西方要決釋疑通規

Reverently reflecting, Śākyamuni Buddha inaugurated the great dispensation, bringing vast benefit to sentient beings with the proper affinities, and expounded the teachings in accordance with each land, causing the milk of the Dharma to permeate everywhere. Those who personally encountered the Tathagata’s teaching awakened to the Three Vehicles^[1], while those of shallow roots and meager merit were encouraged to return to the Pure Land.

To cultivate this Dharma gate is to single-mindedly recollect Amitābha Buddha and, at the same time, dedicate all roots of goodness toward the aspiration to be reborn there. Because Amitābha Buddha’s fundamental vow is to deliver beings from the Sahā world, whether one recollects him throughout an entire lifetime or for ten recollections at the time of death, one will certainly attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

Students of the Dharma today often harbor many doubts because passages in the sutras and treatises appear to contradict one another. Unless these passages are reconciled, such doubts will never cease. I shall now briefly set forth fourteen cases to resolve these doubts. May those of great ability and broad learning examine them and thereby attain understanding!

Part I

The sutra states: “If one sees me through form or seeks me through sound, that person follows a mistaken path and cannot see the Tathagata.”

Question: The Diamond Sutra says that seeking the Buddha through physical form and sound is a mistaken path. Yet the Amitābha Sutra, the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life, and other sutras instruct practitioners to contemplate the Buddha’s bodily marks and recollect the Buddha’s name. Thus, one seeks the Buddha without departing from sound and form; why does this not constitute falling into a mistaken path? If one returns to the right path, the Pure Land is the place most worthy of reliance, yet the sutra calls this a mistaken path. Even if one wishes to practice it, one fears falling into the domain of Māra. It is difficult to determine which of these two paths is right and which is mistaken. Please explain what is true and what is false.

Answer: The Great Teacher expounded a great many Dharma gates. Each accords with its particular time and capacities, yet all are equal and without contradiction. The teaching presented in the Diamond Prajñāpāramitā Sutra constitutes one particular approach, while the meaning taught in the Amitābha Sutra, the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life, and other sutras expresses another principle.

Why is this so? All Buddhas possess three bodies. The Dharma Body is intrinsically formless and is neither sound nor physical appearance.

If one attempts to apprehend it through sound and form, that is a mistaken path. When followers of the Two Vehicles and novice bodhisattvas hear that the three bodies are not different, they immediately assume that all three possess sound and physical form. Seeing only the physical appearance of the Transformation Body, they then cling to the belief that the Dharma Body is likewise, and so seek to behold the Dharma Body through the characteristics of the Transformation Body.

Because the subtle and wondrous principle forever transcends sound and form, seeking to behold it through sound and form is called a mistaken path.

The Amitābha Sutra, the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life, and other sutras encourage the recollection of the Buddha’s name and contemplation of his excellent marks^[2] in order to seek rebirth in the Pure Land. This is taught solely because ordinary beings bear heavy karmic obstructions, while the Dharma Body is profound and hidden, and the essence of Dharma is difficult for them to engage. Furthermore, the practices of recollecting the Buddha, contemplating his marks, bowing, and praising are taught to eliminate karmic obstructions and generate merit and goodness.

Through the mutual support of aspiration and practice, one seeks rebirth in the Pure Land and hopes to encounter a Transformation Buddha as a wholesome condition for attaining non-retrogression. Therefore, all accomplished masters of former times relied upon this teaching: they contemplated the Buddha’s excellent marks and recollected his name, seeking to behold his Transformation Body and hoping that, at the time of death, he would personally come to welcome and guide them.

Moved by their response, Amitābha, the guiding Buddha, would compassionately descend to receive them. Their karmic retribution would be completely extinguished, and, seated upon a lotus flower, they would immediately be reborn in that land. The former sutra speaks in terms of mind, while the latter sutras speak in terms of objects of contemplation; their principles accord and do not contradict one another.

Thus, recollecting the Buddha’s name and contemplating his bodily marks are not mistaken paths. How could one rigidly cling to a single teaching, fail to comprehend the Buddha’s intent, and devise a confusion of divergent doctrines that causes others to doubt? By carefully examining their source, one can fully distinguish right from wrong and will no longer hesitate.

Focus your mind upon the pure karma leading to the Pure Land, and do not give rise to confused thoughts, lest you fall once more into the three lower realms, tormented by suffering, when regret would come too late!

Part 2

The Buddha Treasury Sutra states: “If any bhikṣu perceives a Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, or precepts to be upheld, that person is a retainer of Māra, not my disciple. I am not that person’s teacher, nor do I accept that person.”

Question: According to the Buddha Treasury Sutra, anyone who perceives a Buddha outside the mind is considered to belong to Māra; the Buddha is not that person’s teacher, and that person is said not to be a disciple of the Buddha. Yet the Pure Land Dharma gate teaches people to single-mindedly recollect the Buddha’s name, contemplate his excellent marks, and seek rebirth in his land. If such a person is not a disciple of the Buddha and the Buddha is not that person’s teacher, how can that person receive the Buddha’s protective mindfulness and be reborn in the Pure Land? Both Dharma gates are teachings spoken by the Buddha, yet they differ from one another. How, then, should this matter be resolved?

Answer: The teachings contain myriad distinctions, yet all return to the one true essence. Meanings are established according to beings’ capacities, and therefore the verbal teachings differ. When these two sutras are carefully examined, their words differ, but their underlying principle is of one essence. Why is this so? Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, and precepts each have three meanings:

– Ultimate Truth.

– Distinct Characteristics.

– Abiding and Preserving.

1. Ultimate Truth: The pure essence of suchness, utterly free from the afflictive obstructions and cognitive obstructions^[3], and the radiant intrinsic awakening—this is the True Buddha. That which preserves its essential nature without alteration, through which all Buddhas attain accomplishment, upon which the Great Beings likewise rely, and through which the myriad practices are revealed—this is the True Dharma.

Silently realizing the myriad dharmas and utterly transcending words and conceptual proliferations—this is the True Sangha. The pure and adorned nature, immaculate and undefiled in essence—this is the True Precepts. On the basis of these supreme meanings, it is called the Ultimate Truth.

This is also what the Nirvana Sutra states: “To contemplate the eternally abiding Three Jewels as identical with the Ultimate Truth is the supreme vow of all Buddhas.”

2. Distinct Characteristics: The Buddha has three bodies: the Dharma Body, the Reward Body, and the Transformation Body^[4]. The Dharma is of four kinds: Teaching, Principle, Practice, and Fruition.

The Sangha is of two kinds: conditioned and unconditioned. The precepts comprise all categories of restraint—refraining from what must not be done and performing what must be done^[5]—to be practiced by monastics and laypeople. However, the cultivation of Distinct Characteristics is undertaken to seek realization of the Ultimate Truth.

Those who have only begun to practice^[6], upon learning of Distinct Characteristics, regard them as ultimate and therefore fail to awaken to the true source. Those who study the precepts^[7], however, regard them all as supports for the path. The names and characteristics provisionally manifested by the Buddha are not ultimately real; nevertheless, to receive and guide ordinary beings, he expediently establishes a conjured city^[8].

Those of inferior capacity do not understand this and cling to it as real; therefore, the Buddha rebukes them as retainers of Māra. A child of the Buddha must realize the Twofold Emptiness^[9]; at the furthest level this accords with suchness, and at the nearest level it conforms to the fundamental vow. If one persistently clings to names and characteristics without awakening to true emptiness, one falls instead into Māra’s domain, becoming distant from the Buddha and contrary to the Dharma.

To transcend the Māra of the Skandhas^[10], one must rely upon the eternally abiding Dharma Body; to eliminate the afflictive obstructions, one must rely upon the samādhi of space; to escape the realm of the celestial Māra, one must rely upon the power of the samādhi of loving-kindness; and to overcome the Māra of death, one must skillfully rely upon the samādhi of spiritual powers. Looking throughout the four directions, no one but a Great Sage can accomplish this; subduing the Four Māras^[11] is surely beyond the ability of ordinary beings.

If one does not set one’s mind upon the supreme path, by what means can one cut through the net of craving? But if one binds one’s mindfulness and directs it toward the Real, one will bring the various paths of birth and death to an end.

Therefore, the Buddha instructed ordinary beings to cultivate the contemplation method of the Pure Land. If one turns one’s thoughts toward the West, one must seek the state of non-retrogression, attain birth in the Pure Land, behold the Buddha’s Transformation Body, be guided by the Lord of Transformation, attain the Patience of Non-Arising^[12], and awaken to the equality of the Dharma-realm. Relying upon that spiritual power, one breaks through the nets of Mara; in the near term, one transcends the three realms, and ultimately, one realizes bodhi.

Otherwise, one will sink again into the evil destinies, undergo suffering for a long time, and never attain liberation. Understand clearly that these two causes are entirely free from contradiction; do not cling to either side and thereby give rise to doubt. In accordance with this fundamental Dharma-gate, contemplate that land, forever leave the Saha world, and be eternally freed from samsara.

Having examined this Dharma-gate, practice accordingly; contemplate whether one’s causes and conditions are shallow or profound, and benefits will naturally follow. Clearly, it is through mindfulness that one accords with the Fundamental Vow—how could there be any discrepancy!

(The section on Abiding and Maintaining the Dharma appears in the original Chinese text, but the author does not discuss it.)

Part 3

The Infinite Life Sutra states: “To cultivate in this land—that is, the Saha world—for one day and one night surpasses cultivating for a hundred years in other Buddha-lands.” The Vimalakirti Sutra states: “The Saha world possesses ten wholesome practices^[13] that other Buddha-lands do not possess, namely, using generosity to subdue poverty, and so forth.”

Question: According to the teaching of this sutra, cultivation in the Saha world far surpasses cultivation in other lands. Why, then, must one laboriously concentrate upon Amitabha, aspiring to be born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, abandoning the superior place to seek an inferior one, where one’s practice is difficult to accomplish? Of these two paths, which should be adopted and which rejected? Please explain this in detail.

Answer: All the Dharma-gates taught by the Buddha are for the benefit of sentient beings. Each accords with a particular path, yet in principle they do not contradict one another. Why is this so?

The capacities of practitioners fall into two stages. Those who have not yet ascended to the stage of Non-Retrogression find it difficult to dwell in a defiled land. When they seek to cultivate practices for their own benefit, they mostly regress.

Encountering favorable or adverse circumstances, they again give rise to joy or sorrow; when attachment and aversion arise, their evil karma increases. They have no means of bringing security to themselves and instead sink into the evil destinies. Those who have cultivated causes over many kalpas, attained Dharma Patience^[14], and acquired sufficient strength to dwell in a defiled land can then benefit sentient beings.

Having perfected practices for their own benefit and escaped samsara, they practice in this land the ten deeds that benefit others, in which respect other lands cannot compare. This is because the circumstantial rewards in other Buddha-lands are excellent, complete, and lacking nothing; whatever one desires is obtained. Since there is no deprivation, to whom could one give alms?

The remaining nine practices may be understood by analogy. One should also know that, once one is free from retrogression, dwelling here not only presents no obstruction but enables one to benefit others more greatly than in other Buddha-lands. Practitioners today are far removed from the time of the Buddha; the three poisons blaze fiercely, and they have not yet attained mastery.

Only if they are born in the Pure Land can they, through its supreme conditions and by relying upon the Buddha’s awesome power, attain non-retrogression. Therefore, they must be born in that land to perfect the causes of self-benefit.

Understood in this way, how could these two sutras contradict one another!

Part 4

The Sutra of Maitreya’s Questions states: “One who is mindful of the Buddha does not engage in the mindfulness of an ordinary being and does not intermingle it with thoughts of the bonds and defilements; only then can one be born in Amitabha’s land.”

Question: According to the teaching of this sutra, whenever one is mindful of the Buddha, one must be free from the mindfulness of an ordinary being and must not intermingle it with thoughts of the bonds and defilements; only then can one accomplish the pure karma leading to rebirth. Practitioners today, however, are still ordinary beings whose bonds and defilements have not yet been eliminated. How, then, can they attain rebirth there? Your own practice of mindfulness of the Buddha is now accomplished, and the net of doubt has been severed; therefore, please explain this thoroughly.

Answer: The teaching is expounded in accordance with beings’ capacities, but its hidden purport is extremely difficult to comprehend. Although the wording may be ornate, it can still be understood in an instant; yet because people do not know what to accept and what to reject, they immediately give rise to deluded doubts and attachments. Why is this so? The Buddha taught ordinary beings to cultivate pure karma. If they already have profound faith in causes and their effects, how could they be foolish? Ordinary beings may now be explained in four categories:

1. Ordinary but not foolish: Sentient beings from those in the wholesome destinies up to those at the final stage of the Ten Faiths^[15] have not attained the wisdom resembling the realization of Consciousness-Only and are therefore called ordinary. Yet they possess profound faith in the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination, give rise to the intention to accept or reject, and are able to discern benefit and harm. Thus, they are not foolish.

2. Foolish but not ordinary: Bodhisattvas from the Ten Understandings upward have not yet realized the realm of Suchness and are therefore said to be foolish. Yet they have attained wisdom resembling the uncontaminated and, through examination, understand the Twofold Selflessness^[16]. Since they are not swept along by the current of birth and death, they are regarded as not ordinary. Another explanation is that bodhisattvas from the First Bhumi upward are still obstructed by ignorance with regard to the aspect of superior advancement^[17] and are therefore called foolish; because they have attained the noble Dharma, however, they are not ordinary.

3. Both ordinary and foolish: All sentient beings below the level of those in the wholesome destinies have not understood the Buddha’s teachings and are therefore called ordinary; because they do not understand cause and effect, they are called foolish.

4. Neither ordinary nor foolish: This refers precisely to the Tathagata, who fully possesses noble wisdom and has completely eliminated the two obstructions^[18]. Therefore, he is neither ordinary nor foolish.

The word “ordinary” means drifting along. Those who cannot distinguish harm from benefit with respect to worldly principles and who drift along, repeatedly undergoing birth, are ordinary. Those who are wholly unaware of the coming and going, severity and lightness, of good and evil are foolish.

