解脫道論

Chapter 3: Dhutanga Practices

Question: At that time, if a meditator whose precepts are pure wishes to accomplish the most excellent merit and also wishes to obtain the merit of the dhutanga practices, will he be able to accomplish it? And how is the merit of these dhutanga practices obtained?

Answer: Because the dispositions of meditators are not all of one kind: for the sake of having few desires; for the sake of contentment; for freedom from doubt; for the cessation of craving; for increasing courageous diligence; for living with few needs and not seeking external offerings; for abiding in serenity; for eliminating attachments; and for preserving wholesome precepts. These constitute the complete basis for concentration; these are the first lineage of the noble ones; these are the supreme merit of contemplation.

Who is a practitioner of dhutanga? One who possesses thirteen practices. Two practices concern robes: wearing rag-robes and possessing only the three robes. Five practices concern almsfood: living on alms, going for alms in sequential order, eating at one sitting, eating in moderation, and not eating after midday. Five practices concern places for sitting and lying down: first, dwelling in an unoccupied place; second, dwelling beneath a tree; third, dwelling in the open air; fourth, dwelling in a charnel ground; and fifth, dwelling in whatever place is assigned. One further practice concerns upright posture: continually sitting without lying down.

What is called wearing a rag-robe?

Answer: One’s disposition is to undertake and maintain it; this is its meaning. The other practices should likewise be understood in this way. Why does one undertake the rag-robe? To renounce robes offered by householders.

Why does one undertake the three robes?

It means relinquishing anything in excess.

Why does one live on alms?

It means renouncing invitations from others.

Why does one go for alms in sequential order?

It means renouncing the practice of seeking alms selectively.

Why does one eat at one sitting?

It means not sitting down to eat a second time.

What is called eating in moderation?

It means eliminating the thought of greed.

Why does one not eat after midday?

It means eliminating the desire for an evening meal.

What is called dwelling in an unoccupied place?

It means abandoning dwellings in villages.

What is called dwelling beneath a tree?

It means abandoning residence in rooms and buildings.

What is dwelling in the open air?

It means giving up sheltered places.

What is dwelling in a charnel ground?

It means giving up pleasant places.

What is dwelling in whatever place is assigned?

It means abandoning the desire for comfortable places.

What is continually sitting without lying down?

It means abstaining from beds and bedding.

Why does one undertake the rag-robe?

Because one sees that robes given by householders lead to improper seeking of food and drink, while one also sees the merit of undertaking and accepting rag-robes. Seeing this, one renounces robes offered by householders and therefore accepts rag-robes.

What is the merit of accepting rag-robes? Although one undertakes them as one would robes from householders, one is not bound by dependence upon them. If one obtains them, it is not through those householders; if one does not obtain them, one does not grieve. One’s mind is free from craving and defilement, and one does not accept stolen goods. One always uses only what is sufficient and does not use it for trade. This is cultivated by good people and is conduct free from attachment to any place. Its excellence accords with dwelling happily in the present life, inspires admiration in others, and leads to proper acceptance. This is called the merit of accepting rag-robes, which the Buddha often praised.

Question: How many kinds of rag-robes are there? Who undertakes them? Through what cause is the practice lost?

Answer: There are two kinds of rag-robes: first, discarded cloth without an owner; and second, cloth discarded by people. Cloth may be found at a charnel ground, on a refuse heap, in a marketplace, or along a road. After it is gathered, dyed, and patched into a new form, it is accepted. This is called ownerless cloth. Cloth soiled with pale excrement like cow dung; cloth from a cremation ground; cloth abandoned by people; cloth used to cover a house; and the robes of non-Buddhist ascetics—these are called articles discarded by people.

What is called undertaking the rag-robe practice?

When a bhikkhu wishes to renounce accepting robes from householders, this is called undertaking the rag-robe practice.

What is called failing to maintain it?

If a bhikkhu accepts a robe from a householder, this is called losing the rag-robe practice.

What is called possessing only the three robes?

If one has extra robes and wishes to give them to another person for safekeeping so as to avoid attachment, one knows this to be improper. Seeing the merit of possessing only the three robes, one resolves: “From now on, I shall relinquish extra robes and undertake the practice of possessing only the three robes.”

What is the merit of undertaking the three robes?

A good person can abstain from accumulating extra robes and knows that what is sufficient for his own body is enough. Like a bird flying through the sky, he does not look back. A good person cultivates this Dharma without doubt.

Question: What are called the three robes? How does one undertake the practice? How is the practice lost?

Answer: They are the sanghati, the uttarasanga, and the antaravasaka. These are called the three robes.

What is called undertaking the three-robe practice?

If a bhikkhu does not accumulate extra robes, he may undertake the practice of possessing only the three robes. If he possesses a fourth robe, this is called losing the qualification of possessing only the three robes.

What is called undertaking the almsfood practice?

If one accepts another person’s invitation, one thereby harms oneself. One is not a person of understanding and may share sitting and sleeping quarters with bhikkhus who act contrary to the Dharma. Knowing this to be improper, and also seeing the merit of living on alms, one resolves: “From now on, I shall renounce the invitations of others and undertake the practice of living on alms.”

What is called the merit of living on alms?

It means following one’s aspiration, coming and going freely, not coveting offerings, eliminating indolence, destroying conceit, not craving delicious flavors, benefiting sentient beings, always ranging throughout the four directions, and having a mind free from obstruction. It is a practice performed by good people and is karma free from doubt.

Question: How many kinds of invitations are there? What is called undertaking the practice? What is called failing to maintain it?

Answer: There are three kinds of invitations: first, an invitation to a meal; second, a communal invitation to a meal; and third, an invitation to a meal received upon meeting someone. Apart from these three kinds of invitations, obtaining food is called living on alms. If one accepts any of these three kinds of invitations, this is called losing the qualification of living on alms.

What is called undertaking the practice of going for alms in sequential order?

