四諦論

Chapter 6: Analysis of the Truth of the Path

The sutra speaks of the truth of the Path. Why? From what does it arise?

If the Path can extinguish craving, it should not be said to lead to the end of suffering. If this is not so, then this statement is contradictory. If it extinguishes both the origin and suffering, why does the sutra not state this fully?

If the Path can bring suffering to an end, one who cultivates the Path should possess no category of suffering. If this is not so, it should not be said to lead to the end of suffering. If conditioned dharmas cannot enter the unconditioned, why is right practice said to mean leading to the end of suffering?

Right practice is said to be the Noble Eightfold Path. Is this a definitive statement? Why is the term “noble” used, and what does it mean?

Why is only the Path called noble, while the other aids to the Path are not? If the Path is distinct from its factors, their characteristics should be stated. If the Path consists only of its factors, then there is no distinction between the whole and its parts.

What does “Path” mean? Why does this sutra speak of all its factors, while other sutras do not? If the Path is conditioned, why did the Buddha say that it has existed since ancient times?

If it is unconditioned, why is it said to be conditioned? If the Path is one, then when one person cultivates it, many others should attain it as well, just as with a garment and the like. If this is not so, it should not be said that it is through this one Path.

If noble ones all attain the same Path, why is their wisdom not the same? If their wisdom is not the same, why is their liberation equal? If the Path is not mind, then insentient things and the like should also possess the Path.

If it is neither mind nor a mental factor, the practices to be cultivated will not be complete. If it is a mental factor, how can mutually opposed dharmas coexist in a single mind? If the Path comes and eliminates the afflictions, mutually opposed dharmas would coexist in a single mind.

If it does not come, why does it not eliminate the afflictions in other continua? If all the factors arise together, there are many acts of attention. If they arise successively in order, there is only one factor.

Why are precisely eight factors established, neither more nor fewer? Why are desire and other dharmas not included? Why is one dharma divided into three kinds?

It is said that the Middle Way can extinguish meritorious and evil conduct and lead to the end of suffering; why, then, is Right View placed first?

Why is it said that Right View precedes practice, and what does this mean? Seeing has not yet matured into one capable of seeing. How does Right View differ from the right view included among the ten wholesome actions?

If Right View sees the truths in a single instant, it must have many objects. If not, then it is not extinguished from moment to moment. If Right View has already understood the truths, what further use are the other factors?

What does Right Resolve mean? How do three dharmas constitute one? If one attains the exhaustion of all outflows by relying on two concentrations, then Right Resolve is incomplete and a factor of the Path is lacking.

This matter must be examined. What does “right” mean? If speech occurs, cultivation of the Path is not concentrated.

Why? The Buddha said that concentration is disturbed by sound. If there is no speech, it does not constitute a factor of the Path.

What is Right Action? All the factors are right actions, so why is only one called Right Action? If abstention is called Right Action, abstention is non-activity; how, then, can it constitute action? Why is abstention from beating and other such actions not said to be a factor of the Path? How do Right Action and Right Livelihood differ from the right action and right livelihood included among the ten wholesome actions?

What does Right Livelihood mean? If Right Livelihood is included within bodily and verbal karma, why is it established separately?

What is Right Effort? What are its characteristic, function, object, and meaning? If only the elimination of evil is wholesome, there cannot be two kinds of effort. If it is not wholesome, then the truth of cessation is not wholesome. If cultivating the right endeavor with one-pointed mind is sufficient, there cannot be four right endeavors. If they are cultivated successively in order, the cultivation of the aids to the Path is incomplete.

What is Right Mindfulness? What are its characteristic, function, object, and meaning? Since conditioned dharmas do not remain for even a single moment, how can mindfulness be established? Why? Because what is seen is one thing and what is subsequently remembered is another; this cannot be the meaning. If all dharmas are establishments of mindfulness, and the faculty of mindfulness is itself an establishment of mindfulness, the meaning is inconsistent. If mindfulness itself cannot retain a single dharma, why does the sutra say that when mindfulness retains something, one is sometimes able to remember and sometimes unable to remember?