Now, practitioners who seek rebirth in the Pure Land must recognize that this Saha world is filled with suffering, become utterly weary of it, and desire not to remain here long. Hearing that the West is supremely peaceful and blissful, they sincerely contemplate it and vow to attain rebirth there, thereby forever extinguishing the stream of suffering and entirely abandoning the defiled realm. How could such people be common persons drifting along and undergoing birth?

They need only be mindful of the Buddha and seek rebirth there, awaken to the Non-Arising of Dharmas, become Buddhas in the future, and single-mindedly liberate the sentient beings throughout the Dharma-realm. Whoever gives rise to this mind will certainly be born in that wondrous land. Because they possess this understanding, they are not foolish.

As for the phrase “does not intermingle it with thoughts of the bonds and defilements”: the bonds and defilements are the Ten Defilements^[19] and the Nine Bonds^[20]. The mind that is mindful of the Buddha is the sixth consciousness. Only when the Mind-King arises with the intention to commit evil do the afflictions of the bonds and defilements erupt.

While one is mindful of the Buddha, the mind of Buddha-mindfulness is associated with the five universal mental factors^[21] and the eleven wholesome mental factors^[22]; it does not activate any of the bonds and defilements, and those bonds and defilements have no cause from which to arise. When the mind takes another object as its condition, the bonds and defilements immediately arise. When one contemplates the Buddha, the bonds and defilements are restrained; thus it is said that one “does not intermingle it with thoughts of the bonds and defilements.” When aspiring to be born in the Pure Land, one should not speak of intermingling in an absolute sense.

Because the bonds and defilements have not yet been severed, intermingling can occur; if they had already been eliminated, there would be no intermingling. Thus, because they have not yet been severed, the bonds and defilements sometimes become active. The pure mind that is mindful of the Buddha opposes the bonds and defilements; while the mind is mindful of the Buddha, the bonds and defilements do not become active.

Here, “not intermingling” means not allowing the mind of Buddha-mindfulness to be interrupted and guarding against the arising of the bonds and defilements. It does not mean that only the complete elimination of the bonds and defilements constitutes non-intermingling. Noble beings have already completely severed the afflictions and dwell securely in this land; they need not labor at mindfulness of the Buddha in order to seek rebirth.

Part 5

The Sutra of the Most Excellent Wondrous Samadhi states: “If someone were to build innumerable monasteries and stupas, this would not equal, even for a short time, making the mind upright and maintaining right mindfulness.” Furthermore, the Mahayana sutras that teach the principle of Non-Arising instruct practitioners of the Way to cultivate wisdom.

Question: According to this sutra, the Buddha praises non-arising as uniquely supreme and most excellent among all practices. Yet the Amitabha Sutra and the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life exhort us to seek rebirth in the Western Land, to grow weary of the Saha world, and to aspire to be born in the Pure Land. However, birth is the source of calamity; when birth ceases, calamity is extinguished.

Here, however, one abandons birth only to seek birth, thereby making the cause of calamity even greater. Why not cultivate the practice of non-arising and awaken to the Dharma-body? If one contemplates the bodily marks of the Buddha while the cause of birth remains unextinguished, then even if one is reborn in that land, how would it differ from being born in this world?

One need only contemplate non-arising, and one will not be far from the Buddha. The mind itself is Buddha; why rely on seeking elsewhere? You have mastered this practice; please reveal its profound principle.

Answer: Practice arises in accordance with the teachings, and all teachings are given for the benefit of sentient beings. The teachings differ because faculties differ. Why is this so? In discussing faculties generally, two points may be briefly stated: deep karmic practice and shallow practice. Those whose karmic practice is deep can study the Dharma of non-arising, whereas those whose practice is shallow must seek rebirth in the Pure Land.

Regarding cultivation, there are also two kinds: regression and liberation. Regression refers to those who, although they study the Buddhadharma, do so only for fame and do not fear the perils of birth and death in the future. They crave superior knowledge yet remain attached to self and others, regarding themselves as right and others as wrong.

They do not cultivate the three karmic activities; their mouths speak of marklessness while their minds cling tightly to marks. Although they study the Dharma of non-arising, they treat it merely as an art for idle amusement. When such people see others practicing recollection of the Buddha, they immediately become resentful and jealous, even causing those practitioners to lose heart.

Their mouths speak of good medicine, yet they are afraid to take it; instead, they take poison and consequently fall ill. This mind creates karma; it constantly races about. Since their minds are not genuine and cannot yet be controlled, they nevertheless claim, “I have awakened.” Upon examination, their realization is entirely empty.

When death suddenly arrives, they sink once again into birth and death, undergoing unremitting suffering without knowing when they will escape. This is called regression.

Liberation has two forms: non-arising and the possession of marks. Non-arising means keeping the mind tranquil, clearly discerning external conditions, and skillfully knowing how to relinquish both the marks of existence and nonexistence. One controls the mind, remains free and unbound by either of the two extremes^[23], and puts into mental practice what one speaks with the mouth, examining matters as they arise.

Whether facing adverse or favorable conditions, the mind remains even. Eating ashes and charcoal is no different from eating delicacies. Only when one can equally master both favorable and adverse circumstances does one become capable of dwelling long in the Saha world without retreating, and then transforming that very Saha world into a Pure Land.

Only with such strength of practice can liberation be accomplished.

The possession of marks applies when, because defiled conditions or karmic obstacles are deep and heavy, it is difficult to accomplish marklessness. Remaining in this world would only heap up further suffering. When one wishes to quiet the mind, one is drawn away by the restless external world; when the mind again pursues external conditions, when will one ever awaken to non-arising?

One should direct the mind toward the single condition of one Buddha, contemplate and recollect Amitabha, refrain from creating evil karma, and seek rebirth in the Pure Land. Upon seeing those who cultivate other Dharma-gates, one should praise and commend them; even upon hearing of another person’s faults, one should not give rise to contempt or disparagement. If one binds the mind to a single place, reflects upon the realm of the West, and causes the three karmic activities to support one another, one will certainly be born in that land and will also accomplish the practice of liberation.

I ask all of you to examine the teachings according to your own capacities and practice whichever Dharma accords with you. Those whose karmic practice is already deep and who have reached the Stage of Non-retrogression need not laboriously cling to marks and aspire to rebirth in the West. As for those of inferior faculties who have not yet escaped samsara, they must realize non-arising before they can escape the bonds of affliction^[24]. Very many people speak of non-arising, yet none attain its realization. Therefore, to attain non-arising, one must rely upon an excellent realm^[25]. Thus, one should take seeking non-arising and seeing the Buddha as conditions for realization.

Dwelling long in Jambudvipa, one may frequently encounter good spiritual friends and hear the true Dharma day and night; yet those who teach it are still ordinary beings, and therefore one has not realized the principle. The Vimalakirti Sutra states: “To teach the Dharma all day long without being able to enable others to realize cessation and cultivate the Path is merely frivolous discourse, not the seeking of Dharma.” Even if, in a future life, one encounters good spiritual friends, the cause initiated today will still become frivolous discourse.

It would be better to seek rebirth in the Pure Land, bring samsara to an end, enter the jeweled grove, and, upon hearing the true words just once, immediately accomplish innumerable Dharma-patiences. Carefully examine these two conditions and do not hesitate!

Part 6

The Nirvana Sutra states: “When Ananda encountered a demonic tribulation, Bodhisattva Manjusri came to rescue him.” The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “The demon king transformed himself into a Buddha, and no one could recognize him.” The Upagupta Sutra states: “The demon transformed himself into a Buddha, and the Venerable One bowed before him.”

Question: Ananda had already attained the fruit of stream-entry, yet he was repeatedly disturbed by demons. The Buddha sent Bodhisattva Manjusri to rescue him, enabling him to recover his original mind. Furthermore, demons can transform themselves into the body of a Buddha and teach the Dharma to people, and bodhisattvas whose practice is still shallow cannot recognize them.

The Venerable Upagupta cultivated until he reached the stage beyond learning; yet when he saw a demon transformed into a Buddha, he failed to recognize it and took refuge in it. Now we wish to visualize Buddha Amitabha so that we may see the Buddha at the time of death. Yet all such appearances may be demonic realms—how can we rely upon them?

If the vision is genuine, it is indeed a dose of good medicine; but if one encounters a demon, one will certainly fall into a deviant course. This mass of doubt has not yet been dispelled; I earnestly hope you will reconcile the matter.

Answer: Through skillful means, the Great Awakened One manifests a bodily form of surpassing excellence. Even if a demon falsely manifests such a form in order to cause disturbance, there will still be differences. Through diligent cultivation over many kalpas, the Buddha perfected supreme causes and, as their fruition, accomplished the myriad virtues.

His excellent marks surpass all others; how could a vile demon compare with him? Why is this so? The body of the Tathagata is like purple burnished gold^[26], with radiant excellent marks, shining like a luminous jewel that far surpasses tens of thousands of suns.

Even if the demon king were to produce a transformation, he could not possess such excellent marks. How could the deeds of an inferior ordinary being compare with those of the Honored One? Among the sravakas, Ananda manifested the attainment of stream-entry, but in terms of his actual practice, he had long since realized the First Bodhisattva Ground.

Foreseeing that, after the Buddha’s nirvana, practitioners would often have the purity of their minds destroyed by demons and would be unable to subdue them, he therefore manifested falling into the demons’ snare in order to request the Buddha’s aid. The mantra was then proclaimed as the initiating cause for its perpetual transmission to future generations, so that students of the Way might overcome demons. It was not the noble one himself, but ordinary beings, who are caught in the demons’ snare.

The Large Prajnaparamita Sutra states: “Mara transforms himself into a Buddha to deceive ordinary beings and bodhisattvas at lower stages, who are unable to distinguish him.” That sutra does not yet discuss the causes and conditions giving rise to the teaching of skillful means. In the Nirvana assembly, however, the Dharma was taught in response to questions. Kasyapa asked: “How can one know whether a teaching was spoken by the Buddha or by Mara Papiyan?” The Buddha told Kasyapa: “It is like a thief breaking into a house at night.

If the householder becomes aware of him, the thief immediately withdraws.” Practitioners are likewise: having entered the house of the Buddhadharma and obtained its delicious food, they need not be concerned about Mara. The Buddha’s august appearance is wondrously majestic. Should Mara come to obscure the truth, practitioners of the Buddha’s teaching should discern carefully: Between the Buddha’s eyebrows is the mark of the white urna, curling to the right to form a circle, enclosed on the outside yet hollow within.

Its light shines everywhere, radiant and pure, clear and immaculate like vaidurya; His countenance shines like the sun. His ushnisha rises high, and His deep blue hair, strand by strand, gracefully curls to the right. To behold these supreme marks and characteristics is to behold the Buddha’s true and august appearance; any other appearance is Mara.

Upagupta did not recognize Mara because he was born after the Buddha’s time. According to the lineage of Dharma transmission, he was the fifth patriarch. He taught the Dharma, guided beings, and delivered a great many sentient beings.

One day, the Mara king caused a rain of flowers to fall upon the Dharma assembly, disturbing the minds of the congregation so that none could attain understanding. He also offered a jeweled crown to bewilder their hearts. Out of compassion, the Venerable One gladly accepted it and then said to the Mara king: “I follow the Buddha’s teaching and understand righteousness and gratitude.

You have bestowed a jeweled crown upon me; I also have a precious necklace that I wish to give you in return.” He then transformed three kinds of corpses—those of a human, a dog, and a snake—into a precious necklace and placed it around the Mara king’s neck.

Mara Papiyan rejoiced and said: “The Venerable Gupta possesses transcendent spiritual powers, teaches sentient beings, and has attained the fruit of sainthood. Yet we Maras enticed him into accepting the jeweled crown, and he even returned the courtesy with a jeweled necklace. Gupta has fallen into Mara’s net; the evil paths will increase, while none of my retinue will be diminished.” Having said this, they rejoiced greatly and returned together to their palace.

As soon as they reached the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings^[27], Gupta withdrew his spiritual power, and the jeweled necklace once again became corpses—bloated and foul-smelling, with blood and pus spreading everywhere. Mara Papiyan was distressed but could not cast them away, so he went throughout the heavenly realms begging that they be removed. Yet all the devas said: “We have no such ability.

This Upagupta is a disciple of Sakyamuni Tathagata. Because you did not know this and dared to harass him, he has provisionally used this means to subdue your body and mind. Quickly take refuge in him to escape this calamity.” Mara Papiyan descended and came before the holy one.

Prostrating himself with all five limbs touching the ground, he sincerely begged for forgiveness and repented. The Venerable Gupta compassionately removed the corpses and said: “I was born after the Buddha’s time and did not encounter the Tathagata. Can you transform yourself into the Buddha’s form so that I may behold Him?”

Mara immediately entered the forest and transformed himself into the Buddha’s body. Seeing this, Gupta spread out a seat and bowed with his head to the ground. Greatly alarmed, Mara said: “This ignorant disciple would not dare disobey your instruction.

Although I have transformed myself into the Buddha, I remain a mundane being. If the Venerable One bows to me, I fear I shall lose immeasurable merit.” The Venerable One replied: “Proximately, I bow to an image of the Buddha; ultimately, I pay homage to the Great Teacher. You are Mara and are not the object of my reverence.

Do not worry now, nor mistakenly fear losing merit!” The Mara king was then exceedingly delighted. He abandoned his sundry practices, took refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, bowed to Upagupta, and returned to his palace, never to appear again.

Thus, how could one raise the doubtful claim that Upagupta did not recognize Mara? It is like many capable people assisting one person, so that an evildoer cannot possibly harm him. Practitioners are likewise: when they recite with utmost sincerity and resolve to be born in that land, the Buddhas of the ten directions all assist them. Until the end of their present karmic bodies, Mara cannot disturb them. Amitabha Buddha teaches sentient beings and radiates the light of compassion to receive and guide them, enabling them to reach the shore of supreme peace and bliss. Do not fear Mara’s interference and thereby fail to cultivate wholesome causes!

Part 7

A comparison of the relative superiority and inferiority of the Western Pure Land and the Tusita Heaven.

Question: Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land is extremely far from here, whereas Maitreya Buddha’s Tusita Heaven lies within this Desire Realm. Why not aspire to be born in Tusita instead of turning toward the West? Is abandoning what is easy to seek what is difficult not an impediment?

