仁王護國般若波羅蜜經疏神寶記

When the Buddha is explained according to the Four Teachings, there are four different aspects. The Buddha is originally not divided into four; it is only because of the teaching of the Dharma that his bodies are distinguished as four. Generally speaking, the Buddha is originally only One. According to the Tripitaka teaching, the form-bodies and characteristics of the Buddha, the Tathagata, differ in four ways. According to the Original Gate, there is only one Buddha; according to the Trace Gate, the Buddha is divided into three. Within the Four Teachings, each teaching distinguishes two Buddhas, yet there are three; both separately evoke a response from the Buddha.

In terms of essence and function, the Buddha originally has only one Essence, but four Functions. If this meaning is clearly understood, then whether the four Buddhas are discussed as identical or different, there will be no obstruction. Now, precisely because of this distinction, the matter must be clarified.

Buddha is translated as “Awakened One.” The Buddha thoroughly comprehends mundane and supramundane cause and effect, which are contained within the four truths: suffering, its arising, its cessation, and the path. The Buddha lived for eighty years, like an ordinary person in the world; although surpassing all others, he nevertheless never departed from the human realm. The Buddha attained realization through thirty-four corresponding mental states: eight forbearances, eight knowledges, nine unobstructed states of mind, and nine liberated states of mind.

Generally speaking, these do not go beyond two virtues: the virtue of severance and the virtue of wisdom. The Buddha eliminated attachment to views and erroneous thoughts and realized Buddhahood beneath a tree. Therefore, that tree is called the Bodhi tree, or, in brief, the precious tree.

According to the Tripitaka teaching, when the Buddha manifested the appearance of attaining the Way, his body was sixty feet tall; this was a manifested body held in particular reverence. Because the two faculties, sharp and dull ^[5], pertain to comprehensive understanding and wisdom, people perceived the Buddha as superior or inferior and thus not the same. In truth, the extraordinary Buddha had only one body; the differences arose from our own perception.

It was not that the Buddha’s bodily form appeared large and then transformed into something small. Whether spoken of generally or individually, this alone is the meaning. Previously, many misunderstood the word “Buddha,” and so it must be explained clearly in this way.

A single corresponding thought is unlike the thirty-four mental states through which, by gradual cultivation, afflictions are eliminated. Here, the wisdom of a single corresponding thought accords with EMPTINESS and, without interruption, severs both prior and subsequent Existence, immediately causing all preceding afflictions to cease completely. When the fruit is realized, everything is eradicated, leaving only habitual tendencies.

The difference is indeed this profound! Because the Mahayana and Hinayana establish different forms of instruction in accordance with beings’ capacities, they present such distinct forms of the Buddha. The Buddha manifests an exceedingly lofty and supreme body, a majestic and venerable one.

One who receives the Buddha’s prediction is as though the Buddha had conferred an office upon him, just as one in the Heaven of Ultimate Form receives a commission entrusted by the Buddha. This is entirely similar to the responsive signs and characteristics described in the Avatamsaka Sutra, though the sequence of higher and lower differs. In the Avatamsaka Sutra, the ultimate and supremely exalted fruit of Buddhahood is the beginning of the manifestation of the responsive transformation-body.

According to the Separate Teaching, one must sever the portion of ignorance belonging to the twelve links of dependent origination. Because the provisional teaching proceeds by stages, the Buddha merely bestows a prediction of future attainment, as though conferring an office. At first glance, this appears similar, but in truth it is entirely different; although different, it is also similar, and this is difficult to distinguish clearly.

The Buddha’s characteristics are perfectly complete, unlike the three concealed characteristics mentioned above; he manifests only an inconceivable appearance like empty space. The essential point is that the Buddha does not depart from the manifest form ordinarily seen by us; because he employs a perfectly complete capacity, he is praised as being like empty space throughout the Dharma realm. It is manifested solely by the mind and cannot be expressed in words or known through consciousness.

Such a Buddha-body is clearly the complete Dharma-body; therefore, he said: “This body of mine is the Dharma-body.” Because it is obscured by the sun yet vast as empty space, it is called the perfectly luminous Buddha. For fear that scholars might misunderstand this profound meaning, it must be carefully considered. The Sutra on Resolving Doubts in the Age of the Semblance Dharma cites evidence concerning the four bodies of the Buddha: whether heard or seen seated upon a lotus dais, and so forth, each is a Buddha individually corresponding to us.

How could these be the same as the Buddha’s responsive bodies arranged in higher and lower stages, as described in the Avatamsaka Sutra? Nevertheless, we must also understand the Buddha’s other three bodies. According to the Original Gate and the Trace Gate, the three bodies belong to the Trace Gate, while the single body belongs to the Original Gate.

This is stated with reference to the essence and function of the Original and Trace Gates. According to the revelation of the Lotus Sutra, however, the Original is the one perfectly interfused Buddha, who is constantly distinguished into three bodies according to the Trace Gate. Yet it is also said that only by understanding the meaning in accordance with reality can one know the relative excellence and inferiority of the essence and function of the Buddha’s four bodies.

The present discussion is certainly unlike language used in everyday speech. On the basis of the Buddha’s four bodies, the Dharma of contemplating the mind is clarified. It is not that four Buddhas arise through using four lines of verse or through illumination by the three contemplations.

Rather, within a single perfectly luminous thought, the three bodies are contemplated so that one may see that one’s own mind and the Buddha’s mind share the same awakened nature, without duality. This is also the essential meaning of contemplating the mind as taught by the Buddha.

1) Explanation of the word “Abide”: it means that the Buddha, fully endowed with the three bodies, abides in eight different places. The Indian treatise master Mahasatta distinguished their names and meanings into three kinds of dwelling places, yet he did not enumerate them all. In present-day language, the Buddha originally does not abide; not abiding, he nevertheless abides, both phenomenally and in principle.

Abiding in principle means the emptiness of the ultimate truth; phenomenal abiding is as described above. But how do principle and phenomena differ? The answer is that neither abiding nor non-abiding dwells in a place that neither exists nor does not exist.

It is solely because the fundamental abiding is truly like a transformation or an illusion that numerical limits may be assigned; yet no fixed measure has ever been heard of, and the distinctions of meaning are inexhaustible. According to the doctrinal meaning, abiding is not classified according to four schools but according to analysis of Essence. Whether there are stages or not, all enter the two principles as their abiding place, and accordingly the Buddha has four bodies.

In terms of abiding in principle, there are only two, distinguished as the middle and the true middle. Although four bodies are spoken of, apart from the superior locus it is said that there is another nirvana within the secret treasury. The name “nirvana” derives from true emptiness, while “secret treasury” is so called because of the three virtues.

Through distinctions such as these, the principle must have a point to which it returns. When discussed in terms of the provisional and the real, their meanings are not identical.

2) The explanation of the word “city” is somewhat lengthy; here it is explained in detail. The rendering of the Sanskrit into Chinese is cited in the Sutra of Former Causes, concerning Tianluo in the reign of King Zhao. It clearly states that, because Banzu was expelled, the realm first received the name “Non-Harming.” Yet the soldiers killed one person each day, so that throughout the world it came to be reputed as cruel.

When the people rebelled, Banzu was deposed, captured by a rakshasa, and carried away, but was detained by King Puming. There are two accounts of this story: according to one, Banzu’s virtue is employed to elucidate faith; according to the other, for the inauguration of the teaching, an assembly was established for preaching the Dharma and practicing generosity. Therefore, this now forms the opening section of this Prajnaparamita Sutra.

The Dharma assembly gathered thousands of kings in the hope of repaying the kindness of the land; hence it first names the city of Rajagriha. Rajagriha is also known by other names. The Sanskrit name is rendered in four senses, each also translated according to the causes and conditions of the four siddhantas: 1) Lực Doanh.

“Lực” means strength, firmness, and endurance; “doanh” means to make full and abundant, though the expression is easily misunderstood. 2) Magadha is an anomalous transliteration. Since ancient times no one has translated it correctly, and each school has rendered it according to its own interpretation. All accounts acknowledge that this country had twelve cities and that the Buddha dwelt in some of them for longer or shorter periods.

Because of the two bodies—the reward body and the Dharma-body—the weight of the kindness received differs, as the sutra clearly states. The Lotus Sutra also says that contemplation of images and walking meditation repay the two kindnesses owed to the country and to the grasses and trees. One should therefore know that whenever Buddhas and sages mention a particular place, there is always a reason; it is never without foundation.

