacarabhumi Treatise states: “Furthermore, the embryo passes through eight distinct stages: kalala, arbuda, pesi, ghana, prasakha, hair-body-hair-and-nails, faculties, and form. When the embryo has just coagulated but remains fluid, it is called kalala. When its interior and exterior resemble thickened milk, but it has not yet developed into flesh, it is called arbuda.

When it has developed into flesh but remains very soft, it is called pesi. When it has become firm and compact and can withstand contact, it is called ghana. When this mass of flesh gradually grows larger and the signs of the limbs appear, it is called prasakha.

When the hair of the head, body hair, nails, and so forth appear, it is called the stage of hair, body hair, and nails. Thereafter, when the faculties such as the eyes and ears arise, it is called the stage of faculties. Thereafter, when the physical bases of the faculties become clearly manifest, it is called the stage of form.

“While in the womb, the child, through the force of previous karma, or because the mother cannot avoid distress and therefore experiences sorrow, joy, and anger that affect the fetus, may undergo changes in its hair, complexion, skin, or even its limbs. Changes in the hair occur because karma performed in a previous life has the power to bring about this unwholesome karmic result, and because the mother habitually consumes salty flavors, whether salty foods or salty drinks, causing the fetus’s hair to be sparse.

Changes in complexion occur because of karma from a previous life and because the mother often remains near smoke and fire during pregnancy, causing the child to be born with a dark complexion. Again, because the mother remains near excessively cold places during pregnancy, the child may be born with a pale complexion. Again, because the mother consumes many hot foods, the child may be born with a ruddy complexion.

Changes in the skin occur because of karma from a previous life and because the mother habitually gives rise to sexual desire during pregnancy, causing the child to be born with unsightly skin, sores, and so forth. Changes in the limbs occur because of karma from a previous life and because the mother, while pregnant, conducts herself without dignity, rushing about and leaping, observing no restraints and maintaining no balance, and so forth. [119a] Consequently, when the child is born, its faculties and limbs may be deficient.

“Furthermore, if the fetus is female, she lies along the mother’s right side, leaning against the spine, with her face turned toward the abdomen. If the fetus is male, he lies along the mother’s left side, leaning against the abdomen, with his face turned toward the spine.

“Again, when the fetus has fully developed in bodily form and the mother can no longer bear its weight, an internal wind immediately arises, causing great suffering. Due also to the karmic retribution of the fetus, the wind of birth arises, causing its head to turn downward and its feet upward. Enclosed tightly in the fetal membrane, it then moves toward the place of birth. When the time for delivery arrives, the fetal membrane immediately separates into two layers. Upon emerging from the mother’s womb, the child is said to have been born. After birth, the faculties successively come into contact with their objects—that is, contact through the eye, continuing through contact through the mind.”

Verse:

The principles of karma have myriad threads;

The paths of life are likewise without end.

Peace and danger form two divergent ways;

How could defilement and purity share one source?

After death, there is no bodily form;

Consciousness follows in pursuit of scent.

It may fall into the darkened paths,

Or ascend upon the radiant way.

The yin air is bitterly cold;

Majestic voices resound like thunder.

One casts oneself into a thatched hut,

Or joyfully imagines entering a flower garden.

The passions of husband and wife churn in confusion;

Greed and anger leave one deluded.

The All-Knowing One is called the Perfectly Awakened One;

Raising one hand, he alone is proclaimed the Honored One.

Notes:

^[36] Hindrance 蓋 (S: Āvaraṇa): afflictions that obstruct the wholesome mind. There are five hindrances: sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness, and doubt.

^[37] Five desires (五欲; S: pañca kāmāḥ): five kinds of desire arising from attachment to the five sensory objects. They are: desire for forms, the desire for beautiful worldly forms; desire for sounds; desire for fragrances; desire for flavors, the desire for delicious foods; and desire for tangible objects, the desire for physical contact.

^[38] Four foundations of mindfulness (四念處): one category among the seven categories comprising the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening. They are four methods of concentrating mindful attention upon a single object, guarding against and preventing the arising of discursive thoughts and deluded conceptions in order to realize the truth.

^[39] Curd 酪: a nutritious substance specially prepared from cow’s milk, possessing an exceptionally delicious fragrance and flavor; it is one of the five most nourishing flavors.

^[40] Kimnara 緊陀羅 (S: Kiṃnara): deities in Indian mythology who were later incorporated into Buddhism and classified as the seventh of the eight classes of beings. These deities resemble humans but have a horn on the crown of the head.

^[41] The asura’s lute (阿修羅琴): asuras possess this lute by virtue of their merit. When an asura wishes to hear a piece of music, even though no one plays it, the lute can produce sounds in accordance with the asura’s preference.

^[42] Fetters and tempters 結使: another name for the afflictions. Fetters are afflictions that bind sentient beings and prevent them from escaping birth and death; tempters are afflictions that drive and torment sentient beings. There are nine kinds of fetters and ten kinds of tempters, called the nine fetters and ten tempters.

^[43] Rope couch 繩床: a seat made of rope, used for sitting or lying down; one of the eighteen possessions of a bhiksu.

^[44] Birth stories 本生: accounts of the Buddha in past lives, when he assumed various forms and stations while cultivating the bodhisattva path.

^[45] Four immeasurable minds 四無量心 (S: catvāry apramāṇāni): the four qualities of mind that Buddhas and bodhisattvas must possess in order to liberate immeasurable sentient beings universally, enabling them to leave suffering and attain happiness. They are loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.

^[46] Five superknowledges 五神通 (S: pañcābhijñā): supranormal powers naturally attained through cultivating the four fundamental dhyānas. They are the superknowledge of miraculous power, the divine eye, the divine ear, knowledge of others’ minds, and recollection of past lives.