If one previously obtained abundant and delicious food at a certain place and therefore returns there, this becomes a habitual place for receiving food. One should avoid any place that gives rise to doubt, knowing this to be improper. Seeing also the merit of going from one house to the next, one resolves: “From now on, I shall abandon seeking alms out of sequence and undertake the practice of going for alms in sequential order.”

What is called the merit of going for alms in sequential order?

With an impartial mind, one benefits everyone, removes increasing jealousy and malice, puts an end to frivolity, takes no delight in coming and going, takes no delight in excessive speech, keeps away from people’s homes, and remains apart from places of illness. Like the moon, which appears only briefly, one becomes an object of reverence for others. It is a practice performed by good people and is karma free from doubt.

Question: What is meant by the name “going for alms in sequential order”? What is called undertaking it? What is called losing it?

Answer: When a bhikkhu first enters a village to seek alms and proceeds from the first house to the last, taking them in sequence, this is called proceeding in sequential order.

What is called losing it?

It means crossing over and bypassing the houses on one side; this is called losing the practice.

What is called undertaking the practice of eating at one sitting?

Eating after sitting down in two different places, eating repeatedly, and washing the bowl repeatedly are contrary to the practice called eating at one sitting. This practice, performed by good people, is karma free from doubt. Knowing the contrary conduct to be improper and seeing the merit of eating at one sitting, one should undertake it. One resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon eating in two places and undertake only the practice of eating at one sitting.”

What is called the merit of eating at one sitting?

One eats neither too much nor too little, does not crave impure offerings, is free from illness and affliction, does not harm one’s dwelling place, and personally dwells in peace and happiness. It is a practice performed by good people and is karma free from doubt.

Question: What is undertaking the practice of eating at one sitting? What is the boundary of one sitting? What is losing the practice?

Answer: There are three kinds of boundary: the boundary of the seat, the boundary of water, and the boundary of the meal.

What is called the boundary of the seat?

Having eaten, one sits down again, receives water for washing the bowl, and eats no more. This is called the limit marked by water.

What is called the limit marked by food?

When, with regard to solid food, one gives rise to the perception that it is the last, or after swallowing it one eats no more, this is called the limit marked by food. If one passes through two sittings, one loses the practice of eating only once, except in the case of medicinal water. The Buddhas have praised this as the limit marked by food.

What is called undertaking moderation in food?

If one eats and drinks without measure, causing the body to become sluggish and continually inclined toward pleasure, yet leaving the stomach unsatisfied, then, knowing this and discerning the merit of regulating the quantity, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon craving and undertake moderation.”

What is the merit of moderation in food?

It means measuring one’s food without following the desires of the stomach. Eating too much weighs heavily upon the stomach; knowing this, one takes no delight in it, eliminates craving, cures illness, and abandons indolence. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Question: How does one undertake moderation in food? What constitutes its loss?

Answer: When receiving food and drink, one should reflect upon the extent of one’s practice and establish a customary measure. One should not continue receiving food for a long time. The wise receive food in proper measure and eliminate immoderation. This is called moderation in food. If one does otherwise, it is called losing the practice.

What is meant by not eating again after one has eaten?

One cuts off deluded thoughts and refrains from excessive eating. Knowing its faults and seeing the merit of not eating additionally, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon additional eating.” After one has eaten, one does not eat again.

What is the merit of not eating additionally?

One eliminates craving for pleasure, regulates and safeguards this body, abandons storing things up and improper seeking, does not instruct another to obtain food, and does not follow the mind’s desires. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Question: How many kinds of additional eating are there? What is called undertaking the practice? What constitutes its loss?

Answer: Additional eating is of two kinds: the limit of non-regulation and the limit of observance.

What is called failing to regulate the number of times?

If one continues receiving food for a long time and incurs the offense associated with a separate invitation, one must not eat again.

What is called observing the limit on the number of times?

After eating, even if food is offered on twenty-one further occasions, one does not receive it again and thereafter does not eat. Thus one cuts off prolonged eating. If one continues receiving food for a long time, one loses the qualification of not eating again afterward.

What is called undertaking residence in a secluded place?

Within a town, consciousness constantly encounters the five sense objects, giving rise to defilement and delight. In a noisy place, coming and going distract the mind. Knowing these faults and also seeing the merit of a secluded place, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon dwelling in towns and undertake residence in a secluded place.”

What is the merit of a secluded place?

It means departing from towns and cities, where contact with the five sense objects gives rise to defilement and delight in the mind. In noisy places, coming and going afford no peace. One perceives the ten kinds of discourse; the supreme merit is pleasing, devas and humans rejoice, one takes no pleasure in habitual indulgence in worldly pleasures, and one attains tranquility. In this pure happiness there is little noise, and with this state of mind one practices seated meditation. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Question: What is called the outermost limit of a secluded place? What is called undertaking it? What constitutes its loss?

Answer: One leaves the capital or town and stays in a village, lodging in a place where carts are absent, at a distance of five hundred bow-lengths and four human cubits. This is called the outermost limit of a secluded place. Anywhere outside the town is called a secluded place. If one stays within a town, one loses the practice of dwelling in a secluded place.

Why does one sit beneath a tree?

One relinquishes covered lodgings, accumulates no possessions, and trains to restrain avarice and the fond desire for abundance. Knowing these to be faults and seeing the merit of dwelling beneath a tree, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon fine dwellings and sit and live beneath a tree.”

What is the merit of dwelling beneath a tree?

One accepts with contentment whatever pleasant place one relies upon, does not associate with worldly life, delights in relinquishing activities and bringing all affairs to rest, eliminates rivalry over dwellings, and abandons attachment. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Question: Beneath which trees may one dwell? Which trees should one avoid? How does one undertake the practice? What constitutes its loss?