Next, the word “griha” is explained separately: “raja” means king or royal city, while “griha” means dwelling. Since there were six monasteries, it received this name. 3) The “mountain” is Gridhrakuta Peak, translated into Chinese as Vulture Peak. It bears this name for three reasons.

The Buddha often dwelt there, indicating that he chiefly taught the Dharma in two places. Because the mountain resembles the beautiful city walls of Rajagriha, it must be discussed. This Prajnaparamita Sutra was also taught by the Buddha at Vulture Peak, a renowned scenic site celebrated from ancient times to the present.

Does this mean, however, that the other places where the Buddha taught sutras were not renowned sites? Such a statement is merely the view of one who has only glanced at the matter once, and is valid only in a relative sense. In enumerating the assembly that heard the Dharma, the text refers to the bhikshus of the Three Vehicles, who all heard the single voice of the Tathagata expounding the teaching. Although they heard the same Dharma, the Buddha’s teachings differed as expedient and true; consequently, the benefits they attained were not alike in depth or shallowness. Thus there is a section on the direct arousal of the teaching, suited to those whose faculties were mature enough to form affinities with the fourfold assembly.

Question: In enumerating the assembly, some sutras speak of devas and human beings belonging to the Three Vehicles, while others speak of the fourfold assembly, such as bhikshus. Why does this text, contrary to the usual practice, speak directly?

Answer: In discussing the Three Vehicles, the Madhyabhava Treatise takes persons as the basis; “directly” means speaking in terms of classes. Beginning with persons, as the sutra has mentioned, while here first discussing the matter according to classes, it therefore speaks of: first, influence; and second, directness. Yet when persons are mentioned without specifying the classes and number of the assembly, in most cases one person alone is not sufficient; whereas when classes are mentioned without specifying persons, the classes necessarily encompass all. Although there are four assemblies, the meaning must apply universally; there is no distinction here of expedient or true, profound or shallow.

Now, based on a single assembly, it is divided into four, each assembly being included therein. Why does one assembly not encompass all? Why speak only of one kind of capacity and not speak generally?

Here the designation is made according to category, not according to the original identity of the persons. If they are called bhikshus and bhikshunis, each assembly still has four distinct meanings; thus persons are spoken of according to their category. In discussing the Three Vehicles, one must follow their proper sequence; this should be understood.

In discussing bodhisattvas, their minds are superior, though their outward forms are inferior. Yet if outward form and robes are considered, bodhisattvas are not necessarily inferior to shravakas. Here, in comparing the outward forms and robes, the renunciants are mentioned first as the shravaka assembly.

The word “together with” means being in one another’s company. According to the treatises it has seven meanings, of which only one is explained here. Although the assembly of bhikshus was diverse, they were alike in the time and place upon which they depended and so forth; the seven respects in which there could be disunity were not different.

If the points of sameness and difference are examined, they are recorded fully in the sutras. Yet later generations had to discuss them, lest any single dharma be regarded as foremost merely because people’s minds differ from one another. Nevertheless, all could dwell harmoniously together; hence they are also called a harmonious assembly, or an inclusive assembly.

Ordinarily they are called great arhats. “Great” means vast, but it should also be understood as numerous and superior; thus it is explained through these three meanings. The expression “Mahayana,” the Great Vehicle, largely contains this implication and is explained separately.

“Bhikshu” has five meanings, though the text mentions only three. “Mendicant” is explained in relation to the cause, and “worthy of offerings” in relation to the fruit. Determining the fruit from the cause is the customary explanation.

Two further meanings are now added, though they are not important to the passage. If each Sanskrit word were explained separately, it would be unclear where the explanations should be placed. Clearly, with regard to the stages of training, there are simply two: those with more to learn and those with no more to learn.

As explained in the Satyasiddhi Treatise, arhats are of two grades: those practicing and those abiding. “Practicing” means cultivating the training like ordinary persons, while “abiding” refers to the fruit; these are two distinct matters. Thus, when it is said that virtuous persons who uphold the Five Precepts practice the conduct of an arhat, they are persons who still need training.

Training in the conduct of those with no more to learn is likewise not truly identical to the distinct fruit toward which they advance. What has already been clearly stated may simply be trusted and need not be debated.

As explained above, “arhat” is translated with three meanings: slayer of the thieves of affliction, worthy of offerings, and unborn or no longer born—that is, no longer reborn in the human realm. Explaining the cause in terms of the fruit is already clear. This accords with the intent of the Tripitaka and Shared Teachings. According to the complete meaning, however, “unborn” belongs to the Middle Way. Therefore, it is said that this is not merely non-arising; the same applies to undefiled nirvana. “Worthy of offerings,” when read in the reverse direction, means “one who provides”: through the virtue of compassion, one responds appropriately to needs, and thus provides.

There are eight kinds of merit used to praise the virtues of the shravakas, though only six kinds may be mentioned; the final two are stated collectively, with differences according to whether the teaching is expanded or summarized. In praising virtue, the sutras usually employ words and phrases of commendation, but here they are especially distinctive in that they cite dharmas as praise. Because good persons influence virtue, and virtue must indeed be created by persons, revealing the person through virtue is the intent here, as will be explained. Yet this is also praise of the three virtues of those very persons, namely, the shravakas. Taking the Prajnaparamita corpus as the standard, the Two Vehicles also share in the teachings of the various doctrines.

2) The explanation of the distinctions largely corresponds to the meanings of the names of the three provisional designations, clarifying the Separate and Perfect Teachings. Conditioned dharmas possess the two aspects of wisdom and virtue; one relies upon wisdom to sever obstacles and realize the virtue of cessation. If the two virtues are discussed, the virtue of cessation must certainly be included. The way of quiescence is originally only One. Though distinctions are now set forth for explanation, it is again said to be One, as in the customary discursive exposition.

One must rely upon the two kinds of liberation for analysis, and then upon the ten knowledges ^[6] for praise, because one knowledge belongs to the system of thought concerning the nine planes of the desire realm. By cultivating the four contemplations, one attains undefiled knowledge; thus each subsequent truth is the source from which four knowledges arise. In the two higher realms, one is bound to the dharmas of each realm, and in each realm cultivates four contemplative practices, for the purpose of correlating them with the four knowledges.

“Correlating” means correlating them with the preceding sources from which knowledge arises. In summary, one contemplation is generally correlated with one knowledge. In addition, mind-knowledge and worldly knowledge make four; afterward, the dharmas of the Four Truths, exhaustion, and non-arising are added, making ten dharmas.

If one merely combines the Four Truths with the four knowledges, they make eight; adding exhaustion and non-arising completes the ten dharmas. It should therefore be understood that this only describes the distinction between the expanded and summarized formulations. The five knowledges of suffering are discussed later.

The renewed clarification of the sixteen contemplative practices is simply an extensive discussion of the preceding passage of the sutra. There appears to be some difference regarding the knowledge of origination, while exhaustion and non-arising are as cited from the treatises. According to the sequential arrangement, knowledge of things as they truly are is further added, making eleven knowledges.

According to the treatises of the Mahayana teachings, this has nothing to do with expansion or summary, for it pertains only to the Buddha and not to the Two Vehicles. Yet among those with more to learn and those with no more to learn, differences of increase and decrease are clarified, as stated in the sutras.

Next, the three faculties are praised. They are first discussed in relation to knowledge and then explained. Before the path of seeing, faith must be taken together with the nine faculties, perfecting both faith and practice.

Upon reaching the path of seeing, one aims toward the faculty not yet attained; now that undefiled knowledge is present, it is called “desiring to know.” Thus, in sequence, after passing through the two processes of contemplation and the state of having no more to learn, the name “faculty of knowing” is changed to “knowing oneself.” Above, the sixteen mental practices have already been clearly explained according to knowledge; why are they set forth again here?

They are directed toward the points already made clear and are cited only as virtues for praise, not as a basis for practice. If considered in terms of practice, one should rely upon knowledge as previously explained. Now, what fault could there be in saying that the mental practices must follow the fruit?

It merely resolves one doubt here, and therefore these words must be used. Moreover, as already explained, all sixteen practices must certainly be stated, for the meanings expressed are not one alone. Yet to speak of mental practices means that one must transcend Existence.

