四諦論

I.6 Chapter on the Analysis of the Truth of the Path (Sixth)

The sutra speaks of the Truth of the Path. What does this term mean, and from what cause does it arise? If the path can extinguish what is called craving immediately, then it should be said to bring suffering to an end.

If this is not so, then that statement is erroneous. If it also extinguishes the origin and suffering, why does the sutra not state this fully? If the path can bring suffering to an end, then one who cultivates the path should no longer experience suffering.

If this is not so, it should not be said that its practice leads to the end of suffering. If a conditioned dharma cannot proceed toward an unconditioned dharma, why is practicing until suffering ends said to mean right practice? It is said that right practice is the Noble Eightfold Path; then it is certain that this expression designates the noble ones—but what does this mean?

Why is the path called noble, while the other aids to the path are not? If this term is used to distinguish the path from other things, does it divide the path? If so, there are both the division and that which is divided, yet there is no distinction between them.

What does “path” mean? Why does this sutra give a complete enumeration, whereas other sutras do not?

If the path is conditioned, why did the Buddha say that it has existed from ancient times? If it is unconditioned, why is it said to be conditioned? If the path is one, then when one person cultivates it, others should likewise attain it and rely upon it.

If this is not so, it should not be said that there is only this single path. If all noble ones attain the same path, why is their wisdom not identical? If their wisdom is not identical, why is their liberation said to be equal?

If the path is not mind, then insentient things should also possess the path. If it is neither mind nor a mental factor, then the practice is incomplete. If it is a mental factor, since mental factors differ, why do they all belong to a single mind?

If the path comes to eliminate the defilements, it is a dharma distinct from that single mind. If it does not reach another continuum, why does it not eliminate the defilements there? If all the factors arise together, there are many acts of attention; if they arise successively, there is always only one factor present.

Why are precisely eight factors established, neither more nor fewer? Why are restraint of desire and other dharmas not included? Why is a single dharma said to constitute three kinds?

The Middle Way can diminish merit, evil conduct, and suffering to the very end.

Why is right view stated first? What is meant by saying that one should first practice right view? View is not yet fully mature, because one can see right view. How does right view here differ from right view among the Ten Wholesome Actions? If, through right view, one sees the truths at one time, there can be many objects. If this is not so, then it is not extinguished from moment to moment. If right view clearly knows all the truths, what purpose do the remaining factors serve?

What does right thought mean? Why do three dharmas constitute one? If one relies upon two concentrations to realize the exhaustion of the outflows, right thought does not fully constitute a factor of the path and is moreover established separately. This meaning should be investigated further.

Furthermore, what does right speech mean? If realization lies in speech, then cultivation of the path has no concentration. Why is this? The Buddha taught that concentration uses sound to discern. If this is not so, it does not constitute a factor of the path.

What does right action mean? All the factors are right actions, so why is only one called right action? If abstention is called right action, then that abstention is precisely non-action. How, then, can it constitute action? It is abstention from harmful action; why is this not said to be a factor of the path? How do right action and right livelihood differ from the right action and right livelihood included among the Ten Wholesome Actions?

What does right livelihood mean? If right livelihood is included within bodily and verbal karma, why is it established separately?

What is right effort? What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its object? And what is its meaning? If it can extinguish evil, then wholesome effort is not a second effort. If the non-wholesome is the Truth of Cessation, it is then not wholesome. If one cultivates right endeavor with a single mind, then the cultivation of the aids to the path cannot be accomplished.

What is right mindfulness? What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its object? What is its meaning? Since conditioned dharmas do not abide even for a single instant, how can mindfulness be established? Why are seeing and recollecting different—is this not the intended meaning? If all dharmas are establishments of mindfulness, then the faculty of mindfulness is mindfulness, while “establishment” has a meaning that does not correspond. If mindfulness by itself cannot apprehend a dharma, why does the sutra say that there is a single mindfulness that apprehends? Why can one remember at some times but not at others?

What is samadhi? What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its meaning? If right concentration is concentration, then a stream-enterer should have neither desire nor anger. If so, this contradicts reason.

Question: The sutra speaks of the Truth of the Path. Why does it state this, and upon what cause does it arise?

Answer: When this question is asked, it does not disclose knowledge to the speaker. Why is this? Because upon hearing the name, one understands the meaning. Arising from great compassion, nirvana and the path reveal security within a meaning that had been obscured. If one wishes to explain it extensively, it is said to be an obstruction. In order to distinguish wisdom for the disciples, the Buddha posed the question himself. Why is this? Because asking first and answering afterward produces many benefits. The conditions for its arising are explained extensively, as stated previously.

Furthermore, it was to teach the disciples who, upon hearing the questions of non-Buddhists, did not yet understand whether the meaning of this path was right or wrong. To remove doubt, inverted thinking, and ignorance from their minds, the Buddha asked and answered the question himself.

What is the path? It is the Noble Eightfold Path, just as one who is uncertain asks someone to point out the good road.

Question: If the path can extinguish craving, it should not be said that its practice leads to the end of suffering. If this is not correct, then the statement is erroneous.

Answer: After noble ones first arouse the aspiration, they eliminate suffering through cultivation. For this purpose the path arises; therefore, it is said that its practice leads to the cessation of suffering. This ending of suffering is accomplished through the cessation of its cause. It is a matter of removing the cause, as a lion does.

Furthermore, seeing all sentient beings fallen into painful adversity, the Buddhas arouse the aspiration to cultivate the path. It is in order to remove their suffering, as the Sutra of the Simile of the Kingdom explains concerning the application of effort in cultivation. Bringing suffering to an end requires the diligent cultivation of the renunciant holy life, as in the sutra’s simile of the seven chariots. Furthermore, the Tathagata appears in the world to accomplish three matters that bring that suffering to an end. This is the first reason it is said that its practice leads to the end of suffering.

Furthermore, all conditioned phenomena are impermanent and therefore suffering. Because one becomes free from conditioned phenomena, this is called the end of suffering, as stated in the Sutra of the Simile of the Raft: Even the Dharma should be relinquished, how much more what is contrary to the Dharma. Furthermore, because the Noble Eightfold Path can extinguish the appropriated skandhas, two cessations are commonly spoken of; thus, the statement is not erroneous.

You ask: If the cessation of the origin and of suffering are both included, why does the sutra not state this fully?

Answer: The cessation of this craving is revealed through the origin of suffering. Furthermore, the exhaustion of the cause is not the primary function; the ending of suffering is primary. Furthermore, the Noble Path can extinguish conditioned phenomena and the appropriated skandhas; therefore, the ending of suffering is spoken of through the cessation of craving.

You ask: If the path can bring suffering to an end, then one who has fully cultivated the path should experience no suffering. If this is not correct, it should not be said that its practice leads to the end of suffering.

Answer: Because it relies upon the exhaustion of causes and conditions, it is called the cessation of suffering, just as when one says that a fire is extinguished, this means that the embers have died out. Again, when a tree perishes, one says that its roots are exhausted. Moreover, although the Noble Path can extinguish wrongness and discern suffering, it does not eliminate the suffering that is the karmic retribution of previous lives or the realms and planes contrary to suffering, just as with the breath of a candala and Upakina, and so forth.

Furthermore, with respect to nirvana with remainder, the Noble Path can extinguish mental suffering. With respect to nirvana without remainder, it can extinguish bodily suffering. Furthermore, the Noble Path can extinguish the suffering of the skandhas of future existence, while the habitual accumulation of arbitrary actions has not yet ceased, like a wheel that continues turning or an arrow that has been shot.

Question: If conditioned dharmas do not reach the unconditioned through any activity, why is it said that practice leads to the cessation of suffering?

Answer: Nirvana is without activity, and the Path likewise is without activity. Yet because practice is fully cultivated by turning toward nirvana and bringing about the attainment of nirvana, it is said that practice leads to the cessation of suffering, just as a highway leads somewhere. Furthermore, this is an expedient expression, as when speaking of things flowing upon water until every drop of water is exhausted. The flow and the drops of water perform no activity with respect to their exhaustion, yet people conventionally speak of such activity. Practice leading to the cessation of suffering is likewise so.