Answer: A tree that provides shade at midday, is sheltered from the wind, and does not shed its leaves is a place where one may dwell. One should exclude poisonous trees, withered trees, trees without shade, and trees inhabited by spirits. Avoiding such places is called undertaking residence at the foot of a tree. If one resorts to a covered lodging, one loses the significance of dwelling beneath a tree.

What is called undertaking residence in the open air?

One takes no delight in covered lodgings, while beneath trees there are various animals. Knowing the faults of these and seeing the merit of an open place, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall relinquish such pleasures and undertake residence on open ground.”

What is the merit of dwelling in the open air?

Without resorting to comfortable places, one eliminates indolence and sleep, and, like a wild deer, goes freely at will without any place being sought out. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

What is called undertaking it? What constitutes its loss?

Abandoning covered lodgings and the foot of a tree is undertaking residence in the open air. If one stays in a covered place or beneath a tree, one loses the significance of dwelling in the open air.

What is called dwelling in a charnel ground?

In such a place one does not behave heedlessly or give rise to evil. Knowing the faults of these and seeing the merit of the charnel ground, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon other places and dwell in a charnel ground.”

What is the merit of undertaking residence in a charnel ground?

One recollects death, acquires the perception of impurity, gains the respect of nonhuman beings, does not give rise to heedlessness, subdues defiling sensual desires, becomes deeply disenchanted, has nothing to fear, contemplates the body as impure, and abandons scheming. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Question: How does one undertake the meritorious practice of dwelling in a charnel ground? In what place may one dwell? To what place may one go? What is the undertaking of the practice? What constitutes its loss?

Answer: If a place is one where people often weep and lament and fires often burn, then when one first wishes to enter and stay there, that place is a charnel ground and can give rise to contemplation. If it is like a tranquil place, one may resort to it and dwell there. If a bhikkhu stays in a charnel ground, he does not build a dwelling or sit upon a bed; he does not sit downwind or upwind.

When lying down, he does not seek warmth; he does not eat fishy-smelling food, drink fresh milk, eat rice flour, or touch meat. He does not remain indoors or securely set down his alms bowl. If someone comes bringing a sitting cloth and garments, he goes to the charnel ground and, upon arriving there, casts the articles down.

At daybreak, he takes up his robes and returns to the Sangharama. Apart from that dwelling place, this is what is meant by a charnel ground. If he resorts to another place, he loses this designation.

What is called undertaking residence in whatever lodging is encountered?

One takes no delight in coveting a place, nor becomes angry or sorrowful when another causes one to leave it. Knowing these faults and seeing the merit of a suitable place, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon attachment to dwellings and accept whatever suitable place is encountered.”

What is the merit of whatever lodging is encountered?

The mind knows contentment, delights in seclusion, extinguishes excessive attachment to pleasures, abides respectfully among others, dwells in loving-kindness and compassion, and single-mindedly aspires to guide and transform beings. What a virtuous person practices is an undoubtedly wholesome karma.

Why is it called undertaking the practice? What constitutes its loss?

Abandoning covetousness and resting wherever one encounters a place is called relying upon whatever is encountered. If one goes to a comfortable place, one loses this designation.

What is called undertaking the practice of always sitting and never lying down?

Knowing the faults of sleeping and indolence in one’s dwelling, and seeing the merit of always sitting, one resolves: “From this day onward, I shall abandon torpor and lying down, and undertake the practice of always sitting and never lying down.”

What is the merit of always sitting?

It is a means of abandoning indolence. It removes bodily envy, avoids the pleasure of defiling contact, reduces attachment to resting places, abides often in solitude, delights solely in the cultivation of meditation, is practiced by good people, and is an action free from doubt.

What is meant by maintaining it? What is meant by losing it?

It means abandoning lying down to sleep. If one lies down, one loses this designation.

What is meant by departing from the practice of wearing rag-robes?

If one accepts, as an expedient permitted by the Buddha, cloth or animal-hair robes offered by householders, one does not thereby lose the practice of accepting robes.

What is meant by the three robes?

If one keeps an extra robe for more than ten days, has a robe for the full-moon observance, has a robe of merit, or has an extra robe kept as bedding, a covering for the body, or a rain-bathing cloth, without formally determining it, this is an impure gift. If this is done as an expedient, one does not lose the practice of the three robes.

What is meant by an expedient concerning almsfood?

If one accepts, as an expedient, food offered according to the Sangha’s order, food regularly provided to the resident Sangha, food distributed by lots, food offered on the fifteenth day, food offered on the Uposatha day, food offered to the community, and other kinds of food, one does not lose the practice of going for alms. If one sees that this is improper, one should always avoid it.

What is meant by an expedient concerning sequential almsround?

If one sees elephants or horses, or if at a doorway there is a dispute over fine food with those at another place, then, upon seeing doubtful circumstances of these kinds, one should avoid them. Again, if one sees a Chandala covering an alms bowl, a family in training, one’s preceptor or acarya, a guest, or a bhikkhu, one may expediently pass by such places without losing the practice of going for alms in sequence.

What is meant by an expedient concerning eating at one sitting?

If, while eating, one sees an elephant, horse, cow, or snake, or if one’s preceptor, acarya, a guest, or a bhikkhu arrives, one may expediently leave, and after the matter has passed, resume eating without losing the practice of eating at one sitting. But if one knows beforehand that there will be food, and eats again after the proper time, this is not an expedient.

What is meant by an expedient concerning a secluded place?

It may be for receiving the precepts, confessing an offense, asking about the Dharma, attending the Uposatha, participating in the invitation ceremony, receiving treatment for illness, or caring for the sick.

Question: What does it mean to pass through a doubtful place?

Under such conditions, expediently entering a village does not cause one to lose the practice of dwelling in a secluded place.

What is meant by an expedient concerning dwelling beneath a tree?

If rain comes, one may immediately enter a shelter; when the rain ceases, one returns at once to the former place and does not lose the practice. The practices of dwelling beneath a tree, in the open air, in a charnel ground, and wherever suitable are expedients of this kind. The same applies to the others.