Here, the abbreviated word “transcend” is itself perhaps used once too often. Because the sixteen mental practices represent the Dharma, the three virtues are borrowed to praise them.

The previously mentioned provisional designation of dharmas points only to the substance in order to explain name-and-form. Because there is name-and-form, feeling comes first, followed by perception and formations, while consciousness is the basis of feeling. Generally it bears the name “feeling”; specifically, there is no substance possessing feeling, and therefore it was called provisional above.

The contemplation of dharmas alone calls this “without a master”—that is, no one governs it—yet it still exists. Furthermore, it is said that one is provisional and two are real, names being assigned according to their characteristics. The real and the provisional are regarded as real yet provisional; therefore, taken together, they are called the real-provisional.

They are so named through the combination of shared terms, solely because they involve both falsity and reality. The reality here originates from the false and provisional; the false and provisional thus becomes the general meaning.

Among the three provisional designations, each has three contemplations. As stated above, all depend upon distinct dharmas. The provisional designation of dharmas is false and unreal. Because dharmas are false, they are unreal; because they are unreal, they are nonexistent; because they are nonexistent, contemplating emptiness is the real-provisional. Relative to the provisional, it is called real, yet the real is not truly real; the reality therein is emptiness. A single form or a single fragrance is originally grounded in the provisional. Because its essence is EMPTINESS, that emptiness is not itself Prajnaparamita. To investigate the principle to its utmost is not merely to regard things as provisional; this is to employ the contemplation of the provisional designation of dharmas.

The word “contemplation” lies within this: because within Existence there is no Emptiness, its essence is not provisional; yet because Existence can be empty, its function is provisional. Therefore, emptiness and provisionality are skillful means for entering the Middle Way. Because the Middle occupies one side, the two sides have names only and are not called contemplations.

Because the Middle Way is real, it is employed in speaking; this is clarified according to the provisional designation of dharmas. The latter two contemplations should be understood by analogy. If one relies upon the three provisional designations, the perfect contemplation is necessarily made clear.

It is perfect, yet not separately perfect; one merely follows the sequence and returns to the single mind as the contemplation of emptiness, provisionality, and the Middle. When illumination naturally ceases, that is attainment.

The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom gives analogies to explain the following three points. First, it presents two analogies: a dog about to fall into a well illustrates the certainty that it will bark. The two images—the dog falling and its barking—arise from fear of falling; sentient beings are likewise. These constitute three meanings and are therefore called provisional dharmas, and so forth. Yet all dharmas take form through the conjunction of names. Thus, there is nothing apart from names, and nothing is without a name; names also accord with dharmas. Therefore, it is said that the three realms are not apart from dharmas and are likewise merely provisional names. In this way, all dharmas are established through names so that distinctions may be made.

Next, it praises the three virtues of the samadhi of the emptiness of dharmas, through which, by awakening to the provisional, one realizes the emptiness of dharmas; it then extols those three aspects of emptiness, all according to the successive order of cause and effect. Because dharmas are provisional, they are empty; the meaning should be understood accordingly, as explained above. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom cites the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening as transcending nirvana, because each factor is capable of leading one to the destination; the destination one seeks to reach is nirvana.

Furthermore, the Treatise on Nirvana presents three meanings, which are precisely the three meanings of emptiness. They are: 1) to reach the gateway of nirvana, one must accord with the two meanings of the two gateways; 2) the outer gateway, namely the factors conducive to awakening; and 3) the inner gateway, namely the three meanings of emptiness. Thus, the Tathagata entered supreme great nirvana and fully enjoyed the bliss of the three virtues, which are exceedingly profound and far-reaching.

The subsequent explanation of the Gateway of Emptiness is merely a repetition. By contemplating all dharmas as devoid of self, all that belongs to “me” disappears—everything disintegrates. Since all things arise through the conjunction of causes and conditions, one knows that dharmas, which exist by virtue of conditions, are all empty.

There is neither agent nor recipient; therefore, they are originally empty. Because of these three meanings of emptiness, it is called the Gateway of Emptiness, which is also the gateway of signlessness. Although one contemplates the body as empty, one may still be caught in a higher conception of emptiness; therefore, signs are employed within signs as an antidote to attachment to signs, in order to cultivate signlessness.

For example, bending and stretching, lowering and raising the head, and so forth are all called signs. Signs are inherently unreal, but movement gives rise to wind. Wind moves in accordance with consciousness.

If consciousness ceases and no thought arises from moment to moment, how could there be any sign? Signlessness is also selflessness. Yet to perceive signs of male, female, and so forth is to posit a self, while the mind remains deluded in ignorance.

One mistakenly perceives bones, joints, and the related signs; thus bones and skin cover the faculties that perform actions, like trees existing naturally, no different from the analogy of a child.

As for non-action, whatever possesses the signs of fabrication depends upon signlessness; signlessness itself is emptiness, yet things appear to exist because of fabrication. What is called signlessness is emptiness, or non-action. The three dharmas, or gateways of emptiness, discussed here are essential teachings in meditative contemplation.

Yet this emptiness is not samadhi, and therefore it often easily causes the mind to retreat. Only the following three kinds of persons attain nirvana: those who practice and uphold the precepts, those who cultivate meditative contemplation of the emptiness of dharmas, and those who are courageous and vigorous. Only these three kinds of persons cultivate the thirty-seven factors conducive to awakening, reach the goal, and accomplish one half.

Through this initial step, they reach the three gateways of liberation; the second gateway is likewise attained in due succession, apart from latent matters that remain unmoved.

Next, the Four Noble Truths and the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination are discussed as a summary by way of praise. If the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination were divided into two separate sections, much complexity would surely be unavoidable; how much more so when the following section praises the pratyekabuddhas? It must be clearly stated here that this is how the analysis is made; yet the two truths, conditions, perfections, and so forth remain implicit, so differences in brevity and elaboration arise according to whether the teaching is expanded or condensed.

Here, the Vehicles are generally combined into one, and thus there are both similarities and differences, as already explained. As for the differences, the Four Noble Truths are contemplated by those of dull faculties, while dependent origination is for those of keen faculties. Thus there are general and particular aspects, yet all are principally derived from the sutras.

Each dharma is common to the four teachings, but the wording differs according to the way its meaning is applied and is therefore not the same. There are two different kinds of pratyekabuddhas. In speaking of the Great Sage Pratyekabuddha, there are three kinds: a) The solitary awakened one, whom the sutras call a pratyekabuddha, is the Great Sage.

This designation views the matter from outside inward, distinguishing the similarity of their awakening in order to assign the name. b) The one awakened through causes and conditions, as already mentioned, likewise awakens as though through hearing. Although a pratyekabuddha is born into the world without encountering a Buddha, in what respect is his realization of the unborn Dharma different? Because he clings neither to permanence nor to annihilation, and so forth, three meanings are distinguished in explanation.

Generally speaking, for pratyekabuddhas, because things arise through conditions, they are not annihilated; because they cease through conditions, they are not permanent. Because they cling neither to annihilation nor to permanence ^[7], their virtues are praised. c) The pratyekabuddha is also called a solitary awakened one; between these two ranks there are similarities and differences. They are alike in kind because they are born into the world without encountering a Buddha; but because their faculties and dispositions differ, there are distinctions of lesser and greater, inferior and superior.

The greater does not attain the fruit of one beyond training ^[8], but attains accomplishment through the stage of one in training. The pratyekabuddha’s faculties are lucid and differ in no way from those of one beyond training, as briefly explained. The source material presents two rounds: first the question, and afterward the intended meaning.

Because the Three Vehicles ^[9] each proceed in a different direction, the two sides cannot be combined; each separately elucidates the differences between the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination.

Next, it speaks of bodhisattvas yet calls them arhats. If they were entirely alike, why would the Three Vehicles be distinguished? The answer is that, with respect to a single object, the levels of realization attained are higher or lower; thus they are said to be dissimilar.

In general, the Four Noble Truths and dependent origination constitute the same object, but according to their capacities ^[10], practitioners understand them differently and their realizations are not the same. Hence the example is given of three animals crossing a river at the same time, though they reach the other shore at different times; therefore, the sutra cites their differing realizations. Because the object is the same, their contemplation is collectively called contemplation of dependent origination; because their realizations differ, the bodhi they attain is not the same.