You ask:

What is the meaning of right practice?

Answer: To elucidate this true meaning, it is called right practice. It also means resolute engagement in practice, as when one speaks of traveling through every place where there is a path. Furthermore, because it can preserve security in that place, it is called right practice. Moreover, “right” means not contrary, and “practice” means turning toward. Because one turns toward nirvana by means of that which is not contrary, it is called right practice.

You ask: Is it certain that right practice is the Eightfold Noble Path?

Answer: To distinguish it from other paths, it is established as the path of practice in all places, in order to show that it is found nowhere else. Moreover, it can confront every path of suffering; it can cause all karma, afflictions, and their retributions to be consumed; and it can remove evils from oneself and others, including demons, grave offenses, evil destinies, death, and fear. It can eliminate heaps of bones as vast as Mount Vipula, and it can dry up milk, blood, and tears. Because of these functions, this is stated with such certainty and decisiveness.

You ask: What does “noble” mean?

Answer: Because their essential nature does not remain fixed in a single state, but seeks to liberate sentient beings, those who rely upon the continuum are called noble persons, just as wholesome dharmas are so called. As stated in the sutra: “The noble is right view.” Furthermore, because it is what noble persons practice, it is called noble, just as one speaks of the king’s road. Again, because it is taught by noble persons, it is called noble, just as one speaks of the teacher’s road. Furthermore, because it attends to the affairs of the noble assembly, it is called noble, just as one speaks of the road traveled by cattle. Again, because it leads to the state of supreme nobility, it is called noble, just as a highway. As stated in the sutra: “The noble is right liberation.”

You ask: Why is the Path called noble, while the other aids to the Path are not spoken of as such?

Answer: Because they share a single characteristic, all are called noble, just as all fire shares the nature of fire. Again, they share the single flavor of liberation, just as the ocean has the single flavor of salt. Furthermore, the eight noble factors are supremely excellent and can encompass the other aids to the Path, as stated in the sutra concerning the elephant’s footprint.

You ask: If the Path differs from each of its factors, and one speaks of it in terms of these characteristics, is the Path merely its individual factors, so that the whole and its divisions are without distinction?

Answer: Here there is a distinction in characteristics between the whole and its individual factors; moreover, this can be seen and expressed. It is like the fivefold samadhi, and like a fivefold bhiksu dwelling in a fivefold place. The Path is likewise so.

It differs from each individual factor. This is an equitable division; therefore, it is called the Path. Why is this?

These eight factors, even up to the equality of fruition, can eliminate the afflictions. If they are either too slack or too intense, they will not eliminate the afflictions, just as in the regulation of a lute string. Again, because all the factors are complete, it is called the Path.

Its discernment is like the parts of a chariot. Nevertheless, according to the true meaning, one may speak of individual factors or of completeness, just as with fivefold music and fivefold concentration.

The Path is likewise so. Although the Path is divided for the purpose of doctrinal exposition, there are six reasons establishing that each division is itself the Path. First, it is called the Path. The sutra says that the five faculties are the Path, and that by practicing them one reaches nirvana. These five faculties are individual factors of the Path. Therefore, it is clearly known that each division is the Path. Second, this is because the sutra says so. Third, it is because the bodies encompass the Path. The three bodies have divisions, and the three distinctions arise through cessation.

The sutra says: “Right view is practiced with respect to cessation; apart from the Path, there is no cessation.” Fourth, it is because of elimination. The sutra says: “If right view is cultivated, desire can be eliminated.” Apart from the Path, it cannot be eliminated. Fifth, it is because of detachment. The sutra says: “Right view is among the factors capable of bringing detachment from this.” If it were not the Path, it could not bring detachment. Sixth, it is because it purifies the Path. The sutra says: “Prajna is the Path, because purification is attained through it.” Prajna is right view; therefore, it is clear that each individual factor is itself the Path.

You ask: What is the meaning of “Path”?

Answer: Path means seeking. Why is this? Because through it the true meaning can be attained. It also means practice. It further means the conduct of the Path. As people say, “This road leads toward the country of Sravasti,” so too does the Path lead toward nirvana. It also means the true import and the expedient means leading to the path of life. All such meanings are meanings of the Path.

You ask: Why does this sutra set forth all the factors in full, whereas other sutras do not?

Answer: The Abhidharma Treatise says: Provisional designation is divided into two kinds. The first is an independently established provisional designation, and the second is a dependently established provisional designation. Naming the factors according to their own essence is called an independently established provisional designation, as with right view and a factor of the Path.

A dependently established provisional designation is like mindfulness with regard to the Dharma gates and the other factors aiding the Path. Why is this? In cultivating these factors of enlightenment, cultivation is not scattered.

Furthermore, it is because one factor predominates in counteracting a particular constraint. Among the foundations of mindfulness, one dharma predominates over the others, and all receive the same name accordingly, just as a dominant salty or sour flavor lends its name even though other flavors are also present. Likewise, among the realms, one place predominates, and the others are named accordingly.

Furthermore, in the desire realm, the Path is described as complete. In the form and formless realms, it may have four or five factors, because there are four counteragents for extinguishing their respective essential natures. Otherwise, factors may be added or reduced according to the realm and plane.

For this reason, the Path is sometimes complete and sometimes incomplete.

You ask: If the Path is conditioned, why did the Buddha call it the ancient path? If it is unconditioned, why is it said to be a conditioned dharma?

Answer: Precisely because it is ancient, the Path is said to be conditioned. Why is this? Among conditioned things there can be that which is newly arisen, as with rice grain.

If it were unconditioned, this could not be said, just as with empty space and nirvana. It is like saying that this body is a repository of accumulated karma, but it is not therefore unconditioned; or like speaking of the seed of the noble ones and the Dharma of the teachers. Therefore, from this it is said that the Path is not unconditioned.

Now, in order to clarify the Path, this treatise states that it is conditioned. How can this be known? It is known through extensive analysis, as in the Sutra Corresponding to Truth and in the reply to Dharmatrata, and through the characteristics of the conditioned, as the sutra says:

Relying upon right thought, if the Path has not yet arisen, it will arise; once arisen, it will immediately increase. Since it increases, it is known to be conditioned. Because it can be relinquished, as the sutra says: “Even Dharma-associated states should be relinquished, how much more non-Dharma states.” Cessation is unconditioned and therefore cannot be relinquished.

It arises through internal conditions, as the sutra says: “The Path arises in reliance upon what is within,” yet such an inward basis of reliance is difficult to obtain. If it were unconditioned, there would be no basis upon which it could arise internally. Because of karma, as the sutra says: “The Path is neither white nor black, yet it can extinguish karma”; thus this karma is not an unconditioned dharma.

Because it has nutriment, as the sutra says: “The seven factors of enlightenment are its nutriment and its cause.” If it were unconditioned, it would not follow causes as its nutriment. For these reasons, the Path is conditioned.

You ask: If the Path is cultivated by each individual, would others also attain it, just as they share a basis of reliance? If this is not so, how can it be said that there is only one Path?

Answer: There are many paths, not one. Why is this? Because their fruits are not identical.

Since the paths differ, their fruits also differ, just as different roads require different journeys. Moreover, because their essences differ, the paths differ—that is, the path of seeing and the path of cultivation, and likewise the four kinds: painful and pleasant, slow and swift. Furthermore, because their bases differ, their paths differ.

That is, there are nine kinds of trainees, nine kinds beyond training, pratyekabuddhas, and Buddhas. Because their faculties differ, yet they rely upon the same lineage, it is said that there is one Path, just as people in the world speak of “a grain of rice.” As the sutra says: “Whether the Buddhas of the three times contemplate or teach, it is these same Four Noble Truths.” Yet suffering and the other three Truths differ in essence and truly are not permanent.

The statement that there is one Path should likewise be understood in this way.

You ask: If the noble ones all attain one Path, why is their wisdom not the same? If their wisdom differs, why is their liberation equal?

Answer: One who contemplates all things and every kind of realm attains perfect awakening. Therefore, the Buddha’s Path is not the same as the two vehicles. As the sutra says: “If one knows all things and every kind of realm, one should know that this one is the Blessed One, who has fully penetrated the path of equality.” Only the root of the afflictions is extinguished by persons of the three vehicles.