Answer: There are many points by which the two realms may be compared. I shall now briefly set forth ten differences to resolve these doubts:

1. Their lifespans differ in length: The lifespan of devas in the Tusita Heaven is only 4,000 years, whereas the lifespan of those in the Land of Ultimate Bliss extends to hundreds of thousands of myriads of kotis of nayutas^[28] of asamkhya^[29] kalpas.

2. Their places of residence have an inner and an outer division: In the Tusita Heaven, those possessing abundant wisdom are born in the Inner Court and become attendants of Maitreya Buddha. Those with abundant merit but little wisdom are born in the Outer Court and cannot meet the Loving One. In the Pure Land, however, there is no inner or outer division at all. Although the recompense bodies of its inhabitants vary in excellence, all are sages and holy beings.

3. Their environments differ in purity and impurity: Those born in Tusita’s Inner Court behold Maitreya Buddha’s sacred assembly and constantly give rise to pure conditions. In the Outer Court, however, the various fragrances, flowers, towers, pavilions, and music all cause attachment and defilement to arise. In the Western Land of Ultimate Bliss, when the six faculties encounter the trees, birds, water, jeweled nets, and music, all these nourish the mind of the Way.

4. Their recompense bodies differ: Among the direct recompenses in Tusita, male and female are distinct; they become increasingly attached to one another, obstructing their cultivation of the Way. Those reborn in the West are all great beings; their own bodies and those of others are pure and free from attachment.

5. The seeds and their active manifestations differ: For those born in Tusita, both the seeds of affliction and the active manifestations of affliction arise. Those born in the Western Pure Land possess only the seeds of affliction and have no active manifestations of affliction whatsoever.

6. Their cultivation differs in diligence and regression: Those born in Tusita, because male and female are present there, still possess weak powers of wisdom; consequently, most regress. Those born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss possess powerful wisdom, engage in no activities of desire, and devote themselves solely to diligent cultivation.

7. They differ in whether they lie within or beyond the realms: Those born in Tusita have not yet departed from the Desire Realm; should the calamity of fire arise, they will be consumed. Those born in the West have completely transcended the three realms, and calamities of water, fire, wind, and the like cannot harm them. Because the Pure Land possesses material forms, it is not the Formless Realm. Its inhabitants dwell supported by the ground yet are undefiled by visible forms; therefore, it is not the Form Realm. Because there is no sexual activity or even consumption of solid food^[30], it is not the Desire Realm.

8. Their physical forms differ in beauty and ugliness: Those born in Tusita are divided into male and female, and differ in beauty and ugliness. Those born in the Pure Land have bodies the color of pure gold, entirely radiant, and all possess the marks of a great being.

9. Relinquishing one’s life to be reborn in the two realms is not the same: When one relinquishes one’s life to be reborn in Tusita Heaven, no one comes to receive and guide one. But when one is reborn in the Pure Land, the assembly of sages comes to welcome and escort one.

10. The scriptures offer exhortations in differing measure: Only the Sutra on Maitreya’s Ascent and Rebirth in Tusita exhorts beings to seek rebirth in Tusita, but its words are not especially earnest or solicitous and merely offer a general exhortation to practice. As for the Pure Land, however, numerous sutras and treatises exhort beings to seek rebirth there, and the Buddha earnestly and wholeheartedly urges them to attain rebirth.

It is further asked: The Western Pure Land is a supremely excellent realm, and its age is peaceful and secure. How can ordinary beings of inferior capacities attain rebirth there?

Answer: The Land of Ultimate Bliss is pure and wondrous, and to seek rebirth there is indeed extremely difficult; yet through the sustaining power of the Buddha, rebirth becomes easy!

Part 8

The Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life states: “Those born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss abide in the Assembly of Right Concentration.” The Amitabha Sutra states: “All sentient beings born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss are avaivartikas.”

Question: If the attainment of non-retrogression is discussed extensively, one must speak of the merit gained through cultivation over ten thousand kalpas. Yet how is it that merely by recollecting the Buddha for one lifetime—or even by ten recollections at the approach of death—one is welcomed and guided by Amitabha Buddha, born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss, and attains non-retrogression? If there is already such a disparity in terms of meritorious practice alone, how can these teachings accord with each other?

Answer: Although Non-retrogression and Right Concentration differ in name, their meaning is the same. Practitioners are of two kinds: those in a defiled land and those in a pure land.

To cultivate the causes in a defiled land, one must pass through ten thousand kalpas; but undertaking practice in a pure land inherently has many paths. Non-retrogression will now be explained. The Treatise on the Ten Stages, the Vibhāṣā, sets forth four kinds:

1. Non-retrogression in Position: This is precisely the cultivation of causes for ten thousand kalpas. It means that, upon accomplishing the Contemplation of Consciousness-Only^[33], one will not fall into conduct contrary to moral discipline^[34] and will no longer revolve in the cycle of birth and death.

2. Non-retrogression in Practice: Having attained the First Bhumi and accomplished the True Contemplation of Consciousness-Only, one relinquishes the mind of the Two Vehicles and does not regress from the practice of benefiting others.

3. Non-retrogression in Mindfulness: From the Eighth Bhumi onward, one truly realizes effortless wisdom^[35]. Whether in meditative concentration or outside it, one possesses mastery and has no regressive thought.

4. Non-retrogression by Place: Although no passage in the sutras or treatises explicitly proves this, it is established on the basis of reason. Why is this so?

As the Vibhāṣā Treatise states: “An arhat of regressive capacity who attains the fruit in the human realm of the Desire Realm encounters five conditions for regression. Fearing the loss of the noble fruit, such a person gives rise to defiled activity^[36]. These conditions are: traveling far away, suffering frequent illness, delighting in reciting scriptures, delighting in reconciling disputes, and delighting in performing affairs of the Sangha.

If one attains the fruit in a heavenly realm, one encounters none of the conditions for regression, immediately attains Non-retrogression, and realizes Nirvana Without Remainder^[37].” Practitioners are likewise. If, while in the human realm, they have not attained the preceding three kinds of Non-retrogression, then if they remain in Saha they will inevitably continue revolving in birth and death. This is because this defiled land has five conditions for regression:

1. Life is short, and illnesses are numerous.

2. Many adverse conditions bind one and obstruct the pure mind.

3. The miscellaneous good practices of non-Buddhist paths disturb right practice.

4. The objects of the six senses agitate the pure mind.

5. One does not constantly see the Buddha and cannot hear the Buddha’s instructions.

If one continually dwells in this land, one encounters these five conditions for regression. But upon attaining rebirth in the Pure Land, one encounters five supremely excellent conditions:

1. Life is long, and there is no illness.

2. Good companions guide and support one.

3. Everything is true and right, without anything false or perverse.

4. Everything is utterly pure, without defilement.

5. One constantly serves all Buddhas.

Through these five conditions, one attains Non-retrogression. In terms of the stages of practice, the two cannot be compared; yet because one obtains an excellent land and wholesome conditions, one does not regress. It is like an evil person who habitually commits unwholesome deeds but encounters good companions who compassionately counsel him, so that he no longer associates with evil people, always follows the virtuous, and never again commits evil deeds for the rest of his life.

Part 9

The Amitabha Sutra states: “One cannot attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss through minor wholesome roots and meritorious causes and conditions.”

Question: To attain rebirth in the Pure Land, one must cultivate great goodness and fully practice all pure karmas before rebirth can be attained. If one merely recollects the Buddha in this way, how can one attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss?

Answer: In discussing whether wholesome roots are many or few, the explanation need only be based on recollection of the Buddha. If one did not possess many wholesome conditions from the past, one would not hear the Buddha’s name in this life. But now that one hears of the Pure Land and single-mindedly recollects the Buddha, this is due to wholesome causes from the past. Moreover, to keep the West in mind and resolve to be born there constitutes great wholesome roots. Although one may hear of Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land and make the vow to attain rebirth there, if one’s practice is not single-minded and one’s mind is not resolute, these are merely minor wholesome roots, and one cannot attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

It is further asked: As for recollection of the Buddha, if one merely recollects the Name, then even if one does so single-mindedly, this still does not constitute great wholesome roots. Even though one recites the Buddha’s Name, how could one attain rebirth?

Answer: Recollection of the Buddha refers to a general method of cultivation. Because sentient beings of differing capacities receive differing benefits, and because the Buddha’s Name is accomplished through the vows and practices of all Buddhas, merely recollecting the Buddha’s Name fully encompasses all merits. It therefore becomes great goodness and does not contradict the vow to attain rebirth. Thus the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “Regarding the first three epithets of the Buddha^[38], if the Buddha were to explain them fully, even after ten thousand kalpas the Venerable Ananda would still be unable to comprehend them.”

The Satyasiddhi Treatise explains the Buddha’s epithets as follows: The first nine epithets of the Buddha are each established according to their distinct meanings. The merits of the preceding nine epithets are now gathered together to establish the title Buddha, the World-Honored One. Therefore, if merely the first three epithets were discussed, their meaning would not be exhausted even after ten thousand kalpas, and Ananda could not fully comprehend them; how much more so when the remaining six epithets are added to constitute the Buddha’s title. Because the Buddha’s Name is endowed with supreme merit, recollecting the Buddha’s Name becomes great goodness.

Part 10

The Amitabha Sutra states: “Good men and good women! The sravakas who recollect the Buddha and seek rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss are exceedingly numerous, immeasurable and boundless in number.” Yet the Treatise on the Pure Land states: “As for those who are vessels of the Mahayana, there is absolutely no issue to discuss; but those of the Two Vehicles, women, and those with deficient faculties cannot attain rebirth.”

Question: According to the Treatise on the Pure Land, women, those with deficient faculties, and those of the Two Vehicles cannot attain rebirth. Yet the Amitabha Sutra says that all can attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss. Both texts are sacred teachings, so why do they speak differently?

Answer: Each sutra or treatise teaches in accordance with particular conditions, but upon careful examination, there is no difference whatsoever. When it is said that women can attain rebirth, this is because their resolve is firm: deeply weary of the female body, they wholeheartedly recollect the Buddha’s Name and seek rebirth in the Pure Land. When the requital body in the Saha world comes to an end, they are transformed into male bodies, sit upon precious lotus pedestals, and immediately attain rebirth in the Pure Land.

Those with deficient faculties who can attain rebirth are of five classes: congenital eunuchs, castrated persons, those whose sexual capacity is intermittent, those whose sex changes through jealousy, and hermaphrodites^[39]. Although such persons with deficient faculties possess abnormal physical and mental dispositions, if they arouse a courageous resolve and firmly determine to relinquish these disabled bodies with deficient faculties so as to obtain bodies with complete faculties, they can immediately attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

Those of the Two Vehicles are of two kinds:

– First are those of the foolish Dharma disposition, who realize only the principle of the emptiness of persons and do not understand the principle of the emptiness of dharmas. They attain the lesser fruit^[40] and are therefore called foolish in regard to the Dharma. Such persons seek only their own benefit and do not practice conduct that benefits others; therefore, they cannot be reborn in the Pure Land.

– Second are those who are not foolish in regard to the Dharma. Although they attain the fruit of arhatship, they do not abide in the lesser fruit. Instead, they follow the bodhisattvas, arouse the Mahayana mind, and aspire to be reborn directly before the Buddha so as to undertake conduct that benefits others. Therefore, they can be reborn in the Pure Land.

Question: The Treatise on the Pure Land says, “Those of the Two Vehicles cannot be reborn there.” Why does the Contemplation Sutra say, “They attain rebirth in the Pure Land, yet subsequently realize the lesser fruit”?

Answer: Such persons previously possessed seeds of the Lesser Vehicle. Upon encountering a good spiritual friend, they aroused the Mahayana mind. Because of the causes created through their former cultivation of the Lesser Vehicle, they realized the four kinds of impermanence^[41]; then, when their past causes^[42] arose, they immediately attained the lesser fruit.

Yet, through the guidance of a good spiritual friend of the Mahayana, they did not abide in the fruit of the Lesser Vehicle but once again aroused the Mahayana aspiration. Thus, they were no longer followers of the Lesser Vehicle. Although their faculties were those of women, they constantly sought bodhi and deeply believed that the Buddha-nature of themselves and others was equal.

They then made the vow to attain Buddhahood and universally deliver sentient beings. With minds aspiring to relinquish the female body, they were able to attain rebirth in the Pure Land. When their recompense-bodies approached their end, a transformation Buddha came to welcome and guide them.

They became great persons, sat upon lotus pedestals, and, with their minds made peaceful and secure through the Buddha’s aid, were immediately reborn in the Land of Ultimate Bliss. It is with reference to this meaning that the sutra says women can all attain rebirth there. The treatise does not speak with reference to this meaning and therefore says that they cannot attain rebirth.

Sravakas must arouse the Mahayana mind and cultivate accordingly; they can then attain rebirth. Nevertheless, they continue to be called sravakas according to their former designation.

Question: Sravakas are often reproached. Why, after being born in that land, are they still called by this name?

Answer: Sravakas who are foolish in regard to the Dharma are gravely at fault for seeking only their own benefit and failing to practice conduct that benefits others; therefore, they are reproached. Although those in the Pure Land are still called by their former name, they are now great sravakas whose conduct in benefiting others is exceedingly vast. Thus, it is an honorable designation. Therefore, the Lotus Sutra says, “Today we are true sravakas, causing all to hear the sound of the Buddha Way.” The same is true in the Western Land. Although there are followers of the Lesser Vehicle there, they are all true sravakas; hence, they incur no fault warranting reproach.

Part 11

Reconciling the teachings for practitioners of the Three Stages^[43]. Practitioners of the Three Stages have five minor doubts.

1. Question: Sentient beings drift through the cycle of birth and death and undergo much suffering and distress. When their causes are traced, they all arise from the three deviant poisons.

Now, if one single-mindedly recollects the Buddha and vows to be reborn in the Western Land, the deviant poisons increase all the more. Is this not an inverted view? Why is this so?

The defiled Saha world is where one ought constantly to remain, yet one becomes weary of it and wishes to abandon it; this is precisely deviant anger. The Western Pure Land is a place frequented by sages, not a dwelling place for ordinary beings, yet one vows to be born there; this is deviant greed. All this arises from ignorance, which is deviant delusion.

