仁王護國般若波羅蜜經疏神寶記

Chapter on Teaching and Transforming

... At that time, the great assembly—that is, the multitude who had come to hear the Dharma—was exceedingly numerous, and all derived great benefit from the Dharma taught by the Buddha. The sutra states that the assembly comprised six classes of beings [75] and the distinct members of the eight divisions [76].

With regard to their common benefit, no class was superior to another; yet the attainment of the path still lay far ahead, and they would have to pass through successive lives, for longer or shorter periods, before entering their respective stages. The sutra states that even those in the evil destinies could attain patience; yet to reach the patience concerning the non-arising of dharmas, they had to pass through the stages of authentic cultivation and realization.

In general terms, there was likewise no difference among them. As in the Chapter on the Contemplation of Samantabhadra, one contemplates non-arising and enters the proper stage. On the basis of this explanation, they are clearly alike and not different.

First, this is explained in terms of the twofold emptiness; second, it is discussed on the basis of the true and the provisional. It is not yet clear what criterion should be used for the proper stage; nevertheless, if the realization cultivated and attained by noble beings is taken as the proper stage, its meaning is also equivalent to the noble fruit. Although the wording has not truly been examined in detail, why must one necessarily scrutinize the successive stages entered and attained through realization?

The attainment of the twofold emptiness also depends upon how the expression is used. It may take one life or two lives, according to whether one or two grades of ignorance are destroyed. The Great Sutra states that one must follow the cycle of rebirth and take birth again, as this sutra clearly illustrates by means of an analogy.

‘... Good men, the Tathagata merely recounts the integrated teaching, which encompasses the profound and subtle original and trace teachings.’ Thus, one must first indicate the point from which the teaching arose. According to the sutra, this corresponds to the attainment of the supreme fruit of the path.

In terms of the original teaching, it is a stage related to the Buddha; from this it is sufficiently clear that the trace teaching now under discussion is likewise not far removed from Buddhahood. How could the Dharma-Cloud Ground among the ten grounds possibly be a lion’s roar falsely bestowed through instruction? Rather, it is because the wisdom arising on this ground gives rise to thoughts of faith free from falsehood.

The passage recounting this does not clearly state the three meanings; the explanation merely says that only a Buddha together with a Buddha can fully know their mutual accord and joint activity. As the sutra discusses this meaning, the Lotus Sutra is taken as authoritative, and the transmission is not falsely conferred. This was not intended for bodhisattvas, who, fearing error, raised doubts and posed questions from the outset.

According to the broader interpretation, all Buddhas are born from the Middle Way. The word ‘middle’ accords with two interpretations. First, ‘middle’ means being in the midst: although the Buddhas manifest the arising and cessation of the three bodies, they never depart from the midst.

Second, it means the Middle Way. Whatever still undergoes arising and cessation is not the Middle Way, as the Buddha frequently uses the word ‘middle’ in this sense. The meaning of emptiness is threefold: because the transformation body is empty, it neither arises nor ceases nor changes.

From the broader standpoint, the fundamental Dharma-body is without characteristics, whereas material things possess form. Therefore, the Buddha was born in the royal palace and entered cessation in the grove of twin sala trees. Through arising and cessation, he teaches and transforms sentient beings, establishing what is inexhaustible.

The Middle Way lies therein: there is neither self nor other. It is also difficult to explain this repeatedly, for it is spoken relatively. We shall now explain it according to the meaning above.

Generally, teaching and transformation require both self and other; once self and other exist, there must be one and two, and thus obstruction arises. The explanation states that there is neither self nor other, neither one nor two; consequently, this accords with there being no teaching or transformation. Even when teaching and transformation occur, they are not teaching and transformation.

Thus, teaching and non-teaching are alike. Emptiness of characteristics means the absence of characteristics, as stated above; yet it is not said to be sheer nonexistence. Although it is called emptiness and absence of characteristics, absence of characteristics does not mean the absence of coming and going.

Thus it is said: coming without coming, seeing without seeing; this does not mean there is no coming or going. Because traces are relinquished, it is said to be like empty space, which has three meanings of emptiness, all ultimately returning to final emptiness. Therefore, the present explanation is based upon these three meanings of emptiness, so as to make the matter clear.

Second, the emptiness of persons and dharmas is used to clarify the meaning of emptiness. Because all sentient beings undergo arising and cessation, it is generally said that both persons and dharmas are empty; therefore, arising and cessation are also empty. This does not deny cause and effect, as can be known from the broader establishment of the doctrine above.

Since the explanatory citations quote the Great Prajnaparamita Sutra clearly and fully, no further explanation is given here. Finally, afflictions are discussed to illuminate the twofold emptiness. Self and person fundamentally belong to views and attachments, and therefore are driven by afflictions.

Likewise, what is called ‘mine’—that which belongs to the self—is merely a provisional designation, temporarily borrowed, and is fundamentally unreal. Here the word ‘provisional’ must be understood as referring to the conceptual reckoning produced by the two attachments to persons and dharmas.

Taking true dharmas to elucidate the meaning of emptiness, all accumulated dharmas are originally real, not provisional, yet they establish the meaning of emptiness. Therefore, names are used to speak of the three provisional designations: dharmas, realms, and emptiness. This precisely reveals that both persons and dharmas are entirely empty.

Signlessness is not discussed here, and thus there can be no transference; this emptiness is not inverted and therefore does not follow the course of illusory transformations. Hence the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment says that to know illusion is to depart from it; to depart from illusion is enlightenment, without following illusory dharmas. It also means not conforming even to the emptiness of the Three Jewels.

In general, names and characteristics are spoken of in order to counteract the root; if there were nothing to counteract, names themselves would not be established. Here, because the intention is to clarify the meaning of emptiness, it is stated in this way. Furthermore, it is also said that there are no sages and no six realms; this is also called the emptiness of all realms, which is no different with respect to the worldly and the supramundane.

If so, who remains a sage and who remains an ordinary being that such distinctions might be established? Therefore, it is said that ordinary beings and sages alike are entirely provisional names. The three kinds of prajna must be understood; by relying upon prajna, its essence illuminates emptiness.

This means that sages and ordinary beings, persons and dharmas, are empty, and only prajna remains; yet prajna too is empty. Because the emptiness of prajna is taught, this must be understood. Prajna takes wisdom as its name, emptiness as its essence, and the absence of wisdom and views as its characteristic.

Thus, knowing comes to rest in non-knowing, and therefore what should be said is spoken. On this basis, Dharma Master Sengzhao composed the Treatise on Prajna Without Knowledge to explain the matter. Yet the sutra says that dharmas do not act; when the mind of the Way ceases, there are no conditions and no causes, unlike dharmas compounded through causes and conditions.

Because they exist precisely as emptiness, one does not accept any dharma; only when even non-acceptance is not accepted can it be called non-acceptance. One does not attain to the illuminating characteristics of dharmas. When the self-illumination of dharmas has vanished, the dharmas being illuminated also become quiescent and cease to remain; the characteristic of practicing the Way is likewise.

That practice of Dharma is precisely the practice of profound prajna. Only thus is it truly the characteristic of practicing the Way, which the sutra calls the signless Dharma. One should therefore know that the characteristics of all dharmas are Suchness.

To summarize the foregoing meaning, the characteristics of all dharmas are like empty space. This emptiness is not prajna as Thusness itself. It cannot be attained with a discriminating mind and therefore cannot be established; because all dharmas are Suchness, it cannot be attained through absence of mind either, and therefore cannot be discarded.

Because all dharmas are true, the merit of the mind of prajna does not abandon sentient beings. Sentient beings cannot measure up to it, and it cannot be understood by treating the five skandhas as either provisional or real, nor by means of coarse realms, for all such means lie beyond its capacity. Therefore, one can only accord with emptiness and conform to signlessness; this, however, can be practiced.

Prajna is thus inconceivable and cannot be fully expressed through language or the activities of the mind. Precisely because prajna is inconceivable, bodhisattvas must practice it. These are all the profound and subtle practices, such as the thirty practices of patience mentioned above.

The Buddhas teach through the Middle Way because the Buddha-nature of all beings is supremely quiescent, while wondrous wisdom illuminates its objects; therefore, it cannot be expressed in words and can only be known through consciousness. “Good man...” is a phrase praising inconceivable and immeasurable merit, extolling the king’s most outstanding quality. Merely summarizing the king’s words, like taking a drop from the ocean, is sufficient to reveal the nature of that merit.

As there may be those who understand them contrary to their meaning, extensive explanations through questions and answers are required to clarify the king’s words further; this is the fundamental issue. The question addressed to the king does not require a textual passage, but merely takes the principal meaning in accordance with the initial explanation. If understood differently, any interpretation must conform to the standards of the sages before it can be accepted.

An analysis of the meaning of merit contained therein would encompass innumerable meanings; only one part is discussed here, just as moonlight may be used to illustrate truly vast and immeasurable merit. Though the analogy is concise, it is complete and by no means unreasonable. Alternatively, only prajna is indicated in order to express the appropriate meaning; therefore, it must be made perfectly clear from the past down to the present, just as Moonlight appropriately related it or clearly remembered it.

The Buddha clearly set forth the fourteen dharmas of patience to encourage practice. Through these dharmas, one attains wisdom of all modes (sarvajna), and the Buddha exhorted practitioners concerning only this essential point.

Why is this so? Because, as the explanation repeatedly emphasizes, there is no alteration. The Surangama Sutra says that all Buddhas of the ten directions proceed toward nirvana.

The sutra also says that although there are many gates of skillful means, they return to the nondual nature of enlightenment. Yet one may also employ the doctrine of liberation to comprehend thoroughly the one and only direction. Just as a gateway provides passage, there is no gate through which one cannot pass.

Since the gate of prajna leads to wisdom of all modes, is this unobstructed gate not the single path of liberation? In carrying on the practice of Dharma, if these fourteen dharmas of patience are not cultivated fully from beginning to end, how can one properly walk the Great Way? After hundreds of thousands of kalpas, it is difficult to obtain a human body again; how much more difficult must it be to attain the wondrous reward-body!