^[47] Thought of sensual desire 欲覺: an awareness of sensual craving, one of the three unwholesome thoughts: thoughts of sensual desire, anger, and harm.

^[48] Udāna 優陀那 (S: udāna): this means breath.

^[49] Unwholesome thought and examination 惡覺觀: evil thoughts, of which there are eight kinds. According to the Treatise on the Meaning of the Mahayana, erroneous thought is called “thought,” while that which runs contrary to truth is called “unwholesome.”

^[50] Emptiness of persons 人空: contemplating that a person arises dependently through the provisional conjunction of the five skandhas, and knowing the self-entity to be impermanent; hence it is called the emptiness of persons.

^[51] Four floods (四流): because of these four dharmas, sentient beings remain ceaselessly in birth and death. The flood of views comprises erroneous views in the three realms; the flood of sensual desire comprises all afflictions in the Desire Realm except views and ignorance; the flood of existence comprises the delusions of the Form and Formless Realms except views and ignorance; and the flood of ignorance comprises ignorance in the three realms.

^[52] Form 色 (S: rūpa): a general term for all material phenomena that exist. In the narrow sense, form refers only to the objects of the faculty of sight; broadly speaking, it is the form skandha among the five skandhas and material dharmas among the five categories. Form has the characteristics of alteration and decay, and of obstruction.

^[53] Formlessness 無色 (S: ārūpya): the world transcending matter, the heavenly realm into which, after death, those who have become disenchanted with material perceptions of form and cultivated the four formless absorptions will be reborn. That is, the existence of sentient beings in this world is entirely without material dharmas or spatial location, and therefore has no spatial differentiation. Yet because of differences in wholesome and unwholesome karmic recompense, it is divided into four formless spheres: the Sphere of Infinite Space, the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness, the Sphere of Nothingness, and the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception.

^[54] Water disk 水輪 (S: jala-maṇḍala): situated above the wind disk and below the adamantine disk. These three disks constitute the initial formation of the world from below upward, which is sustained by these three firm layers.

^[55] Edible food 段食 (S: kavaḍiṃkārāhāra, kavlī-kārāhāra): in the Desire Realm, it consists of scent, taste, and touch, and is consumed by mouth and nose in mouthfuls, morsels, and portions. Edible food is divided into two kinds: coarse food, such as rice, fish, and meat; and subtle food, such as milk, fragrances, and beverages.

^[56] Food of volition 思食 (S: manaḥ-saṃcetanā-āhāra): the food of consciousness, one of the four kinds of food and one of the nine kinds of food. When a mental factor associated with the sixth consciousness encounters a pleasing object, a mind of longing arises, causing the faculties to grow continuously. It is like hungry and thirsty people who merely think of food and drink, thereby sustaining themselves.

^[57] Mental formations 意行: mental factors that depend upon the mind, bind the mind, flow in dependence upon the mind, and assist the mind; therefore, thought is called mental formation.

^[58] Food of consciousness 識食 (S: vijñānākārāhāra): contaminated consciousness that develops through the power of edible food, the food of contact, and the food of volition. Its essence is the ālaya-consciousness, which sustains the lives and bodies of sentient beings so that they do not decay, just as beings in the Formless Realm and in the hells take consciousness as food.

^[59] Ten bhūmis 十地 (S: bhūmi): the ten stages in a bodhisattva’s course of cultivation toward Buddhahood. They are the Bhūmi of Great Joy, the Stainless Bhūmi, the Luminous Bhūmi, the Radiant Bhūmi, the Difficult-to-Conquer Bhūmi, the Manifest Bhūmi, the Far-Going Bhūmi, the Immovable Bhūmi, the Bhūmi of Excellent Wisdom, and the Dharma-Cloud Bhūmi.

^[60] Flowering recompense of the ten kings 十王華報: bodhisattvas of the ten bhūmis cultivate and teach, accomplishing great merit, and therefore receive the recompense of becoming kings—from kings of Jambudvīpa to kings of the Maheśvara Heaven—and the ten great heavenly kings, constantly teaching sentient beings. Because becoming the ten kings is described in accordance with the fruits of bodhisattvas of the ten bhūmis, it is called a flowering recompense.

^[61] Bodhisattva on the ordinary stage 凡地菩薩: an externally ordinary bodhisattva prior to the Ten Faiths, or a designation for a bodhisattva prior to the Ten Bhūmis.

^[62] Intermediate existence 中有 (S: antarā-bhava): the consciousness-body of a sentient being during the interval between death and rebirth.

^[63] Death existence 死有 (S: maraṇa-bhava): the final instant of a lifespan, namely the portion of form and mind after the present existence and before the intermediate existence.

^[64] Birth existence 生有 (S: upapatti-bhava): the first instant when the conditions for birth have matured, one departs from the intermediate existence, and conception occurs in the mother’s womb.

^[65] Present existence 本有 (S: pūrva-kāla-bhava): from after rebirth until death, the manifested body during that interval is called the body of present existence.

^[66] Five-piece robe 五衣 (S: pañca cīvarāṇi): the five-panel robe, the garment ordinarily worn by a bhikṣu.

^[67] Gandharva (Kiền-đạt phược 健達縛; S: gandharva): another name for the body of intermediate existence.

^[68] Two states of mind (二心): the settled mind and the scattered mind. The settled mind halts delusive thoughts and miscellaneous considerations, abiding upon a single object; the scattered mind races after the six sense objects.

^[69] Hall of the Good Dharma 善法堂: the Dharma hall at the southwestern corner outside Sudarśana City, on the summit of Mount Sumeru, where the devas of the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven assemble.