As the sutra says: “Liberation from the five skandhas does not differ.” It is like many kinds of fire, each of which burns straw to ashes without any difference. Yet because the fires differ, their light, the reach of their light, and their power vary. In the same way, wisdom also differs.

As for the afflictions extinguished and the liberation attained through their removal, these are the same. The Buddha possesses the majestic power and beneficent virtue of meditative concentration and wisdom; because his Path differs, these are difficult to fathom or calculate, as stated in the Fire-Wheel Sutra.

You ask: If the Path is a non-mental dharma, then insentient beings and other objects would also possess the Path. If mind cultivates a non-mental dharma, the meaning is incomplete. If it is a mental dharma, then how can contrary dharmas exist within a single mind?

Answer: That designation is based on samsara as distinguished according to worldly dharmas. The Path, however, is a supramundane dharma; the two are not alike, just as Dharma and non-Dharma are not alike. The Path is said to be a non-mental dharma because what relies upon an object is called mind, whereas what is attained may be called the Path.

If the two were one in essence, their intrinsic nature would know itself. Because this is contrary to reason, the Path is said to be a non-mental dharma. It is like the life faculty, non-perception, and the concentration of non-mental states.

Although these are non-mental dharmas, they are not nonexistent. The Path is likewise so. Although there are states with mind and without mind, once their stage is attained, all that exists therein is also present; nothing remains uncultivated or incomplete.

Moreover, cultivation is of three kinds, namely, preserving, practicing, and investigating; therefore, nothing is incomplete. The Path may also be said to be a mental dharma. Why? Because it arises and ceases together with right thought, as though they were a single mind. As the sutra says: “Taking mind as predominant, one attains one-pointedness of mind.” This is called concentration of mind. The factors of the Path emerge together and accomplish a single task; therefore, they share one designation without distinction.

You ask: If the Path approaches the afflictions in order to remove them, then contrary dharmas exist within one mind. If it does not approach them, why does it not remove them from another continuum?

Answer: The Path does not approach the afflictions, yet it can remove them. Just as the Path does not approach the breaking of precepts, yet can eliminate one’s own breaking of precepts without eliminating that of another, so too is the removal of doubt. Although one’s own continuum and the continua of others are both present, the Path does not approach them.

It always removes only one’s own doubt and cannot remove another person’s delusion. The Vibhajyavada school says: “Neither approaching nor not approaching, it removes the afflictions at that very moment.” Taking non-arising to be the cessation of suffering is like treating an illness. If one has already experienced the illness before going to the physician, it cannot be cured.

Why? Because suffering cannot be transformed into pleasure. Nor can the physician treat a painful feeling that has not yet arrived.

Why? Because it does not exist. If so, what is there to treat?

By constantly creating contrary conditions, one causes suffering that has not yet arisen to remain forever unable to arise. This entails many acts of attention. If they arise successively, is there always a single division?

Answer: Because they accomplish a single task, they can arise together in full; they do not take separate objects as their conditions. There are not many intentions with mixed characteristics arising simultaneously. Because their functions differ, their distinctions can be perceived, just as with desire.

You ask: Why are only eight factors established, neither more nor fewer?

Answer: Such questioning would be endless; therefore, the reply should be left aside. It is because they counteract the eight kinds of wrongness that eight factors are taught. Furthermore, in order to encompass the three bodies, there must be antidotes to the three barbs, the three fetters, the three fires, and the three poisons; therefore, eight factors are taught.

The Abhidharma also says: “Because they can accomplish the eight virtues of mind, eight factors are taught.” Through attaining right view, the mind becomes pure; through attaining right thought, the mind becomes immaculate; through attaining right speech, the mind becomes serene; through attaining right action, the mind is free of remorse; through attaining right livelihood, the mind becomes truly pliant; through attaining right effort, the mind constantly follows instruction; through attaining right mindfulness, the mind becomes firmly established; and through attaining right concentration, the mind remains unmoved.

You ask: Why are aspiration and the other dharmas not included?

Answer: Because they can embrace the supreme dharmas, or because they are embraced for powerful application, or because what is embraced can additionally be examined, they fully encompass right faith, right action, and right livelihood. This is the threefold classification of a stream-enterer’s faith for the purpose of inclusion. A stream-enterer possesses the fourfold confidence born of knowledge, and aspiration itself is faith.

Furthermore, this faith is included within right view. One who attains stream-entry gains confidence born of knowledge and joy; praise and relinquishment are included within right concentration. Therefore, the eight factors include all the other factors without remainder.

You ask: Why is a single dharma said to constitute three kinds? Or why is it said that the Path can extinguish meritorious and unwholesome actions, continuing until all suffering is ended?

Answer: It is because of three functions. It is like the sun: because its light can illuminate and dispel darkness, because it distinguishes day from night, it is called the sun; and because it distinguishes each moment, it is spoken of as time. This fundamental Noble Path is likewise so. Because it can depart from the two extremes, it is called the Middle Way. Because it can eliminate the two kinds of karma, black and white, it is called the extinction of merit and evil. Because it uproots the suffering of body and mind, it is said to bring suffering to an end; or because it removes the three evil destinies in the world, it is said to be the practice leading to the end of suffering.

You ask: Why, then, is right view taught first?

Answer: It is placed first at the beginning, just as a king is foremost. As stated in the sutra: Among all conditioned dharmas, prajna is supreme.

Furthermore, it can produce great merit, and from this wisdom arises virtue surpassing all. Thus, through right understanding, Sariputra did not contemplate other aspects. Through right view, the mind of the householder Sura was difficult to sway. Through this right view, King Asoka could not be led astray. The householder Cittala was able to overcome unjust calamities and sufferings. As stated in the sutra: Because light arises, ignorance is utterly extinguished. Therefore, right view is taught first.

You ask: Why is practice taught first?

Answer: Because through attaining right view, one attains departure from the world, attains freedom from birth and death, and attains the state of having nothing in common with them. Or it is said that one attains liberation through the power of right view. As stated in the sutra: Bhiksus who possess right view perform bodily, verbal, and mental karma that is pleasing, beautiful, and lovely. As explained more extensively in the sutra, right view must come first.

You ask: What does right view mean?

Answer: It means being free from inversion, directly seeing through knowledge and vision, relying upon truth itself and non-inversion, and possessing illuminating realization and knowledge.

Furthermore, suchness is also called right contemplation and is also called seeing. Contemplating the Noble Truths as they truly are is called right view. Moreover, “right” here means worthy of praise, while “view” means illuminating light. Because this illuminating light is worthy of praise, it is called right view. As stated in the sutra: Among lights, this light is the greatest; therefore, it is called right view.

Furthermore, because it surpasses the activity of wisdom with respect to its object, it is called right view. Why is this? Because it is the fruit of right samadhi, it is called right view, as stated in the Sutra of the Seed Simile. Moreover, complete reasoning states that wisdom is called right because its object is right; it is not that the object is called right because wisdom is right. All conditioned phenomena, being associated with the characteristic of flux, are necessarily suffering. Definitive knowledge of this is called right view, as the Buddha taught Mahakatyayana.

The Abhidharma treasury also states: The wisdom that counteracts ignorance, doubt, and inverted knowledge, and that enables one to pass beyond evil and suffering—this true wisdom is called right view.

You ask: Is not seeing simply the act of seeing alone?

Answer: The conditions assemble and bring this seeing to completion; no single thing can be distinguished as that which sees. It is like flowers and fruit, as the following verse states:

There is seeing, yet none can see;

What dharma is it that causes seeing?

Arising from conditions in harmony,

To say it sees forms is itself false.

When these dharmas gather, there is seeing;

When the union disperses, none can be seen.

All is produced through causes and conditions,

Like one who weeps, yet does not cling.

A dharma arising from conditions cannot be said to belong to any one entity. Thus, to refute Guna’s doctrine, the Buddha said: “I do not say that consciousness is itself that which is conscious.” Why is this? Because it is merely a designation established in dependence upon one part.

You ask: Is there any difference between right view and the right view of the Ten Wholesome Actions?