What is samadhi? What are its characteristic, function, object, and meaning? If Right Concentration is concentration, a stream-enterer should be free from desire and anger. If this is not so, it contradicts reason.

You ask: The sutra speaks of the truth of the Path. Why is this said? From what cause does it arise?

Answer: This question was not asked because someone needed to have wisdom revealed to him. Why? Because merely upon hearing the name, its meaning was already understood. Arising from great compassion, the Buddha distinguished the path to nirvana and disclosed its hidden meaning. Wishing to explain extensively the verbal testimony and to develop discriminating wisdom in his disciples, the Buddha asked the question himself. Why? Because asking first and explaining afterward brings many benefits. The extensive analysis of dependent arising is as stated previously.

Furthermore, the disciples receiving instruction had asked about the many kinds of paths taught by non-Buddhists, but they had not yet determined with certainty whether those paths were right or wrong. To remove minds of ignorance, doubt, and delusion, the Buddha therefore asked and answered the question himself.

What is the Path? It is the Noble Eightfold Path, which guides those who do not know the way onto the correct road.

You ask: If the Path can extinguish craving, it should not be said to lead to the end of suffering. If this is not so, the statement is contradictory.

Answer: From the moment noble ones first arouse the aspiration to cultivate, they do so because they wish to eliminate suffering. Because the Path opens the way for this, it is said to lead to the end of suffering. The ending of this suffering is accomplished through the cessation of its cause; therefore, the cause is eliminated. It is like a lion.

Furthermore, the Buddhas, seeing all sentient beings fallen into suffering and adversity, arouse the aspiration to cultivate the Path in order to remove the suffering of beings. This is the function of cultivation, as stated in the Sutra on the Simile of the Kingdom.

Other sutras also say that the ending of suffering is the function of going forth and cultivating the holy life, as in the Sutra on the Simile of the Seven Chariots.

Furthermore, the Tathagata appears in the world for three purposes. The first is to enable beings to end suffering; therefore, it is said that the Path leads to the end of suffering.

Furthermore, all conditioned things are impermanent and therefore suffering. Since one becomes free from conditioned dharmas, it is said that suffering ends. As the Sutra on the Simile of the Raft says: Even the Dharma must be relinquished, how much more so what is not the Dharma.

Furthermore, because the Noble Eightfold Path can eliminate the skandhas subject to clinging, speaking generally of both kinds of cessation entails no contradiction.

You ask: If it extinguishes both the origin and suffering, why does the sutra not state this fully?

Answer: The cessation of craving is revealed through the ending of suffering.

Furthermore, the ending of the cause is not the principal function; the ending of suffering is the principal one.

Furthermore, the Noble Path can extinguish existence together with the skandhas subject to clinging; therefore, the statement that suffering ends also encompasses the cessation of craving.

You ask: If the Path can end suffering, one who cultivates the Path should possess no category of suffering. If this is not so, it should not be said to lead to the end of suffering.

Answer: Suffering is said to end because its causes and conditions have ended. Just as when a fire is extinguished, the charcoal is said to be spent, and just as when the roots are destroyed, the tree is said to be dead.

Furthermore, the Noble Path can extinguish the suffering arising from wrong discrimination, but it does not eliminate the suffering resulting from karma in a previous life or the suffering associated with the earth element. Examples include exhalation, Chandala, Upasena, and others.

Furthermore, with respect to nirvana with remainder, the Noble Path can extinguish mental suffering; with respect to nirvana without remainder, it can extinguish bodily suffering.

Furthermore, the Noble Path can extinguish the suffering of the skandhas of future existence. However, the karmic actions created in previous lives continue to follow one and have not yet ceased, like a turning wheel or a loosed arrow.

You ask: If conditioned dharmas cannot enter the unconditioned, why is the Path said to lead to the end of suffering?

Answer: Nirvana does not go anywhere, nor does the Path go anywhere. Although neither goes anywhere, because the Path directs one toward nirvana and enables one to attain nirvana, it is said to lead to the end of suffering, like a highway.

Furthermore, this is an expedient expression. For example, one speaks of streams flowing onward and water flowing until it is exhausted. Neither the stream nor the exhausted water actually goes anywhere, yet people commonly say that it goes. Leading to the end of suffering is spoken of in the same way.