Dwelling outside a residence is permissible, but always sitting without lying down admits of no expedient. According to another teaching, if one contemplates at the nostrils, one may employ an expedient without losing the practice of always sitting. Thus, the thirteen dhutanga practices become eight practices.

As stated in the Abhidharma, there are eight kinds of dhutanga. Thereafter, regulation of the amount of food and eating at one sitting are no longer separately included among the practices concerning food. Maintaining these constitutes a single category.

The practice of dwelling in a secluded place is said to include dwelling beneath a tree, in the open air, and in a charnel ground.

Why is it called a secluded place?

If one constructs rooms, delights in communal duties, accumulates many possessions, and is attached to dwellings, the mind will not find true joy. One then thinks: “Dwelling beneath a tree, in a charnel ground, or in the open air is a peaceful abode.” Therefore, there are eight. These eight dhutanga practices are further comprised within three practices: first, having no fixed dwelling; second, wearing rag-robes; and third, going for alms. If these three pure dhutanga practices are fulfilled, it is as the Buddha said to Nanda: “When shall I see you dwelling in a secluded place, wearing rag-robes, and not eating at improper times, sustaining your body and life without manifesting desire?”

Question: Who possesses the factors of dhutanga? How many qualities does dhutanga have? Why are three kinds of persons said to cultivate dhutanga practices? How many dhutanga practices are seasonal, and who, though practicing dhutanga, speaks of dhutanga?

Answer: There are thirteen kinds of dhutanga taught by the Buddha. They were established as rules by the Buddha. These are called the factors of dhutanga. They should not in themselves be called wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate. Why? Because an unwholesome person with evil desires may also practice them. If one does not abandon evil desires but gives rise to what is contrary to the Dharma and greedily delights in gains and offerings, then one’s dhutanga is not wholesome.

How many qualities are there?

Dhutanga has two qualities: non-greed and non-delusion. As the Buddha said: “If a bhikkhu wears rag-robes in reliance upon having few desires and being content, delights in peaceful places without doubt, and relies upon liberation, this is called undertaking the practice of wearing rag-robes.” The other dhutanga practices are likewise. They are non-greed and non-delusion.

Here, non-greed toward the thirteen objects can remove sensual desire. Non-delusion regarding these thirteen objects can remove ignorance. Furthermore, through this non-greed, praised by the Buddha, one can give rise to detachment; likewise, through non-delusion, one abandons delight in sensual defilements.

This is non-delusion, like removing bodily deceit. These are the two qualities of dhutanga: non-greed and non-delusion.

What are the three kinds of persons who cultivate dhutanga practices?

They are persons of greedy temperament and persons of deluded temperament, who may cultivate dhutanga practices; persons of hateful temperament are unable to cultivate them.

Why can persons of greedy and deluded temperament cultivate dhutanga practices?

A greedy person, because of craving and attachment, becomes heedless. If he is no longer heedless, he can overcome greed. A deluded person, being without discernment, relies upon undertaking dhutanga and thereby becomes heedful. If he is heedful, he can overcome delusion.

Why do persons of greedy and deluded temperament cultivate dhutanga practices?

When a hateful person undergoes hardship, he becomes malicious, like one suffering from a phlegmatic illness: if he is not given hot medicine, his illness will become still more severe. Therefore, a hateful person should not cultivate these practices. Yet it is also said that a hateful person should dwell in a secluded place or beneath a tree.

Why should he dwell in a secluded place?

Because there he is free from the afflictions of worldly life.

How many dhutanga practices are seasonal?

Three dhutanga practices are observed for eight months: dwelling beneath a tree, dwelling in the open air, and dwelling in a charnel ground. During the rains retreat, the Buddha instructed practitioners to dwell in a place with a roof overhead.

Question: What is meant by one who, practicing dhutanga, speaks of dhutanga?

Answer: There is one who practices dhutanga and speaks of dhutanga; one who practices dhutanga but does not speak of dhutanga; one who does not practice dhutanga yet speaks of dhutanga; and one who neither practices dhutanga nor speaks of dhutanga.

What is meant by one who practices dhutanga and speaks of dhutanga?

It means an arhat who has accomplished the undertaking of the dhutanga practices.

What is meant by one who practices dhutanga but does not speak of dhutanga?

It means an arhat who has not accomplished the undertaking of dhutanga.

What is meant by one who does not practice dhutanga yet speaks of dhutanga?

It means a trainee or an ordinary person who has accomplished the undertaking of dhutanga.

What is meant by one who neither practices dhutanga nor speaks of dhutanga?

It means a trainee or an ordinary person who has not accomplished the undertaking of dhutanga.

Question: What is the characteristic of dhutanga? What is its function, and what is its manifestation?

Answer: Having few desires is its characteristic, contentment is its function, and freedom from doubt is its manifestation. Furthermore, non-attachment is its characteristic, faultlessness is its function, and non-retrogression is its manifestation.

What are its beginning, middle, and end?

Undertaking it is the beginning, practicing it is the middle, and rejoicing is the final part.—

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Chapter 4: Analysis of Concentration

Question: When a meditator has purified the precepts, practiced dhutanga, and accomplished the supreme good through undertaking it, what should he do?

Answer: He should cause concentration to arise.

Question: What is concentration? What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its manifestation? What is its proximate cause? Who undertakes the meditation, liberation, and concentration? What are the distinctions in maintaining and ceasing them? How many kinds of concentration can be seen according to their causes? By what means does concentration arise? How many qualities are required for attaining concentration? How many benefits does concentration have? How many requisites does concentration have? How does concentration arise?

Answer: Concentration is so called because it is purified. With one mind directed toward diligence and the merit of tranquility, one abides in the right cause without distraction. This is the meaning of concentration. Furthermore, even the powerful winds of the defilements cannot overturn the tranquil mind, just as the light of a lamp in a hall does not flicker. As the Abhidharma states: If the mind abides peacefully, without grasping at conditions, and furthermore is neither agitated nor disturbed, but tranquil, unattached, rightly concentrated, possessing the faculty of concentration and the power of concentration—this is the meaning of concentration.