This also accords with the four aspects of the Four Noble Truths, as must be understood from the question and answer.

Next comes the question: The Great Sage pratyekabuddhas appear in an age when they do not encounter a Buddha; why, then, are they now classified together with the sravakas? Because the sutra does not contain the term “Solitary Realizer,” it uses the general designation “pratyekabuddha” in framing the question. The answer is that pratyekabuddhas appear in the world in the same manner as a Buddha appears in the world, while the sravakas are included within the category. Here, saying that pratyekabuddhas are born into an age when they do not encounter a Buddha refers to Solitary Realizers. If bodhisattvas are also counted, there are five, according to the meaning given in the translation and explanation, and so forth.

Those of vast aspiration for the Way are persons who have perfected every virtue of true wisdom ^[11] and skillful wisdom ^[12]; therefore, they are also called mahasattvas or pioneers of the Way. This is because they willingly assume the heavy responsibility of causing the Dharma to flourish. According to the teaching, the mind is of foremost importance. Bodhisattvas first think of benefiting others and only afterward of themselves; being wholly sincere toward all beings, they surpass the sravakas. To attain this, they must undergo arduous training for three asamkhyeya kalpas and one hundred kalpas. Yet even so, to say nothing of cutting off delusion, they remain inferior to arhats.

Although the Shared Teaching differs from the Tripitaka Teaching, its doctrines clearly remain unchanged; therefore, the teaching must still be repeated. Such repetition naturally has a reason: it must accord with the aspirations of beings, and for this reason distinctions arise. Those of the Ten Grounds have perfected their practices like the practices of a Buddha.

Because the Ten Grounds are also bodhisattva grounds, those bearing this designation naturally teach and transform beings in the Buddha’s stead. Whether bodhisattvas have attained Buddhahood or have not yet done so, they must contemplate the nondual object with the mind of non-action. Since all conditioned phenomena are uncreated, there is no attainment.

Because a single thought has not yet become perfect and complete, it cannot be said that they have already attained Buddhahood.

The discussion compares the bodhisattvas described above with those in the subsequent section. The explanation here should properly concern the initial gateway to the profound and vast Mahayana Dharma. Thus, the practice of the Ten Grounds up to the eighth ground carries both shared and distinct meanings, which differ from one another.

The exoteric teaching contains the esoteric teaching; this is not the “esoteric” of the distinction between exoteric and esoteric teachings. If one relies upon the three kinds of people who arouse the aspiration, as taught in the Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra, each of the three schools accords with the shared meaning. Both explanations are correct: after three asamkhyeya kalpas, those who have not yet cut off delusion cannot be called arhats; they bear that title only when they realize the fruit.

Furthermore, the Sutra of the Buddha’s Former Practices presents two meanings: 1) it refers to bodhisattvas receiving the title when they attain the fruit; and 2) it refers to the Tathagata attaining Buddhahood, teaching and transforming beings throughout one lifetime, as though receiving confirmation of attainment. Hereafter, neither of these two meanings will be discussed further. With respect to the bodhisattvas of the three schools, their stages of fruition are compared as stated in the sutra.

The Larger Prajnaparamita Sutra is also cited, wherein bodhisattvas are separately designated by the term “forbearance,” likewise as praise leading toward the meaning of the Two Vehicles ^[13]. As clarified above, all sravakas are arhats, without distinction on the basis of being in training or beyond training.

Question: Here, some bodhisattvas are included and others are selected out. What is the meaning of this?

– Answer: The explanation takes as its standard bodhisattvas whose outward form is indeterminate. This is a definitive manner of speaking, but its meaning is not superfluous. Above, on the basis of the sravakas, there are those in training and those beyond training; those progressing from training to beyond training must all proceed in this way. Here it is made clear that bodhisattvas are connected with the Separate and Perfect Teachings, and thus still have the final stage to aspire to attain. When discussed according to what is correct or approximately correct, some are included and some selected out; the explanation cannot be simplified or abbreviated in this manner. In accordance with the question, the answer reiterates the cause or reason.

Therefore, it is now explained that the external appearance and clothing of bodhisattvas are intermixed with and resemble those of ordinary people, yet they are never confused with them. For this reason, it must further be clarified that the good and the bad are intermingled, in order to esteem the Lesser Vehicle. It should be known that the virtues of the Mahayana and the Lesser Vehicle are equal; thus, what is called “good” refers to the Lesser Vehicle. Because of attachment to names and characteristics, once realization occurs one transcends both the ordinary and the holy; because “bad” refers to ordinary beings, this must be clearly emphasized.

Next, the text further explains the virtues of true wisdom under eleven headings. The first praises the virtue of wisdom, comprising true wisdom and skillful wisdom. True wisdom illuminates emptiness and is the essence of prajna; skillful wisdom illuminates existence and is the function of prajna.

The Vimalakirti Sutra clearly presents true wisdom and skillful means and unfolds them into the tetralemma; this is also very close to the explanation given here. “Those directed toward the fruit” clarifies their stages; the repeated statement makes the matter still clearer, praising the virtues shared and distinct for a reason. Here, on the basis of the seventh and eighth grounds of the Shared Teaching, the two kinds of wisdom are discussed.

At the seventh ground, one attains the forbearance of the non-arising of dharmas; this must therefore be true wisdom. Beyond this point lies provisional wisdom. It would truly be perilous to disregard this and accept the meaning of the fruit as real!

Among Mahayana practitioners, praise is given specifically to those who carry out the bodhisattva practices. Those of the Two Vehicles are not separately distinguished and are therefore called Solitary Realizers, Great Sages, and so forth.

Next comes praise of the Dharma-eye. Fully stated, there should be five kinds of eyes ^[14], with differences of higher and lower. Because bodhisattvas cultivate the causal practices and their stages have not yet been perfected, they attain only four eyes.

Since they have not attained the ultimate fruit, they have not yet acquired the Buddha-eye. Yet, when viewed comprehensively according to the meaning of Buddhahood, bodhisattvas also possess all five eyes. For example, in the Perfect Teaching and the Sudden Teaching, although those who have newly aroused the aspiration still possess only the physical eye, their understanding is already superior, and it is therefore called the Buddha-eye.

Here, in discussing those at the stage of the Ten Faiths, an equivalent realization is again taken as the standard. Next, in praising the Shared Teaching, the Dharma-eye is used as an analogy; thus they attain only the five superknowledges. They must yield the ultimate fruit and do not attain the six superknowledges.

Next, the text discusses the three knowledges ^[15] in relation to realized persons. Those who have realized the six superknowledges must fully comprehend the three knowledges concerning the three periods of time. The error arose because one character was copied incorrectly. The ten powers ^[16] are clearly explained in the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom. Among them, even though the power concerning birth and death is not concealed, one also possesses the remaining nine powers. Because selflessness suppresses affliction, even while one remains within birth and death, the infinitely functioning power cannot be concealed. Those of the Two Vehicles do not fully possess these powers and therefore cannot avoid fear and the wish to escape birth and death.

Regarding the four immeasurable minds, or the four vast states of mind,^[17] they originally arise through the cultivation of brahma-conduct, that is, they are attained by observing the precepts. Here, praising the bodhisattvas is precisely praising the virtues of their practice. Explained fully, these are like the three virtues mentioned above; yet without relinquishment, they are still incomplete.

Only bodhisattvas can relinquish without attachment, and because this is an essential undertaking, they direct their minds to it, and so forth. Furthermore, one must understand the names and meanings of other dharmas, such as the successive order of the Dharma realm.^[18] From the vajra-extinction samadhi onward, the virtue of cessation is praised. The preceding items pertain to wisdom; these are the two virtues of wisdom and cessation.

Wisdom is said to be used to end delusion; by cutting off the cause, awakening is attained. Therefore, cessation through the unobstructed path is called the virtue of wisdom, while liberation and the attainment of awakening are called the virtue of cessation. It is also said that the virtue of wisdom truly effects cessation, meaning that true wisdom has something it severs, whereas the virtue of cessation has nothing to sever.

To say that non-cessation is cessation means that awakening must occur, and that it is also through cessation that awakening occurs. This principle is truly difficult to clarify. Furthermore, only when its lingering entanglements have been completely ended does it truly deserve to be called cessation; this also means that only when subject and object^[19] no longer remain is perfect enlightenment fully attained.