You ask: What does right practice mean?

Answer: Because through it one understands the true meaning, it is called right practice. Furthermore, because advancing is going, as when one speaks of a road that leads everywhere. Again, because it can lead to a place of security, it is called right practice.

Furthermore, “right” means not contrary, and “practice” means proceeding toward. Because it does not run contrary to proceeding toward nirvana, it is called right practice.

You ask: Right practice is the Noble Eightfold Path. What is the purpose of making such a definitive statement?

Answer: It is to refute other paths, to establish the path that leads everywhere, and to make clear that it does not lead to other destinations.

Furthermore, it can bring every path of suffering to an end; it can stop the burning caused by all karmic retribution and afflictions; it can remove, for oneself and others, the fear of abuse and insults, severe punishment, evil destinies, death, and so forth; it can clear away the bones piled as high as Mount Vipula; and it can dry up the source of blood and tears. Because it has such functions, this definitive statement is made.

You ask: What is the meaning of “noble”?

Answer: Because its essence is uncontaminated, and because sentient beings are liberated into a single flavor, one who attains this through the continuity of this nature is called a noble person. It is like a wholesome dharma; as the sutra speaks of Noble Right View.

Furthermore, because it is practiced by noble persons, it is called noble, just as a road traveled by a king is called the king’s road.

Furthermore, because it is taught by noble persons, it is called noble, just as a road traveled by a teacher is called the teacher’s road.

Furthermore, because it is honored and followed by the noble assembly, it is called noble, just as a road traveled by cattle is called a cattle-path.

Furthermore, because it enables one to reach the summit of nobility, it is called noble, just as a principal road is called a national highway. Thus the sutra speaks of noble right liberation.

You ask: Why is only the path called noble, while the other aids to the path are not so described?

Answer: Because they share a single characteristic, they are all called noble, just as all fire shares the nature of fire.

Furthermore, because they share the single flavor of liberation, just as the waters of the ocean share the single flavor of salt.

Furthermore, the eight factors of the path are supreme and can encompass the other aids to the path, as stated in the Elephant’s Footprint Simile Sutra.

You ask: If the path is distinct from its factors, its characteristic should be explained. If it is said that the path consists only of its factors, then is there no distinction between the whole and a single part?

Answer: The distinction between the whole and a single part can indeed be seen and explained. It is like the five factors of samadhi, and like the five factors by which a bhikshu abides in the fivefold domain. The path is likewise distinct from its factors. When these factors are balanced, they are collectively called the path. Why? If these eight factors attain a state of balance, they can eliminate the afflictions; but if they are either depressed or excessive, they cannot eliminate them. It is like tuning the strings of a lute.

Furthermore, when these factors are complete, they are called the path because they can accomplish the task, just as the assembled parts constitute a cart. Nevertheless, according to the true meaning, the whole is designated through its parts, just as with the five factors of music and the five factors of concentration. The path is likewise so.

We shall now discuss how only the factors themselves are the path. That only the factors are the path is established by six principles:

1. Because they are called the path. The sutra says that the five faculties are the path, the road leading to nirvana. These five faculties are themselves factors of the path. Therefore, it is known that only the factors are the path.

2. Because the sutra says that the three bodies encompass the path. The three bodies consist solely of factors.

3. Because of cessation. The sutra says that right view proceeds toward cessation and detachment, whereas the path itself does not cease.

4. Because of elimination. The sutra says that if right view is cultivated, it can eliminate desire and so forth. Apart from the path, these cannot be eliminated.

5. Because of deliverance. The sutra says that such factors as right view can bring deliverance from this. If they were not the path, they could not bring deliverance.

6. Because of the purification of the path. The sutra says: “Prajna is the path because through it purification is attained.” Prajna is right view. Therefore, it is known that the factors are the path.

You ask: What is the meaning of “path”?

Answer: “Path” means seeking. Why? Because through it the true meaning can be attained. It also carries the meaning of going. That is, just as people in the world say, “This road leads to the country of Shravasti,” and so forth, the path is likewise the road leading to nirvana.