The Buddha told the king that the second question could only be answered by employing a broad topic, because the sutra contains three doubts. Here the third question must be answered: What further characteristic does a bodhisattva employ in viewing sentient beings so as to enable them to be liberated? Although the question concerns the sentient beings who are taught and transformed, in truth it also concerns the bodhisattva who teaches and transforms them.

The answer that follows contains two points: a) the bodhisattva contemplates his own body as an illusion and a transformation; and b) he sees that the sentient beings being taught and transformed are likewise illusory transformations, and therefore teaches and transforms them accordingly. Without such contemplation, whether with regard to self or others, one will remain attached to self, person, sentient being, and life span.

According to the spirit of prajnaparamita, there are no sentient beings who are actually taught and transformed. Therefore, one should know that sentient beings possess nothing whatsoever, even though it is said that innumerable sentient beings can be liberated.

The following teachings are presented: Because the matter is not yet clear, it is developed further, which also serves to answer the question extensively. The original knowing nature of sentient beings arises from a single thought and is not like wood or stone: when it encounters goodness, it becomes good; when it encounters evil, it becomes evil. Therefore, one should know that the causes of good and evil are created by the minds of sentient beings throughout the three realms and six paths, while their root lies in the initial single thought, whose essence is as firm as vajra.

Vajra is compared to the mind after awakening: it has both beginning and non-beginning; there are delusion and awakening, and the causes and effects of good and evil are clearly evident. The superior or inferior states of the contaminated, the uncontaminated, and liberation arise from the manifestations of the mind. Although it cannot be known, one can understand that the inconceivable form and mind of sentient beings all arise from the one mind.

Moreover, knowing that mind is like an illusion, one knows that form is also false; the one who teaches and transforms and those who are taught and transformed are likewise so. This is why only by using an illusory body to perceive illusory things does one truly teach and transform sentient beings. To understand this as the fundamental consciousness is to identify consciousness as the direct cause of Buddha-nature, and thus to assert that the mind can become Buddha.

It is neither existent nor nonexistent, and neither of the two extremes is liberated.

Sentient beings are said to exist, yet they have neither appearance nor material substance; they neither remember nor forget, for their essence neither records nor recollects. It is like the nature of water, which is inherently permeating and moistening. Since all dharmas each have their own characteristics and do not share one identical characteristic, they differ according to good and evil deeds, and therefore their habitually conditioned natures are not the same.

The sutra cites the Great Sutra as evidence that they are not necessarily identical, while also identifying points of difference. Above, the natures of water and fire were used as analogies, because their natures are inherent habitual natures. Here a single stream of water is used to explain that although it flows to many different places, the nature of water remains the same.

To explain this simply, the fundamental nature of sentient beings involves existence and nonexistence; based on the root, it is regarded as nonexistence. If it is said that the fundamental nature is unattainable and therefore nonexistent, this also accords with setting existence in contrast to nonexistence; the wording is expressed this way only because it is abbreviated.

The answer may be summarized in two points:

1) Relying on principle, it first clarifies emptiness and afterward does not accept existence; the doubt largely concerns the single word “EMPTINESS.”

2) Relying on phenomena, it clarifies existence: because consciousness arises from a single thought, distinctions are made and existence is established. Yet that is not the point at which the ultimate truth and phenomena intersect. If one discusses this according to the Great Teaching in order to illuminate where they meet, they still do not intersect; they do not intersect, yet they meet. Meeting and not intersecting both apply, but this has still not truly become an established doctrine.

As is commonly explained, discriminative knowing is used to answer that the sentient beings being taught and transformed are illusory transformations; illusion is described as false and unreal. The sutra explains this through at least six kinds of provisionality:

1) Within provisionally established dharmas, one knows that from a single thought arise form and mind—the five skandhas. From one form arise innumerable forms, as in the twelve ayatanas—the six sense faculties and six sense objects. Through the creative activity of the four great elements, the five consciousnesses arise; the consciousnesses are assigned to their faculties, namely the five faculties, and together they extend throughout the eighteen dhatus—the twelve ayatanas together with the six consciousnesses.

Thus, all multiplicity arises from unity, and apparent existence arises provisionally from nonexistence; this is the characteristic of falsity. Once the faculties, consciousnesses, and four great elements are understood, one should know that these four dharmas are likewise empty, although the sutra presents this only briefly. Therefore, in summary, this should be understood comprehensively.

Because the text is abbreviated, it does not explicitly discuss the dharma-ayatana and the rupa-ayatana, while the ayatanas of form and mind constitute only a partial presentation.

2) The different perceptions of sages and ordinary beings also show that dharmas have no intrinsic nature: they may be seen provisionally or seen as true. Because the six consciousnesses of ordinary beings are coarse, they know only coarse things and perceive provisional phenomena, yet mistakenly regard them as real, considering odors, tastes, tangible objects, and dharmas to be real. Sages, however, possess subtle knowledge, see correctly, and do not mistake the provisional for the real.

Therefore, the perceptions of sages and ordinary beings differ. Even among sages there are differences of greater and lesser attainment, depth and shallowness; thus, some perceive permanence, others impermanence, some see that when form ceases permanence appears, and others perceive true principle. How, then, could dharmas themselves be said to be identical or different?

All such distinctions are formed by the discriminating mind. Sentient beings, on the level of conventional truth, mistakenly take what cannot be apprehended to be apprehensible. The sutra, however, does not explain this explicitly; it only accords with the aspect of provisional designation.

The five skandhas mentioned above are regarded as real dharmas and are divided into two aspects: person and dharma.

3) Next, whatever is provisional bears the designation “illusion.” Although the wording differs, there are points of similarity. To explain this subtle point, one must say that it is either existent or nonexistent, because within conventional dharmas provisional designation remains applicable to both existence and nonexistence. Since sentient beings conceive and imagine them, this is conventional truth, not ultimate truth. Furthermore, because worldly existence is not true, it is called conventional truth. Being deceptive and illusory, it appears to exist but in reality does not exist; being nonexistent yet appearing to exist, it is provisional existence, also called illusion. Because it is illusory, it is false and thus receives its designation.

4) Conventional truth is spoken of in contrast to what is not truth. Each side must have its own principle, although the meaning varies in depth and shallowness.

5) It is also said that even sentient beings in the six paths are illusory transformations. This concerns two aspects of perceiver and perceived. First, the unreal beings of the six paths are taken as the perceivers, while what is seen as unreal is the perceived.

Second, the illusory transformation is taken as the perceiver, while the four great elements seen as unreal are the perceived. Because the sentence is abbreviated, its meaning is affected. The explanation discusses nothing else but perception, in order to emphasize and clarify the meaning of perception given above.

It does not refer only to direct perception in this manner, but also to skillfully contemplating and knowing that those who teach and transform and the sentient beings who are taught and transformed are alike, all being illusory transformations.

6) The teaching of true illusion states that only bodhisattvas of the Distinct Teaching are capable of teaching and transforming others; one should know that this is also the same in the Perfect Teaching, although the sutra abbreviates the point here. The Buddha teaches the Dharma of true illusion to ordinary beings in the six paths, so that both those who teach and those who are taught see it clearly; therefore, one should know it as the true illusion described above.

From kalpas past until the time before the Buddha appeared in the world, this unreal, illusory Dharma originally had no name. Even if it had a name, that name would not correspond to its true meaning; thus it is said to be without true meaning and is called an illusory Dharma. Accordingly, conventional truth has names, but those names do not correspond to true meaning. One should therefore know that these illusions exist only as names. Since they are unreal and without characteristics, there are no six paths and no names whatsoever.

Yet if everything were uniformly nameless, sentient beings would have no true path toward which to advance, and the Buddhas would have no skillful means or excellent methods to bestow upon them. How, then, could sentient beings escape birth and death? Therefore, the Buddhas appear in the world one after another and establish provisional names for sentient beings, enabling everyone thereby to know dharmas and to know that dharmas are unreal. In the light of the beginning of the kalpa, all things suddenly appear utterly empty; when sages look upward, they are sages, and when they look downward, they become ordinary beings—this is the Dharma of emptiness.

In summary, from time immemorial, all dharmas within the three realms, though called by innumerable names, have always been empty dharmas. They are like illusory transformations: emptiness is not a temporal interval; continuity, mutual dependence, and the patient acceptance of the indeterminacy of dharmas are like illusory transformations. Therefore, it is said that they are neither one nor different.

Because the continuity of dharmas is provisional, it follows that one who has not yet been able to penetrate the emptiness of both person and dharmas must be caused to enter emptiness, after which realization becomes complete. As the treatise Great Calming and Contemplation says, in discussing continuity, what comes before and what comes after must succeed one another without interruption. To determine that one thing is different from another is not continuity; only that which is neither one nor different is called continuity.

A sprout and the trunk of a tree are neither one nor different, yet they gradually grow; this is provisional continuity, from which another thing arises. Certainly, no real dharma exists; dharmas are empty. Yet continuity is also provisional, because all names and characteristics succeed one another, just as the existence and nonexistence of the five colors constitute an indeterminate continuity.

Therefore, this is explained through two meanings: a mutually dependent characteristic is a characteristic of conjunction, while a characteristic free from dependence is said to be one of mutual separation. Because these are merely words, they do not constitute two meanings, as the treatise cited above explains. Moreover, dharmas provisionally formed through the conjunction of conditions are also said to arise from causes.

Because sentient beings are provisionally formed through the conjunction of the five skandhas and the twelve links of dependent origination, the complete periods of cause and effect must be present. Statements concerning seeing must encompass the full temporal process; seeing coincides with sound at the same moment. Contemplating the present at the same moment constitutes simultaneity.

If examined analytically, however, the contemplation occurs at a different time. It is like pillars forming a house: they are simultaneous, yet in terms of sequence they occur at different times. Just as the twelve hours have a before and an after and thus occur at different times, while all belonging to a single day and thus being simultaneous, so too may one take the lamp and its light as an analogy.

Yet when cause and effect are investigated, no real dharma can be found; all are entirely unreal. Sentient beings abide in falsity and are not real; hence they are illusory. Because this unreality appears real, it is called real falsity; real falsity is emptiness.