These three poisonous sprouts accumulate in the field of the mind. Even if one recollects the Buddha, one will merely attract spirits, maras, ghosts, and so forth. How, then, can one attain rebirth in the Pure Land?

Answer: Although the teachings differ, they all seek to benefit the myriad beings. Practitioners should skillfully understand what to adopt and what to relinquish, each acting in accordance with their capacities and conditions. Why is this so?

If one has realized non-arising, one may indeed remain for a long time in the Saha world. But if one has not attained the stage of non-retrogression, it is difficult to dwell in a defiled land. If one has awakened in accord with non-arising, the Land of Ultimate Bliss and the Saha world are no different, and there is no need to become weary of the defiled land and aspire to the purity of the Western Land.

But if one’s body is still subject to samsara, one must vow to be born in that land. Although bodhisattvas dwell in a defiled land, they have penetrated both principle and understanding, and their coming and going are without obstruction. Ordinary beings have not yet perfected superior contemplation.

Though they may temporarily bring suffering to an end, they subsequently return to the stream of suffering. Therefore, abandoning the defiled land does not nourish deviant anger, and delighting in the Western Land does not give rise to deviant greed; at the same time, one accords with discerning wisdom^[44]. Inwardly, one gathers the three wholesome roots^[45]; outwardly, one elicits the assistance of the Buddhas.

After relinquishing one’s recompense-body in this land, one is immediately welcomed by a precious lotus in the Pure Land. Do not fear spirits, maras, and ghosts and thereby fail to strive in cultivating the right practice.

2. Question: The path of karma is like a balance: good and evil necessarily bring their corresponding results. Since receiving this life and body, sentient beings have committed a great deal of evil. Why do they not undergo its retribution but instead are born directly in the Western Land? Even if they seek rebirth there, how could they avoid being obstructed?

Answer: Whenever karma is created, its resultant suffering or happiness must certainly be experienced. Since we are all foolish ordinary beings, it cannot be said that the causes of wrongdoing accumulated over a long period do not exist. Now that you have received the recompense-body of a human being, have those evil karmas been completely eliminated? If you say they have been eliminated, what evil remains now to be eliminated? If they have not yet been completely extinguished, why did they not obstruct the cause for your present birth?

Now, practitioners of the Three Stages! When you received this life and body, the causes of evil had not yet been eliminated. Yet, because the karma leading to the human realm was stronger, those evils could not obstruct it.

When your wholesome roots are exhausted, you will then have to undergo painful results. It must therefore be said again: Although evil karma has not yet been eliminated, because the karma leading to the human realm was stronger, you did not fail to obtain a human body. If, moreover, the karma of Pure Land practice becomes stronger, how could evil karma obstruct rebirth there?

Why is this so? The Three Refuges and Five Precepts are merely conditioned wholesome causes, yet even through them one is carried by inverted and deluded thoughts to take residence in a mother’s womb. Although this practice is inferior, evil karma still cannot obstruct it, and thus one obtains a human body.

How much less could obstruction occur when the power of evil karma is not strong and one is further supported by right practices from the past and one’s present arousal of the aspiration to sever the very roots of suffering, attain Buddhahood in the future, and strive from thought to thought while vowing to be born in the Western Land! When this recompense-body comes to an end, compassionate bodhisattvas come out of pity to protect and remain mindful of one, enabling one to abide in right mindfulness.

One beholds the assembly of sages before one and longs only to attain rebirth there. Because of these extraordinary causes and conditions, rebirth is easily attained. Therefore, do not harbor doubts and thereby fail to cultivate the pure karma diligently!

3. Question: In present-day cultivation, everyone takes the study of scriptures as the essential doctrine. If one merely recites the name of Amitabha Buddha, this becomes attachment to a view, obstructs the noble path, and prevents one from escaping samsara. Why not abandon this separate Dharma gate and instead study and cultivate all practices?

Answer: Studying and cultivating all practices brings exceedingly great benefit, but only wise and discerning people of penetrating understanding are capable of comprehending them; those of shallow wisdom and feeble strength find them difficult to bear. Therefore, the Buddha taught sentient beings this separate Dharma gate in accordance with their capacities and conditions, for it accords with their faculties and does not impair the principle. If one relies upon this distinct Dharma gate as the cause for cultivation, one will accomplish vast practices and karma.

4. Question: Those who wish to cultivate the Great Way must first clearly understand the cause of suffering. When the source of suffering is traced, it is found that evil realms all arise from evil karma.

In this Sahā world, because beings do not understand the principle and nature or the principle and characteristics of the Buddhas, they create immeasurable and boundless evil karma. All sentient beings have two aspects: the first is True Recompense; the second is Responsive Form. True Recompense is the true essence, the Buddha-nature; form and appearance are the universal body^[46].

Because sentient beings are deluded about the fundamental essence, they mistakenly give rise to greed, anger, and delusion within the Tathāgata-garbha. Although their forms and appearances differ, the universal body is one alone. Because sentient beings are separated by different lifetimes, they no longer recognize one another and mistakenly give rise to love and hatred.

Thus, toward their parents who possess the Buddha-nature, they constantly commit acts of killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and so forth. The sages of the Three Vehicles, out of compassion for sentient beings, manifest bodies identical to those of ordinary beings; yet deluded sentient beings fail to recognize them and consequently despise and oppress them, thereby increasing evil conditions. Because they formerly lacked clear understanding, they gave rise to inverted dreams and delusions.

Now that they have been awakened, whenever they encounter such circumstances, they immediately recollect their faults; thus they eliminate the evils already committed and prevent future transgressions from arising. Yet if, in this realm, all offenses can be eradicated through repentance, while one nevertheless grows weary of the Sahā world and delights in being born in the Pure Land, would resentful entanglements not still remain?

Answer: Those who wish to attain the Great Way must sever the source of suffering, and nothing surpasses completely eliminating all evil faults as a means of eradicating that source. The place where enmity was created is precisely the Sahā world. Accumulated resentments became bonds of attachment^[47], but upon careful examination today, all are found to arise from bondage to inverted dreams and delusions.

To enable sentient beings to understand clearly that the true essence is the Buddha-nature and that form and appearance are the universal body, the Buddhas compassionately reveal skillful means, responding universally throughout the six realms and manifesting bodies identical to those of ordinary beings. Everyone may understand such a view, but when it comes to actually undertaking and cultivating the practice, they do not do so at all.

Therefore, understanding is easy, but practice is difficult.

One should simply contemplate that this Dharma gate is true and not false, arouse the resolve to repent of evils already committed, and vow not to commit faults in the future. With single-minded concentration, recite the Buddha’s name, cultivate all Dharma gates, and dedicate the merit toward rebirth in the Pure Land, with the urgency of extinguishing a fire blazing upon one’s head. This realm is a place of sinking and wandering; lamenting that one has lost the way for ten thousand kalpas, one should set one’s mind at peace in the Land of Utmost Bliss, realize the fruit of non-arising, and perfect the practice of benefiting oneself.

Then one should return to the Sahā world, open the heart of great compassion, teach and transform sentient beings, and impartially rescue all kinds of beings, neither stopping midway nor turning onto another path. One should only direct the mind and form this thought: “First, to repay old grievances, I vow to relinquish the causes of suffering and be born together with them in the Land of Utmost Bliss.” Once they have all understood this, resentment can immediately be relinquished.

One should not, because of this, continue to harbor doubts forever!

5. Question: Today we are far removed from the time of the Buddha, and ordinary, foolish beings are inferior. We should perform prostrations and repentance before Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, a bodhisattva who has affinities with sentient beings in this realm; we ought to recite his name exclusively and recollect the Three Jewels.

Reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha in the Pure Land is a Dharma gate cultivated by those of superior faculties, and only those whose capacities belong to the Second Stage^[48] are capable of initiating this recitation. Sentient beings today already live in an evil and defiled age and possess base natures and desires. How could they practice a Dharma gate cultivated by those of superior faculties?

When those of superior faculties study and practice a teaching intended for those of inferior faculties, it is unsuitable for them and slows their progress on the path; when those of inferior faculties cultivate a teaching intended for those of superior faculties, it obstructs the path and brings only suffering. If the Dharma gate of cultivation and the practitioners’ capacities do not accord with one another, can attainment be possible?

Answer: What you have stated does indeed accord with the teachings of the scriptures. Those who have not cultivated for long will give rise to this doubt. Yet to dispel the doubt, it is necessary to reveal a practice that is readily accessible. Here I shall briefly present two points: first, citing the sacred teachings; second, analyzing their doctrinal meaning.

– Citing the sacred teachings:

The sacred teachings comprise a great many scriptures and categories. Were numerous passages copied out, they would truly be difficult to study. Here, only five important scriptural passages are briefly cited to present matters that are rare and seldom seen or heard:

1. The Mahāvaipulya Scripture of the Sage Protector records: “The Buddha told Sage Protector: ‘After the Tathāgata enters nirvana, the disciples should transmit this samādhi. Evil bhikṣus, unable to believe and accept it, will say that it is the speech of non-Buddhists and the speech of Māra.’ The Buddha further told Sage Protector: ‘When bhikṣus commit evil deeds, when nations wage war and malign one another, and when sentient beings dwell amid evil defilements, the fourfold assembly of disciples^[49] will be able to transmit this Dharma for the benefit of sentient beings.’”

2. The Medicine Buddha Sutra records: “For the sake of sentient beings in the Semblance Dharma age^[50], Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī made this request: if members of the fourfold assembly seek rebirth in the Western Land but their minds remain undecided, they should recite the name of the Medicine Buddha. The net of doubt will then be severed, and as they approach death, eight bodhisattvas will guide them to rebirth there.”

3. The Amitābha Sutra records: “The Buddhas in the other directions all praise Śākyamuni Buddha for being able, within the realm of the Five Defilements^[51], to teach this Dharma that is difficult to believe and accept. The Buddhas of the six directions all extend their broad and long tongues and speak truthful words as confirmation.”

4. The Contemplation Sutra records: “For the sake of sentient beings afflicted by the five unwholesome defilements and oppressed by the five sufferings, Queen Vaidehī requested the Buddha to teach the Dharma gate of recollecting the Buddha and seeking rebirth in the Pure Land. Moreover, the three grades of the lower level consist entirely of people who have committed evil karma, yet all of them are able to attain rebirth there.”

5. The Infinite Life Sutra records: “Śākyamuni Buddha taught the Dharma for sentient beings in the realm of the Five Defilements, enabling them to abandon the five evil deeds, remove the five sufferings, and extinguish the five flames that burn the body^[52]. Furthermore, in a future age, when all the Buddhist scriptures have been destroyed, the Tathāgata, out of loving-kindness and compassion for sentient beings, will preserve and transmit this sutra alone, allowing it to remain for one hundred years. At that time, sentient beings who give rise to a single thought of faith and acceptance will immediately attain rebirth in the Land of Utmost Bliss.”

Question: The cited scriptural passages were indeed spoken by the Buddha and are entirely free from falsehood, but it is not yet known whether this is a provisional Dharma gate or the ultimate teaching.

Answer: Your question is entirely correct. All the scriptural teachings cited here are ultimate Dharma gates. Why? If they were teachings of incomplete meaning, the Buddha would have clearly explained them at the Nirvana assembly. Yet regarding this Pure Land Dharma gate, there remained no doubt to be questioned beneath the Twin Śāla Trees. Moreover, all the Buddhas of the ten directions have confirmed it. On the basis of these two points, this is therefore not a provisional teaching. The foregoing is a brief citation of the sacred teachings to explain the basis for this teaching.

– Presentation of the doctrinal meaning:

A brief explanation of this Dharma gate is given to dispel doubts. When the single voice^[53] proclaims the teaching, beings of different capacities each awaken in their own way. Although there are myriad differences, all attain a corresponding realization.

Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha made vast vows to enter the evil realms and save sentient beings. Buddha Amitabha, out of great compassion, receives and guides sentient beings through only ten recollections. If one does not seek rebirth in the Pure Land, it is feared that one will fall into the three evil realms.

Reciting the name of Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha is done in the hope of being rescued from suffering. I now urge you to single-mindedly recite the Buddha’s name and vow to be reborn in the Western Land. When your life is about to end, the Buddhas will immediately come to receive and guide you.

Once reborn in the Pure Land, the three realms will be forever cut off; you will no longer undergo their sufferings, nor will you need to seek rescue.

The central tenet of the Three-Stage Teaching is taught in accordance with the capacities of the time: after 1,500 years, there will be no one who cultivates the Pure Land practice; even if there are practitioners whose various practices are all accomplished, they belong to the Second Stage and are not lowly ordinary beings. Examining this position, however, the practitioners just described comprise only the upper and middle grades among the three grades.

The Pure Land Dharma gate, by contrast, encompasses both meditative and non-meditative practices; whether one’s meritorious deeds^[55] are shallow or profound, one can be reborn in the Land of Ultimate Bliss. Pure monastics and eminent householders who dwell in seclusion, whose minds remain undistracted, and who cultivate contemplative practices will certainly attain rebirth. Those who are indifferent to glory and splendor, give no thought to public or private affairs, do not crave worldly matters, diligently study, cultivate the path, and fully possess the non-meditative causes^[56] of the three kinds of merit^[57] will certainly be reborn in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

Those who lack material means and are bound by their duties, yet resolve to cultivate wholeheartedly, will also attain rebirth. Even present-day people who commit offenses, including icchantikas, when their lives are about to end and they are afflicted by many kinds of suffering, may suddenly encounter a good and wise spiritual friend who instructs them to recite the Buddha’s name; their evil signs are then dispelled, and they are immediately reborn in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

Those with wholesome roots in the Mahayana, ranging from persons who commit no transgressions throughout their lives to those who dedicate merit with their final thought,^[58] are divided into the three grades of the upper rank according to whether their meritorious deeds are shallow or profound. Those of Hinayana capacity, ranging from the wholesome destinies^[59] to the Supreme Mundane Dharma,^[60] are divided into the three grades of the middle rank.

Those of either Mahayana or Hinayana capacity are divided into the three grades of the lower rank according to whether their transgressions are grave or light. Thus, although their cultivation of the path may be shallow or profound and the evil they commit grave or light, they all arouse the aspiration for bodhi, vow to be reborn in the Pure Land, and attain rebirth according to the measure of their karma. One must not cling one-sidedly to a single position and thereby disparage or doubt the Pure Land practice.