Answer: Conventional wisdom pertains to the Ten Wholesome Actions, while true wisdom pertains to the Noble Eightfold Path. The former can bring about the fruit of suffering in a later life and takes karma as its object of contemplation. Such is right view within the Dharma of the Ten Wholesome Actions. The latter can extinguish the three realms of existence, has nirvana as its fruit, and takes truth as its object. Such is right view within the Noble Eightfold Path.

You ask: If through right view one sees the Truths simultaneously, should there not be many objects? If not, then are they not extinguished moment by moment?

Answer: Four matters can be accomplished simultaneously; therefore, it is said to be simultaneous, not that there are different objects. This is fully explained in the teachings and treatises. Those who cultivate contemplative practice penetrate them with noble wisdom, so that even the defilements associated with the pores of the body can be severed.

Furthermore, other sutras state: If one thoroughly contemplates the three kinds of feeling, all matters become clear and no further fabrication can occur. Because one comprehends that the characteristic of the true nature of dharmas is selflessness, one simultaneously penetrates and contemplates the Four Noble Truths. In this way, while successively contemplating conditioned things as impermanent, suffering, and selfless, one simultaneously penetrates the Truth of Suffering in its entirety.

You ask: If there is already right view, why is it necessary to employ the Truths?

Answer: All the factors are capable of eliminating and counteracting their respective opposites, and each has its own function, like casting something down upon the ground. Furthermore, in every undertaking, all the factors have their own distinct parts that together accomplish a single task. This is like the components of a cart and the cart as a whole: each has its own particular function, yet when assembled together they possess the capacity to transport. The factors of the Path and the Path itself are likewise.

You ask: What does right awakening mean?

Answer: What has never before arisen through deliberation now arises; this is right awakening.

Furthermore, this equality arises through conditions consisting of perceptions and formations. Again, because the essential characteristics and their objects accord when brought together, it is called right awakening. Moreover, seeing in accordance with discernment and not relinquishing it is called right awakening, just as an ox continues eating.

You ask: How can three dharmas become one?

Answer: Because they share a single characteristic, like the other factors of the Path. Furthermore, because they properly hear matters of equality, they are like the factors of samadhi. Again, because they take nirvana as their object, like the samadhi of signlessness, the three become one.

You ask: If one relies upon the two samadhis to realize the exhaustion of the outflows, then is right awakening connected with an incomplete set of Path factors? How should this meaning be examined?

Answer: If one relies upon the two samadhis to cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path, there are ordinarily no factors of initial and sustained thought belonging to the first dhyana; nevertheless, this does not mean that the Path factor of awakening is absent, just as the first dhyana and samadhi are without initial and sustained thought. Furthermore, right awakening is said to be present because the function is accomplished, not because its substance is present, just as awakening is present among the five faculties. Again, because it can overcome that which it counteracts, right awakening is said to be present, just like right faith.

You ask: What does right faith mean?

Answer: To vow forever never to break one’s word is called right speech, as related in the account of Ghosila. Furthermore, speech is purified because grasping at vows is eliminated and defilement disappears. Again, because this dharma is itself eternally wholesome, it is called right speech. The precept of right speech is of two kinds: first, abstention as made known in the sutra, “This person refrains from false speech”; second, positive declaration as made known in the sutra, “When this person speaks, he speaks truthfully.”

You ask: If it is said that speech during cultivation of the Path prevents samadhi, why did the Buddha say that samadhi is dispelled by sound? Otherwise, how could speech constitute a factor of the Path?

Answer: Because it is a factor of the Path, it is not dispelled, just as with right awakening and the awakening factor of joy. Furthermore, hearing a sound that tests one is said to disturb samadhi, just as seeing a woman may do. The sutra states: Repeatedly seeing women subjects the cultivation of the holy life to trial.

Nevertheless, an arhat is not subjected to such trial, for he has eliminated that which causes it. Furthermore, the sutra states: Just as a great elephant is dignified whether walking or standing, so a practitioner who contemplates with right thought has samadhi in mind even when teaching the Dharma. It cannot be said that there is no samadhi merely because of speech.

There is also another teaching: The four kinds of skillful speech are right speech, just as worldly people speak of “being able to depart” as right action. Or they say that a horse runs swiftly, just as a virtuous person speaks well.

You ask: What does right action mean?

Answer: The sutra states that abstaining from evil bodily karma is called right action. The sutra also states: “This bodily karma does not rise up, does not flow onward, does not leak through, is free and does not grasp, and is capable of giving rise to quiescence.” This is called right action. Furthermore, through contemplating faults, one abstains from killing living beings, refrains from improper deeds, and ceases indulgence in pleasures. This is called right action.

You ask: All the factors are right action; why, then, is only one given the name “right action”?

Answer: If this name were not distinguished from the others, it could not be made manifest, just as with the dharma-dhatu and the dharma-ayatana: without eye-consciousness, they could not be taken as objects, nor could they be made clear. Since all forms of karma rely upon it, action is, as it were, the fundamental basis.

You ask: If what is done is called right action, then abstention is precisely not doing; how can it constitute action?

Answer: Because one does not cause evil karma to arise and brings about the preservation of the wholesome, it should be understood that this too is action. As the sutra says: “I speak of doing, and at the same time I speak of not doing.” Furthermore, because it can eliminate both black and white karma, it is spoken of as not doing. Because its activity counteracts karma, it is spoken of as doing. Furthermore, right action has another name: “right elimination of action.” By virtue of this name, its meaning as both doing and not doing is established, and the designation is valid. It is just as, on account of the eye, one speaks of seeing and also, on account of the eye, speaks of not seeing.

You ask: If it is not doing, how can such karma exist at all?

Answer: The existence of this karma arising from defiled causes and conditions can be clearly known because the sutra states that form is of three kinds: first, visible and resistant; second, invisible and resistant; and third, invisible and non-resistant. It also speaks of undefiled form, and its existence is likewise clearly known from the seven kinds of meritorious benefit. It also states that when one instructs another, there are the ten courses of karma.

It further states that a bhikshu possesses a dharma not included among the eleven ayatanas—namely, that which is invisible and non-resistant—yet it does not say that it is formless. Furthermore, if this karma did not exist, the eightfold Noble Path would be incomplete. Why?

Because while contemplating right action, one refrains from the three bodily karmas. Any explanation other than this is incorrect. Why?

Because the three karmas have already been cultivated during the preparatory stage. As the sutra says: “This person sees thus and clearly knows thus. This is right view, cultivated to completion, together with right intention, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.” First, right speech, right action, and right livelihood have been purified; and because these rely upon mundane freedom from desire and the path of moral discipline, this teaching is given.

Furthermore, if this were so, the Pratimoksha would likewise not exist. Why? Because it exists at the time of receiving the precepts, but afterward, if the mind becomes different, one should no longer be called a bhikshu or bhikshuni.

Furthermore, the sutra says that this karma is called an embankment, for it can prevent the successive breaking of the precepts. If it did not exist, evil deeds could not be stopped. The Sautrantikas commonly say: “There are especially many objections to this, while its real meaning is slight.” But this is not so.

Why? You say that because three kinds of form are taught, the existence of doing and non-doing is clearly known. This meaning is certainly incorrect.

The masters who examine action, such as Maudgalyayana and Aniruddha, say: “The form that is the object of concentration is obtained through the power of concentration.” This form is not an object of the eye faculty, and therefore it is called invisible; it presents no obstruction, and therefore it is called non-resistant. If you say, “If that is so, why is it called form?” then the same applies to non-action. Moreover, your position is difficult to understand.

You say that because undefiled form is taught, the existence of doing or non-doing is clearly known. This meaning is again incorrect, for this form is likewise produced by the power of concentration; because the concentration is undefiled, the form is also undefiled.

Other treatise masters explain: “The form of an arhat is also undefiled, since there is no defilement upon which it depends.” Again, it is said that this meaning is incorrect, for the sutra states: “What are conditioned dharmas accompanied by the outflows? They are all eyes, all forms, and so forth.” Since this form is not an antidote to the outflows, it is called accompanied by the outflows. If so, is this form accompanied by the outflows or free from the outflows?