If a bodhisattva sees sentient beings as such illusory transformations, this is seeing according to the conventional perspective. From this point onward begins what is seen by bodhisattvas of the Ten Abodes. In their work of teaching and transforming, sentient beings are truly false; nevertheless, they see that bodhisattvas genuinely teach and transform sentient beings, thereby concluding the question raised above.

Chapter on the Two Truths

Following the chapter on teaching and transformation, this chapter discusses the two truths. A detailed analysis of the two truths reveals the following two meanings. First, taking the inner in contrast to the outer refers to inward protection and preservation, which has three aspects: cause and effect, self and others, and, generally speaking, the primary and dependent recompenses. Second, these two truths are contrasted with the two kinds of protection discussed above as the distinction between subject and object; that is, they differ from the earlier vision of illusion. Since the ultimate and conventional truths cannot be fully understood on that basis, the two truths are next employed to clarify them.

It may be said that the two truths are of the utmost importance in the Buddha’s teaching, for fundamentally the Buddha always relied upon them when expounding the Dharma, and even throughout his entire lifetime he could not exhaust these two dharmas. Moreover, the seven dharmas encompass both truths, and even through the five periods of teaching by which the Buddha instructed beings throughout his lifetime, they could not be exhausted.

When traced to the ultimate point, what dharma does not fall within the ultimate and conventional truths? If one insistently asserts that existence and nonexistence are absolute, one understands nothing at all. Only one who thoroughly understands the ultimate causes of existence and nonexistence can penetrate the principle and discern the truth.

One must even pass through teachings of varying depth before understanding the meaning clearly; one must approach it and share in it before attaining lucid comprehension. This indeed is difficult. The ultimate truth is precisely principle; since principle is one, how could there be two, much less many different kinds?

It may also be said that the shallow vision of ordinary beings is conventional, while the profound vision of the sages is ultimate. Thus, it may be said that it is solely on account of the ultimate and conventional truths that the general sequence of the teachings in the preceding chapter was established. The question is repeated for clarification in order to emphasize the meaning of nonduality.

Earlier, the sutra raised the question of whether the two truths are nondual, or whether the truth of the supreme meaning exists within the conventional truth. Because the text is concise, it is expressed in this way; its complete formulation is as given above. From time immemorial, the emptiness of dharmas has been understood in two ways: (a) according to the old translation and (b) according to the new translation, namely, an interpretation based on modern wording.

In terms of principle, each interpretation possesses its own rationale, and therefore both continue to exist. At first, the matter is explained by contrasting the wisdom of ordinary beings with that of sages: when one ordinary being is contrasted with one sage, the meaning of ultimate truth no longer remains. According to the modern translation, the ultimate truth also encompasses penetrating wisdom; thus, each statement concerning existence and nonexistence is ultimate truth, while speaking of emptiness and so forth pertains to discerning wisdom.

Therefore, it should be understood that both interpretations may be employed. The intent of the question is also difficult to discern, as expressed in the following four-line verse:

Only then does one know the subtlety of neither speaking nor hearing;

Only emptiness and oneness, not difference, are thus.

Now, through discussing neither one nor two,

The wisdom of prajnaparamita is thereby revealed.

This is the inconceivable critical discernment of learned scholars.

The verse answering the prose passage cites the former deeds of Moonlight, who had to repay causes from the past; therefore, here it is necessary to employ the verse spoken by the seven Buddhas of the past as the answer, as explained in the commentary. It is not merely that the individual points are reasonable, nor is the question one of the greater or lesser extent of the chapter; rather, by means of the two truths, ultimate and conventional, it proceeds directly into the wondrous principle of emptiness in order to make distinctions.

The single word “empty” means empty of nature, empty of characteristics, empty of self, empty of other, empty of existence, empty of nonexistence, empty of duality, empty of nonduality, empty of an agent, empty of action, and so forth—all are emptiness. Taking existence as the basis, it speaks of the inherent nature of dharmas in the ultimate truth. Because causes and conditions originally give rise to them, all dharmas originally exist; existence and nonexistence originally exist, the two truths originally exist, the hundred provisional dharmas originally exist, and even emptiness originally exists.

Taking emptiness, it speaks of the emptiness of the ultimate truth: the ultimate truth is also empty, quiescent cessation is empty, and duality and nonduality are also empty. Illusory things, like flowers seen in empty space or the image of a person with three arms, are all empty, up to and including the supreme truth. Using One, One is complete; using Two, Two is complete; using Existence, existence exists; using Emptiness, all is empty.

What is deemed right is right, and what is deemed wrong is wrong. All distinct names and differing teachings each have their differing teachings and distinct names; whether coarse words or gentle speech are employed, there are both gentle words and coarse expressions. Several lines in the verse above broadly indicate this error, for it is nearly impossible to reconcile the reasoning so as to clarify the meaning, owing to the direct influence of the intrinsic prajna, whose wondrous principle is inexhaustible.

The subsequent statement that existence and nonexistence are fundamentally two answers the preceding question. The explanation of the first line of the verse seems to contain errors in several characters; here, too, the verse is used in conjunction with the explanation. That existence and nonexistence are fundamentally two is a natural principle, just as an ox has two horns and cannot lack either one.

The liberated mind perceives that neither can be lacking. The liberated mind perceives nonduality: within the two it still perceives no duality, and in truth there are not two. The two truths are always neither closely conjoined; yet although not closely conjoined, they are not separate from one another—this is clearly understood through wisdom.

One seeks that the two not be separate, yet wisdom understands; one seeks the two, yet they cannot be apprehended. Again, using principle to conceal discriminative feeling, the two truths are not one; then, returning to use wisdom to illuminate principle, one knows that the two are also not two. If they are not two, how could they be understood as one?

Principle does not obstruct wisdom, and therefore principle is always two; wisdom does not obstruct principle, and wisdom and principle reveal one another: neither one nor two. Clearly understanding that there are not two paths is truly to understand the Dharma of nonduality. It is important to know that it is not hearing; precisely this is hearing in such a manner and clearly knowing the conventional truth within existence and nonexistence.

It is like a person with three arms: although there are only two, to speak of three is to speak of something that does not exist. It is also like Vimalakirti’s speaking of a fifth great element, a seventh consciousness, and so forth. “Great King, the bodhisattva…” is an explanation proceeding from “bodhisattva” according to the meaning of illuminating the two truths in order to liberate sentient beings; therefore it has two parts: first a brief explanation, and then an extensive explanation.

Because the preceding explanation does not definitively establish one or two, it does not constitute either the meaning of two or the meaning of one. First, the brief explanation states that the ultimate truth is empty and constantly illuminates the two truths: without departing from true wisdom, one liberates within the conventional, and therefore one should know that the Buddha and sentient beings are always one. Yet it is said that illuminating the conventional is to teach ordinary beings, while illuminating the ultimate is to liberate those of the two vehicles.

According to what is illuminated, there is a division into the ultimate truth and the conventional truth; yet even what is not the ultimate object of illumination may also be taught and liberated. If the ultimate and deluded aspects of that which illuminates are considered, then the ultimate and conventional among those liberated are both ultimate. If the one who liberates is ultimate while those who are liberated are deluded, then both ultimate and conventional are conventional.

Why does the text not follow a fixed standard in each meaning? Because there are the following two points: first, a question that cites and repeats the preceding section; second, an extensive explanation. The extensive explanation has three meanings:

a) The illuminating subject and illuminated object are set in opposition to reveal the Dharma of nonduality; therefore it is said that the Buddha and sentient beings are only One, not two. Precisely because they are not two, sentient beings are placed within the emptiness of bodhi: thus those who are liberated and the one who liberates return to emptiness. Because bodhi is empty and sentient beings are empty, the one who liberates returns to those who are liberated.

“Placed” means arranging all things within a single concealed place, just as water poured into water causes no disturbance whatsoever: it does not enter emptiness, yet still returns to emptiness. It is also said that because all dharmas are empty, emptiness itself is also empty. This statement has two meanings.

If it continues the preceding meaning, it summarizes the previous section: the one who liberates and those who are liberated are identically empty, and thereby united. If it introduces what follows, then all dharmas that arise through fabrication are empty; objects are empty, and emptiness is also empty. Because objects are empty, wisdom is also empty; likewise, because wisdom is empty, objects are empty.

Therefore one should know that prajna is without characteristics; because it is without characteristics, its essence is also empty. Moreover, because emptiness is without characteristics, whether ultimate or conventional, it is empty like empty space. The emptiness within ignorance is emptiness of the characteristics of other, just as the wisdom of all modes is emptiness of its own characteristics.

For the moment there are no characteristics—then who is the one who sees them, and who is the one who apprehends them? Is it cause and effect? Though empty, they exist.

It is even said that when the five eyes are perfected, they see what cannot be seen; the fruit of Buddhahood is also empty. It may be said that the complete possession of the five eyes constitutes the attainment of a bodhisattva, as the cited sutra indicates. Practice is precisely the practice of the profound and wondrous prajnaparamita Dharma; whether practicing or not, one accepts neither.

Not accepting is also not the absence of acceptance; nonacceptance is the intrinsic nature of prajna.

b) Defiled dharmas are contrasted with pure dharmas to distinguish afflictions from bodhi. Delusion and awakening, defilement and purity, differ from one another, yet in the ultimate truth they are originally one essence, without duality. Before Buddhahood is attained, the pure Buddha-nature is made defiled; after Buddhahood is attained, delusion is transformed into awakening, yet in truth they are not different, as the preceding passage repeats the words: “He addressed the Buddha, saying…”

c) Relative meaning: generally speaking, it does not arise from signless dharmas that there is existence or nonexistence. How, then, do Buddhas and bodhisattvas attain realization without departing from written words, practice signless dharmas, and use prajnaparamita to teach and transform sentient beings? The statement that they practice signless dharmas gives rise to a question concerning emptiness.