It is also said that this present age of evil and defilement is unsuitable for people to recite the Buddha’s name and vow to be reborn in the Pure Land. Such words are truly shallow! The Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life states: “When the Buddha’s sutras have all become extinct, the Buddha, out of loving-kindness and compassion for sentient beings, will preserve this sutra alone for one hundred years.

At that time, all sentient beings who hear the Buddha’s name and give rise to faith will attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.” This means that the Tathagata’s teaching for the benefit of sentient beings has a prescribed duration. After the ten thousand years of the Dharma-ending age, when all other sutras have completely disappeared, only the Amitabha Sutra will benefit innumerable sentient beings; therefore, the Buddha will preserve this sutra alone for one hundred years.

At that time, ten thousand years of the Dharma-ending age will already have passed and all the sutras will have disappeared, yet Buddha Sakyamuni, through his great benevolence and compassion for sentient beings, will preserve this teaching for another hundred years. Practitioners at that time will attain rebirth in the Pure Land; why, then, should one still harbor doubts and fail to vow for rebirth? A careful examination of this scriptural passage is sufficient to dispel such apprehensions.

Do not cling inwardly to fixed views and thereby fail to reconcile the sutras.

Part 12

Reconciliation of the meaning of “another time”^[61] on the basis of the Mahayana-samgraha. The treatise states: “Simply by making a vow, one will attain rebirth in the Land of Peace and Bliss. This is the meaning of ‘another time.’”

Question: The Mahayana-samgraha explains this as referring to another time. Yet this sutra teaches that by reciting the Buddha’s name one immediately attains rebirth. How should this be understood?

Answer: How does the Mahayana-samgraha’s meaning of “another time” differ from the Pure Land Dharma gate? When the vow is first made, one cannot yet attain rebirth immediately; rather, beginning with the mind that makes the vow, one undertakes the practice of reciting the Buddha’s name, thereby bringing the Pure Land practice to fulfillment. Because the vow comes first and the practice afterward, this is called “another time.” It does not mean that one who recites the Buddha’s name cannot attain rebirth immediately upon the completion of this life.

Part 13

Reconciliation with the Lotus Sutra. The sutra states: “If persons with distracted minds enter a stupa or shrine and recite but once, ‘Namo Buddha,’ they have all attained the path to Buddhahood.”

Question: When persons with distracted minds recite the Buddha’s name, they do not immediately attain the fruit of Buddhahood; they have only attained the path to Buddhahood. Why, then, can people who recite the Buddha’s name throughout a single lifetime be reborn in the Pure Land?

Answer: By reciting with distracted minds, they immediately establish the path to Buddhahood, because the path to Buddhahood is a cause; this is true and not false. Those who recite the Buddha’s name and are reborn in the Pure Land will be born there when their retributive bodies come to an end. How could this be mistaken?

Part 14

A brief presentation of the method of cultivation.

Question: It is now clear that recitation of the Buddha’s name is the cause of rebirth, but how should this be understood? What is the correct method of reciting the Buddha’s name?

Answer: Looking back through boundless and innumerable past kalpas, even when people cultivated causes, much of what they did was false and little was genuine. They sought only fame and profit and delusively clung to self and others. Although they may have created many wholesome conditions, these were not undertaken for the sake of right principle; therefore, they continued to wander through the evil realms and endured suffering without end.

The Sacred Lord Amitabha left his name to gather in and transform sentient beings of later ages. Ten kalpas have passed since he attained Buddhahood. Yet we, in our delusion, know only how greedily to commit evil.

Although we study the Buddha-Dharma, we seek only fame in this present life. We consider ourselves right and others wrong; our minds are constantly arrogant. In pursuit of food and clothing, we labor day and night; when we have leisure, we associate with evil companions.

If we do not encounter good companions, how could we hear of the Pure Land? Once impermanence overtakes us, we will fall back into the evil realms.

Now we have encountered great good and wise spiritual friends with whom we have karmic affinities. They teach us to reflect, abandon evil practices, and hear of Buddha Amitabha’s compassionate fundamental vows and how, throughout the ten kalpas since his attainment of Buddhahood, he has continually propagated and transformed beings through the true Dharma. Because our karmic obstructions are so heavy, only today have we been able to hear this. Our hearts are filled with sorrow and profound shame, for greed, anger, and delusion arise within us in abundance. Nevertheless, we need only cultivate according to the following four methods as our primary practice:

1. Long-term cultivation means that, from the moment one arouses the aspiration until one attains Buddhahood, one constantly creates the causes for the Pure Land and never regresses.

2. Reverential cultivation has five aspects:

– Reverence for the sages with whom one has affinities: whether walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, one does not turn one’s back toward the West; nor does one blow one’s nose or spit in the direction of the West.

– Reverence for images and teachings with which one has affinities: “images” means creating illustrated representations^[62] of Amitabha Buddha’s Western Land. If one cannot paint many figures, it is also sufficient to paint one image of the Buddha and one image of a bodhisattva. “Teachings” refers to such sutras as the Amitabha Sutra and others, which should be kept in a five-colored bag and personally read and recited, or used to guide others in reading and reciting. These sutras and images should be enshrined in one’s chamber; throughout the six periods of the day and night, one should bow in repentance, offer flowers and incense, and honor and revere them wholeheartedly.

– Reverence for virtuous spiritual friends with whom one has affinities means that those who expound the teachings of the Pure Land, whether they dwell a thousand yojanas^[63] away or within ten yojanas, should all be honored and respected, approached, and supported with offerings. Toward those who study and practice other Dharma gates, one should likewise give rise to reverence, regarding them as no different from oneself and seeking only to respect them wholeheartedly. If one gives rise to contempt, one commits an extremely grave offense. Therefore, reverence for all removes the obstacles to one’s cultivation and practice.

– Reverence for fellow practitioners means respecting those who cultivate Pure Land karma together with oneself. Because one’s karmic hindrances are deep and heavy, it is difficult to attain accomplishment by practicing alone; therefore, one must rely upon good companions who practice together in order to perfect one’s cultivation of the Way. Fellow practitioners should come to one another’s aid in times of adversity and wholeheartedly assist, protect, and respect one another.

– Reverence for the Three Jewels: Whether the Three Jewels in Their Distinct Manifestations or the Three Jewels of One Essence, all must be revered wholeheartedly. They are not discussed here, for fear that practitioners of shallow capacity would not truly rely upon them in cultivation; therefore, only a brief account of the Abiding Three Jewels is presented, so as to create great causes and conditions for such people!

– The Jewel of the Buddha consists of Buddha images carved from sandalwood, fashioned from pure gold or jade, embroidered or woven upon silk, or made from stone or clay. One must wholeheartedly revere these sacred images and contemplate their forms in order to eradicate offenses and increase merit. If even the slightest thought of contempt arises, evil karma will increase, all roots of goodness will be lost, and one will remain submerged in the evil destinies. One need only contemplate an image of the Buddha, and in the future one will behold the true Buddha.

– The Jewel of the Dharma is the teaching of the Buddha’s Three Vehicles, propagated throughout the Dharma-realm and expressed in words and phrases; it serves as a condition for the arising of understanding and awakening, and therefore must be cherished and venerated. Because it is the foundation from which wisdom arises, scriptures should be copied with reverence, always preserved in cases, and enshrined with great dignity in a pure chamber. Whenever they are read or recited, body and mind must be pure.

– The Jewel of the Sangha consists of the noble Sangha and bodhisattvas. Even toward those who have broken the precepts, one should impartially give rise to reverence and must not engender contempt.

3. Uninterrupted practice: This means constantly being mindful of the Buddha, resolving to seek rebirth, and skillfully contemplating at all times. It is like a person who has been imprisoned and made a servant, enduring every bitterness and hardship.

Suddenly remembering his parents, he wishes to escape and return to his native home; but because his provisions are insufficient, he must remain in a foreign land. Day and night he thinks of them in the utmost anguish, and there is no time when he does not remember his parents. When his affairs have finally been brought to completion, he is able at once to return home, draw near to his parents, and freely enjoy happiness.

The practitioner is likewise. Formerly, because the causes of affliction disturbed the wholesome mind, all the wealth of merit and wisdom was dissipated. Long submerged in birth and death, controlled by afflictions and deprived of freedom, one constantly served as a thrall of Mara, racing through the six destinies and suffering in body and mind.

Now, encountering favorable conditions, one suddenly hears the name of the compassionate father Amitabha. Never acting contrary to his great vow, he vows to rescue sentient beings; therefore, day and night one wholeheartedly resolves to attain rebirth. Thus one practices diligently, without weariness, laziness, or negligence, ever remembering the Buddha’s kindness and constantly maintaining right mindfulness until the end of this present life.

4. Not practicing other Dharma gates: This means single-mindedly seeking rebirth in the Land of Bliss, bowing to and reciting the name of Amitabha Buddha, without mixing in other Dharma gates. One should practice in this manner every day, being mindful of the Buddha and reciting sutras, without performing other liturgies.

AFTERWORD

Born in the Age of the Semblance Dharma, far removed from the Buddha, we remain unable to realize the Way of the Three Vehicles. The two realms of gods and humans are turbulent and insecure; only those whose minds of wisdom are lofty and vast can long abide within them. As for those of shallow wisdom and coarse practice, it is feared that they will remain forever submerged in the realm of darkness.

Therefore, the body must leave the Saha world far behind, while the mind entrusts itself to the Pure Realm. I respectfully beseech all who cultivate Pure Land karma together to rouse body and mind and rely upon this Dharma of mindfulness of the Buddha; they will certainly be able to leave the Saha world behind. May everyone refrain from letting the mind pursue fame and gain and remain ever mindful of the dread of impermanence.

Even if one’s renown were to equal that of Huiyuan and Dao’an, how would it differ from a flash of lightning? Even if one’s virtue far surpassed that of Sengzhao and Daosheng, would it not still resemble a gandharva city?

The writings on the Three Emptinesses and Nine Severances^[65] contain principles profound and hidden, while their words are exceedingly vast; the teachings of the Ten Grounds and Five Cultivations^[66] possess abstruse meanings, while their language is immensely intricate. One cannot, with but a little effort, bring Pure Land karma to fulfillment only after spending many years in contemplation; what share could there be in the interval of a single kshana?

Thoughts must accumulate like grains of sand and motes of dust before one can proclaim the marvels of the nine realms^[67]; the mind constantly creates its objects, and those objects reveal the wonder of the twofold nonexistence^[68]. If consciousness remains attached to deviant maras, while one wishes to enlarge the root for penetrating delusion^[69], human life is far too brief; if one waits to plant the wisdom that comprehends the true, can the road to death be assigned a date?

It would be better to quiet one’s thoughts, observe the fast, and relinquish the extensive karma of broad learning; to settle the mind upon the ford of wisdom and initiate the practice of limited study^[70]. One may then leave the Saha world and stroll through the Imperial Garden in the Land of Bliss. With the mind in the Pure Realm and the body resting upon a golden dais, together attaining the Way in the presence of our Compassionate Father Amitabha, what doubt would not be dispelled?

Receiving the Buddha’s instruction and realizing the Unborn, one’s benefits will be immeasurable!

I have briefly set forth these rudimentary matters so that everyone may select their excellent meaning and strive onward in cultivation to perfect Pure Land karma. Please do not disregard them!

Notes:

^[1] The Three Vehicles: three conveyances, a term metaphorically referring to the three Dharma gates that carry sentient beings beyond birth and death to nirvana.

In accordance with the differing capacities of sentient beings—dull, middling, and keen—the Buddha taught three vehicles: the shravaka vehicle, the pratyekabuddha vehicle, and the bodhisattva vehicle.

– The shravaka vehicle: one awakens to the Way by hearing the sound of the Buddha’s teaching. Shravakas know suffering, abandon its origin, delight in cessation, and cultivate the path; they take the Four Noble Truths as their vehicle.

– The pratyekabuddha vehicle: one contemplates the twelve links of dependent origination and awakens to the principle of ultimate truth. Beginning with the contemplation of ignorance and continuing through aging and death, one awakens through the conditioned arising and cessation of these links to that which neither arises nor ceases; therefore, one takes the twelve links of dependent origination as one’s vehicle.

– The bodhisattva vehicle: one seeks unsurpassed bodhi, vows to liberate all sentient beings, and cultivates the six paramitas, taking these six paramitas as one’s vehicle.

The first two vehicles benefit only oneself and not others, and therefore are collectively called the Lesser Vehicle; the bodhisattva vehicle fully encompasses both self-benefit and the benefit of others, and therefore belongs to the Great Vehicle (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4221).

^[2] Marks and excellences: the noble marks and beautiful characteristics of the Buddha’s body.

– The marks are the clearly visible features of the Buddha’s physical body, comprising thirty-two marks.

– The excellences are the subtle features of the Buddha’s physical body that are difficult to perceive, comprising eighty characteristics.

A Wheel-Turning Sage King also possesses the thirty-two marks, but only Buddhas and bodhisattvas possess the eighty beautiful characteristics. During one hundred great kalpas in past lives, the Buddha cultivated the karma that produces the marks and excellences; therefore, in this life he perfected a body endowed with these marks and excellences (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4980).

^[3] The afflictive hindrance and the cognitive hindrance: two hindrances classified by the Yogacara school, the Dharma Characteristics tradition.

1. The afflictive hindrance: Arising from attachment to self, it consists of all delusions such as greed, anger, and ignorance, which generate karma, nurture rebirth, and trouble the bodies and minds of sentient beings, causing them to remain forever in birth and death within the three realms and five destinies and obstructing the fruition of nirvana.

2. Cognitive obstruction (also called the obstruction of knowledge): arising from attachment to dharmas, whereby afflictions such as greed, anger, and delusion cause ignorance and obscuration, obstruct the wondrous wisdom of bodhi, and prevent one from clearly knowing the phenomenal characteristics and true nature of all dharmas (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3310).

^[4] Transformation Body: The form manifested by the Buddha for the benefit of sentient beings. The Buddha’s birth-body is fully endowed with the thirty-two noble marks and, together with the Dharma Body, is collectively called the Two Bodies (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1868).