Thus it was said above that after cessation there is no longer an agent of cessation. It is like hard vajra, which can destroy afflictions while its own substance remains unmoved. This explains the principle underlying cessation.

As for the Surangama Sutra, its Chinese translation is “Heroic Valor,” signifying a fierce nature capable of subduing demons and repelling adversaries. The reference to thousands, tens of thousands, and kotis gives three numerical examples to indicate the great multitude of assemblies of every kind. Among ordinary beings there are four assemblies: 1) human beings, 2) trainees, 3) heavenly beings, and 4) worthies.

When explaining them by classification, the category of worthies can easily cause confusion. The principal requirement for being human is to observe the five precepts, meaning that one must refrain from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and so forth. These precepts guard only body and speech, without mentioning mental karma.

This merely states the branches; one must also understand the root. The single precept against intoxicants, however, generally restrains both kinds of karma; the explanation is abbreviated and does not exhaust the full meaning. “As stated above” also means “as previously explained.” Here the emphasis must be placed upon the Human Vehicle; the question of whether the meaning should be treated cautiously or otherwise according to the Lesser Vehicle or Great Vehicle has not yet arisen.

If the intended object is the ten wholesome deeds, it is the heavenly beings.

According to the cited Pali text, when the Buddha had first attained enlightenment, he had not yet turned the Dharma wheel—that is, he had not yet begun to propagate the teaching. Nevertheless, because two people supported the Buddha’s cultivation, the essential point is that the Buddha established the five precepts; hence, today there is this portion of questions and answers. It is entirely clear that there are precisely five precepts—not four and not six—yet their scope is profound and extensive.

There is virtually nothing that does not fall within the five precepts. Thus the five stars in the heavens and the eight affairs among humankind are each clearly and distinctly encompassed by the precept against killing. The five precepts are assigned to the five directions.

For example, the east corresponds to wood, and wood—trees, plants, and grasses—principally corresponds to benevolence, the virtue of kindness. Benevolence takes the nurturing of life as its basis; therefore, the precept against taking life corresponds to the east. One should understand that the other precepts similarly correspond to the other directions, as clearly explained in the sutras.

According to the Perfect Teaching or the Sudden Teaching,^[20] one is taught to understand clearly the intent of upholding the precepts; whether observing or violating them, this pertains solely to the One Vehicle of the Perfect Teaching. A complete explanation is found in the commentary on the Golden Light Sutra. Although this sutra was delivered when the Buddha first taught, it was not his initial instruction.

At that time, the Three Jewels had not yet been fully established; therefore, the Buddha had not yet taught the supramundane Dharma, though he had already accepted and accommodated the small group. The ancients did not fully comprehend that the Buddha’s initial teaching was intended to enable beings to become humans or heavenly beings. Only now have researchers discovered that this meaning is fully contained within the purport of the sutra and is also clearly explained in its separate chapters, and so forth.

One who is close to the sages is called a worthy, and this is also termed practice. One must pass through the stage of a worthy before reaching sagehood; hence it is said that a worthy is close to a sage. Yet one who is said to follow in the footsteps of the sages must draw near to the affairs of the sages.

Such a person has not yet become one at the stage of contemplative practice, so a provisional designation is temporarily employed. Because of this designation, there are those who practice the arhat path.^[21] In this connection, practitioners at the stage of no further training, those of the ten bhumis, and so forth still must rely upon methods of cultivation. Therefore, although they follow in the footsteps of the sages, one should understand that they still resemble ordinary beings.

They may originally be arhats or bodhisattvas, but if the matter is left ambiguous in this way, it is truly difficult to assess its significance; only the Buddha can know it. The explanation becomes provisionally tenable only when discussed on the basis of the original teaching and the manifested teaching.^[22]

There are three classifications of the ten bhumis, and they are not presented identically in the sutras and treatises. It is readily understood that the teachings were not established by a single school but by many schools, and therefore differences arose. Careful consideration reveals that the application of each school and the depth of its doctrine are not the same. Thus there are three:

1) The ten bhumis practiced in common by the Three Vehicles. These should be described as common stages, as ordinarily explained.

2) The Great Treatise clearly states that the Bhumī of Dry Wisdom has two kinds. The first is the Bhumī of Dry Wisdom of the sravakas. As above, this is a shared practice: the cultivation of merit and the stages are entirely the same as those presented in the Tripitaka teachings.

Sravakas are said separately to attain nirvana because all their practices are directed toward self-deliverance; thus common and separate aspects are distinguished. For example, cultivating contemplation of the Buddha through samadhi is the principal contemplation, while contemplation of impurity and so forth is an auxiliary contemplation. Regardless of which Dharma is contemplated, because the initial mind is still shallow and weak, its cultivation has not yet reached the subtle principle of meditative concentration.

Although wisdom remains shallow and weak, this is nevertheless designated the Bhumī of Dry Wisdom, and so forth; it will therefore be addressed later in the section on the Bodhisattva Bhumī.

3) Bodhisattvas on the Bhumī of Dry Wisdom cultivate the ten bhumis. As the sutra explains, this concerns bodhisattvas who have first aroused the aspiration and have not yet attained conformity with patient acceptance. In other words, they are those of the ten stages of faith who have transcended ordinary beings. In the latter two classifications, general and specific characteristics intermingle; this can readily be recognized by examining the sutra text.

Up through the Bodhisattva Bhumī, all stages from the Bhumī of Joy to the Bhumī of the Dharma Cloud are called “bodhisattva”; here a specific name is borrowed as a general designation. Therefore, it may be said that since the practice of patient acceptance is separately established, it must have its own distinct stages, although a general designation is borrowed for them. Because these are bodhisattva stages, those at each stage possess a virtue of patient acceptance superior to that of the Two Vehicles.

This distinction also arises through the selection and elimination involved in their manner of practice. If the stages were not borrowed to provide names, the matter would become extremely complicated and could not be explained, except in terms of the meaning of the cultivation of cessation and contemplation.^[23] Therefore, the schools that established classifications of the teachings provisionally borrowed these meanings and presented them in this way.

The Buddha Bhumī is likewise reached from the causal bhumis of the bodhisattva described above: having perfected the virtues of benefiting oneself and others, one ultimately realizes omniscience^[24] and reaches the Buddha Bhumī. The ten bhumis of the Separate and Perfect Teachings are, from beginning to end, fundamentally bodhisattva stages and are not shared with the Two Vehicles; thus these stages are certainly not borrowed designations. Yet when discussed solely according to the Separate Teaching, beings still must be taught and transformed, and therefore there is a doctrine of separation. Only the Perfect Teaching proceeds directly toward the complete realization of the Way; hence the principal intention is illustrated through the Separate Teaching.

This is also accomplished through the dedication of merit associated with the fivefold Dharma body, with dedication occurring principally in the stages preceding the bhumis. Here the earlier is presented through the later in order to praise the virtue of dedication. Explaining it according to the Separate Teaching makes the meaning clearer: beings are not allowed to stagnate in emptiness but are caused to return to the Middle.

This is the meaning of dedication. A complete explanation follows. Since the preceding discussion of the five components was incomplete, they must be clarified here.

The fivefold Dharma body^[25] does not derive from the three bodies. As stated above, it refers to the meritorious qualities of the Dharma body. The body of knowledge and vision likewise adorns the Dharma body of intrinsic virtue; it therefore encompasses the three bodies, and the various schools take this as a guiding principle.

Dedication, a beneficial and wholesome practice, is of two kinds: 1) turning from oneself toward others, or turning from the cause toward the fruit.

2) Since the fruit must assuredly be attained afterward, this also carries the general meaning of turning from phenomena toward principle. In praising the female lay practitioner who cultivates the causes, the text says that she too possesses all the merits of those on the ten bhumis. Only here does it clarify that the ten bhumis of the three times do not come from the beginning, middle, or end, but that, after passing through thirty lifetimes, one attains and completes the ten bhumis.

Thus it is said that as the Way increases, the number of lifetimes decreases. Whenever one bhumi is discussed, the merits of all the other bhumis are also fully included. It may also be said that those in the realm of the first bhumi do not know how those in the realm of the second bhumi come and go, raise their feet, and take their steps.

Therefore, the text now skillfully guides them to enter: “entering and emerging” means that there is no single fixed direction. From this it is known that the Dharma gate of Perfect and Sudden cultivation is inexhaustible in principle. The foregoing praises the merits of lay disciples of the Buddha.