What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its manifestation? What is its proximate cause?

Abiding of the mind is its characteristic; overcoming adversaries is its function; tranquility is its manifestation; amid defilements, the mind remains unattached and attains liberation—this is called its proximate cause.

What receives concentration?

It means the mental factors that receive it and the means of concentration, and so forth. As the hand holds a balance, so it steadies the mind, the mental factors, and so forth. It is like oil contained in a bowl.

Mindfulness, diligence, and conduct serve concentration, just as a four-horse chariot uses their strength to draw the carriage. Reflection is taken as concentration. It is like a person who, after being struck by an arrow, focuses his mind and subdues it in order to eliminate the adversary.

It is like an antidote to poison. As the Abhidharma states: Restraint and composure are the meaning of concentration. From this, the complete meaning of concentration is established.

There are four kinds of dhyana, namely the first dhyana and liberation, meaning the eight liberations: internally perceiving forms, one contemplates forms externally. Concentration is also of three kinds: with applied thought and sustained thought, and attainment, meaning the nine successive attainments.

What is dhyana?

It is reflection. By reflecting upon adversarial factors, the mind continually experiences joy and happiness, departs from all hindrances, and attains liberation, thereby becoming equanimous. Through the means that give rise to concentration, one attains mastery. One does not apprehend duality within attainment. Happiness gives rise to concentration and to the attainment of liberation. How many merits enable concentration to be attained? Upon discernment, four merits are seen to cause concentration to arise.

What are the four?

They are dwelling happily in the Dharma directly visible here and now; the joy of contemplation; the direct realization of supernormal powers; and the attainment of a complete existence.

How does one dwell happily in the Dharma directly visible here and now?

It means that one who has attained concentration can give rise to the undefiled. The mind arises with a taste of delight and experiences supramundane happiness, thus dwelling happily in the Dharma directly visible here and now. Therefore, the Blessed One taught: With this very body, that person experiences happiness born of purity and immediately attains coolness.

Gradually, he brings it to complete fulfillment and accomplishment. As the Buddha told the bhikkhus: “Formerly, when I practiced as a Nigantha, for seven days and seven nights my body did not move; my mouth did not open to utter a single word. I sat silently in this way, one-pointedly experiencing happiness.” Within the noble Dharma, this means dwelling happily in the Dharma directly visible here and now.

As for the joy of contemplation: one who meditates and attains a concentrated mind is no longer obscured or bound; the mind is pliant and capable of sustained attention. One contemplates the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and so forth. Because their intrinsic nature is blissful, the Blessed One taught the bhikkhus that they should practice in this way, relying in all things upon the mind and upon knowledge in accordance with reality, thereby discerning and realizing supernormal powers.

One who has attained concentration relies upon it to realize the five superknowledges: psychic power, the divine ear, knowledge of others’ minds, recollection of past lives, and the divine eye. Therefore, the Blessed One said: “Once the mind has attained concentration, it may be directed as appropriate.” In this way, all psychic powers are attained. As for the attainment of a complete existence: one who has attained concentration but has not yet reached the state beyond training will ultimately be made irreversible.

Through the result of concentration, one attains complete existence in the form and formless realms. As the Buddha taught: “One who cultivates the first dhyana to a small degree becomes a member of Brahma’s retinue.” In this way, all such classes are born there. These are the four merits, each of which can cause that concentration to arise.

How many kinds of obstacles are there to the realization of concentration?

There are eight factors: sensual desire; ill will and anger; indolence; drowsiness and sleep; restlessness and frivolity; doubt; ignorance; and absence of joy and happiness. All unwholesome factors are hindrances.

How many kinds of causes of concentration are there?

There are eight factors. They are the causes of renunciation and non-anger; the sign of luminosity and non-distraction. All wholesome factors that cause the mind to rejoice and can give rise to the Dharma of wisdom are causes of concentration.

How many supporting conditions for concentration are there?

There are seven: complete observance of morality; contentment; guarding the sense doors; moderation in food and drink; not sleeping during the first, middle, or final watch of the night; constant mindfulness leading to wisdom; and dwelling in a tranquil place.

How many kinds of concentration are there?

Concentration is of two kinds. The first is mundane concentration; the second is supramundane concentration, through which the noble fruits are attained. This is supramundane concentration. What is called mundane concentration is the concentration of the world; it is accompanied by outflows, fetters, and bonds. It is still subject to drifting, still obscured, and still accompanied by the appropriation of morality and observances and the appropriation of views. It still clings to the defilements. This is called mundane concentration. That which differs from this is called supramundane concentration. Furthermore, concentration is of two kinds: wrong concentration and right concentration.

What is wrong concentration?

Unwholesome one-pointedness of mind is called wrong concentration. Wholesome one-pointedness of mind is called right concentration. Wrong concentration should be abandoned, and right concentration should be cultivated. Furthermore, concentration is of two kinds: access concentration and absorption concentration. The concentration in the preliminary stage is called access concentration. The nature that eliminates the immediately preceding state is called absorption concentration.

Furthermore, concentration is of three kinds: concentration with applied thought and sustained thought, concentration without applied thought but with sustained thought, and concentration without applied thought or sustained thought.

What is concentration with applied thought and sustained thought?

The first dhyana has applied thought and sustained thought; the second dhyana is without applied thought and has only a subtle degree of sustained thought; the remaining dhyanas are without applied thought or sustained thought.

Furthermore, concentration is of three kinds: concentration arising together with joy, concentration arising together with happiness, and concentration arising together with equanimity. The first and second dhyanas arise together with joy. The third dhyana arises together with happiness. The fourth dhyana arises together with equanimity.

Furthermore, concentration is of three kinds: wholesome concentration, resultant concentration, and functional concentration.