^[5] Restraint observance and active observance: two aspects of the precepts.

– Restraint observance: “restraint” means prevention, namely preventing the body and speech from committing and uttering evil. Restraint observance is the preservation of the essence of the precepts through restraint, teaching people not to commit any evil; it refers to the provisions of the two codes of precepts for bhikshus and bhikshunis.

– Active observance: active practice, namely encouraging body, speech, and mind to perform wholesome karma. Active observance is the preservation of the essence of the precepts through action, teaching people to comply with and perform all wholesome deeds (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3363).

^[6] Initiating practice: practices initiated through the three karmic activities of body, speech, and mind. Through the bodhi-mind, one initiates such practices as reverently bowing with the body, invoking the sacred names and praising the Buddha with speech, and contemplating and recollecting with the mind. If one sincerely initiates these three karmic practices of body, speech, and mind, one will receive many benefits in this very life and, in the future, be reborn in the Pure Land (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2325).

^[7] Training in the precepts (accomplishment in training in the precepts): cultivating the three collections of pure precepts—the precepts of restraining conduct, the precepts of embracing wholesome dharmas, and the precepts of benefiting sentient beings—in order to perfect the paramita of morality. This is one of the six accomplishments. Because bodhisattvas who wish to perfect the six paramitas must undertake six practices, if they persistently train in the precepts, the paramita of morality will be perfected (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1918).

^[8] The conjured city: a metaphor for the provisional and unreal nirvana of the Lesser Vehicle; the jeweled destination, by contrast, symbolizes the nirvana of the Great Vehicle, the place of ultimate and true abiding (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 351).

^[9] The two emptinesses: the emptiness of persons and the emptiness of dharmas, collectively called the twofold emptiness of persons and dharmas, or the twofold emptiness of beings and dharmas. The emptiness of persons is also called the emptiness of self. The emptiness of beings refers to the truth that persons and selves are empty and nonexistent.

Ordinary beings mistakenly cling to the five skandhas as a self and regard it as a sovereign agent, thereby giving rise to afflictions and committing evil karma. To eliminate this deluded attachment, the Buddha taught that the five skandhas are non-self, explaining that the self is merely a provisional combination of the five skandhas and has no fixed subject; this is called the emptiness of persons. The emptiness of dharmas is the principle that all dharmas are originally empty.

Before realizing the principle of the emptiness of dharmas, followers of the Two Vehicles still cling to the dharmas of the five skandhas as truly existent. To eliminate this deluded attachment, the Buddha taught the profound wisdom of prajna, enabling followers of the Two Vehicles to see clearly that the intrinsic nature of the five skandhas is originally empty (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3323).

^[10] The mara of the skandhas: the mara of the five aggregates, or the mara of the five skandhas, namely form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. Because the accumulation of the five skandhas produces the fruit of suffering in samsara, they resemble Mara, who has the power to subject sentient beings to many hindrances and harms (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 3046).

^[11] The four maras: (S. Catvāro mārāḥ) four kinds of mara that rob people of their physical life and wisdom-life.

1. The mara of the skandhas, also called the mara of the five aggregates or the mara of the five groups, namely the five skandhas of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness, whose aggregation produces the fruit of suffering in samsara. These dharmas of birth and death have the power to rob one of wisdom-life.

2. The mara of afflictions, namely the 108 afflictions within the body that disturb the minds of sentient beings, rob them of wisdom-life, and prevent them from attaining bodhi.

3. The mara of death, which disperses the body composed of the four great elements, causes death, and prevents practitioners from prolonging their wisdom-life.

4. The mara who is a celestial being, also called the mara who is a celestial being of the Heaven of Enjoying Others’ Emanations: the king of maras dwelling in the sixth heaven of the Desire Realm, who often harms people’s wholesome deeds, resents the Dharma of the sages and saints, and creates disturbances that prevent practitioners from accomplishing supramundane roots of goodness.

Of the four kinds of mara above, the first three are internal maras, while the fourth is an external mara (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4083).

^[12] Patience regarding non-arising: fully called patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas, or the cultivation of patience regarding non-arising. Patience regarding non-arising is one of the three kinds of patience and the fourth of the five kinds of patience taught in the Humane Kings Sutra. It means contemplating the principle that all dharmas neither arise nor cease, thoroughly realizing that principle, and abiding with an unmoving mind. According to the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, fascicle 74, bodhisattvas at the stage of non-retrogression attain three kinds of patience regarding non-arising on the basis of the three natures: the imagined nature, the dependent nature, and the perfectly accomplished nature.

1. Patience regarding the non-arising of intrinsic nature: contemplating that the essence and nature of everything belonging to the imagined nature are empty, and clearly knowing the intrinsic nature to be non-arising.

2. Patience regarding natural non-arising: contemplating that dharmas of the dependent nature arise through causes and conditions, and clearly knowing that they do not arise naturally of themselves.

3. Patience regarding the non-arising of the defilements of affliction and suffering: the true suchness of the Dharma-nature that is the true nature of all dharmas abides in the unconditioned and is not associated with any defilement; one clearly knows it to have been quiescent from the beginning (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VII, p. 6105).

^[13] Ten wholesome practices: 1. Using generosity to gather in and liberate the poor; 2. Using pure precepts to gather in and liberate those who violate the precepts; 3.

Using patience to gather in and liberate the angry; 4. Using diligence to gather in and liberate the indolent; 5. Using meditative concentration to gather in and liberate those whose minds are distracted; 6.

Using wisdom to gather in and liberate the deluded; 7. Teaching the Dharma that removes adversities in order to liberate those afflicted by the eight adversities; 8. Using the Great Vehicle Dharma to liberate those who delight in the Lesser Vehicle Dharma; 9.

Using wholesome dharmas to aid those who lack virtue; 10. Constantly using the four means of attraction to bring sentient beings to accomplishment (Fragrant Accumulation Chapter, Vimalakīrti Sutra).

^[14] Patience regarding dharmas: enduring adverse circumstances without anger arising in the mind; one of the Two Kinds of Patience, Three Kinds of Patience, Six Kinds of Patience, and Ten Kinds of Patience. The Mahayana Compendium of Meanings, fascicle 11, states: “Abiding in the true characteristic of all dharmas is called patience.”

Patience regarding dharmas is divided into two kinds: patience regarding the Dharma of suffering and patience regarding the Dharma of the Path.

– Patience regarding the Dharma of suffering refers to faithful acceptance of the principle of the truth of suffering in the Desire Realm while at the stage of the Path of Seeing.

– Patience regarding the Dharma of the Path refers to faithful acceptance of the truth of the Path in the Desire Realm at the stage of the Path of Seeing.

Mahayana bodhisattvas at the Path of Seeing on the First Ground faithfully accept the principle of non-arising; therefore, this is called patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3538).

^[15] The ten faiths: the ten mental states cultivated in the first ten of the fifty-two stages of bodhisattva practice. These ten mental states belong to the stage of faith and have the power to enable practitioners to accomplish the practice of faith.

The Chapter on the Names of Sages and Saints in the Sutra of the Bodhisattva’s Jeweled Necklace of Fundamental Deeds, upper fascicle, lists the ten mental states as follows:

1. The mind of faith: single-minded determination and aspiration for accomplishment.

2. The mind of mindfulness: constantly cultivating mindfulness of the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, precepts, generosity, and devas.

3. The mind of diligence: hearing the bodhisattva canon and diligently cultivating wholesome karma without interruption.

4. The mind of concentration: the mind abides in phenomena and meaning, far removed from all falsity, frivolity, recollection, and discrimination.

5. Hearing the bodhisattva canon: reflecting and contemplating, clearly knowing that all dharmas are without self and without person, and that their intrinsic nature is empty and quiescent.

6. The mind of morality: receiving and upholding the bodhisattva’s pure disciplinary precepts; keeping body, speech, and mind pure and committing no transgressions; if any transgression occurs, repenting and eliminating it.

7. Mind of dedication: dedicate all cultivated roots of goodness to bodhi, without aspiring for birth in any of the realms of existence; dedicate them to sentient beings, not for oneself alone; dedicate them toward seeking realization of ultimate reality, without attachment to names and characteristics.

8. Mind of protecting the Dharma: guard one’s own mind so that afflictions do not arise, and further cultivate five practices: protection through silence, protection through mindfulness, protection through wisdom, protection by stilling the mind, and protection of others.

9. Mind of relinquishment: do not begrudge body or life, wealth or possessions; relinquish whatever one has acquired.

10. Mind of vows: constantly cultivate pure vows (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. VI, p. 5321).

^[16] The two kinds of non-self: the emptiness of persons and the emptiness of dharmas, also called the non-self of persons and the non-self of dharmas.

1. Non-self of persons: the human body is formed through the provisional combination of the five skandhas and has no true, independent subject. This is the contemplation practiced in the Lesser Vehicle to eliminate the afflictive hindrances and attain nirvana.

2. Non-self of dharmas: all dharmas arise through causes and conditions and are inherently devoid of self-nature. This is the contemplation practiced by Mahayana bodhisattvas to eliminate the cognitive hindrances and attain the fruit of bodhisattvahood (Laṅkāvatāra Sutra, fasc. 1).

^[17] The aspect of superior advancement: cultivating practices for one’s own benefit is called the personal aspect; cultivating practices for the benefit of others is called the aspect of superior advancement.

^[18] The two hindrances: the two obstructions of the afflictive hindrances and the cognitive hindrances. The afflictive hindrances arise from attachment to self. All the delusions of greed, anger, and delusion generate karma, nurture rebirth, and afflict the bodies and minds of sentient beings, causing them to continue undergoing birth and death within the three realms and five paths and obstructing the fruit of nirvana. The cognitive hindrances arise from attachment to dharmas. The delusions of greed, anger, and delusion produce obscuration, obstruct the wondrous wisdom of bodhi, and prevent one from clearly knowing the phenomenal characteristics and true nature of all dharmas (Treatise on the Establishment of Consciousness-Only, fasc. 9).

^[19] Impulses: another name for afflictions. Because afflictions drive people into submersion within the realm of delusion, afflictions are called “impulses.”

^[20] Fetters: fetters and impulses are bonds, referring to afflictions. Afflictions bind sentient beings within the realm of delusion, preventing them from escaping the suffering of birth and death.

^[21] The five omnipresent mental factors: the mental factors of contact, attention, feeling, perception, and volition. These five mental factors are universally present because they possess four meanings: universality with respect to nature means that they extend throughout the three natures of wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; universality with respect to place means that they extend throughout the three natures of wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate; universality with respect to place means that they extend throughout the three realms and nine grounds; universality with respect to time means that they are present at all times; and universality of conjunction means that when one dharma arises, the other dharmas all arise together with it.

^[22] The eleven wholesome mental factors: one of the six groups of mental factors established by the Consciousness-Only school:

1. Faith: accepting and delighting in all wholesome dharmas without doubt. It is of three kinds:

– Faith in true existence: deeply believing in and accepting the true principles of all dharmas.

– Faith in the existence of virtue: deeply believing in and delighting in the true and pure virtues of the Three Jewels.

– Faith in the existence of efficacy: possessing profound confidence in the power of all mundane and supramundane wholesome dharmas.

2. Moral shame.

3. Moral dread.

4. Non-greed: a mind that is disenchanted with, detached from, and untainted by agreeable objects of the five desires.

5. Non-anger: a mind that constantly practices patience and does not give rise to anger toward disagreeable objects of the five desires.

6. Non-delusion: clearly understanding and discerning the principles and phenomena of all dharmas without confusion.

7. Diligence: energetically cultivating all wholesome dharmas, without becoming lazy or weary, and bringing wholesome karma to perfection.

8. Pliancy: becoming free from coarse and oppressive disturbance and eliminating the dharmas that obstruct meditative concentration, thereby harmonizing body and mind so that they become peaceful, joyful, and light.

9. Heedfulness: diligently cultivating the three kinds of karma of body, speech, and mind; applying oneself vigorously to eliminate the delusions that must be abandoned and practice the wholesome dharmas that must be cultivated; swiftly bringing all mundane and supramundane wholesome dharmas to complete perfection, without negligence.

10. Equanimity: diligently cultivating the three kinds of karma of body, speech, and mind, causing the mind to become impartial and abide in tranquility, free from all such hindrances as restlessness and torpor.

11. Non-harming: neither harming nor becoming angry with any sentient being, but constantly exercising loving-kindness and compassion to eliminate their suffering and distress and bring them peace and happiness (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. VI, p. 5271).

^[23] The two extremes.

The treatises explain this teaching in different ways:

The Treatise on the Middle Way, fasc. 4: the two extremes refer to existence and nonexistence, or permanence and impermanence.

– The Treatise Conforming to the Middle, latter fascicle: the two extremes refer to eternalism and annihilationism.

– The Compendium of the Mahayana, translated by Master Xuanzang and explained by Master Vasubandhu: the two extremes refer to superimposition and diminution.

– The Supplementary Practices of Calm and Contemplation, fasc. 3: the two extremes refer to emptiness and provisional existence (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. IV, p. 3284).

^[24] Release from bondage: liberation from the mundane world and liberation from the defilements of affliction.

^[25] Supreme realm: here this refers to the Western Land of Ultimate Bliss.

^[26] Purple-gold: also called purple-yellow gold or simply purple gold; it is pure gold, the finest and most precious kind of gold, equivalent to Jambu River gold in India. The Buddha’s body is purple-gold in color and possesses the characteristic of gentle patience, called “purple-gold patience” (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. V, p. 4920).

^[27] The Four Heavenly Kings (Heaven of the Multitude of the Four Great Kings, Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, Heaven of the Multitude of the Four Great Heavenly Kings): the first of the six heavens in the desire realm and the first among the heavenly abodes. In Buddhist cosmology, on the fourth level of Mount Sumeru stands a mountain called Yugandhara, which has four peaks. Each of the Four Heavenly Kings and his retinue dwells upon one of these four peaks and guards one realm and one continent; hence they are called the Four Heavenly Kings Who Protect the World, or the Four Guardians.

Their abode is the Heaven of the Four Kings. The Four Heavenly Kings are: Dhṛtarāṣṭra, Guardian of the Nation, in the east; Virūḍhaka, He Who Increases and Develops, in the south; Virūpākṣa, Wide-Eyed, in the west; and Vaiśravaṇa, He Who Hears Much, in the north. The Heaven of the Four Kings and the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven are collectively called the Four Kings and Trāyastriṃśa (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol.