The subsequent discussion of the seven worthy stages has two parts, as explained in the scripture. However, among ordinary beings prior to the bhumis, there are modes of conduct in which the mind has not yet been disciplined in accordance with the principle of the Way. An undisciplined mind does not accord with the Way; because it does not accord with the Way, sagehood is not accomplished.

Words cannot fully express this matter. The designations for the seven worthy stages in the Mahayana differ somewhat, and they have not all been verified. The foreign term “Tích tài” refers to Buddhist disciples.

As discussed in the Vimalakirti Sutra, the abundance and wealth of the seven kinds of pure treasure gradually recede farther into the distance. Nowadays, many people still use this expression, though it is unclear whether this may be an indiscriminate use of the title. A person endowed with virtue and conduct is one who possesses virtue and therefore also possesses conduct; thus virtuous conduct is perfected.

Here, according to the first interpretation, this statement may also be taken as the standard: the various merits are separately described among the twenty-two aids to the Way. Among the eight categories, the Noble Eightfold Path comprises four. With respect to each division, excluding the seven factors of awakening and the Noble Eightfold Path, which belong to the path of seeing, the remaining categories are as previously explained; therefore, only twenty-two factors remain here.

As for “universal entry,” and so forth, the discussion of the characteristics of these categories possesses a complete sequence, like the Dharma realm.

Question: The section on the eight gates of liberation states that there is contemplation and realization. Here, those at the worthy stages contemplate but have not yet attained realization; on what basis, then, are they praised?

—Answer: Because the seven worthy stages described above cultivate contemplation but have not yet attained complete awakening, the text generally speaks in this manner.

There is also another question: What is liberation?

—It is the removal of that which does not return; it may also mean that separation is liberation. At first, one leaves form and attains the formless; one leaves mind and reaches the state of no-mind. When both mind and form are forgotten, there is complete liberation; even if the mind remains bound, its bonds must be relinquished. Regrettably, the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle instruct one to contemplate in this manner: even nonexistence itself must be relinquished—but who is the one who relinquishes it? Both subject and object are entirely empty, with no dharma remaining or abiding; therefore, there is utterly no basis upon which to rely.

Question: Yet throughout the three realms, what difference is there?

—Answer: Because existence is perceived, it must be relinquished. To relinquish that place of attachment to views is liberation. If one still perceives superior realms, one immediately regards one’s own realm as superior; yet there is no superiority at all, for everything is manifested through the mind. If all realms are completely transparent, what would it be like right there? Is there peace or unrest that might be called superior and from which sages must free themselves? To transcend this conception is complete perfection.

What are the three kinds of wisdom? They are the wisdom arising from hearing, reflection, and cultivation, practiced sequentially so that one may gradually penetrate the Way. Because wisdom arises through cultivation, they are collectively so called. They are arranged in successive grades and categories, just as we know that Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara entered samadhi ^[26] through hearing, reflection, and cultivation in an extraordinary manner.

Each of the Four Truths further has four causes, making sixteen dharmas. Contemplation is based upon these true dharmas in order to praise them. Among them are universal dharmas and particular dharmas; the causes and effects of the mundane and supramundane together constitute four dharmas.

These are suffering, origination, cessation, and the path. Each, when separately distinguished, has four types, thus forming the teachings of arising and cessation, non-arising, signlessness, and non-action. These true dharmas serve as the basis for investigation and exposition.

Even by examining only one dharma, one may thoroughly comprehend reality; hence it is called “true.” If its meanings were analyzed in full, they would be inexhaustible. Here they are explained only briefly, for at the stage of patience, contemplation is further divided into superior, intermediate, and inferior grades according to their distinctions.

To take the contemplation of the sixteen true dharmas alone as an example: considered specifically from the standpoint of practice, it is called the gate of contemplation; the objects contemplated constitute the gate of the truths, as explained rather fully above. One may contemplate the four, three, two, or one dharmas in forward or reverse order. This is not praise of the virtues of the Buddha’s disciples by means of the four wholesome roots ^[27].

From the stage of warmth to the stage of the supreme mundane dharma ^[28], reverse contemplation and forward contemplation must be distinguished. Reverse contemplation means contemplating from the first to the last and from the last back to the first. Forward contemplation means contemplating in successive order from beginning to end—that is, completing the contemplation of one dharma and then contemplating another, as we know.

Or, when based upon the fruit, contemplation proceeds from the last to the first; this is reverse contemplation.

As explained above, there are ninety kinds of patience. Here, according to the particular meaning of this sutra, twenty-two categories are contemplated. From these twenty-two categories, contemplation of the composite dharmas yields eighty-one categories.

Each of the four dhyanas has nine grades, which together with the former make ninety kinds of patience. Fortunately, the sutra clearly sets forth the complete number for citation and application; why should anything more be added? They are collectively called patience.

To establish one’s mind securely, no one can establish it more securely than oneself; this is called the method of regulating the mind. What dharma, indeed, does not depend upon patience? For example, the number of devas reaches ten thousand times ten thousand; multiplying ten thousand by ten thousand produces one hundred million.

Furthermore, the other three truths are inherently distinct. They differ as universal and particular, as expanded and combined, as complete and abbreviated; this is known according to what is realized. The fifth heaven, the Heaven of Joy and Bliss, is explained in two ways: a) The five divisions are the divisions of merit produced from the four dhyanas and have nothing to do with the number of the heavenly hosts. b) It is also called the Heaven of the Five Pure Abodes, which is precisely the heaven of the five classes of non-returners. Yet “Joy and Bliss” has the same meaning here.

Here, the traces of the devas are represented by the three fruits of the noble ones, but in reality they are not fixed. As the Surangama Sutra says, the wildernesses, remote mountains, and great lands of this world where places of practice ^[29] are established are all dwelling places of arhats, though ordinary people cannot see them. Later, the Four Dhyanas are set forth to supplement this example; they are discussed extensively in the Abhidharmakosa and other treatises.

The concentration of the heavenly realms is the merit of concentration. Briefly explained, it is the cultivation of two kinds of recompense: merit and virtue. To speak of becoming attached to the flavor of meditative concentration means that attachment to its flavor occurs only with the fundamental concentrations. Dhyana free from attachment is called pure white dhyana, as in the six contemplative practices, the eight noble dispositions, and so forth. For practitioners who are still deluded and attached by the five sensual desires ^[30] to speak of the true meaning of concentration is indeed absurd.

Teachings are given according to the circumstances, as with the six desire heavens. The fourfold accomplishment of faith means faith in the Three Jewels—the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—and observance of the precepts. These are the four kinds of unshakable faith, also called pure faith.

The five paths are also used as a general illustration. They may refer to all five paths, or only to the human and heavenly realms, where material enjoyments are received; or the intelligent beings among them may, after death, become asuras. Ghosts and animals have no uniform forms, and thus there are three kinds—wholesome, unwholesome, and indeterminate—while the four destinies are all included within the six paths.

Furthermore, the six paths may be arranged in different sequences: first the devas, humans, and three evil destinies, followed by the asuras, who may be either visible or invisible. Or their order may be unfixed. As this sutra states, beings without affinities are not included among those listed above.

For example, the hosts of beings from other directions are called beings from other directions precisely because they ordinarily cannot be seen. Beings from other realms, when encountered, may be seen, yet they are different. Although they may also be seen coming and going, they leave no trace of their coming or going.

Or they may be seen sitting peacefully without moving while arriving in this realm entirely through transformation. This is perceived differently according to conditions; fundamentally, however, it is nothing other than transformation.

It is the same with transformations throughout the pure lands of the ten directions. According to the Lotus Sutra, transformation means transforming impurity into purity—that is, turning the three realms into a Pure Land. According to what manifests, they assume the marks of purity, though the affairs of a single lifetime are not distinguished. Moreover, this is spoken from the standpoint of the manifested realm of dependent recompense ^[31]; hence it is called a Pure Land that is not quiescent.

As for the form of the Land of Eternally Quiescent Light, it can be seen only through wisdom; it is not a place that beings beneath the earth or magically transformed beings can reach. Yet it is also said that they can manifest hundreds of millions of lofty seats. As the Avatamsaka Sutra describes the manifestation of lofty seats, above the flowers—and thus beneath the jeweled trees—are hundreds of thousands of myriads of millions of transformation bodies of Buddhas. In reality, however, without moving from or departing from the realm of the Flower Treasury ^[32], there are ascents to lofty places and joyful wanderings, as described in the sutra, and so forth.