What is wholesome concentration?

The cultivation of the noble path by those in training and the cultivation of concentration of the form and formless realms by ordinary persons are called wholesome concentration. The noble fruits, and birth among those in training and ordinary persons in the form and formless realms, are called resultant concentration. When one beyond training enters concentration of the form or formless realms, this is called functional concentration.

Furthermore, concentration is of four kinds: desire-realm concentration, form-realm concentration, formless-realm concentration, and concentration that receives nothing. The preliminary practice and the practice of attainment associated with that realm belong to desire-realm concentration. The four dhyanas belong to form-realm concentration. The four formless concentrations and the results of wholesome karma belong to formless-realm concentration. The four paths and four fruits constitute concentration that receives nothing.

Furthermore, concentration is also cultivated in four ways: painful practice with slow wisdom, painful practice with keen wisdom, pleasant practice with slow wisdom, and pleasant practice with keen wisdom. These four correspond to: first, dense defilements; second, sparse defilements; third, keen faculties; and fourth, slow faculties.

A person with dense defilements and slow faculties undertakes painful practice and attains concentration through slow wisdom. A person with dense defilements and keen faculties undertakes painful practice and attains concentration through keen wisdom. A person with sparse defilements and slow faculties undertakes pleasant practice and attains concentration through slow wisdom.

A person with sparse defilements and keen faculties undertakes pleasant practice and attains concentration through keen wisdom. Here, for the person with dense defilements, because the defilements are dense, breaking through their painful oppression is difficult; therefore, the practice is painful. Because the person has slow faculties, the practice of dhyana must be accumulated for a long time, and realization comes through slow wisdom.

Therefore, it is called slow wisdom. Using this as the method, all cases should be distinguished.

Furthermore, concentration is of four kinds: limited concentration with a limited object; limited concentration with an immeasurable object; immeasurable concentration with a limited object; and immeasurable concentration with an immeasurable object.

What is limited concentration with a limited object?

That concentration is not attained according to the mind and its associated mental factors. The exertion in concentration is limited. This is called limited concentration with a limited object.

What is limited concentration with an immeasurable object?

That concentration is not attained according to the mind. The exertion directed toward that object is great. This is called limited concentration with an immeasurable object.

What is immeasurable concentration with a limited object?

That concentration is attained according to the mental factors. Its exertion is slight. This is what is meant by immeasurable concentration with a limited object.

What is called immeasurable concentration with an immeasurable object?

Having entered concentration, it is attained according to the mental factors. That concentration entails great exertion. This is called immeasurable concentration with an immeasurable object.

Furthermore, concentration is of four kinds: concentration through desire, concentration through energy, concentration through mind, and concentration through wisdom.

Concentration through desire means practicing in dependence upon desire. This is concentration through desire. That which is attained in dependence upon energy is called concentration through energy. That which is attained in dependence upon mind is called concentration through mind. That which is attained in dependence upon wisdom is called concentration through wisdom.

Furthermore, concentration is again of four kinds. There is concentration attained by a Buddha but not by disciples. There is concentration attained by disciples but not by a Buddha. There is concentration attained by both a Buddha and disciples. There is concentration attained neither by a Buddha nor by disciples. The concentration of great compassion and the concentration of the twin transformation are attained by a Buddha but not by disciples. The concentration of the fruit of training is attained by disciples but not by a Buddha. The nine successive attainments and the concentration of the fruit beyond training are attained by both a Buddha and disciples. The concentration of non-perception is attained neither by a Buddha nor by disciples.

Furthermore, concentration is of four kinds. There is concentration that can arise but cannot cease. There is concentration that can cease but cannot arise. There is concentration that can both arise and cease. There is concentration that neither arises nor ceases.

Question: What is meant by that which arises but does not cease?

Answer: Wholesome and unwholesome concentration of the desire realm. This means that it arises but does not arise. The wholesome concentrations of the form and formless realms belonging to trainees and ordinary persons arise but do not cease. All concentrations of fruition and functional concentrations neither arise nor cease.

Furthermore, concentration is of four kinds: the first jhana, the second jhana, the third jhana, and the fourth jhana. Secluded from the five hindrances, one perfects initial and sustained application, joy, bliss, and one-pointedness of mind. This is the first jhana. Secluded from initial and sustained application, one perfects three factors. Secluded from joy, one perfects two factors. Secluded from bliss, one perfects equanimity and one-pointedness of mind in the fourth jhana.

Furthermore, concentration is of five kinds: the first jhana, the second jhana, the third jhana, the fourth jhana, and the fifth jhana. The five factors are initial application, sustained application, joy, bliss, and one-pointedness of mind. Secluded from the five hindrances, one perfects these five factors. This is the first jhana. Secluded from initial application, one perfects four factors. This is the second jhana. Secluded from joy, one perfects two factors. This is the third jhana. Secluded from bliss, one perfects two factors. This is the fourth jhana; thus there remain equanimity and one-pointedness of mind.

Question: Why are they called the four jhanas and the five jhanas?

Answer: Because they are held according to two systems. The second jhana is of two kinds: without initial application and without sustained application, and without initial application but with a small degree of sustained application.

Question: When a meditator has gained mastery of the first jhana, how does he arouse the second jhana?

Answer: Regarding coarse initial and sustained application, he gathers his mindfulness and contemplates. Knowing the faults of initial and sustained application, he causes the second jhana, which is without initial or sustained application, to arise. This is the successive cultivation of the four jhanas. Furthermore, another person who has gained mastery of the first jhana brings forth the second jhana. Regarding coarse initial application, he gathers his mindfulness and contemplates. Although he knows its faults, he sees the second jhana arise without initial application but with a small degree of sustained application. This is the successive attainment of the five jhanas. Therefore, these are called the five jhanas.