V, p. 4877).

^[28] Nayuta: an Indian numerical term… According to the Abhidharmakośa, fasc. 12, one nayuta equals one hundred ayutas, and one ayuta equals one billion; therefore, one nayuta equals one hundred billion. Buddhist sutras frequently use the term nayuta to denote an exceedingly vast number (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. III, p. 2762).

^[29] Asaṃkhyeya: an Indian numerical unit denoting an exceedingly vast, incalculable number. According to one method of reckoning, one asaṃkhyeya equals 10 to the 47th power. Among the sixty Indian numerical units, asaṃkhyeya is the fifty-second (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. I, p. 56).

^[30] Food in portions: food formed into individual portions, referring to all food in the desire realm. Food in the desire realm takes as its substance the three sense-objects of fragrance, flavor, and touch, and is divided into portions and morsels to be eaten for the sustenance of life. Food in portions is of two kinds:

– Coarse food: such as rice, noodles, and so forth.

– Fine food: such as oil, butter, seasonings, and beverages (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. II, p. 1535).

^[31] The assembly of those definitely established in correctness: the stage of practitioners who have securely abided in the quiescent extinction of nirvana.

According to the Abhidharmakośa, fasc. 10, noble ones who have reached the Path of Seeing or higher have completely eliminated the delusions of views, realized freedom from bondage, will ultimately never regress, and are securely established in the nirvana of discriminative cessation belonging to the true nature. The stages of bodhisattvas from the Ten Grounds upward are also called “definitely established in correctness” (TĐPH Huệ Quang, vol. I, p. 930).

^[32] Avaivartika: (Avinivartanīya) non-retrogression. This refers to bodhisattvas whose practice never regresses until they attain Buddhahood.

^[33] Consciousness-only contemplation (contemplation of the Dharma-body as consciousness-only): This refers to the contemplation of the principle of the Dharma-body, namely, contemplating the Buddha and the mind as one essence. The contemplation of the intrinsically pure Buddha-nature is the contemplation of the Buddha as manifested from one’s own mind; the contemplation of the Dharma-body as consciousness-only is the contemplation of the Buddha’s Dharma-body as identical in essence with one’s own Dharma-body. Thus, although the names differ, their essence is the same (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. II, p. 1151).

^[34] Evil discipline (non-discipline, evil precepts): Unwholesome non-manifest form that arises when, out of greed for profit or as a means of livelihood, one engages in such karma as killing living beings, and so forth.

According to the Abhidharmakosa, fascicle 14: Evil discipline is that which the wise censure and abhor; hence it is called evil conduct. Because it obstructs pure morality, it is called evil precepts. Because it does not restrain evil conduct of body and speech, it is called non-discipline.

According to the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, fascicle 27 (Northern version), there are sixteen kinds of evil discipline: 1. Fattening goats and selling them for profit; 2. Buying goats, slaughtering them, and selling their meat for profit; 3.

Fattening pigs and selling them for profit; 4. Buying pigs, slaughtering them, and selling their meat for profit; 5. Fattening buffaloes and cattle and selling them for profit; 6.

Buying buffaloes and cattle, slaughtering them, and selling their meat for profit; 7. Fattening chickens and selling them for profit; 8. Buying chickens, slaughtering them, and selling their meat for profit; 9.

Fishing; 10. Hunting; 11. Robbery; 12.

Killing people; 13. Setting nets to catch birds; 14. Sowing discord through divisive speech; 15.

Serving as a prison warden; 16. Using spells to control snakes for the entertainment of spectators and earning a livelihood from the proceeds.

The Sutra of the Buddha’s Great Skillful Means in Repaying Kindness, fascicle 6, sets forth twelve kinds of evil discipline: 1. Working as a butcher; 2. Being the leader of killers; 3. Raising pigs; 4. Raising chickens; 5. Fishing; 6. Hunting; 7. Setting nets to catch birds; 8. Catching snakes; 9. Casting spells upon dragons; 10. Serving as a prison warden; 11. Being a robber; 12. Serving as an officer dispatched by the king to apprehend bandits (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 84).

^[35] Knowledge free from exertion: wisdom attained without the need for deliberate effort. In the Lesser Vehicle, knowledge free from exertion is wisdom that arises freely and spontaneously without preparatory practices; it is one of the Four Knowledges distinguished according to the perfect virtues of fruition. In the Great Vehicle, knowledge free from exertion is the knowledge of bodhisattvas from the Eighth Bhumi onward.

Without relying upon further exertion, it naturally accords with true nature. Among the ten bhumis of the bodhisattva vehicle, the Eighth Bhumi and those above it are stages free from exertion. Having attained spontaneous knowledge free from exertion, bodhisattvas freely benefit sentient beings and never give rise to a thought of regression (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol.

VII, p. 6070).

^[36] Cultivation-delusions: Also called thought-delusions. The full term is “delusions to be eliminated on the Path of Cultivation.” These are the delusions eliminated at the stage of the Path of Cultivation, namely, the afflictions arising from delusion regarding phenomena—greed, anger, and ignorance—which are eliminated when a practitioner cultivates to the stage of the Path of Cultivation (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4622).

^[37] Nirvana without remainder: Nirvana in which absolutely no basis of support remains; the obstruction of afflictions has been completely severed, and the painful result of karmic maturation constituted by the body of the five skandhas has been entirely extinguished. It is one of the four kinds of nirvana and one of the Nine Truths (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. VII, p. 6074).

^[38] The first three epithets of the Buddha: Tathagata, Worthy of Offerings (Arhat), Perfectly and Completely Awakened One (Samyak-sambuddha). The following six epithets are: Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct (Vidyã-caãna-sampanna), Well-Gone One (Sugata), Knower of the World (Loka-vid), Unsurpassed One (Anuttara), Tamer of Persons to Be Tamed (Purusa-damya-sãrathi), Teacher of Devas and Humans (‘Sãtã deva-manusyãnãm) (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5228).

^[39] Five kinds of males incapable of sexual function (five kinds of eunuchs): Five classes of persons who lack male sexual organs or whose sexual organs are not fully developed. According to the Ten Recitations Vinaya, fascicle 21:

1. Congenitally incapable male: one born without male sexual organs.

2. Half-month incapable male: one who is capable of sexual intercourse for half the month and incapable of it for the other half.

3. Jealously incapable male: one who, upon seeing others engage in sexual intercourse, becomes jealous and then gives rise to sexual desire.

4. Disappearing-organ incapable male: one whose male sexual organ disappears during sexual intercourse.

5. Incapable male due to illness (incapable male upon being seen): a eunuch with concealed form whose male sexual organ has been surgically removed because of disease (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. III, p. 2932).

^[40] Lesser fruits: the four stages of fruition attained by sravakas of the Lesser Vehicle. In sequential order, they are: the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of once-returning, the fruit of non-returning, and the fruit of arhatship (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 4837).

^[41] The four impermanent characteristics (also called the four forms of impermanence): namely, impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self. In the second fascicle of the Prajnaparamita Sutra for Humane Kings, there is a verse on the four impermanent characteristics (the Verse on the Four Impermanent Characteristics) that explains the meanings of impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 4900).

^[42] Past cause: a karmic cause created in a past life. Although causes may be either wholesome or unwholesome, the term “past cause” generally refers only to a wholesome cause; likewise, although karma may be wholesome or unwholesome, the term “past karma” generally refers only to unwholesome karma (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4640).

^[43] Teaching of the Three Stages (also called the School of the Three Stages or the School of the Universal Dharma): a Buddhist school founded by Master Xinxing (540–594) during the Sui dynasty in China. By the middle Tang period, its circulation was prohibited because it was regarded as heterodox.

Based on time, place, and spiritual capacity, this school divided the Buddha-Dharma into three stages:

– The first stage: The time is the True Dharma age; the place is a Buddha-land; and the spiritual capacities are those of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The teaching upheld and practiced during this stage is the One Vehicle Buddha-Dharma of the Great Vehicle.

– The second stage: The time is the Semblance Dharma age; the place is the world of the five defilements; and the spiritual capacities are a mixture of ordinary beings and sages. The teaching prevalent during this stage is the Three Vehicles, encompassing both the Great Vehicle and the Lesser Vehicle.

– The third stage: The time is the Final Dharma age; the place is the world of the five defilements; and the spiritual capacities are all those of persons holding erroneous views and engaging in erroneous practices.

Master Xinxing maintained that his own era was already the third stage, populated entirely by people who failed to observe the precepts and had lost right view. If they were to cultivate according to teachings such as the One Vehicle of the first stage or the Three Vehicles of the second stage, it would indeed be exceedingly difficult. Therefore, they needed to follow the Dharma of the third stage: take refuge in the Three Jewels, eliminate all evil, and cultivate all that is wholesome; only then would attainment become easier. This is the fundamental tenet of the School of the Three Stages (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4098).

^[44] Discriminating wisdom: the power of mindfulness and wisdom that clearly knows the differences in the characteristics—such as great and small, beautiful and ugly—of all sentient beings and all dharmas (Huệ Quang Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. IV, p. 3583).

^[45] Three wholesome roots: three wholesome mental factors that counteract the three unwholesome roots.

^[46] Universal kinship: all sentient beings are one’s relatives—parents, brothers, sisters, and so forth.

^[47] Fetters of craving: one of the nine fetters. It is abbreviated as “fetter” and is also called the conforming fetter. “Fetter” means bondage. Craving binds people; hence it is called a fetter. That is, sentient beings are bound by craving and thereby create unwholesome karma such as killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech. Through this karma, they incur the painful fruits of birth and death in future lives, transmigrating within the three realms and being unable to escape them. Therefore, it is called the fetter of craving (PQĐTĐ).

^[48] The second stage: the second stage in the Teaching of the Three Stages. In this stage, the time is the Semblance Dharma age; the place is the world of the five defilements; and the spiritual capacities are a mixture of ordinary beings and sages. The teaching prevalent during this stage is the doctrine of the Three Vehicles (see note 43, “Teaching of the Three Stages,” p. 71).

^[49] The four assemblies of disciples: bhiksus, bhiksunis, upasakas, and upasikas; or it may refer only to the four monastic assemblies: bhiksus, bhiksunis, sramaneras, and sramanerikas.

According to The Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra, fascicle 2, latter part, and The Numerical Categories of the Dharma Treasures of the Great Ming Tripitaka, fascicle 15, the four assemblies listening to the Dharma at the Buddha’s Dharma assembly are: the Assembly That Initiates the Teaching, the Assembly Whose Capacities Are Directly Addressed, the Assembly of Influential Attendants, and the Assembly That Forms Affinities (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. V, p. 4727).

^[50] The Age of the Semblance Dharma: the period in which the teachings resemble those of the Age of the True Dharma; it is the second of the three ages. After the Buddha entered nirvana, the course of the Dharma was divided into three ages: the True Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Final Dharma. During this period, the teachings and practitioners still exist, but few attain realization.

There are various accounts of the duration of the three ages of the True Dharma, Semblance Dharma, and Final Dharma. Fascicle 56 of the Mahavaipulya Mahasamnipata Sutra and the latter fascicle of the Mahamaya Sutra state that the Age of the Semblance Dharma lasts 1,000 years; fascicles 3 and 7 of the Bhadrakalpika Sutra, the Mahayana Sutra on Repentance of the Three Accumulations, fascicle 7 of the Karunapundarika Sutra, and the Mahayana Karunapundarika Sutra state that it lasts 500 years (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. V, p. 4986).

^[51] The five defilements: five forms of corruption that arise during the declining kalpa. According to fascicle 5 of the Karunapundarika Sutra and fascicle 98 of the Fayuan Zhulin, the five defilements are:

1. The defilement of the kalpa: during the declining kalpa, when the human lifespan decreases to thirty years, famine occurs; when it decreases to twenty years, epidemics occur; and when it decreases to ten years, warfare occurs, bringing harm to all sentient beings in the world.

2. The defilement of views: the True Dharma has disappeared, the Semblance Dharma gradually arises, and false teachings begin to emerge. Wrong views grow powerful, preventing people from cultivating wholesome dharmas.

3. The defilement of afflictions: sentient beings are filled with sensual desire, greed, and stinginess; they delight in contention, flattery, and deceit and embrace false teachings, so their minds become troubled and disturbed.

4. The defilement of sentient beings: sentient beings are mostly cruel and wicked. They do not honor or show filial respect toward their parents or elders; they do not fear the consequences of evil deeds; they do not create merit, practice generosity, or observe the fasting precepts.

5. The defilement of lifespan: in ancient times, human beings lived for 80,000 years. In the present age, because evil karma has increased, lifespans have gradually diminished, and those who live to one hundred are exceedingly rare.

Among the five defilements, the defilement of the kalpa is the general one, while the remaining four are particular. Among the four particular defilements, the defilements of views and afflictions serve as the underlying substance from which the defilements of sentient beings and lifespan arise (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. III, p. 3044).

^[52] The five evils, five pains, and five burnings: the five evils are killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, divisive speech (harsh speech, false speech, and frivolous or embellished speech), and drinking intoxicants. Those who commit these five evils are punished by the law in their present lives and encounter calamity and distress; these are called the five pains. Because of these five evils, in future lives they undergo the karmic consequence of falling into the three painful realms; these are called the five burnings (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. III, p. 2909).

^[53] The single voice: the voice of the Buddha. This means that the faculties and affinities of sentient beings differ in depth and shallowness, as well as in quickness and slowness. Thus, although they hear the same spoken teaching of the Buddha, each receives it differently. Those with the capacity of human beings hear the Buddha teach the Five Precepts; those with the capacity of celestial beings hear the Buddha teach the Ten Wholesome Actions; those with the capacity of shravakas hear the Buddha teach the Four Noble Truths; those with the capacity of pratyekabuddhas hear the Buddha teach the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination; and those with the capacity of bodhisattvas hear the Buddha teach the Six Paramitas.

According to the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Buddha expounds the true Dharma with a single voice, and sentient beings understand it according to their respective capacities and kinds (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. III, p. 3178).