Question: If that is so, what follows? Is the continuum then composite and confused?

Answer: The characteristic of being accompanied by the outflows and the characteristic of being free from the outflows do not thereby become composite and confused. Moreover, if the form-ayatana were exclusively accompanied by the outflows, why would the sutra distinguish it and not simply state it universally? The sutra says: “Form accompanied by the outflows is that which is firmly grasped and concealed by the appropriating mind and which serves as its basis; therefore it is called form accompanied by the outflows.”

You ask: The existence of non-action is known from the seven kinds of meritorious benefit. This meaning is incorrect. The Sautrantika masters say: When you make use of an article given by a donor, the donor’s merit is benefited through that use.

Although the donor’s mind may have changed, the intention present at the earlier time of giving perfumed the continuum, which then progressively underwent a distinctive transformation. Through this distinctive transformation, a future result can arise corresponding to the greater or lesser amount of merit. In dependence upon that continuum, it is said that the donor’s merit grows.

If you say that the excellence of that continuum depends upon how the gift is used, then, when the donor’s mind has changed, how can the continuum itself remain distinctively transformed and become established? This meaning is incorrect. Why?

The same difficulty applies to non-action. You maintain non-action; yet if the excellence or inferiority of the continuum depends upon how the gift is used, how can that continuum thereby be established?

Question: If the kinds of merit do not increase, why is it said that they are capable of producing a result?

Answer: Through repeated perfuming, the intention directed toward moral discipline and concentration increases accordingly, even to the point of affecting the eye.

Question: If so, how should the meaning of the Sutra of the Householder Ugra be understood?

Answer: The sutra says: “If a bhikshu who observes the precepts and practices wholesome deeds makes use of food, drink, and clothing provided by a donor, then cultivates the concentration of the immeasurable states of mind, personally realizes that concentration, and enters a deep forest to dwell there, through that use the donor’s merit, wholesome benefit, and happiness increase immeasurably.” This should be clearly believed. What intention is present here? Therefore, clearly knowing that the continuum remains distinctively transformed is the correct principle.

You ask: In the case of non-action and of one who does not personally instruct another concerning an action constituting a course of karma, how can that course of karma be established for him?

Answer: The Sautrantika masters also explain this. Because of his instruction, another person either relinquishes or undertakes killing and the infliction of suffering. Thus one may indicate the subtle increase of wholesomeness or evil within that person’s continuum.

Through this distinctive transformation, a future result can arise corresponding to the greater or lesser amount of merit. If a person performs an act himself, then, in accordance with that deed, the continuum becomes distinctively transformed. This is called a course of karma; this meaning should be understood.

Its result is precisely the cause for the provisional designation. It is the result of body and speech, and the meaning of the provisional designation of body and speech is likewise so, just as the mind does not instruct body and speech.

A certain venerable master said: “In dependence upon the appropriated skandhas of a sentient being, one incurs the offense of killing through intentions arising at three times, namely: ‘He will kill for me,’ ‘He is killing as intended,’ and ‘He has killed.’” This explanation likewise does not establish killing. Although there are three intentions, the course of karma is accomplished only when the act is completed. Why? Because before the life faculty has been definitively severed, a person who gives rise to those three intentions does not incur the grave offense. Therefore, if you yourself destroy another’s life, the offense can be constituted through these three intentions.

Again it is asked: If it cannot be seen, then why become angry and slander it, instead of simply believing that the continuity of experience and enjoyment cannot be otherwise?

Answer: This anger and slander do not invariably become accomplished facts through the activity of mind and the course of bodily karma. That is to say, the practitioner possesses a dharma distinct from the mind, one in which one takes no delight; because of the mind’s preparatory effort, this matter is brought to completion. Once it has been completed, the continuum subsequently changes for the better.

This meaning may be accepted. Why? Because the mental continuum and its fruit will be brought to completion.

You say: Among the dharmas taught by the Buddha, the formless is not spoken of; therefore, from that teaching it is clearly known whether it exists or does not exist. This meaning has already been answered, as in the case of the form-realm concentration. You say: If this karma did not exist, the eightfold path could not be established; therefore, its existence or nonexistence is clearly known from that teaching.

One should understand this meaning clearly. A person’s companions should also speak on that person’s behalf. Upon entering the truth and contemplating it, how could right speech, right action, and right livelihood exist?

Because while engaged in contemplation, this person regards existence as karmic activity and seeks the full provision of the four requisites; therefore, these three are present, for otherwise they would not correspond. If this were not so, who, while in that contemplation, could possess these three kinds without any injunction? It is through this that they are obtained.

Upon emerging from contemplation, one will possess speech that is not wrong and will always speak rightly.

The author of the treatise replies: What here is not apprehended in this manner? If, during contemplation, one becomes free from the absence of injunction, it is thereby that one attains mastery of intention and obtains a basis for such mastery. Afterward, upon emerging from contemplation, one can refrain from wrong speech and constantly abide in right speech. Thus, here the cause is provisionally given the name of its fruit. Because the continuum thereby changes for the better, it is called right speech. It is on account of this meaning that the path is divided into eight factors.

According to the Sthavira school, constantly refraining from evil is called the threefold division. Why? Through the power of the Noble Path, one is definitively restrained from committing such acts. Because this depends upon the uncontaminated path, it is called uncontaminated. It is not the case that everything included among enumerated dharmas truly exists, as do the eight supramundane dharmas. These are gain and loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain. Among these, when there is no loss, there is consequently no distinct dharma of loss.

Other masters say that the pratimoksha discipline constitutes three factors of the path. Relying on the method previously adopted, one makes a declaration and forms the intention to undertake it. Through this act of attention, one can guard body and speech.

The act of attention that restrains them is called the pratimoksha discipline. If you say that when a person is in another state this restraint is not maintained, this meaning is incorrect, because it has been repeatedly cultivated. When conditions for violating the precepts arise, the act of attention immediately arises as well.

This act of attention functions like a dike. Why? By recalling one’s former vow, one wholesomely refrains from evil, for this is the function of undertaking the precepts.

Furthermore, if someone argues that, because there is a separate state in which there is no injunction, one can therefore break the precepts, this would mean that there could be no inadvertent violation of the precepts. There is no need to elaborate. Whether this is correct or not should be determined clearly.

Within the Noble Eightfold Path, morality has three factors, for the path takes it as its foundation, just as the earth is the primary basis. It is like a king who can transcend birth and death through excellent medicine, or like a complete vessel capable of receiving fragrance, like leaves from the heavenly realm. Its purity, transmitted in succession, can lead all the way to nirvana, as in the parable of the seven vehicles. Other masters of the treatises cite the sutras as evidence, saying that this is precisely the fruit of the path. With regard to the conditions of reverence, gain, and support, there is no guarding antidote; once separated from what is understood, this discipline can be clearly known. Other masters also say:

Why is the absence of injunction classified as form rather than bodily feeling?

Answer: The absence of injunction belongs to bodily and verbal karma. Because it is subsumed among forms, whereas bodily feeling is associated with the mind, it is said to be included therein. Furthermore, the absence of injunction is bodily karma and therefore belongs to the body, while feeling is a mental dharma and therefore belongs to the mind. Furthermore, non-instruction is discipline; it is also form and is included in the form skandha, while bodily feeling is a mental dharma and is included in the feeling skandha. The treatise therefore explains that this dharma is an activity belonging to mental karma. Because it is accomplished through body and speech, it is provisionally given this name. How does this dharma differ from feeling?

Answer: This dharma is included in the feeling skandha, yet it is included through the various skandhas. Why? Because it depends upon the continuum.

You ask: Why is freedom from harmful assault not called a factor of the path?

Answer: Because noble disciples in training have not yet become completely tranquil. It is like establishing penalties and using an unchanging rule to prevent acts contrary to pure conduct, since their state is not yet firmly established. It is also like the factor of generosity, for morality is a provision for the path just as generosity is. To enable a broad understanding of this treatise, the eight kinds of morality are clearly distinguished. Here the eight factors of the Noble Path are explained.

You ask: Is there any difference between right action and right livelihood in the Noble Path and right action and right livelihood among the ten wholesome deeds?