It may be explained thus: if dharmas are empty, as the question suggests, then the single word “Dharma” arises again. The subsequent answer states that the Dharma wheel encompasses all twelve divisions of the scriptures [77], yet these are spoken through the single word “Thus,” which is without written words yet does not depart from written words. Precisely because it does not depart from them, all dharmas are Thus, and signless dharmas can therefore be practiced.

The names of the twelve divisions of the scriptures are used in explanation. In principle, the Sanskrit terms should first be stated clearly and then explained in Chinese. Here, however, the order is reversed for convenience in explaining the scripture, and it should be understood as a sentence.

For example, the substance of a scripture comprises both provisional and real elements: names, terms, and sentences are three provisional dharmas, while sound and form constitute one real dharma. The three provisional elements combine with the one real element to form the substance of the scripture. Although sound does not directly correspond, it appears to respond and is therefore also called a result.

Although skillful discourse itself is neither good nor bad, because it discusses the emptiness of dharmas rather than whether they are good or bad, it may provisionally be accepted. When carried through to the ultimate point, it too is empty, which is precisely detachment. It was previously said that even the absence of a determinate nature is empty; because it is empty, everything is Thus.

This means practicing signlessness without clinging to written words; such is its implicit meaning. Therefore, if one clings to written words, one does not accord with the emptiness of dharmas. Conversely, if one’s understanding is unclear, then practicing the emptiness of dharmas is not the Dharma of right contemplation.

That doubt and the issue here are not the same, and thus the matter still cannot be definitively determined. The Great King speaks of “Thus” in relation to written words and further clarifies the characteristics of causal practice. Yet “Thus” here differs from the meaning stated previously.

“Thus” should be understood through written words so that one may know the wisdom-mother of all Buddhas, which can produce the present fruit and is therefore called the wisdom-mother. Nature comprises different aspects, namely the nature of principle and the nature of practice; it is also the fundamental nature of all sentient beings. The nature of principle is the nature that becomes wisdom and is the essence of sarvajñā—wisdom of all modes.

Therefore, although the three times are invoked to say that sarvajñā must be attained, in reality it is one. Thus, the prajnaparamita belonging to the nature of practice of the Three Vehicles is the original nature. Because the nature of practice of the Three Vehicles is taken as the original nature, and because the Three Vehicles practice one supreme nature, it is called the nature of practice; it is unborn, undying, and its intrinsic nature constantly abides.

It is also said that all sentient beings take this as the nature of awakening, using the universal nature to awaken to the particular nature. Because the nature of principle was clarified previously, it was called the root or foundation; here, because it pertains to practice, it is called the nature of awakening. In general, there is no difference.

The passage, “If a bodhisattva does not receive...” concludes that practicing the emptiness of dharmas is not prajnaparamita, yet it also discusses the three meanings of protection mentioned above. If so, confusion may arise here, and therefore the meaning is now determined correctly. Because a bodhisattva’s mind does not cling to external things, written words are unnecessary; because the bodhisattva does not receive them, there are no written words.

“No written words” does not mean an absence of letters and meanings; rather, the nature of written words is originally detached, and this itself is detachment from letters and meanings. The Treatise on Calming and Contemplation says that to comprehend writing is to know that it is not writing; not-writing is not the absence of writing—what other writing could manifest? Therefore, detachment from written words is called non-written words; the abundance of writings does not lie outside the twelve divisions.

Cultivating that which is not cultivated is like the example above: practice is cultivation, yet there is no cultivation. The phrase “cultivating non-cultivation” is not clearly explained and can easily cause misunderstanding; consequently, the wording was altered to the point of becoming difficult to understand. The wording should accord with principle and make the meaning clear.

Even if there are slight differences, what harm is there, provided that the meaning is thoroughly understood?

“Again, he said to the Buddha...” repeats the subject of the faculties and practices of sentient beings and asks whether there is one Dharma gate, two Dharma gates, or innumerably many. The explanation has two meanings: a) According to the explanation of faculties, “faculties” means inherent capacities, which differ in being sharp or dull; “practice” means that what is cultivated varies in depth and shallowness. Faculties and practices are that which is acted upon, while Dharma gates are that which acts.

Taking what is acted upon as the basis for what acts, the scripture raises the question: are there likewise one, two, or innumerably many Dharma gates? The answer is that all dharmas are gates of contemplation; the text states this in abbreviated form. It should be expressed as follows: all dharmas are originally neither one nor two, but because of gates of contemplation, they are many.

Furthermore, contemplation must be applied to the principle of truth, which is originally neither one nor two; through contemplation of truth, existence and nonexistence arise. The many dharmas pertain to objects, while contemplation pertains to wisdom; because the contemplated objects manifest characteristics, they differ accordingly. It is also said that all dharmas do not belong to the future, but clearly manifest as neither one nor two. b) Nor are there any characteristics.

This must be combined with the four propositions: neither characterized by existence, nor characterized by nonexistence, neither not characterized by existence, nor not characterized by nonexistence. The abbreviated text retains two propositions, which may be discussed in simple or compound form. The preceding sentence briefly speaks of signlessness, while the following sentence speaks more elaborately of characteristics.

Broadly stated, not all characteristics are the true characteristic; therefore, a bodhisattva does not perceive the characteristics of sentient beings and does not perceive that there is one dharma or two dharmas that can be attained. If a bodhisattva still perceives the characteristics of sentient beings and perceives that one dharma or two dharmas can be attained, then that bodhisattva does not perceive the neither-one-nor-two nature of the truth of the ultimate meaning.

Therefore, it is also said that one and two constitute the truth of the ultimate meaning. Yet it is also said that either existence or nonexistence constitutes conventional truth. One should examine the explanation of the word “view” in relation to the Four Truths for greater clarity, while the meaning here is very limited.

Here, “the roots of all dharmas” means contemplating existence and emptiness through the truth by means of the Three Truths, thereby encompassing all dharmas. Thus, the truth of emptiness is emptiness, the truth of form is provisional existence, and the truth of mind is the middle. Emptiness is not mind; these three accord with the clear exposition in which the true, the conventional, and the Middle Way coexist under different names.

Because their breadth and narrowness differ, they are transmitted within the same tradition as the three contemplations. Although one tradition transmits the three contemplations, its essential purport is actually one; yet through explanation, both phenomena and principle are fully presented in this way. With respect to principle, nonexistence is not existence in meaning, but because the true and the conventional are distinguished into three, the wondrousness of this Dharma has not yet been seen.

Now its wondrousness is presented so that phenomena and principle may be seen as fully and perfectly complete, wholly reaching the ultimate within a single thought. One need only establish that this single thought is undifferentiated, without before or after. The Dharma is originally so of itself; from the beginning it has never increased or decreased, yet it appears to arise from the innate true wondrous nature, clearly and manifestly encompassing both before and after in this manner.

Once one has contemplated the Dharma, what need is there to add this part? Because, after the three truths, the three provisional dharmas are clarified, and the essential purport of the Two Truths is again relied upon to reveal emptiness. Therefore, emptiness does not depart from form and mind; emptiness is not prajnaparamita.

What could each faculty and practice be based upon if not this? This does not stray far from the truth; therefore, it is said to be neither one dharma nor two dharmas. As for the other explanations praising the Buddha’s teaching, encouraging diligent practice, and so forth, consult the sections above for a clear understanding.

Chapter on Protecting the Nation

The scripture takes “Protecting the Nation” as its title, while the teaching takes the Dharma as its central concern; this is the reason this chapter was established. Protection, however, also has two parts: internal protection and external protection.

– Internal protection aims to protect the Dharma and is further divided into protecting the fruit, protecting the cause, protecting the teaching, protecting sentient beings, and so forth; this is spoken from the perspective of ultimate truth.

– External protection supports people and further includes protecting the nation, protecting the populace, rescuing them from calamities, and so forth; this is spoken from the conventional perspective.

Following the Chapter on the Two Truths comes this chapter. The explanation has two meanings:

a) First, according to the text, internal and external protection are distinguished as clearly explained above.

b) The explanation of the title is again divided into two parts: a) If following the preceding wording, one should first explain “protect” and afterward explain the word “nation.” Here, according to the meaning, if the nation were not protected first, how could assistance be rendered? Therefore, the national territory is discussed first, and the reason for protecting the nation is stated afterward. b) With regard to the mundane world, there are the three realms upon which ordinary beings and those of the Two Vehicles depend.

Ordinary beings here include humans and devas but not the four kinds of birth, because the four kinds are not the principal objects of protection. Yet if understood according to the Buddha’s intent, where would this meaning not apply and be perfectly clear? With regard to the supramundane, it extends throughout the three realms, which are the abodes upon which the sages of the four fruits depend.

This is reckoned from the ten stages of faith through the ten bhumis, based upon the delusions severed in transcending the mundane realms. Those of the Two Vehicles have not yet completely ended delusion, so their bonds still remain, because they still abide within the desire realm. Moreover, bodhisattvas likewise have not yet ended delusion, just as those of the Two Vehicles have not; therefore, this is abbreviated here and not stated exhaustively.

Next, the causes for protecting the nation are also discussed in two parts: external and internal enemies, such as thieves and the binding afflictions, and so forth. In order to ward off these two kinds of worldly enemies, internal and external forms of protection are established, thereby giving rise to the protector and the protected. The protecting agents are the various kinds of spirits who provide external protection; prajna—wisdom—is internal protection, safeguarding what is protected from within.

Tracing the matter to its source, it is said that, through the sustaining power of the spirits, the sages contribute their merit; this is not something human power alone could accomplish, yet ultimately everything also arises through human beings. Therefore, it is said that both internal and external protection should be explained according to the teachings and contemplative practices discussed below.

The protected national territory is not merely the four quarters. Rather, the protector contemplates that all dharmas arise and cease, and one must understand each distinct contemplation of the dharmas according to its respective meaning. Through the power of contemplative illumination, the three delusions—greed, hatred, and delusion—do not arise.

When these three delusions do not arise, the lands in the four quarters remain peaceful and secure. Next, it is explained that the hundred classes of beings, such as the hundred spirits, protect the nation; they do not reach the level of the primary recompense but belong to the dependent recompense. The principal and essential point is to use wisdom to uphold the true Dharma, just as the nation constitutes the primary recompense; from a certain perspective, however, the meaning remains applicable to both.