Furthermore, the principle of truth, the gateway to meaning, the expedient by which practice arises, and so forth are all meanings of “path.”

You ask: Why does this sutra set forth all the factors completely, while other sutras do not set them forth in full?

Answer: The Treatise on the Dharma Treasury says that there are two kinds of provisional designation: first, independent provisional designation; and second, dependent provisional designation. Applying the name of the entity itself to its factors is independent provisional designation, as with right view and the other factors of the path.

Dependent provisional designation applies to such gateways as mindfulness and to the factors that aid the path. Why? Because the constituents of the path are not cultivated separately.

Furthermore, it is because of predominance. Within the foundations of mindfulness and so forth, whichever single dharma predominates over the others gives its name to all the dharmas therein. It is like salty, sour, and other flavors: a mixture is named according to whichever flavor predominates. It is also like the various realms: according to whichever one predominates, the others receive their name from it.

Furthermore, in the Desire Realm the path is described with all its factors, while in the Form Realm and Formless Realm it has either five or four. Because the four antidotes eliminate their corresponding entities, the remaining factors increase or decrease according to the realm and stage. For this reason, the factors are sometimes complete and sometimes incomplete.

You ask: If the path is conditioned, why did the Buddha call it the ancient path? If it is unconditioned, why is it said to be a conditioned dharma?

Answer: Calling the path ancient shows that it is conditioned. Why? Conditioned dharmas may be new or old, like rice and other grains. If it were unconditioned, such a statement should not be made, as in the case of space and nirvana. When the body is said to be old karma, it is not thereby unconditioned. It is also spoken of as the lineage of the noble ones and the Dharma of the teachers. Therefore, the path is not unconditioned. This treatise now states that the path is conditioned.

How is this known? It is known from the extensive analysis in the Sutra Connected with the Truths and in the reply to Dharmatrata’s question. Because it possesses the characteristics of the conditioned, the sutra says: “Based upon right intention, a path that has not yet arisen is caused to arise, and one that has already arisen is caused to increase.” Because it arises and increases, it is known to be conditioned.

It is also known through relinquishment. As the sutra says: “Even the Dharma should be relinquished, how much more what is not the Dharma.” Cessation is unconditioned and cannot be relinquished. It is also known because the path arises dependent upon internal conditions.

As the sutra says: “This path arises dependent upon what is internal.” This refuge is difficult to attain. If it were unconditioned, it would not arise dependent upon what is internal. It is also known because it is termed karma.

As the sutra says: “This path is neither black nor white karma and can extinguish all karma.” If it is karma, it is not an unconditioned dharma. It is also known because it has nutriment. As the sutra says: “The seven factors of enlightenment take nutriment as their cause.”

If they were unconditioned, they would not require nutriment as a cause. For these reasons, the path is conditioned.

You ask: If the path is one, then when one person cultivates it, other people should also attain realization, just as with a garment and so forth. If this is not so, why is it said that there is this one path?

Answer: There are many paths, not merely one. Why? Because their fruits are not identical. Since the paths differ, their fruits also differ, just as different roads lead to different destinations.

Furthermore, because their essences differ, the paths differ. This refers to the path of seeing, the path of cultivation, and so forth, as well as the four kinds of path: painful, pleasant, slow, and swift.

Furthermore, because the faculties differ, the paths differ. This refers to the nine kinds of trainees, the nine kinds beyond training, pratyekabuddhas, and Buddhas. Because their faculties differ, their paths differ. It is with reference to their common kind that one path is spoken of, just as people in the world speak of “one kind of rice.” The sutra says: “Whatever the Buddhas of the three times contemplate or teach is these Four Truths.” Yet suffering and the other three truths do not have permanent, fixed essences. The statement that there is one path should be understood in the same way.

You ask: If all noble persons attain the same single path, why is their wisdom not identical? And if their wisdom is not identical, why is their liberation equal?

Answer: By contemplating all things and every kind of sphere, perfect enlightenment is attained. Therefore, it is said that the Buddha’s path is not the same as the two vehicles. As the sutra says: The liberation of the five skandhas is no different from liberation. Just as various kinds of fire all burn firewood completely, without difference, yet because the fires are not identical, their heat and light differ. In the same way, although wisdoms differ, their function of eliminating defilements and bringing liberation is the same. The majestic power of the Buddha’s meditative concentration and wisdom, and the blessings arising from the differences in His course of practice, are difficult to conceive or fathom, as stated in the Great Wheel Sutra.