Answer: Some can eliminate defilements, while others cannot. Those arising from supramundane right view are uncontaminated and take the deathless as their fruit. Those arising from mundane right view are contaminated and take the appropriated skandhas as their fruit; they can produce merit and are therefore called courses of karma. Because they enable one to transcend the courses of karma, they are called factors of the path.

You ask: What is the meaning of right livelihood?

Answer: Right livelihood is of two kinds: first, a white-robed layperson does not engage in the five kinds of trade; second, one who has gone forth abandons the five kinds of wrong livelihood. Furthermore, one relies upon proper principles when seeking the requisites for sustaining life—robes, food, and the four requisites—while also knowing contentment, not destroying the seed of the Noble Ones, and always exercising restraint. One also guards body and speech and, through the previously mentioned wisdom, remains far removed from wrong views of body and mind. This is therefore called right livelihood.

You ask: If right livelihood includes bodily and verbal karma, why is it established separately?

Answer: It is included in both, but because its meaning differs, it should clearly be established separately. It is like the skandhas: all are included among conditioned activities, yet because their meanings differ, four skandhas are established separately. Furthermore, its essence is also of two kinds, as in contemplation of the body. The sutra says: “Regarding the body, one abides contemplating the body.” Moreover, right livelihood differs from the two preceding factors, just as distinct numbers differ.

You ask: What is the meaning of diligence?

Answer: Practicing in various places, with differences according to the respective ground, one strives to acquire many wholesome dharmas and causes body and mind to arouse the effort not to relinquish what they carry. Furthermore, in order to eliminate evil dharmas and realize wholesome dharmas, one must constantly exert oneself. This is called diligence. Moreover, while cultivating the path in any place, one remains unwavering, with body and mind continually exerting themselves. This is called diligence.

You ask: What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its condition? What is its meaning?

Answer: The exertion aroused in body and mind is its characteristic; not falling away is its function; the arising of many kinds of diligent effort is its condition. The Abhidharma treasury says: Diligence has courageous vigor as its characteristic, freedom from defilement as its function, the four right efforts as its condition, and victorious practice as its meaning. One who is indolent engages in no victorious practice.

Furthermore, it is a supreme power. If a person possesses diligence, it is the supreme power with which one must battle the afflictions. An indolent person does not possess this. At the same time, this practice can eliminate and destroy the afflictions; therefore, this is the meaning of diligence.

You ask: If the cessation of evil is itself good, then there are not two kinds of effort. If it is not good, would the Truth of Cessation then not be something erroneous?

Answer: Although the cessation of evil is not a thing, goodness is not so; therefore, effort is twofold. Furthermore, the cessation of evil means true goodness, and apart from this there are two other kinds of goodness. Why, then, are there four kinds of goodness? Freedom from the error of violating the precepts is called the cessation of evil. The arising of the fragrance of morality is the production of good, like true serenity, distinct from living amid freezing cold.

You ask: If single-minded cultivation of right effort is sufficient, there is no need for the Four Right Efforts. If they are cultivated successively, would the cultivation of the aids to the Path not be incomplete?

Answer: The Four Right Efforts are cultivated all at once, just as the Four Truths are penetratively contemplated with a single mind. Why is this so? Through this cultivation, evil that has not yet arisen is prevented from arising, and evil that has already arisen is brought to an end. Good dharmas that have not yet arisen are caused to arise, and those that have already arisen are made to remain firmly established. This is effort: in essence it is one, but in function it is fourfold.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavada school says: For one who observes the precepts and practices contemplation, the Four Right Efforts are cultivated in order to eliminate what opposes concentration. When evil has arisen, it can obstruct concentration, and it is therefore extinguished through effort. Violations of the precepts that have not yet arisen are prevented from arising; concentration that has not yet arisen is caused to arise; and once it has arisen, it is made to abide peacefully, purely, and firmly. This is the meaning. Although effort is only one thing, it has four functions.

Furthermore, one teaching holds that the Four Right Efforts arise successively, as in the attainment of concentration. Why is this so? One right effort can destroy the defilements of the higher mind; another right effort can dispel the defilement of drowsiness. Another right effort can give rise to a faculty that has not yet arisen; and another can make what has arisen truly firm. Therefore, cultivating the factors of the Path is not merely the cultivation of diligence; hence there must be right effort.

You ask: Who possesses right mindfulness?

Answer: Not forgetting what came before and clearly apprehending the object—this is called right mindfulness. It is like being thoroughly practiced in apprehending characteristics. As the sutra says: “The mind clearly knows; the mind binds fast.” This is called mindfulness.

You ask: What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its object? What is its meaning?

Answer: Taking an object that is afterward recollected as its characteristic, keeping mind and object from becoming separated as its function, and the six recollections as its objects—recollecting for oneself and causing others to recollect is the meaning of mindfulness. It is like bodhi: awakening oneself and causing others to awaken and clearly know. According to the Abhidharma Treasury, sustained purity of mind is its characteristic, and not forgetting is its nature.

If something that had been lost appears again, mindfulness can provisionally take that object and rely upon wisdom; therefore, it is called mindfulness. Furthermore, mindfulness is of four kinds: first, following and grasping phrases and words; second, following what is grasped concerning the Path; third, being able to follow and contemplate the meaning; and fourth, being able to follow and penetrate what is contemplated.

These four render the treatise proper and clear.

You ask: Since all conditioned dharmas do not remain for even a single kshana, how can mindfulness retain anything? Why is this so? Is not what saw then and what recollects now different?

Answer: If the one who knows and the mindfulness were different, recollection could not be established. Just as when King Dirghadarshana recollected the past, if one wished to know that a single thought itself recollects, this too could not be established, and afterward there would be no knowing. The opposite of these three implications is mindfulness, or recollection.

To explain further: if there were no causal connection, what was seen by one could not be recollected by another, just as when this person sees, another person does not remember it. If there is a causal connection, however, what was seen then can be remembered by the later person. It is also like a youth who is strong but becomes feeble in old age.

Knowing this, that recollection arises in accordance with it; it is not unrelated, as though the youth were someone else. Likewise, a grain of wheat does not produce a wheat sprout if they are unrelated. When cause and effect are connected, however, there are always distinctions: this grain, this sprout, these branches and leaves are things that arise successively.

If a single thought alone accomplished recollection, cause and effect could not be established. A seed always has one sprout, yet the sprout does not arise immediately, because the connected stages are distinct and not one. Therefore, mindfulness can be established.

You ask: If all dharmas are establishments of mindfulness, then the faculty of mindfulness itself is an establishment of mindfulness. Is this meaning not inconsistent?

Answer: To clarify this treatise, mindful perception itself is the Four Establishments of Mindfulness, continually engaging its objects through the discriminative faculty, just as there are the faculty of knowledge and the measure of knowledge.

Furthermore, establishments of mindfulness are of three kinds. First is the establishment of mindfulness in its own nature, which constantly gives rise to recollection, like a king. Second is the associated establishment of mindfulness, in which dharmas capable of serving as supporting conditions are regarded as mindfulness, like the king, his great ministers, and the attendants on his left and right; these are also said to belong to the king. Third is the establishment of mindfulness as an object. Because mindfulness arises in dependence upon this object, the object is also called mindfulness, like the dwelling place of the king. Therefore, it is said that the faculty of mindfulness is itself an establishment of mindfulness; the meanings are not different.

You ask: If mindfulness by itself cannot retain even a single dharma, why does the sutra speak of “possessing mindfulness, the sole guardian”?

Answer: Mindfulness itself is guardianship. It is the foremost dominant condition and is therefore called the sole guardian, just as no one surpasses the king. As the sutra says: “For all dharmas, mindfulness is the dominant condition,” because it safeguards them.

Furthermore, a single mindfulness can safeguard all activities. As the sutra says: “This mindfulness functions in all places,” and all mindfulness can guard the six faculties, like a gatekeeper. Moreover, this mindfulness can gather them into a single mind, like a person using his hand to hold the mouth of a flute and control its tones.