Yet protecting life still depends upon an appropriate interpretation, as in the phrase, “I am now explaining...” based upon the responses given to requests and questions.

Because the Dharma teaching is profound and wondrous, protection must first be provided when the nation is in turmoil; yet this merely restrains the branches without eradicating the root. Governing a nation must take account of time and must also have policies suited to every period of flourishing and decline. Time enables one to recognize the changes that occur, while policies provide precautions to prevent and restrain them.

When the nation is in turmoil and fear arises, how could this differ from calamity? The nation may not be lost, yet because it is unsettled, danger is difficult to avoid. It is like someone crying out, “Danger!

Danger!” Such an urgent cry gives warning that a pressing calamity is about to arrive. Here, calamity means the harm caused by fire; only when one is actually harmed does one understand the harm of being burned by fire. This is certainly not the fire of the three calamities [78], but the fire of the conflagration at the end of the kalpa.

Yet the fire spoken of here is also exceedingly subtle: the fire of the three poisons—greed, hatred, and delusion. If the kalpa-ending conflagration truly occurs, there is no way to escape it; one can only rely upon rescue and protection, while preventive measures may not necessarily be effective enough. If discussing the great calamity of fire, when the realm in which we now dwell peacefully is consumed, even so, the fire will still burn everything away.

Reflecting upon this, it is important to invite a Buddha image, venerate it with due adornment, and protect the teaching. The rites of worship should be established in accordance with the proper ceremonial forms, as follows: 1) invite a sacred image for veneration; 2) invite a number of members of the assembly to attend; 3) invite a Dharma teacher to expound the Dharma; 4) make offerings to the Three Jewels; 5) make offerings to the Dharma teacher; 6) twice each day, recite and expound the Prajnaparamita Sutra; 7) assemblies of spirits who delight in hearing the Dharma should gather to listen, and thereby protect the nation. Yet the noblest of all these points is the pure sincerity of the host, not anything contributed by another person.

It is then said that there are two classes of beings protected from calamity: humans and spirits. There are three kinds of fiery calamity, among which must be counted those involving heaven, earth, and strange anomalies. It may also be said that within human calamities there are heavenly and earthly calamities—the three numinous lights inherently contain no anomalies, but because human beings lose control, human beings themselves consequently undergo calamity. Disasters such as flood, wind, and fire each bring results in accordance with the karma that has been created. How can expounding this sutra enable one to escape calamity? This likewise depends upon virtue and spiritual cultivation, which are not discussed here.

Because others requested instruction, teachings are given for the sake of honor and reputation. Some say, “Favorable timing from heaven is not equal to advantageous terrain; advantageous terrain is not equal to harmony among people.” Where, then, do the seeds of national calamity lie? Not conforming to the principles of heaven, not according with the earth, and not being harmonious with people naturally bring such consequences; therefore, this sutra must be used to expound the principle. When one thoroughly understands the first indications of heavenly principle, rectifies the bonds of human morality, and brings the three powers—heaven, earth, and humanity—to completeness, how could there be national calamity?

It is further said that inhabited regions are not constrained by territorial boundaries. One should therefore understand: if the preservation of the nation does not depend upon those three relationships, upon what else could it depend? This causes all under heaven to lack the strength to place obedient faith in it and turn toward it.

Within the national territory, one may be protected by rugged mountains and advantageous military forces; if so, what need would there be for an accomplished practitioner of the Way to lend further assistance through the place of the true Way and provide deliverance? Merely using internal education to assist governance by virtue can achieve such results; how much greater, then, is the merit gained by employing wisdom as an aid!

How could there remain any doubt that peace and security result from receiving assistance?

From this, the true principle is easily discerned by inference. Yet those who lack ability must devote their whole hearts and all their strength to faith, and they need experienced persons to provide further explanation. The sutra clearly sets forth more than one method.

It not only protects the nation, but also safeguards blessings, rescues beings from calamities, and so forth. Protecting the nation is itself rescuing beings from calamity and, at the same time, protecting the people. Safeguarding blessings is undertaken through prayer.

Although it receives the support of the majority, it is in fact directed toward only two matters: within prayer, one prays both for lucid wisdom and for blessings. In contrast to the prajna wisdom spoken of here, worldly wisdom belongs to the category of blessings. Those among the nine classes of beings who wish to seek blessings, wealth, honor, or official rank must proceed through the nine grades of official position.

It is further said that arranging a hundred elevated seats distinguishes between places of wealth and poverty. If this sutra is taken as the standard, expounding the Dharma is primary. Although the exact point of the question is unclear, the ultimate meaning must still be addressed. Distinctions between wealth and poverty must depend upon one’s own capacity or power of karma, without obstruction. An ancient account is cited concerning a king named Crown-Born, involving two stages: ascending to heaven and protecting the nation: 1) when he was born, he was adorned with excellent marks; 2) afterward, he fell into the evil destinies, became a yaksha spirit, and sprang forth from beneath the earth.

According to the account of the celestial king Shakra, based on the Sutra on the Humane King Who Protects the Nation, the seven Buddhas often taught the Dharma concerning King Murdhaja, who regressed in resolve; because he regressed in resolve, he fell into an evil destiny. Yet at birth he possessed the excellent marks, and Murdhaja’s faith was unlike that of ordinary people; nevertheless, he later still incurred such karmic retribution. One should therefore know that merit and its rewards must also come to an end at some point. If wisdom is not sufficiently luminous, one cannot thereby have faith.

“Furthermore, O Great King...” introduces the humane king who protected himself. This is again divided into two points: a) Clarification of the circumstances of the calamity, as in the following account: Tianluo was the father of Spotted-Foot. In a previous life, he had made offerings to a sage who cultivated the practice of patience.

Through the power of that vow, he escaped from the state of being a rakshasa ghost-king. Afterward, the rakshasas proposed that a great sacrificial assembly be held... At that time, King Suda followed the former proposal and arranged the assembly.

This occurred in the age of King Universal Radiance. b) The essential point concerning the assembly for deliverance from calamity is recorded in the prose and verses. According to the sutra’s explanation, four meanings are presented: impermanence, suffering, emptiness, and non-self. These appear essentially to teach the Lesser Vehicle Dharma rather than employ the prajnaparamita teaching.

Yet the listeners attained the samadhi of the emptiness and equality of all dharmas; if this is not prajnaparamita, what is it? Moreover, one commentator said that they attained the Way without contemplating the sutras. Thus it is known that this was the particular intent of the teaching, just as the other points had already been thoroughly understood.

Upon examination, there is more than one indication: according to the sutra’s passages, prajnaparamita was expounded or recited twice each day, whereas here it is said that the prajnaparamita sutra was recited and expounded throughout eight thousand kotis of kalpas. One should therefore know that the sutra’s meaning is not confined to the few critical verses; rather, it presents cultivation as a great aid to the Way and includes exhorting others to arouse the vast resolve, without aiming exclusively at the Lesser Vehicle.

For the benefit gained through the experience of cultivation, the meaning is expounded, presented, and clarified. Contemplating the verses and penetrating their principles reveals their extraordinary points. Although these matters lie outside the present commentary, they must be explained further.

The first verse states: “Formation, abiding, decay, and emptiness each endure for twenty minor kalpas [79].” This refers to the end of the preceding kalpa and the beginning of the succeeding kalpa as their common boundary. Regarding qian and kun, strength is qian and receptivity is kun; qian signifies heaven and kun signifies earth, and therefore qian and kun are used as names for heaven and earth. Because of the conflagration at the end of the kalpa, the waters boil furiously and the caverns become empty; Mount Sumeru and the great ocean are affected, extending to the utmost limits of mountains, seas, and continents.

The world undergoes formation and destruction because the karma of sentient beings brings about such consequences; thus people must be engulfed in the period of destruction caused by the three calamities. It is also said that devas and dragons exhaust their merit during the period of dissolution. If even these two representative kinds of beings exhaust their merit, how much more must this be understood of other beings?

“Perish” means to sink and perish, dissolving into empty space. This is the first verse.

The second verse states that birth, aging, sickness, and death are the four characteristics of human beings, and they constantly change without cease. Although they revolve and transform, no one knows their furthest limit or shore. Human beings naturally desire peace and happiness, yet the four characteristics only increase suffering.

Thus, because circumstances conflict with their wishes, grief arises and brings harm. The greatest calamity is the five desires—wealth, sensual pleasure, fame, food, and sleep. It may be concluded that the stronger desire becomes, the deeper the calamity and the more suffering it produces.

The cause does not come from outside, like a wound. As Zhuangzi said, “To live is to carry a bandaged wound in the heart; to die is to resolve to break the abscess wide open.” These words should be pondered. Because all three realms lie within the cycle of samsara, they are ultimately all suffering.

How then can one place trust in a realm or nation?

The third verse states that the myriad existents originate in emptiness. Their nature is therefore empty, yet in truth there is nonexistence—and existence within emptiness—how much more so when they arise from emptiness upon emptiness? It is only through the conjunction of internal causes and external conditions that the six paths arise, thus forming the six destinies.

Expressions such as prosperity and decline, reality and unreality, and so forth exist in mutual opposition. Human beings sometimes attain the height of prosperity, but is there ever a time when it does not become exhausted? Sentient beings in the three realms struggle and writhe as though in a dream, never once attaining peace.

Like an echo that appears in dependence upon empty space yet has no real existence, the formation of a realm or nation is likewise so.

The fourth verse states that people regard consciousness as the sovereign and call it the “spiritual self,” though it has no form. They borrow the conjunction of the four great elements as a house in which consciousness dwells. Yet the four great elements are by nature not harmonious and mutually injure and destroy one another.

Moreover, consciousness is active by nature; how could it remain peacefully in one place? Surrounded by ignorance and afflictions, beings do not regard this as suffering but take it to be happiness. They freely rush after it, immersing themselves in amusement without feeling weary and mistaking this for strength.