There are also five kinds of concentration, namely the fivefold complete attainment: fullness of joy, fullness of bliss, fullness of mind, fullness of light, and contemplative perception. In the first and second jhanas, joy is full. In the third jhana, bliss is full. In the knowledge of others’ minds, this is called fullness of mind. In the divine eye, this is called fullness of light. When insight-knowledge arises from that concentration, it is called contemplative perception.

Furthermore, concentration is of five kinds, namely the five knowledges of right concentration. It brings happiness in the present and a happy result in the future; knowledge arises dependent upon the body—this is concentration. It is practiced by the noble ones and is free from affliction—this is concentration.

It is cultivated through the causes of concentration and wisdom—this is concentration. It is peaceful and blissful, delighting in the accomplishment of non-duality, and does not return to samsara—this is the concentration of supreme peace and bliss. Delighting in the attainment of one nature, one is not reborn in samsara—this is the concentration of mindfulness: one enters through mindfulness and emerges through mindfulness, and knowledge arises dependent upon the body.

Furthermore, after classification according to the domain of practice, and after distinguishing the objects of cultivation as inferior, middling, and superior, concentration is thus of many kinds. It should be understood that all concentrations are included within the four concentrations.

*

Chapter 5: Seeking a Good Spiritual Friend

Question: At that time, how is concentration aroused?

Answer: If a meditator wishes to develop meditative concentration, he should seek a good spiritual friend. Why is this so?

When one who is new to meditation wishes to develop meditative concentration and attain the most excellent concentration, if he is separated from a good spiritual friend, he will fall into the class of those who cannot remain steadfast. As taught in the sutra, a certain monk named Dhamma fell into decline. It is like a person traveling alone to a distant country, without a companion to guide him, proceeding alone as he pleases; or like an elephant without a mahout.

If a meditator meets a good spiritual friend in the place where he practices, that friend instructs, encourages, accepts, and points out his faults, and he will then attain wholesome qualities. By practicing diligently and undertaking ascetic discipline according to those instructions, he will attain the most excellent concentration. Such a person is honored by all, like a wealthy merchant; he is like a good friend and like one’s own parents.

A good spiritual friend is like an elephant fitted with a guiding rope, making it easy to direct; like a charioteer who makes the chariot advance or halt as needed; like a helmsman who guides one along a good course; like medicine that cures illness and removes suffering; like rain from the heavens that moistens all beings; like a mother nursing her child; like a father teaching his son; like one who is near and not difficult to approach; like a good friend; and like a teacher who gives instruction.

All wholesome qualities depend upon this for their accomplishment. Therefore, the Blessed One taught Nanda: “The entirety of the holy life depends upon a good spiritual friend.” Thus one should seek a superior person to serve as a good spiritual friend.

Who is called an excellent good spiritual friend?

It is one who has clearly mastered the sutras, the Vinaya, and the treatises. This is what is meant by accomplishment in learning. He clearly understands the various kinds of karma, has attained wholesome supernormal knowledge, and clearly understands the Four Noble Truths. These are two kinds of persons accomplished in virtue, and such persons should be sought. If one cannot find anyone possessing either of these two accomplishments in virtue, then one should seek a good spiritual friend endowed with seven qualities.

What are the seven qualities?

He is lovable and worthy of respect, esteem, and honor; he speaks well, is patient, speaks profound words, and does not establish one where one should not abide.

What is meant by lovable and worthy of respect?

In relation to the two kinds of practitioners, he speaks kindly while dwelling together with them, and his heart is joyful when no difficulty is encountered. This is called lovable and worthy of respect.

What is meant by worthy of esteem?

His conduct in virtue is peaceful; he is accomplished in maintaining mindfulness; he is neither covetous nor excessively talkative. This is called worthy of esteem.

What is meant by worthy of honor?

He is accomplished in the virtues of learning and wisdom, understands meditation, and is worthy of esteem. This is called worthy of honor.

What is meant by speaking well?

His speech is endearing, pleasing, and worthy of esteem. It bears fruit, and by reflecting in this way he benefits the other person. He honors the Dharma. When something cannot be done, he restrains and guides the person, and ultimately, after consideration, lets the matter go. This is what is meant by speaking well.

What is meant by patience?

It means that he is able to endure without interrupting frivolous speech and all forms of discourse, as do the noble and virtuous. This is called patience.

What is profound speech?

He comprehends karma. When speaking according to the Dharma about discrimination, recollection, attention, and establishment, he does so through properly apprehending wholesome characteristics. Through not apprehending as Dharma the characteristics belonging to the afflictions, he is able to bring them to complete cessation. This is called profound speech.

What is meant by not establishing one where one should not abide?

If there are places associated with lineage, residence, accumulations of karma, or former recitations where one should not remain, he is able to keep one away from them. Or, with regard to a suitable and patient sphere of practice, he enables one to become securely established. This is called dwelling where one may dwell. This is what is meant by not establishing one where one should not abide. A good spiritual friend endowed with these seven qualities should be sought.

Question: How should one seek such a person?

Answer: If one knows the dwelling place of persons A and B, whose accomplished virtues make them worthy of esteem, and if there is a meditation master there, one should go to visit him. If one does not oneself know where such a fellow practitioner lives, one should seek him out and draw near to him. Then, knowing the proper time, one should respectfully approach and inquire about his dwelling, without prematurely disclosing one’s intention.

If one wishes to inquire about a place of practice, one should ask: In what region and what country is it, and where is it situated? Does a community dwell there? Is there a Sangha practicing serene meditation?

Is there also a meditation master? If one practices there, what merits make that place esteemed by all? One should ask in this way, and the fellow practitioner should answer:

In that country, at that place, that community practices meditation, and that meditation master, and so forth, are cherished and honored by the assembly. Having heard this, one should reflect deeply, rejoice in it, and then go there to draw near, study, and receive instruction. One should arrange one’s robes and then go before the preceptor and state one’s joyful intention: “Preceptor, please hear me.

I shall go there to draw near to the meditation master.” The preceptor should listen and reply: “Excellent! I too rejoice in this. This is what a good person does.