It can also preserve a single continuity and is therefore called the sole guardian, as one keeps watch over a single child. Moreover, when the six faculties are restrained and their feet are tethered to one mindfulness, they cannot pursue other objects. It is like six living beings tied together to a single post.

Therefore, the sutra says: “Possessing mindfulness, the sole guardian.”

You ask: Why is one sometimes able to remember and at other times unable to remember?

Answer: There are three causes and conditions through which mindfulness can arise. First is repeated habituation through body, speech, and mind, as when something is seen in a dream. Second is a characteristic: one remembers through a corresponding or contrary characteristic, as when objects are either alike or different.

Third is sustained purity: because the mind is pure, mindfulness frequently arises, just as one clearly sees one’s face in a vessel filled with clear water. When these three conditions are absent or reversed, one cannot recollect. Furthermore, at the time of death and the time of birth, beings are oppressed by suffering and lose right mindfulness; therefore, they do not recollect their previous lives.

Furthermore, there are six causes and conditions through which mindfulness can arise, as the following verse says:

Correspondence, contrariety, and habituation,

Gathering together in a single place,

The power of concentration and the power of persons—

These six are causes of recollection.

Correspondence means that, upon seeing someone resembling one’s child, one immediately remembers the child. Contrariety means that, upon encountering excessive heat, one remembers a former time of extreme cold. Repeated habituation means that habits and customary activities are naturally remembered. Gathering together in a single place means that, upon seeing an amra tree, one immediately remembers its sour taste. The power of concentration means that one who has attained the Three Knowledges recollects the events of previous lives. The power of persons means that noble persons and great practitioners recollect their past lives.

You ask: What is the meaning of samadhi?

Answer: The sutra states that when the concentrated mind abides steadily, this is samadhi. The Abhidharma Treasury also states: That which can gather in the dharmas so that they are not scattered is called samadhi. When this mind continues without interruption, the evil winds of the afflictions cannot disturb it, just as a lamp in a closed chamber.

Samadhi is also of two kinds: mundane and supramundane. Mundane samadhi is that which can produce mundane results and retributions, is separate from the factors of awakening, and can subdue the manifest afflictions. Supramundane samadhi is that which enables one to pass beyond and become detached from the world, corresponds with the factors of awakening, and can shatter delusion and affliction.

The samadhi elucidated in this treatise is supramundane samadhi.

You ask: What is its characteristic? What is its function? What is its condition? What is its meaning?

Answer: The abiding of the concentrated mind is its characteristic; subduing through counteraction is its function; training in reliance upon the mind is its condition. According to the Treasury Treatise, one-pointedness of mind is its characteristic, non-distraction is its function, and the four concentrations are its conditions. Settling and straightening the mind is its meaning. As earlier masters of the treatises explained, worldly people speak of using the arrow of samadhi. This expression refers precisely to straightening an arrow. Likewise, continuously straightening the mind is called samadhi, as in the following verse:

The mind runs, leaps, and moves in disorder,

Hard to restrain and difficult to control;

The wise make it straight,

Just as they straighten an arrow.

It can also settle the mind in equanimity, just as a charioteer controls horses and guides a carriage along a difficult stretch of road. A practitioner of contemplation does likewise: one can establish one’s mind in equanimity with regard to objects and their characteristics, and can restrain what is unbalanced and unwholesome. This is called samadhi. Furthermore, just as one becomes free of illness when the malady of the five hindrances has been eliminated, so this is called samadhi.

Question: If right concentration is concentration, then a stream-enterer should always be free of desire and anger. If this is not so, would it not contradict reason?

Answer: Concentration is attained through the experiential result of what concentration counteracts, just as with the five faculties. Moreover, the mind is directed single-mindedly toward concentration, just as a bee, although confined in a foul place, has its mind upon the lotus blossom. Thus it is clearly known that it constantly dwells among flowers.

A noble one is likewise: although dwelling amid the objects of desire, the mind delights in tranquility. Therefore, it is always known to abide in concentration. Furthermore, although ignorance remains in a stream-enterer, that person’s illumination is not lost.

Likewise, although the Buddha, the Blessed One, possesses initial and sustained application of thought, his mind does not emerge into distraction but always remains in concentration. The concentration of a stream-enterer is also like this; therefore, it does not contradict the truth.

Question: What is the sequence of the eight factors of the Noble Path?

Answer: Because one can rely upon principle to contemplate the Noble Truths, right view is established first. Since one holds to and does not relinquish the contemplated dharmas, right thought is established next. From this, right speech, right action, and right livelihood are successively established. Then, because one abandons and attains with respect to the contemplated dharmas, right effort is established. In order never to forget what has been abandoned, right mindfulness is established. Because mindfulness is not lost, the mind is not distracted with regard to the objects perceived; therefore, right concentration is then established.

Furthermore, when all eight dharmas arise fully, they do not arise in sequence; thus, to say that their sequence is fixed would not accord with reason. If a person gives rise to the aspiration for nirvana, that person should first seek right view. If one wishes to act, one must have eyes.

According to the principle seen, what is grasped has been examined and selected, and right thought is thereby established. According to what has been selected, right speech is then established. Why is this so?

Speech relies upon initial and sustained application of thought. Having acted in accordance with what was spoken, right action is established. Through the successive purification of these two, right livelihood is established.

This person abides in morality and arouses diligent effort. Once effort is present, mindfulness is not lost; right mindfulness is then established. Because mindfulness is present, the mind is unified and undistracted; concentration comes next.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Treasury states: This undertaking takes wisdom as its foundation. Why is this so? Because the objects of the Four Truths are profound; without wisdom, their meaning cannot be understood.

Right view is first established. When the mind comes into contact with these objects, right thought is subsequently established. Through these two factors, one personally gains understanding of the Four Truths.

Right speech is then established, for the preceding two factors issue forth in speech and action. Next, right action is established. Through the preceding two factors, the mouth speaks and the body acts, thereby receiving and applying the Four Truths.

Right livelihood is then established. When body and mind are urged onward toward the truth, right effort is established. Through this effort, the mind becomes settled and purified with regard to the objects of the Four Truths.

Next, right mindfulness is established. Through this right mindfulness, the mind and its associated dharmas are never distracted from the objects of the Four Truths. Finally, right concentration is established. Furthermore, through right view, one sees the actions of a person and does not fall into overweening pride; one can discern them as they truly are and personally realize them. Through right thought, correct speech is brought forth. This personal realization can be conveyed to others. Through right speech, one can establish, refute, and resolve doubts, causing those with faith to acquire wisdom.

Because there is right action, one would rather relinquish one’s own life than commit an unlawful offense. Thus, those with faith are enabled to possess goodness and cherish morality, relying upon the Dharma just as the four requisites are needed.

Through right livelihood, those with faith are enabled to acquire the seeds of nobility and complete wisdom. Furthermore, right view and right thought are the causes of truthful speech, like the lion’s roar.

Through right action and right livelihood, the meaning expressed in speech can be made manifest. Through right effort, what has not yet been attained is caused to be attained, and what has not yet been eliminated is caused to be eliminated. Through right mindfulness, when the mind sinks or becomes agitated, the three characteristics are not forgotten; therefore, concentration is unobstructed. Through right concentration, the hindrances to concentration are eliminated, and the six superknowledges can be brought forth. When these virtues are later perfected, liberation will be attained.

According to the Abhidharma Treasury: Because of right view, the faculty of faith, the power of faith, and aspiration are taught. Why is this so? Because wisdom is present, faith and aspiration are perfected. Through effort, one can encompass the right endeavors, the faculty and power of effort, and the factor of awakening of effort. Through right concentration, one encompasses the bases of spiritual power associated with mind, together with the faculty of concentration, the power of concentration, joy, tranquility, equanimity, the awakening factor of concentration, and so forth. It is because of this meaning. One should know that these are precisely the thirty-seven factors of awakening, within which is the Noble Eightfold Path.

Furthermore, right view and right mindfulness constitute the aspect of vipasyana (insight). Because ignorance is extinguished through this, liberation through wisdom is its fruit. The other factors of the Path belong to samatha (calm abiding).