The physical form follows the inner constitution, moving here and there without stability; it is a house of impermanence. Consciousness depends upon the form for its continued existence, and thus there is life or death; it is an impermanent master. Even though the physical form does not exist in itself, it is regarded as real; even though consciousness does not arise by itself, it is taken to be consciousness.

If the body and consciousness themselves become separated, how much more could mountains, rivers, lands, and nations—which depend upon form and mind—endure for long? They are merely the outward appearance of external things.

The phrase “At that time, the Dharma master” is used to specify clearly the time and the benefits gained by the assembly listening to the Dharma. There are generally four periods of the day—morning, noon, afternoon, and evening—and each brings different benefits. Generally speaking, a day has six periods, but benefits are not gained in all of them; therefore, no further explanation is given here.

Chapter on Scattering Flowers

Scattering flowers may be said to be a way of repaying kindness and a solemn form of offering. The preceding section explained that protecting the nation is an exceedingly noble deed of profound beneficence. Therefore, next, after scattering flowers as an offering, one should remember that kindness and endeavor to repay it. The people of India mostly use flowers to express reverence. Buddhas and bodhisattvas are not concerned with such things; purity and adornment alone are sufficient.

The offering is made to express sincere reverence, and the flowers are the fruit of that act; they are offered to adorn oneself and to adorn the Buddha and bodhisattvas. Offering flowers to the Buddha demonstrates that causes lead to results. The commentary establishes that the three sections of verses taught by the Buddha differ not because of any ambiguity, but because their discussions of the past and present differ.

Yet the scripture largely follows the meaning of siddhanta, citing events to bring joy to the mind. In truth, ordinary beings find it difficult to comprehend fully what the noble ones have said; therefore, it cannot be discussed conclusively from only one perspective. Furthermore, scattering flowers bears three meanings: the first two meanings described above pertain to the cause, and the last pertains to the result, though flowers themselves are not divided into three kinds.

According to the depth or shallowness of the offerer’s sincerity, the flowers are scattered upon the seat, the high dais, the platform, the canopy, and so forth, corresponding also to higher and lower ranks. These three manners of scattering flowers signify in due order what the bodhisattva of the Perfect Teaching addresses within the Distinct Teaching; therefore, nothing different is stated here. It is difficult to explain the Perfect Teaching by means of the Distinct Teaching; but why should it not be possible to explain the Distinct Teaching by means of the Perfect Teaching?

This must be examined experientially before it can be understood more clearly.

The Buddha taught clearly that spiritual powers arise through their exercise, while prajna is in part produced differently according to the person who cultivates it. Prajnaparamita is the mother of all Buddhas, from whom the attributes of a Buddha are born. Prajnaparamita is the mother of bodhisattvas, born through contemplative illumination; prajnaparamita is the written word, and the arising of spiritual powers is liberation.

The phrase “while the Buddha manifested spiritual powers...” has two meanings: a) first, it states the name to clarify the meaning. It speaks of miraculous transformations; because they cannot be measured by yin and yang, they are called “spiritual”; b) it uses the person to manifest them, as the Buddha’s spiritual power therein clearly reveals five kinds of spiritual powers. Because they complement one another, each power interpenetrates the entire Dharma-realm.

Thus, the nature of the three truths is interpenetrating; because they interpenetrate, they are unobstructed; because they are unobstructed, they mutually depend upon one another. This is utterly inconceivable. Their nature is a single thought-moment: mind itself is Dharma, and Dharma is mind.

Mind and Dharma both interpenetrate; phenomena appear through mind. This is where Buddhas and bodhisattvas, through it, awaken to and realize the principle of true nature; therefore, it is called the inconceivable liberation of true nature. It exists by virtue of nature and does not come from outside.

This scripture speaks of the power of spiritual accomplishment; thus one should have greater faith in the illuminating power of spiritual penetration than merely think about it. Therefore, throughout innumerable bodies, none of those bodies is confined solely to emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle within the three thousand realms; rather, through spiritual power they serenely come and go in complete freedom.

This is spoken from the standpoint of principle. Hence it is said that the Way of Emptiness and the Middle is the principle entering the characteristics, while the subtle and wondrous is the characteristics entering the characteristics. Were it not for the Way of Emptiness and the Middle, there would be no interpenetration; were it not for the wondrous, one could not perceive that one is all, all is one—Suchness.

Nevertheless, this must be understood clearly; emotional attachment causes harm and opposition.

Next, doubts are resolved. If one understands what the scripture records above, no doubts need be raised here. Therefore, there is no need to explain the doubts according to the old translation. According to the new translation, there are two points:

1) The present surpasses the former in four respects: a) The present surpasses the former, yet negates only one side; in negating it, one understands but is not shown the reason. b) The present teaching says that one emptiness means that all is empty; certainly every dharma is empty of emptiness, provisional existence, and the middle. Because all dharmas are empty, their substance is illusory; because their substance is illusory, it is wondrous; because it is wondrous, it interpenetrates, so that the great and the small, the one and the many, are unobstructed.

This is manifested through the principle of nature. c) Nevertheless, this comes only from exceptional understanding. If delusion has not yet ceased, how can one attain the correspondence of a single thought-moment so that true nature is revealed? d) Therefore, emptiness is used to eliminate wrong views, delusions of thought, and so forth.

2) Here, within the single gateway of the teaching, cultivation, wisdom of nature, severance, realization, and entry are illuminated and discussed in this manner. It is unlike other schools, which themselves maintain that the Mother contains the vast and boundless.

Chapter on Acceptance and Preservation

For the sake of the unsurpassed teaching, the Buddhas manifest innumerable spiritual powers; through prajnaparamita, bodhisattvas become a refuge upon which beings may rely. Bodhisattva Moonlight is again entreated, revealing the manifestation of spiritual powers. The bodhisattva opens and reveals wisdom because he wishes later generations to follow his example; therefore, there is now this Chapter on Acceptance and Preservation.

“Acceptance and preservation” is explained in two meanings, but it is essential to perceive clearly the three bodies of the Buddha [80]. The explanation sets forth three rounds of questions and answers. In the first round, the question is asked: By what means can it be known that seeing the three bodies of the Buddha means precisely those three bodies?

Answer: It can be known through three scriptures.

The second round of questioning: the two Buddha-bodies themselves are not identical. The text says that they are originally unconditioned, yet it speaks only of the complete transformation body, taking the transformation body as primary. Hence the question assumes Vairocana Buddha to be primary.

Elsewhere, the Brahma Net Sutra clearly explains two aspects: the original gate and the trace gate. Here, however, Śākyamuni Buddha is taken as the root. Although the wording is similar, the Buddhas referred to are not the same.

Therefore, the answer in the Brahma Net Sutra clearly sets forth the Buddha of the original gate and the Buddha of the trace gate; for the trace gate is contained within the original gate, yet it is not the eternal original gate. What differs in this sutra is that, on the basis of essence and function, the Dharma-body is spoken of as the original gate, while the response and transformation bodies are the trace gate. It may be said that although the original and the trace differ in superiority and inferiority, they remain one inconceivable reality.

The third round uses the Treasure Stupa Chapter of the Lotus Sutra to raise a question. Because that chapter shows Śākyamuni Buddha to be the original gate and his emanated bodies to be the trace gate, it speaks in this manner... Their sameness means that there is only one root, without difference; their difference means that each has its own relative superiority and inferiority, and so forth.

Although what they reveal is not the same, both teachings, in speaking of prajna, teach that the wisdom of emptiness is uniformly one.

Within the request, the answer contains a section on opening and guiding. Thus, the following passage opens the way to the wisdom of emptiness; it does not mean guiding beings by empty verbal discourse about the wisdom of emptiness, for the meanings are different. In the reply, thirteen contemplative practices are presented, with emphasis on the merit of the forbearances, which are taken as Dharma methods for opening the awakened nature of sentient beings.

The explanation speaks only of “opening emptiness,” but its evident meaning is to open a passage and illuminate understanding. Its meaning differs from that of the phrase “great muni” above. The Buddha is the great Dharma King, for he opens our wisdom and awakening; a Dharma teacher transmits understanding and knowledge to us.

The Dharma King, the Buddha, is the master who guides us upon the path; the teacher is the good spiritual friend upon whom we rely and who shapes us as persons. Therefore, the teacher must be honored and supported as one would the Buddha.

Among the forbearances above, the forbearance of quiescence is not mentioned, because these are words spoken by the Buddha, not something stated on one’s own authority. It is also like presenting only the cause so that the result may be known. Since those at the stage of Equal Awakening are not said to be included with the ten bhumis, only thirteen kinds of forbearance are presented.

The first is the acquired seed-nature, as already clearly explained, beginning with the acquired forbearance and the stages preceding it. The explanation sets forth inferior and superior portions within the difficulty posed by the question, and thus one fears that it may not be fully reliable. The present explanation proceeds directly, yet allows for advancement and retreat, because beginners possess a shallow and fragile aspiration for the path, like a light feather rushing uncertainly wherever the wind blows.

Even after ten thousand kalpas, it may still be difficult for them to understand; this will surely become clear when compared with the subsequent explanation. Although bodhisattvas practice over many kalpas, this does not mean that their practice has not been lengthy; rather, they have not yet completed the first asamkhya kalpa. Although they are presently at the stage of forbearance, they have not yet entered it fully.

Thus they still constantly train in the forbearance of subjugation, but because they have not long abided in the path, they cannot be called practitioners of meditative concentration. To call someone a practitioner of meditative concentration, both the Dharma and the person must be taken together to establish this definitively. The principle is clear; if one correctly adjusts only a few words, it can be understood immediately.

The second is the innate seed-nature, as clearly explained in the section on the four establishments of mindfulness. These were originally contemplative practices of the Lesser Vehicle. Here they are presented according to the cultivation of the Distinct and Perfect Teachings.

Although the practice is delimited, the principle contemplated is always universally applicable. The explanation proceeds from the absence of fixed characteristics, because the characteristics of self and dharmas and the places in which they abide are not fixed. These are truly words of the utmost reason.

Why, then, do people today claim that something is fixed? How could that be correct? It is also said that there is neither self-characteristic nor other-characteristic, thereby encompassing both nature and characteristics.