This means dwelling together with good persons and acting as good persons act. This is practice in accordance with the Dharma. Even seeing or hearing such a person brings great benefit; how much more so dwelling together with him.

You should go there. Once you have arrived, be diligent and do not be heedless. If he is a good person, he can exhort you to cultivate and study.

Whether at a certain time or at all times, you should further strengthen your faith.”

Speak good words with reverent sincerity, guard bodily and verbal conduct, clearly understand the principles of practice, and you will attain accomplishment. Rely entirely upon the teacher and do not become overly familiar before the proper relationship has arisen. Like a new daughter-in-law who has just entered her husband’s household and associates with his mother and aunts, one should feel modesty and respectfully receive instruction.

If the teacher sees that a disciple lacks robes or medicine, he should provide for these in accordance with the Dharma, teach the Dharma, and give instruction. Even in walking, standing, sitting, and lying down, he should instruct the disciple in what ought to be done. That meditator should arrange his robes properly, approach respectfully, and bow at the teacher’s feet.

When traveling on an outside road and encountering deep water that must be crossed, he should place his robes and bowl, footwear, and meditation mat on a high spot, not allowing them to come near the water. While bathing, he should make no noise. After bathing, he should arrange his robes properly, put on the uttarasaṅga, and place his robes, bowl, and meditation requisites upon his right shoulder.

He should fold the saṅghāṭi and place it upon his shoulder. When entering a monastery or hermitage, he should remove his footwear and head covering and circumambulate the stupa. If he sees a bhikkhu, he should make inquiries: “Are there meditators here?

Are there wearers of rag robes? Are there those who go for alms? Is there a Vinaya master?

Who dwells here? From where do visitors come?” Whether or not it is this person, if there is a Vinaya master, one should visit him. If there is no Vinaya master, one should ask who is the senior elder and visit him instead.

If a senior member of the Great Sangha offers to keep one’s robes and bowl, one should not give them to him; nor should one give them to anyone junior. If no one is present, one should put them in a suitable place. Upon seeing the senior elder, one should bow at his feet and stand before him.

If a resident bhikkhu is seated, one should provide water and a proper place for washing and bathing; draw near and attend to his food and lodging, robes and bowl; point out the necessary places; and inquire about the regulations of the Sangha. On the first day of entering the monastery, one should walk around it. If one sees a Vinaya master, one should ask him about doubtful matters and offenses, and strive not to transgress.

If one sees a teacher expounding the Dharma and wishes to cultivate wisdom, one should ask about the skandhas, ayatanas, dhatus, and karma. If one sees a practitioner of the dhutaṅga austerities, one should ask about the merits of the dhutaṅgas so that they may accord with wisdom. While staying there, one should visit and inquire every day.

If one wishes to depart, one should prepare one’s robes, bow at the feet of the senior Sangha members, and announce that one is leaving. This is the proper conduct for a visiting bhikkhu. That meditator should draw near to the meditation master.

When the meditation master arrives, even if one is junior, one should carry his robes and bowl for him. According to the meditation master’s rule, there are places one may go and places one may not go; one should not depart immediately or promptly absent oneself. These are the preliminary duties that should be established in practice.

If one wishes to teach others, one must first understand. The student of meditation should first complete these duties and only then undertake the practice. Having inspected the dwelling place, one should put down one’s robes and bowl.

After resting briefly and learning the proper times, one should approach the meditation master and bow respectfully. At times one should sit silently. If the meditation master asks what one seeks, one should state one’s aspiration accordingly.

If he does not ask, one should not speak. Thereafter, one should provide tooth-cleaning sticks, water for bathing, and so forth, and request to live in dependence upon him for the sake of practice. When mealtime arrives, one should ask the acarya and act in accordance with the Dharma.

At mealtime, one should wash the acarya’s feet, prepare his seat, and bring his alms bowl. Regarding one’s own bowl, one should ask the acarya how much food to take and place less in one’s own bowl than in that of the disciple. Guarding one’s conduct in this way is not difficult.

After the meal, one should take the acarya’s bowl, wash it, and put it in its proper place. Knowing the proper time, one should draw near and bow respectfully. At times one should sit silently.

If the acarya asks, one should state one’s aspiration as appropriate. If he does not ask, one should bow to the acarya and request permission to speak: “I shall explain the aspiration I have held from the beginning.” If he grants permission, one may ask according to one’s wish. After the acarya has listened, he will speak.

If he does not ask, one should bow to the acarya. Seeing that the time is proper, one should state the reason for one’s coming: “May the acarya instruct me.” If the acarya listens, one should state every aspiration. The acarya will say, “Excellent!” and then instruct one in accordance with the Dharma.

One should obey in this manner. Therefore, the Blessed One spoke these verses:

Draw near at the proper time,

And keep the mind free from arrogance.

The holy life well protects the Dharma,

Like a tree where there is no wind.

Remember the Dharma and put it into practice;

Together with the Dharma, delight within yourself.

Abide in the Dharma and discern the Dharma;

Teach the Dharma according to truth.

Do nothing that destroys the Dharma.

Delighting in talk, anxiety, elation, and laughter,

Anger and ill will—do not be indolent.

Wrath, craving, conceit, and delusion,

And clinging through attachment are truly vile;

Through practice, eliminate them all.

Guard the mind and do not exalt yourself.

Know what is wholesome and speak truthfully.

For true samadhi, know how to listen.

If a person is heedless,

Wisdom from hearing will not increase.

If a person knows the true Dharma,

They are honored by devas and humans.

With reverence, perfect the faithful mind;

Through much learning, protect the Dharma.

Practice what you have joyfully heard.

Such are all these virtues:

Practicing in accordance with the Dharma,

They give rise to what is good and beautiful

And perfect the person of wisdom.

If you obtain such a teacher,

You should practice and not be heedless.

Treatise on the Path to Liberation

End of Fascicle Two