Because desire is abandoned through this, liberation of mind is its fruit. Thus, in brief, the Path has two aspects: first, vipasyana (insight); and second, samatha (calm abiding). Furthermore, the Treasury Treatise states: Right speech, right action, and right livelihood form the threefold aggregate of morality.

Through this morality, the roots of malicious delusion are uprooted. Right thought, right effort, and right concentration form the threefold aggregate of concentration. Through these, craving and the unwholesome faculties are uprooted.

Right view and right livelihood form the twofold aggregate of wisdom. Through these, the unwholesome roots of ignorance are destroyed. It is precisely because of this meaning that the Path has three aspects.

This Path also has four parts. First is the Path of Preparation: because of this unobstructed condition, the Path arises. The Path of Non-Obstruction is also called Preparation. Second is the Path of Non-Obstruction: it can rightly remove all obstructions and serves as their antidote; because it is unobstructed, it is called Non-Obstruction. Third is the Path of Liberation: liberation from the Path of Non-Obstruction and from the place where the defilements have been destroyed. This is the initial liberation. Fourth is the Path of Excellence: after the Path of Liberation, all paths other than those already mentioned are called the Path of Excellence.

Question: Why are these four called paths?

Answer: Because they proceed directly toward nirvana, they are called Paths.

Question: If so, in what sense are the Path of Liberation and the Path of Excellence called paths?

Answer: There are many kinds of paths. Because they do not change, cause what is earlier to give rise to what is later, and can lead to nirvana without remainder, they are called Paths. Furthermore, there are four kinds of path: first, the painful path with slow knowledge; second, the painful path with swift knowledge; third, the pleasant path with slow knowledge; and fourth, the pleasant path with swift knowledge.

The pleasant path means relying upon the four complete concentrations, with concentration and wisdom in equipoise and practice requiring no deliberate effort. This is its meaning, and therefore it is called the pleasant path. Apart from this, it is called the painful path.

This means relying upon the future concentration, the intermediate concentration, and the three formless concentrations.

With incomplete factors, concentration and wisdom are unequal, and practice requires deliberate effort. In the future concentration, there is wisdom but little concentration; in the three formless concentrations, there is concentration but little wisdom; in the intermediate concentration, the factors are incomplete, and both concentration and wisdom are slight. For these reasons, it is called the painful path. Within this there are two paths: one who possesses the faculty of faith is said to proceed slowly, while one who possesses the faculty of wisdom is said to proceed swiftly. Thus, within this Noble Eightfold Path, according to concentration and according to the faculties, there are four modes of practice.

Furthermore, it is called the Noble Path, or the thirty-seven dharmas conducive to awakening. What is awakening? The knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising are called awakening. According to the three kinds of persons, there are three classes of awakening: the awakening of a sravaka, the awakening of a pratyekabuddha, and unsurpassed awakening. They can utterly eliminate ignorance without remainder. This is accomplished by oneself and need not be done again; because it is awakening in accordance with reality, it is called awakening.

“Conducive” means that these thirty-seven dharmas accompany and assist one in reaching the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising; therefore, they are called conducive. They are said to be thirty-seven by designation, not by their essential nature. If this treatise speaks only in terms of their essential nature, there are merely ten: faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, joy, pliancy, equanimity, morality, and awakening.

The Abhidharma masters say that there are eleven in essential nature, for morality is divided into two: bodily and verbal. Other Abhidharma masters say that there are thirteen in essential nature, namely, the bases, aspiration, and mind. Whatever is attained throughout all dharmas is called conducive to awakening.

These are transformations of the ten kinds. The thirty-seven are: the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the Four Right Efforts, the Four Bases of Spiritual Power, the Five Faculties, the Five Powers, the Seven Factors of Awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path.

Question: In general, there are four stages: first, the stage of initial practice; second, the stage of penetration; third, the stage of seeing; and fourth, the stage of cultivation.

Question: What is their sequence?

Answer: A practitioner of contemplation, established in morality, is then able to understand the faults of samsara and the merit of nirvana. Apart from the contemplation of the Four Truths, one employs undifferentiated preparatory means and can understand the faults and merits; one then gathers the many objects and causes the distracted mind to remain in one place. In order to produce an antidote, subdue the four inversions, make the mind accord with reason, and enter contemplation of the Four Truths, the Four Foundations of Mindfulness are therefore taught first.

After separately contemplating the dharmas of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, one becomes able to adopt and to abandon. To preserve the wholesome and abandon the unwholesome, one cultivates the Right Efforts. Thus, through contemplation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness, the Right Efforts are accomplished.

Through the Right Efforts, after contemplating the characteristics of the defilements, obstructions, and purity, the assisting dharmas are established so that the mind may abide as one wishes.

Next, the Four Bases of Spiritual Power are established. Through the power of this concentration, there is no doubt regarding objects, and the mind develops. Through this faith, one does not become indolent, and the mind develops.

Through this diligence, one attains a wholesome mind. Possessing assisting power and being unobstructed, the mind develops with respect to not forgetting its object. Through this mindfulness, the mind is gathered upon a single object.

With respect to non-distraction, the mind develops. Through this concentration, one contemplates the object in accordance with reality, and the mind develops. Because its own nature develops, one does not regress from one’s stage.

The mind develops because one does not regress from one’s stage. With respect to the factors of penetration, the mind develops. Next, the Five Faculties are established, and these Five Faculties develop until they reach the highest supreme grade, where inferior defilements cannot destroy them.

No other worldly dharma can surpass them. The undefiled mind successively takes them as its objects and does not fall away from the noble stage. This is the meaning.

Next, the Five Powers are established. Having seen self and person, gain and loss, one then attains the true path, then gains resoluteness, then gains eyes, and then gains feet. Through the Five Powers, one attains the practice of emergence.

Next, the Noble Eightfold Path is established. Through the Noble Eightfold Path, the defilements abandoned by seeing the Truths are destroyed; one then draws near to the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising, and this path is transformed into the Seven Factors of Awakening. This is the sequential establishment of the thirty-seven factors.

Contemplation of the Four Foundations of Mindfulness is the stage of initial practice, namely, the factor of liberation. The Four Right Efforts are the stage of patience. The Four Bases of Spiritual Power are the stage of name.

The Five Faculties are the stage of characteristics. The Five Powers are the stage of the highest worldly dharma. These four kinds are called the stage of decisive understanding.

The Noble Eightfold Path is called the stage of seeing. The Seven Factors of Awakening are called the stage of cultivation. The knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising are called the ultimate stage.

As these are fruits without further causes, they are not established as paths.

Furthermore, this Path is also called the Brahma Wheel, meaning that it is set in motion by the Buddha, the Blessed One, and his disciples. This Noble Path has six meanings resembling a wheel. First is swift movement: whether in a single mind-moment, twelve mind-moments, or fifteen mind-moments, it universally courses through the Four Truths of the three realms; therefore, it is called swift.

Second is leaving this place and reaching another, meaning abandoning the mundane and reaching the supramundane. Third is movement upward and downward, meaning either abiding in patience with respect to dharmas or in category-patience. Fourth is passing from here to there, meaning that it is successively explained from teacher to teacher, and continuously explained down to the disciples.

Fifth is its resemblance to the revolving axle of a wheel.

Morality, having three parts, forms the axle; right view, right intention, right effort, and right mindfulness form the spokes; and right concentration forms the rim. Like the chariot of a noble king, it subdues those not yet subdued and can preserve those already subdued. It subdues by means of the Path of Non-Obstruction and preserves by means of the Path of Liberation. Because it possesses this meaning, it is called the Brahma Wheel.

Furthermore, within the Noble Eightfold Path, right view has five parts; morality has six kinds, namely, the three karmas and what is expressed or unexpressed. Diligence has nine parts, right mindfulness has eight parts, and right concentration also has eight parts. If this Noble Path is explained extensively, it has thirty-seven factors; if explained moderately, it has eight factors; and if explained briefly, it has either three factors or two. A verse says:

If one seeks nirvana,

To extinguish cessation and skillfully relinquish,

One should constantly practice diligence,

And hear, reflect upon, and cultivate the Four Truths.

Here ends fascicle four of the Treatise on the Four Truths, completing the entire work.