Because there is no self, neither self nor other exists; hence the essential nature is empty, and the characteristics superimposed upon characteristics are likewise without characteristics and empty. Yet it is said that one must preserve the contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas, because if people’s minds are not won over, there is fear that they may fall into wrong views, and thus this contemplation must be safeguarded.

The third is the seed-nature of the path. To contemplate that all dharmas are neither born nor extinguished is the general contemplation; to contemplate the five skandhas and so forth is the particular contemplation. Yet the mind constantly enters the ultimate truth, contemplating dharmas and awakening into them.

Although the mind attains quiescence, one still undergoes birth and therefore must cultivate personally in order to escape. To say that one is defiled means that craving and views still remain latent; thus, what is said here differs from the usual explanation. Upon examination, ignorance is that which perfumes, while craving and views are that which is perfumed.

Alternatively, one may say that craving and views are that which perfumes, while the field of knowledge is that which is perfumed; each sphere differs accordingly.

Fourth, the unconditioned has two forms. As the sutra explains, the section on the ultimate truth establishes three unconditioned dharmas; this portion requires separate discussion. This sutra discusses the names and characteristics of the Lesser Teaching and only then presents these words.

Although the meaning is similar, the wording is not restricted, as shown by the analogy given in the sutra. “Without self-characteristic” refers precisely to true wisdom free from characteristics, with expedient wisdom manifest before one. What is called the expedient means of true reality is the expedient means belonging to true reality.

Thus, within the ultimate truth, there is neither loss nor manifestation, and so forth. These are the six expedient means. Yet true wisdom has the characteristic of concealment and manifestation: it is neither identical nor separate, neither bound nor released, subtle and wondrous, without increase or decrease, as the sutra repeatedly states.

First, the text speaks of awakened wisdom, emphasizing the similarities and differences of suchness and wisdom. It uses the analogy of water and waves, which are neither identical nor different, to illustrate that expedient wisdom is likewise so. Moreover, wisdom pervades all practices and is neither identical to nor different from true wisdom. It even says that, because there is no karma producing birth in the three realms, one attains sovereign freedom without obstruction. It further says that the pure Buddha-land produced through transformation is likewise so. Yet the analogy is given to make the contrary point clear, lest there be confusion. It must be clearly stated that nature also has the meaning of being neither identical nor different; only then does the matter become evident.

The Tripitaka, which Master Vimalakirti called the four precious treasuries, nevertheless does not depart from the general meaning. Fifth, concerning the Dharma teacher, there is no other explanation; it merely clarifies the elimination of the delusions of the three realms, briefly indicates the point of distinction, and even cites the Lotus Sutra only with respect to the Real Teaching. Sixth, the six paramitas are translated as “reaching the shore,” because each of the six dharmas has a further shore to be reached; hence they are so called.

Seventh, it is like a flame blazing upward, and thus the transliteration is explained as an obstruction to wisdom. Because the faculty of hearing is obscured and consequently hears differently, it is translated as “obstruction.” Yet illumination has both subject and object: that which is obscured is obstruction, while that which is unobscured is wisdom. Now, if illumination is said to be unobstructed and unobscured, what could it be if not wisdom?

Here, rendering the transliteration as “mother of wisdom” is not a precise translation; it is merely an expedient expression based upon the meaning.

The reference to a stream-enterer borrows the lesser to illustrate the greater. Thus, it borrows the lesser fruit of realization to speak of the Dharma of elimination: “stream” means seeing the stream of the Dharma, and the name of the great Dharma of elimination refers to cutting off deluded attachments arising from views. As for the thirteen contemplations of emptiness, are they not great practices? If emptiness did not rely provisionally upon a stage of fruition, how could it have a name? Yet this is also said to represent the meaning of the Separate Teaching incorporated into the Shared Teaching, because what is cut off in the Separate Teaching is incorporated into the ground of insight in the Shared Teaching; hence it must rely upon a stage of fruition for continued progress.

The five characteristics do not appear in the treatises of the inner path as five types of seed-characteristics. The treatise, however, states that the self is one of the roots of doubt concerning omniscience in the three realms; eliminating the characteristic of self means abandoning the attachments to views held by non-Buddhist paths. The treatise states that knowing that which is to be known is the manifestation of the path; what else could it be but the gate of liberation? If that which is to be known is obstructed and does not manifest clearly, how could this accord with the unobstructed path? Whether what has been blocked becomes penetrable depends upon the person, not upon the Dharma.

Afflictions are causes; considered on this basis, karma is also an exceedingly consequential causal factor. Here, however, suffering alone is addressed, and therefore only afflictions are the causes of accumulation; “accumulation” means gathering and amassing the various karmas together.

In the still consciousness that contemplates the mind, the mind is quiescent and all characteristics are gone. According to the explanation, the characteristic is produced through the combined activity that brings about quiescence. Characteristics originally arise from the mind, while the mind arises in dependence upon characteristics.

Once the mind is quiescent, whence could characteristics arise? How much less could there remain mind after mind and characteristic after characteristic? In its functioning, all characteristics are absent; therefore, the mind employs various skillful means to carry beings, yet nowhere does any characteristic abide.

Dwelling simply in non-abiding, there is nowhere that is not quiescent, peaceful, and at ease. Thus, cultivating emptiness amid existence while constantly transforming and liberating beings amid emptiness is the dual illumination in which both existence and nonexistence are quiescent and unobstructed; mind after mind and characteristic after characteristic are all utterly extinguished.

The commentary adds certain terms, such as “extinguishing the mind,” “extinguishing characteristics,” “emptiness,” and “inconceivable,” and so forth, by way of explanation. In explaining generally and separately the meaning of the three eyes, the Dharma-eye sees all things clearly, whereas the sutra’s explanation of this as samadhi is mistaken. It may also be said that the Dharma-eye sees all bodhisattva dharmas as provisional, while the three eyes see form and contemplate emptiness.

Of the two eyes, the physical eye and the divine eye see only form, whereas the wisdom-eye sees emptiness; hence this is called seeing form and emptiness. The passage is unusually reversed and does not mention the Buddha-eye, because the sutra does not discuss what is seen at this resultant stage; it should be understood in this way. Although the object is only one, it is seen through the three eyes, all according to this single principle.

Moreover, the eyes clearly perceive the three truths through the five eyes; a complete discussion based upon the doctrines of the teachings is found in The Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra. Yet can the Buddha-eye be clarified through questions and answers? This sutra takes clear comprehension as arising solely from the causal stage.

Speaking in the ordinary way here, it should be analyzed clearly, without concern for the remaining two eyes.

The next passage clarifies the Dharma of the patience of quiescent extinction: “Furthermore, contemplate the Buddha, the bodhisattvas...” This discusses the patience of quiescent extinction, which is the highest stage and therefore entails contemplation of the Buddha. The Dharma of the patience of quiescent extinction has three aspects: a) In the Separate Teaching, it corresponds only to the ten bhumis. b) When viewed in relation to Equal Enlightenment and Wondrous Enlightenment, this is still only the lower grade. c) In the Perfect Teaching, because one remaining portion of ignorance persists, one must contemplate the Buddha to increase the power of the Path and enter the stage; one must personally cultivate patience, the summit, and meditative concentration (samadhi).

According to the commentary, because cultivation reaches different degrees of depth, it is divided into five positions: subduing and severing, faith and vision, sudden and gradual, permanent and impermanent, equal and unequal, and so forth. The explanation varies with each position and inevitably contains minor differences. The scripture uses the two words “capable of,” and, lest they be confused, they must be explained: 1) Subduing and severing: as already stated, the stages from patience to the summit are called subduing; subduing comes first and severing afterward, both being based on the extensive discussion.

This means being at the summit stage of one who has already subdued the afflictions. 2) Faith and vision: although through faith one severs delusion and gives rise to wisdom, this is not realized wisdom and therefore is not called vision; only through vision does one attain wisdom. Thus, to know what one wishes to know is directed toward what is not yet known, as the scripture states. 3) Sudden and gradual (swift and slow): only a Buddha understands immediately, and this is not called faith; if it is called faith, it must refer to one who understands gradually. 4) Permanent and impermanent: during the stage of gradual subduing (patience), wisdom arises and ceases;

because it arises and ceases, it is impermanent. 5) Equal and unequal: because it is permanent, it can make comparisons, yet comparison necessarily involves subject and object and is not yet unequaled; the comparison beyond all comparisons is no comparison, as in the following example.

It is like ascending to a high place and seeing all things clearly, with nothing below that is not seen. The meaning here is likewise so. It means attaining the stage of Bhagavat [81], the ultimate and highest stage, through the perfection of both the virtues inherent in one’s nature and the process of cultivation; hence it is called receiving and cultivating.

Therefore, in the exhortation, the Buddha does not mention the four assemblies but entrusts the teaching only to the kings. Only kings possess sufficient power to undertake many weighty responsibilities, including offerings, whether abundant or modest; apart from royal power, no one can bear them. This section especially presents two meanings, though a complete exposition would be much more extensive and profound.

The Entrustment Chapter of the Nirvana Sutra entrusts the teaching to kings and ministers with the same intent, whereas the Chapter on Peaceful Practices teaches that one should not associate closely with them. What is said here, however, concerns protecting the Dharma and enjoining its practice. According to the scripture, the seven difficulties must arise from the single word “fear”; because there is fear, admonitions are necessary.

In the section praising and encouraging cultivation, the three Prajnaparamita sutras are combined and explained together, as they all discuss the consciousness of all sentient beings. Consciousness is successively divided according to five distinct roots: a) A person takes consciousness as the root. b) Consciousness takes mind as the root. c) Mind takes spirit as the root. d) Spirit takes prajnaparamita (wisdom) as the root. e) Prajnaparamita takes the Dharma body as the root.

Therefore, this passage takes the spiritual consciousness of sentient beings as the root, while all kings are their fathers and mothers. Likewise, in sequence, five domains capable of giving rise to consciousness are distinguished: a) principle gives rise to understanding; b) understanding gives rise to wisdom; c) wisdom can establish virtue; d) virtue can bring about sagehood; e) therefore, the king is here called father and mother and is also called the protecting spirit.