The beings of each of the eight classes all sit upon jeweled flowers. Generally speaking, amid hosts and guests, the transformations cannot be distinguished. The Buddha and every member of the great assembly each possess prajna. Prajna, or wisdom, is of two kinds: shared wisdom and unshared wisdom, which belongs only to a Buddha. Shared prajna is as taught in this sutra; unshared prajna is as taught in the Avatamsaka Sutra. Whether shared or unshared, it is nevertheless prajna. Since it is prajna, it is just as stated in the Avatamsaka Sutra. Therefore, one should know that the Buddha perfectly integrates all differences, so that there is no longer any distinction between self and other. It is only because people’s minds give rise to attachments and views that they perceive differences.

The commentary mentions the eight classes of beings: each of the Four Heavenly Kings ^[33] commands two classes, making eight classes altogether. Other sutras, however, count devas, nagas, and the others as the eight classes. Whichever manner of enumeration is used, in truth they are all assemblies of Dharma protectors who preserve and uphold the Buddhadharma.

Seated upon nine-tiered seats—as explained in the commentary—this corresponds only to changes over the course of kalpas (lifetimes), forming grades or successive levels. Here, the scripture has already been corrected, so the text itself need not be amended further. Moreover, the word “kalpa” is not necessarily exact, for this is only a summary statement.

Yet this is the place where the multitudes assembled, and the number in each group was inconceivably great. Furthermore, each member of the assembly sat upon a seat that was as much as 950 miles in height and breadth; even this is merely an expression made according to worldly convention. How could the inconceivable be compared by means of ordinary measurements?

For example, the house of Vimalakirti had the capacity to contain 32,000 lion seats (thirty-two thousand seats). Judged according to this meaning, ordinary conceptions of spaciousness and confinement, superiority and inferiority, would perhaps be inadequate to contain them. From this one should understand that the Buddha’s transformations can produce innumerable assemblies.

If one discriminates by means of the limited mind of an ordinary being, would this not result in grave error? Nevertheless, the important point has not yet been addressed: those who are deluded as though intoxicated within a dream. The scriptures raise the question concerning the number of beings in the assembly.

The answer is that all retribution within the three realms is produced by karma; whether a person encounters the Buddha depends upon differing conditions of affinity or lack of affinity. It is not necessarily determined solely from the single perspective of good and evil. Consider, for example, whether one hears the Dharma or does not hear the Dharma, and so forth; this is sufficient for examining the issue.

Here, a passage from the Great Scripture is cited as an example: observing the precepts at a relaxed pace does not necessarily obstruct the Way, whereas proceeding slowly in the vehicle does constitute an impediment. Only by relying upon the following two meanings—having affinity and lacking affinity—can the correct meaning be expressed. It seems necessary to distinguish the Vehicle and the precepts, each of which has three grades, to supplement the discussion of the relaxed and urgent aspects of the four alternatives, just as the scripture states.

End of Volume Two

Notes:

^[5] Sharp faculties and dull faculties: “sharp” means keen, quick, and agile, while “dull” means slow, sluggish, and stagnant. A person of sharp faculties responds to circumstances promptly, quickly, and well; one of dull faculties has a nature that is deluded and obscure, making decisions without lucid and clear discernment.

^[6] The ten knowledges: According to the Lesser Vehicle, the ten kinds of knowledge are: 1- Conventional knowledge: ordinary knowledge. 2- Knowledge of the Dharma: knowledge that understands the Four Truths. 3- Subsequent knowledge: pertaining to the two realms, including the higher realm (the heavens). 4, 5, 6, 7- Knowledge of suffering: knowledge that understands the Four Truths generally and individually in the heavenly realm and the lower realms. 8- Knowledge of others’ minds: knowing the thoughts of other people. 9- Knowledge of exhaustion: the knowledge that completely knows one’s own faith from former lives,

and is therefore also called knowledge of self-confidence. 10- Knowledge of non-arising: the knowledge of liberation—sovereignty in nirvana (according to Volume 26 of the Abhidharmakosa Treatise).

According to the Mahayana, the ten knowledges are: 1- Knowledge that universally comprehends the three times—past, present, and future. 2- Buddha-knowledge. 3- Unobstructed universal knowledge. 4- Knowledge that universally comprehends the innumerable realms of the Dharma Realm. 5- Complete and perfect knowledge. 6- Knowledge that universally comprehends the worldly realms. 7- Knowledge that governs the worlds. 8- Knowledge that universally comprehends all sentient beings. 9- Knowledge that comprehends all dharmas. 10- Knowledge that comprehends all Buddhas. (According to Volume 16 of the Avatamsaka Sutra.)

^[7] Attachment to annihilation and attachment to permanence (the view of annihilation and the view of permanence): Believing that sentient beings cease to exist entirely after death is attachment to annihilation. Conversely, believing that body and mind endure forever and are indestructible is the view of permanence. Both attachments are mistaken and harmful to the course of cultivating liberation.

^[8] Beyond learning: Among the four noble fruits of the sravakas, the first three belong to those who still have more to learn. The fourth fruit, arhatship, is beyond learning. The practitioner’s merit and conduct are perfect and unhindered, and there is nothing further to learn.

^[9] The Three Vehicles: the three vehicles that convey beings along the path of liberation are the Sravaka Vehicle (cultivating contemplation of the Four Noble Truths), the Pratyekabuddha Vehicle (cultivating contemplation of the twelve links of dependent origination), and the Bodhisattva Vehicle (cultivating the Six Paramitas).

^[10] According with capacities: teaching the Dharma in accordance with beings’ levels and faculties in order to transform and deliver sentient beings.

^[11] True knowledge: penetrating the true character of all dharmas. This is the Tathagata’s true knowledge, while the Buddha’s expedient knowledge penetrates their various distinctions. True knowledge is the essence, while expedient knowledge is its function. The Tathagata’s fundamental attainment of Buddhahood is due to true knowledge, while the wondrous function of teaching and transforming beings in the world is due to expedient knowledge.

^[12] Knowledge of skillful means: also called expedient knowledge (see Note 11), which penetrates the dharmas and practices of skillful means.

^[13] The Two Vehicles: The teachings are compared to vehicles that carry people to the fruition ground, and are therefore called “Vehicles.” They are: 1/ The Sravaka Vehicle: hearing the vocal teachings of the Buddha and contemplating the Four Noble Truths, thereby eliminating the afflictions. 2/ The Pratyekabuddha Vehicle: contemplating the twelve links of dependent origination and thereby giving rise to the knowledge of emptiness, through which the afflictions are eliminated.

^[14] The five eyes: the five kinds of Dharma-eyes, ranging from ordinary beings to the Buddhas, are: 1) The physical eye: the eye of the ordinary physical body. 2) The divine eye: the eye of the devas in the form realm, or the eye attained by those who practice meditation. 3) The wisdom eye: the eye of sravakas and pratyekabuddhas who have attained the Way and, by means of wisdom, contemplate the true emptiness and signlessness of all existence throughout the cosmos. 4) The Dharma-eye: the wisdom eye of bodhisattvas; because they have vowed to rescue sentient beings, they contemplate everything as Dharma. 5) The Buddha-eye: the eye of a Buddha, which beholds the entire great trichiliocosm. All Buddhas fully attain the five eyes.

^[15] The three clarities: three kinds of knowledge that discern the Dharma distinctly and clearly, or the knowledge that clearly comprehends all phenomena. They are: 1) Clarity concerning former lives: clearly knowing one’s own body and the bodies of others in former lives. 2) Clarity of the divine eye: knowing the characteristics of birth and death in future lives for oneself and others. 3) Clarity concerning the exhaustion of the outflows: knowing the present characteristics of suffering and eliminating all afflictions (bringing the afflictive outflows to an end). Thus, the Three Clarities are precisely the superknowledge of former lives, the superknowledge of the divine eye, and the superknowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows among the six superknowledges.

^[16] The ten powers: the ten powers belonging to the Tathagata’s wisdom and virtue, namely:

1- The power of knowledge that knows what is reasonable and what is unreasonable.