^[54] Meditative and non-meditative: there are two meanings:

1. The two minds of meditative concentration and distraction: the concentrated mind and the distracted mind, namely, the mind that abides in meditative concentration and the mind that pursues conditions among the six sense objects. The concentrated mind is of two kinds: contaminated and uncontaminated. The distracted mind is of three kinds: wholesome, unwholesome, and morally neutral. These two minds encompass all states of mind.

2. The two kinds of wholesome practice, meditative and non-meditative: meditative virtue and non-meditative virtue, the two wholesome practices necessary for cultivating rebirth in the Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss according to Master Shandao’s teaching. Meditative virtue consists of calming the mind and eliminating discursive thoughts.

Non-meditative virtue consists of abandoning evil deeds and cultivating wholesome practices. Among the sixteen contemplations taught in the Sutra on the Contemplation of Amitayus, Master Shandao held that the first thirteen contemplations belong to meditative virtue because the concentrated mind is used to contemplate the circumstantial and direct rewards of the Pure Land. The final three contemplations belong to non-meditative virtue because the distracted mind is used to cultivate the three meritorious practices and the nine grades of rebirth.

Furthermore, a person with the capacity to cultivate meditative virtue is said to possess a meditative capacity; one who cannot cultivate meditative virtue, or who cultivates only the three non-meditative meritorious practices, is said to possess a non-meditative capacity. The meditative and non-meditative capacities encompass all sentient beings (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. II, p. 1531).

^[55] Practice: the performance of karmic practices; it is the method of cultivation used to attain peace of mind and initiate practice within the Pure Land Dharma gate. This is the teaching of the Four Modes of Cultivation: reverential cultivation, exclusive cultivation, uninterrupted cultivation, and lifelong cultivation. Because peace of mind is easily lost and initiated practice is likewise difficult to sustain, one practices the Four Modes of Cultivation to inspire and strengthen the mind and one’s conduct and thereby swiftly attain rebirth in the Pure Land (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. V, p. 4038).

^[56] Non-meditative cause; non-meditative virtue: wholesome karma cultivated with a distracted mind. Master Shandao maintained that cultivation of the three meritorious practices and the nine grades of rebirth is entirely non-meditative virtue (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. V, p. 4243).

^[57] The three meritorious practices (the Three Kinds of Pure Merit; the Three Kinds of Pure Karma): the three primary causes of pure karma, which are also the three causes of rebirth in the Pure Land:

1. Filially caring for one’s parents, serving and honoring teachers and elders, maintaining a compassionate heart and refraining from killing, and cultivating the Ten Wholesome Actions;

2. Receiving and upholding the Three Refuges, observing all the precepts, and not violating proper deportment;

3. Giving rise to the bodhicitta, deeply believing in cause and effect, reading and reciting Mahayana scriptures, and encouraging practitioners to advance in cultivation (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. V, p. 4079).

^[58] The final mind of dedication: the last of the Ten Dedications, namely, the Dedication to the Immeasurable Dharma Realm. One cultivates all inexhaustible roots of virtue and dedicates these roots of virtue, aspiring to the immeasurable merits within the differentiated Dharma realm (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. VI, p. 5228).

^[59] Wholesome destinies (wholesome abodes; wholesome paths): realms into which those possessing wholesome karmic causes are born. Fascicle 30 of the Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra states: “Among the six destinies, hell beings, animals, and hungry ghosts belong to the unwholesome destinies, while celestial beings, human beings, and asuras belong to the wholesome destinies.” This is the commonly accepted explanation. The Abhidharmakosha Shastra holds that celestial beings and human beings belong to the wholesome destinies (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. VI, p. 5566).

^[60] The supreme worldly dharma: the fourth stage among the four stages of preparatory practice. It is the culmination of contaminated wisdom and the foremost among all worldly dharmas.

Relying upon uninterrupted concentration, one gives rise to superior wisdom that accords with reality, contemplates the apprehended object and apprehending subject as empty, and directly enters the stage of the path of seeing. Advancing from the stage of patience and passing through this stage, one enters the path of seeing in the very next instant; it is therefore called the foremost among all contaminated worldly dharmas.

Fascicle 23 of the Abhidharmakosha Shastra states: “Because it is a contaminated dharma, it is called worldly; because it is supremely excellent, it is called foremost (…) therefore, it is called the supreme worldly dharma” (Huệ Quang Buddhist Encyclopedia, vol. VI, p. 5398).

^[61] Intention concerning another time (intention for another time, intention established according to time): The Tathagata teaches the Dharma with an intention concerning another time. This is one of the four intentions, namely, an intended meaning whose benefit is realized at another time. It is said that whoever recites and upholds the name of Prabhutaratna Buddha will assuredly become irreversible with respect to unsurpassed bodhi, or that whoever merely makes the vow will immediately attain rebirth in the Land of Peace and Bliss. The Tathagata said this to exhort indolent people who take no delight in cultivation; thus, he spoke of a benefit to be gained at another time, not of a benefit obtained immediately in the present.

The Commentary on the Summary of the Mahayana, fascicle 6 (Taisho 31, 194b), states: “Those of indolent wholesome roots, by reciting and upholding the name of Prabhutaratna Buddha, advance toward the merits of the highest grade.”

The Buddha spoke of the merits of the highest grade for those whose practice is shallow, wishing them to abandon indolence and cultivate diligently. It does not mean that merely by reciting the Buddha’s name they become irreversible and assured of attaining unsurpassed bodhi. For example, through conducting business over a long period, a single gold coin may yield a thousand gold coins; those thousand gold coins are not acquired in a single day. The single gold coin is the cause from which the thousand gold coins arise.

The Tathagata’s intention is likewise: reciting and upholding the Buddha’s name is a cause for becoming irreversible in bodhi (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 546).

^[62] Transformational depictions: paintings depicting accounts of the Buddha’s former births, the magnificently adorned Pure Lands, the forms and conditions of the hells, and so forth, based on descriptions in the scriptures. A painting of Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land is called an Amitabha Pure Land transformational depiction; a painting of Bodhisattva Maitreya’s Pure Land in the Tusita celestial palace is called a Maitreya Pure Land transformational depiction; a painting based on the Avatamsaka Sutra depicting the seven places and eight assemblies, or the seven places and nine assemblies, is called an Avatamsaka transformational depiction; and paintings of scenes in the hells are called transformational depictions of the hells, and so forth (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol.

I, p. 525).

^[63] Yojana: an ancient Indian unit of length. The Sanskrit term is Yojana, meaning “to yoke,” derived from the root “Yuj,” and referring to the distance traveled in one day by a yoked ox. According to the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, fascicle 2, one yojana denotes the distance covered by a king’s army in one day’s march. There are various theories concerning the calculation of a yojana:

1. Conversion into krosas: According to Indian custom, as well as the Display of Arts chapter in fascicle 4 of the Lalitavistara Sutra and the Discerning the Divisions of Time chapter in the latter fascicle of the Matanga Sutra, four krosas equal one yojana. However, Buddhist texts such as fascicle 21 of the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya, fascicle 136 of the Mahavibhasa Treatise, and fascicle 12 of the Abhidharmakosa Treatise calculate eight krosas as one yojana.

2. There are also various theories when calculated according to Chinese units of measurement: according to fascicle 2 of the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, one yojana was anciently calculated as 20 km, according to Indian reckoning as 15 km, and according to Buddhist reckoning as 8 km; according to Huiyuan’s Phonetic Glosses and fascicle 3 of Yijing’s Mulasarvastivada One Hundred and One Karmans, Indian custom reckons it as 16 km, while Buddhist reckoning makes it 6 km (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 1115).

^[64] Gandharva city: also called a Bà city or Càn-đạt city. The full forms are Càn-thát-bà city, Kiền-thát-bà city, Kiện-đạt-phạ city, and Nghiễn-đạt-phạ city. It is a walled city conjured into appearance in empty space by gandharva spirits. It signifies that towers, rivers, mountains, forests, and so forth have no true existence but are merely illusions. Some hold that changes in air density over seas, deserts, and tropical wildernesses refract light and produce the phenomenon known as “towers of shells and markets upon the sea,” that is, a mirage. In Buddhist scriptures, the term “gandharva city” is often used to denote phenomena that are not real (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. I, p. 662).

^[65] Three kinds of emptiness and nine stages of abandonment:

– Three kinds of emptiness: emptiness of persons, emptiness of dharmas, and emptiness of both persons and dharmas. Alternatively, this refers to the three kinds of emptiness established by the Consciousness-Only school on the basis of the three natures: the imagined nature, the dependent nature, and the perfectly accomplished nature.

1. Emptiness of non-nature, also called emptiness of non-substance: although the imagined nature appears to exist before deluded cognition, in reality it has no intrinsic substance.

2. Emptiness of a different nature: the essential character of the dependent nature differs from the imagined nature. Although it is not sheer nonexistence, neither does it exist in the manner grasped by deluded cognition.

3. Emptiness of intrinsic nature: the perfectly accomplished nature is the intrinsic nature of all dharmas and reveals the emptiness of persons and the emptiness of dharmas (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. V, p. 4116).

– Nine stages of abandonment (nine uninterrupted stages, nine unobstructed paths): the nine uncontaminated paths at the stage in which afflictions are being abandoned.

The three realms are divided into nine grounds, and each ground has afflictions of contemplation and afflictions of views. The afflictions of contemplation within each ground are further divided into nine grades to be abandoned. Each time one grade of affliction is abandoned, there is an uninterrupted path and a path of liberation.

The stage in which the affliction is abandoned is called the uninterrupted path, while the wisdom attained after the affliction has been abandoned is called the path of liberation. Since the afflictions of cultivation in each ground have nine grades, the paths, or methods, that counteract them likewise have nine levels, called the nine uninterrupted paths or the nine paths of liberation. Furthermore, when saints beyond training cultivate their faculties and transform their spiritual disposition, there are also nine uninterrupted paths or nine paths of liberation (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol.

I, p. 842).

^[66] Ten grounds and five contemplative practices:

– Ten grounds: also called the ten abodes, the ten stages in the process of cultivation undertaken by disciples of the Buddha. “Ground” means an abiding place, that which supports and sustains, and that which engenders and develops. That is, upon entering such a stage, one takes it as one’s dwelling, while preserving the Dharma and nurturing it so that it bears fruit. The ten grounds are a general designation applying to all Three Vehicles. Fascicles 6 and 17 of the Large Prajnaparamita Sutra list: the ground of dry wisdom, the ground of nature, the ground of the eighth person, the ground of seeing, the ground of attenuation, the ground of freedom from desire, the ground of having completed the task, the ground of the pratyekabuddha, the ground of the bodhisattva, and the ground of the Buddha (Hue Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, vol. VI, p. 5212).

– Five contemplative practices (five successive levels of Consciousness-Only): five levels of contemplation upon the three natures of Consciousness-Only, proceeding in sequence from shallow to profound and from coarse to subtle, established by Master Kuiji of the Faxiang school:

1. Consciousness that dismisses the false and preserves the real: “dismisses” means to restrain, that is, to negate. Among the three natures, the imagined nature is false and delusive; both its substance and function are nonexistent. It must therefore be relinquished, while the dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature are taken respectively as the essential character and true nature of all dharmas. Because these two natures are real, they are retained, and at the same time they are contemplated as manifestations of Consciousness-Only.

2. Consciousness that relinquishes the indiscriminate and retains the pure: at the first level of contemplation, although the phenomena of the dependent nature and the principle of the perfectly accomplished nature do not depart from consciousness, within consciousness there still remain the objective realm—the image aspect—and the subjective mind—the seeing aspect and the self-cognizing aspect. Mind exists only internally, whereas objects extend to both the internal and the external. Lest the internal object, which is the image aspect, be confused with objects external to the mind, making it impossible to attain correct contemplation, objects must be relinquished and mind retained.

3. Consciousness that gathers the branches back to the root: at the second level of contemplation, although one has become free from the confused objective realm produced through the opposition of mind and objects, the mental dharmas that remain still differ as the root—the consciousness’s own essential substance, or self-cognizing aspect—and the branches—its functions, namely the seeing and image aspects. Because the branches cannot exist apart from the root, the branches must be gathered back into the root.

4. Consciousness that conceals the inferior and reveals the superior: although mind-kings and mental factors are alike in that their seeing and image aspects manifest as the apprehending subject and apprehended object, the mental factors depend upon the mind-kings and have very weak functions. They must therefore be concealed so that the powerful mind-kings may be revealed.

5. Dismissing appearances to realize the nature of consciousness: at the fourth stage, although the existence of the mind-king has been revealed, the mind-king has two distinct aspects, Phenomenon and Principle (Phenomenon is the apparent functioning of the dependently arisen nature; Principle is the essential nature of the perfectly accomplished nature). Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate the apparent functioning of the dependently arisen nature and realize the true nature of the perfectly accomplished nature (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, Vol. III, p. 3042).

^[67] The nine realms (Nine Abodes of Sentient Beings, Nine Abodes of Living Beings, Nine Abodes, Nine Gates): the nine dwelling places of sentient beings. They are: 1. Devas and humans in the Desire Realm; 2. the Brahma’s Retinue Heaven; 3. the Heaven of Boundless Radiance; 4. the Heaven of Pervasive Purity; 5. the Heaven of Non-Perception; 6. the Sphere of Infinite Space; 7. the Sphere of Infinite Consciousness; 8. the Sphere of Nothingness; 9. the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 824).

^[68] The twofold nonexistence (twofold non-self, emptiness of persons and emptiness of dharmas, the twofold emptiness of self and dharmas, non-self of persons and non-self of dharmas):

– Non-self of persons: the human body is a provisional combination of the five skandhas and has no true self-entity. This is the contemplation taught by the Lesser Vehicle for eliminating the afflictive obstruction and attaining nirvana.

– Non-self of dharmas: all dharmas arise through causes and conditions and have no intrinsic nature. This is the contemplation practiced by Mahayana bodhisattvas for eliminating the cognitive obstruction and attaining the bodhisattva fruition (Huệ Quang Dictionary of Buddhism, Vol. IV, p. 3365).

^[69] Penetrating delusion: fully understanding that all dharmas are illusory and unreal.

^[70] The practice for those of little learning: cultivating the Pure Land Dharma-gate.