It is designated by six names, such as Written Prajnaparamita, and contains the three virtues, including the virtue of liberation. Prajnaparamita itself is liberation and is therefore called the wondrous inner functioning of spiritual virtue. Because it is attained through its efficacy, it is also called the protecting spirit, for only the spirit confers the seal of verification; once verified by that seal, one eliminates evil and preserves goodness.

The term “spirit talisman” is not entirely fitting, but because it is beneficial, it is also called the Pearl That Repels Demons, the king over all wicked demons and spirits. Because it prevents calamities and disturbances from arising, it is also called the wish-fulfilling jewel. This jewel is formed from the vital essence of the king of the Garudas and can therefore cause every kind of treasure to rain down without cease.

It is called the Wish-Fulfilling Treasure, or also the Jewel That Protects the Nation. Through the jewel’s function, each of its facets, from front to back, universally illuminates the teachings of the twelve vehicles. Whoever preserves this jewel will have a nation free from invasion and harm; because it can foretell the weather of the four seasons, it is also called the mirror that reflects the sun and moon.

It can illuminate all things, just as heaven and earth are taken as a mirror and as the basis for reflecting emptiness. Because the mind of a sage is pure, heaven and earth serve as a mirror reflecting the myriad phenomena. It is called the Divine Dragon Treasure-King.

This accords with two interpretations, yet both have the same meaning. Only the Buddha understands it as the spirit that protects the Dharma, endowed with the virtue of safeguarding it. Under another interpretation, it is the divine treasure of the dragon king, endowed with priceless spiritual power.

This pearl can protect the Buddhadharma and preserve the nation. Here these two meanings are used to discuss the appearance in the world of a wheel-turning king possessing this appropriate divine jewel of protection. One should observe and understand this meaning without exaggeration.

To signify offerings to the Dharma, banners of nine colors are made, while the canopy is measured as ninety-five tiers; non-Buddhist teachings mostly divide numbers according to yin and yang, but this is not the intended meaning here. To provide adornment, this scripture explains nine places along nine paths, also conveying the meaning of using the deluded to reveal the true; every number has a clear explanation. The one thousand lamps represent the ten wholesome actions, just as the two objects, the dew-jewel and the balance-jewel, are employed.

The “balance” is a cloth used to offer the Dharma treasure of prajnaparamita. Whether walking or standing, an enlightened king always reveres prajnaparamita. The term “giá đầu” here is found in monastic historical records; the prescribed practice merits investigation, yet later generations no longer know the allusion.

It is truly regrettable that people do not understand it, and so its reason must be explained as it is in the scripture. Alas! How could one not believe such words?

Because there are no words that can fully convey the intended meaning, this section of entrustment is necessary. The entrustment is made to three groups: kings, ministers, and the four assemblies of disciples. Yet here the Buddha does not entrust it to the assemblies of disciples, but only to the kings.

Why is this?

The answer to this question also has three points: 1) When the nation falls into disorder, no one other than the king can mobilize troops to suppress it. 2) If the king does not undertake the vast work of building the nation, no one else can accomplish it. 3) As for the merit of establishing works through faith in the Buddhadharma, who other than the king could bring it about? Yet the king and all his ministers must first unite with one heart, and only afterward put it into practice. Therefore, the Buddha here also entrusts this weighty responsibility to the kings and ministers.

First, it is established that the Buddha’s period of teaching was limited to eighty years, yet the scripture’s explanation is still not entirely clear, and thus questions also arise. Here it does not discuss why this is so, but merely presents the general sequence, as in the treatise’s independent exposition. The first eighty years constitute the initial period of the True Dharma.

After the Buddha entered nirvana, there was no Buddha in the world. Eight hundred years later, following the True Dharma, came the period of the Semblance Dharma; after that period came the Final Dharma. As heterodox teachings rapidly increase and use the false to usurp the true, the Buddhadharma eventually disappears altogether; this occurs approximately eight thousand years into the final period of the Final Dharma.

At that time, even the semblance of bhikshus will no longer remain, and thus there will be no members of the Sangha. In this period, the treasures of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha will be completely extinguished, without the slightest trace remaining. Therefore, the Tathagata earnestly and solicitously entrusts this matter to the kings of nations, admonishing and exhorting the four assemblies to propagate the Buddha-Dharma and protect the Three Treasures so that they will not be cut off and extinguished.

He also enables sentient beings to understand that the wisdom of prajnaparamita is the practice of sages and worthies, and that practicing the ten wholesome deeds leads one to return to the human and heavenly realms. This teaching is made entirely clear in the Tripitaka. The essential intent of upholding the precepts and constantly turning the wheel is to ensure that the Buddha’s Dharma-body and wisdom-life continue to abide in the world.

In the age of the five defilements [82], the Buddha, before King Moonlight, extensively proclaimed seven admonitions: 1) the destruction of the teachings; 2) the dissolution of the four assemblies; 3) prohibiting accordance with the Dharma; 4) self-destruction; 5) serving as an envoy; 6) creating one’s own faults; and 7) holding erroneous beliefs. They are explained in sequence as follows: Because the teachings are extinguished, the four assemblies disperse.

Once there is no Dharma upon which to rely, what is contrary to the Dharma runs rampant. Because what is contrary to the Dharma prevails, the Dharma must be destroyed, for it has no ability to remain firmly established. As for serving as an envoy, one must obey the commands given.

Figuratively speaking, this refers to the two assemblies—the monastic and the lay—who respond because they have not yet extricated themselves from worldly associations. As for disciples who have gone forth, because they seek fame and profit from kings and officials, they expound teachings and establish regulations without regard for right or wrong. Because they hear wrongly, their actions become contrary to the Dharma.

The impurity of the Dharma-ending age causes matters to become thus, obscuring the character of genuine human beings. Who creates these faults and turns toward the deviant path? Alas!

How could one hear these seven admonitions without being moved to compassion?

Notes:

[75] The six classes, or six paths: devas, humans, asuras, hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals.

[76] The eight classes of beings are: 1. Gandharvas; 2. Pisacas; 3. Kumbhandas; 4. Pretas (hungry ghosts); 5. Nagas; 6. Putanas (foul-smelling ghosts); 7. Yakshas (mighty and valiant spirits); 8. Rakshasas.

[77] The twelve divisions of the sutras, or twelve categories of the teachings, are: 1. Prose discourse: sutras in prose form; 2. Reiterative verse: metrical or verse form; 3.

Predictions of future attainment; 4. Independent verse: verses that do not repeat the meaning of the prose passages but establish meanings of their own; 5. Unrequested teaching: teachings spoken by the Buddha without anyone requesting them, as in the Skillful Means Chapter of the Lotus Sutra; 6.

Causes and conditions: as when the Sutra of the Lotus Flower of the Wonderful Dharma describes the causal circumstances of the Buddha Great Universal Wisdom Excellence; 7. Parables; 8. Accounts of past events: descriptions of events in the former worlds of the Buddhas; 9.

Accounts of past lives: accounts of births in former lives; 10. Extensive teachings: clear explanations of the true mark of the Middle Way; 11. Unprecedented events: extraordinary Dharma never before heard; 12.

Discussions: questions and answers between the Buddha and his disciples.

[78] The three calamities: The three great calamities are the calamity of fire (destruction by raging fire), the calamity of water (inundation and deluge), and the calamity of wind (violent storms). These are the three great calamities. Another explanation concerns the three lesser calamities: 1. warfare (mutual slaughter); 2. epidemics (widespread disease); 3. famine (starvation).

[79] A minor kalpa: a kalpa during which lifespans increase and decrease. According to the Abhidharmakosha, the greatest human lifespan is 84,000 years. Thereafter, it decreases by one year every hundred years until the human lifespan is only ten years. This is called the decreasing phase of the kalpa. The increasing phase then begins. Every hundred years, the lifespan increases by one year until it reaches the maximum of 84,000 years. Another decreasing phase then begins. One decreasing phase together with one increasing phase is called a minor kalpa.

[80] The Buddha’s three bodies: A Buddha fully possesses three bodies—the reward body, the response body, and the Dharma-body. 1. The reward body is the Buddha’s manifest body, which only noble beings can encounter. 2. The response body, also called the transformation body, is the body in which the Buddha appears in accordance with the various kinds of sentient beings in order to encounter and teach them. 3. The Dharma-body is the true body, the Buddha’s intrinsically luminous, tranquil, and clear self-nature.

[81] Bhagavado: Also called Bhagavan, Bhagavat, Bhaga-vat, or Bhagavat, it is one of the epithets of the Buddhas. According to the Treatise on the Buddha-bhumi, it has six meanings: Sovereign, Flourishing, Majestic, Worthy of Renown, Auspicious, and Honored. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom distinguishes four meanings: possessing merit, skillful discernment, possessing renown, and being able to destroy afflictions. It means “Buddha.”

[82] The five defilements: five kinds of impurity and uncleanness.

They are: the defilement of the kalpa, the defilement of views, the defilement of afflictions, the defilement of sentient beings, and the defilement of lifespan.

1. The defilement of the kalpa: Lifespans gradually decrease over the course of the kalpa, and human beings must endure every affliction during the time they inhabit these bodies. In an increasing kalpa, human beings live as long as 84,000 years, while in a decreasing kalpa their lifespan falls to ten years.

2. The defilement of views: Erroneous perceptions and understanding, including distorted attachments to views, whether arising through the eyes or through deviant thinking, cause people to commit many sinful and evil deeds.

3. The defilement of afflictions: Unsatisfactory circumstances give rise to sorrow, anger, jealousy, hatred, resentment, and so forth, harming oneself and others.

4. The defilement of sentient beings: Sentient beings are of many kinds, bearing ugly and strange forms that are foul-smelling, with fins, scales, horns, or fur; they may have two legs, four legs, many legs, or no legs.

5. The defilement of lifespan: Life is brief, like the slender thread from which a bell hangs; the slightest breeze may snap the thread, and life comes to an end in an instant.