2- The power of clearly knowing the causes, effects, karma, and retribution of all sentient beings throughout the three times.

3- The power of knowing the meditative absorptions, the eight liberations, and the three samadhis.

4- The power of clearly knowing the mental natures of all sentient beings.

5- The power of knowing every kind of understanding possessed by all sentient beings.

6- The power of universally and accurately knowing the different realms of sentient beings.

7- The power of knowing all the paths by which practitioners reach their destinations.

8- The power of unobstructedly seeing and knowing the births, deaths, and good and evil karma of sentient beings.

9- The power of knowing the former lives of sentient beings and clearly understanding nirvana.

10- The power of knowing all residual habitual tendencies exactly as they truly are, and of utterly eliminating them so that they never arise again. (Volume 25 of the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom and Volume 29 of the Abhidharmakosa Treatise.)

^[17] The four immeasurable minds: the four vast and all-embracing minds of loving-kindness are:

1- Immeasurable loving-kindness: bestowing peace and happiness upon all people and all species of beings.

2- Immeasurable compassion: bringing benefit to people and other beings and ending their suffering.

3- Immeasurable sympathetic joy: a joyful and approachable heart in every circumstance and situation.

4- Immeasurable equanimity: a mind of equanimity vast enough to embrace every difference among all sentient beings.

^[18] Dharma Realm: the Dharma Realm has many meanings, encompassing both phenomena and principle. “Dharma” means the myriad dharmas, and “realm” means domain; the vast and all-encompassing domain of the Dharma Realm refers to phenomena. The Avatamsaka teaching holds that the principial nature of true suchness is the Dharma Realm, also called true suchness, Dharma-nature, the true character, or ultimate reality.

^[19] Subject and object: the subject is the one who acts, while the object is that which is acted upon; the subject is active, while the object is the passive counterpart. In the expression “the one who bows and the one bowed to,” the person presently bowing is oneself, the subject, while the Buddha to whom one bows is the object of veneration.

^[20] The Sudden Teaching: the teaching through which one swiftly realizes the fruit of Buddhahood and accomplishes bodhi and liberation is called the Sudden Teaching. For those of keen faculties, the Buddha teaches the Mahayana Dharma directly from the outset, and they awaken immediately.

^[21] Arhat is translated as having three meanings: worthy of offerings (receiving offerings from devas and humans), slayer of the enemy (destroying the enemy of the afflictions), and non-arising (not undergoing birth again).

^[22] The Trace Gate: refers to the Buddha Shakyamuni’s teaching of the Dharma from the time he attained enlightenment until the Lotus Sutra assembly. Among the teachings set forth in the sutras throughout forty-nine years, the Dharma of the Three Vehicles is expedient, while the Dharma of the One Vehicle is true. This is the opening of the provisional and revealing of the true in doctrine. The Lotus Sutra consists of twenty-eight chapters. The first fourteen chapters comprise the Introductory, Main, and Dissemination sections of the Trace Gate; the latter fourteen chapters belong to the Origin Gate.

^[23] Calming and contemplation: calming (shamatha) and contemplative examination (vipashyana) bring all deluded thoughts to an end through the meditative practices of shamatha and vipashyana, abiding in the unmoving truth.

^[24] Knowledge of all modes: that is, the Buddha’s knowledge of all modes. Because the Buddha’s wisdom knows all dharmas, the concluding dedication of vows commonly contains the words: “May all sentient beings together attain the knowledge of all modes” (May all sentient beings together attain the wisdom of a Buddha).

^[25] Dharma-body: the true body of the Buddha and one of the three bodies. This body is solely suchness within the pure Dharma-realm. This suchness is fully endowed with the virtues of true permanence and is the basis upon which all conditioned and unconditioned dharmas of merit rest.

^[26] Samadhi: also called samapatti, it has many names. According to the Treatise on the Ten Stages, it is called the three modes of treatment, named according to the obstructions that have been eliminated. Samadhi is of two kinds: contaminated and uncontaminated. Contaminated concentration is called the three samadhis; uncontaminated concentration is called the three gates of liberation.

^[27] The four wholesome roots: the Sarvastivada, Satyasiddhi, and Yogachara schools hold differing views concerning them. They are stages of cultivation leading to the path of seeing and are also called the four stages of preparatory practice: warmth, summit, patience, and the highest worldly dharma. According to the Abhidharmakosha Treatise: 1/ The dharma of warmth: it arises from the subsequent thought-moment of mindfulness directed toward general characteristics and has three grades—higher, middle, and lower—each of which fully contemplates the Four Noble Truths of suffering, origination, and so forth.

Warmth is the preliminary sign of the noble fire. The noble fire is a metaphor for the uncontaminated wisdom of the path of seeing. The preliminary sign that the fire of seeing is about to arise is the stage at which there is a faint indication of warmth. 2/ The dharma of the summit: this wholesome dharma arises from the subsequent thought-moment of the higher grade of the dharma of warmth.

It also has three grades—lower, middle, and higher—each of which fully contemplates the Four Truths and cultivates the sixteen aspects. The summit is compared to a mountain peak. A mountain peak lies at the boundary between the two paths of advancement and regression.

One may advance to the stage of patience and thereafter no longer regress; or one may fall back to the stage of warmth and may even commit an act of immediate retribution and fall into hell. (Because it lies midway between advancement and regression, it is compared to a mountain peak. “Summit” also means the crown of a person’s head.) 3/ Patience: the wholesome root arising in the subsequent thought-moment of the dharma of the summit is called the dharma of patience.

It likewise has three grades. Lower patience fully contemplates the Four Truths and cultivates the sixteen aspects as above. At this stage, one will no longer fall into the three evil destinies.

In middle patience, the truths that are the objects of cognition are gradually eliminated, as are the aspects of the cognizing mind. When this process reaches its furthest point, only the single aspect of suffering within the truth of suffering in the desire realm remains. This is called the reduction of objects and the reduction of aspects.

Higher patience contemplates the single aspect of suffering within the truth of suffering that remained previously. Thus, the stage of higher patience lasts for only a single kshana. Upon reaching this stage, one will certainly no longer regress from the dharma of patience and, moreover, will not fall into an evil destiny. 4/ The highest worldly dharma: this is the wholesome root arising in the subsequent thought-moment of the dharma of patience.

It lasts for a single kshana and therefore does not have the three grades of higher, middle, and lower. Like higher patience, it contemplates the aspect of suffering within the truth of suffering. It is called “worldly” because it is a contaminated worldly dharma.

Among contaminated dharmas, none surpasses this contemplative wisdom. Because it is regarded as the supreme dharma, it is called the highest worldly dharma. It too lasts for only a single kshana.

Immediately after this stage, uncontaminated wisdom necessarily arises, one enters the path of seeing, directly realizes the supreme truth, becomes a noble being, and departs from the mode of birth of an ordinary person.

^[28] The highest worldly dharma: the fourth of the four preparatory practices. It is the highest level of contaminated wisdom and foremost among worldly dharmas; therefore, it is called the highest worldly dharma.

^[29] Dharma arena: a solemnly adorned place where sutras are expounded and the Dharma is taught, and where many people gather to cultivate and perform ceremonies so as to strengthen their aspiration for the path and practice wholesome dharmas.

^[30] The five desires: five objects of craving that cause people hardship and distress in life: 1/ wealth (possessions and money); 2/ sexual desire; 3/ fame; 4/ food and drink; 5/ sleep and rest.

^[31] Dependent recompense: the circumstances in which we live, such as family, housing, employment, political system, and so forth. In general, it encompasses all the conditions and provisions supporting life.

^[32] The Flower Treasury: the world or Pure Land of the Buddhas in their reward bodies.

^[33] The Four Heavenly Kings: the outer ministers of the god Shakra. Halfway up Mount Sumeru stands a mountain called Yugandhara. This mountain has four peaks, and one Heavenly King dwells upon each peak, protecting one of the four continents; therefore, they are called the Four Heavenly Kings Who Protect the Realms. Their heaven is the first of the six heavens of the desire realm and the first realm among the celestial abodes. The Four Heavenly Kings are: 1- East: Dhritarashtra, the Heavenly King Who Upholds the Realm; 2- South: Virudhaka, the Heavenly King of Increase and Growth; 3- West: Virupaksha, the Heavenly King of Wide Vision; 4- North: Vaishravana, the Heavenly King of Great Learning.