You ask: If the path is not a mental dharma, then should insentient things also possess the path? If the mind is not a mental dharma, cultivation would be incomplete. If it is a mental dharma, how can mutually opposed dharmas all exist within a single mind?

Answer: Mind belongs to the realm of birth and death and is a worldly dharma. The path is a supramundane dharma. The two do not correspond, like Dharma and non-Dharma; therefore, it is said that the path is not a mental dharma.

That which is designated “mind” in dependence upon an object may, when engaged in seeking, be called the path. If the two were a single entity, their own nature would know itself; to avoid this fault, it is said that the path is not a mental dharma. For example, lifespan, the concentration of non-perception, mindlessness, and so forth, although not mental dharmas, are nevertheless present.

In the same way, although the path includes states with mind and without mind, when comprehensively understood, all are present; therefore, there is nothing that is not fully cultivated.

Furthermore, cultivation is of three kinds: preservation, practice, and investigation. Therefore, there is nothing that is not brought to completion. Yet the path may also be called a mental dharma. Why? Because it arises and ceases together with right thought, like a single mind. As the sutra says: By taking the mind as predominant, one attains one-pointedness of mind, called mental concentration, which is a factor of the path. Since they share the same emancipation and together accomplish one task, they coexist within a single mind without contradiction.

You ask: If the path reaches the defilements and eliminates them, then mutually opposed dharmas coexist within a single mind. If it does not reach them, why does it not eliminate them in another person’s continuum?

Answer: The path does not reach the defilements, yet it can eliminate them. Just as the path does not reach misconduct, yet it can eliminate one’s own misconduct but cannot eliminate another person’s misconduct, so too is the elimination of defilements. Although it reaches neither one’s own continuum nor another’s, it eliminates only one’s own defilements and cannot eliminate the defilements of others.

The Vibhajyavada school says: It neither reaches nor fails to reach. At that time, defilements are eliminated by taking non-arising as cessation. It is like treating an illness: once painful feeling has arisen, medicine cannot cure it. Why? Because pain cannot be transformed into pleasure. Medicine also cannot cure a painful feeling that has not yet arisen. Why? Because it does not exist. If so, what does the medicine treat? It merely creates a counteracting condition that forever prevents the unarisen pain from arising. The path’s ability to eliminate defilements is likewise.

You ask: If all the factors arise together, there would be many acts of attention. If they arise successively, there would be only one factor.

Answer: Because they accomplish a single task, they can arise together. Because their objects are distinct, there are not many intermingled intentions arising together. Their differences may be discerned through their functions, as in the case of aspiration.

You ask: Why are precisely eight factors established, neither more nor fewer?

Answer: This question could continue without end; therefore, it is not answered.

Furthermore, eight factors are taught because they counteract the eight wrong factors.

Furthermore, it is because they encompass the three bodies.

Furthermore, eight factors are taught because they counteract the three attachments, three fetters, three fires, and three poisons.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Pitaka states that eight virtues of the mind can be accomplished; therefore, eight factors are taught. Through attaining right view, the mind becomes purified. Through attaining right awakening, the mind becomes luminous and pure. Through attaining right speech, the mind becomes serene. Through attaining right action, the mind becomes free of remorse. Through attaining right livelihood, the mind becomes agile and pliant. Through attaining right effort, the mind accords with the Dharma teachings. Through attaining right mindfulness, the mind abides securely. Through attaining right concentration, the mind becomes unmoving.

You ask: Why are aspiration and other dharmas not included?

Answer: Only superior dharmas are included—those whose function is powerful, whose capacity can bear heavy responsibilities, or which encompass all the rest. Right speech, right action, and right livelihood are included because faith encompasses all three factors of stream-entry, thus completing the four kinds of wise faith of a stream-enterer. Aspiration is precisely this faith.

Furthermore, this faith is also included within right view. Because a stream-enterer attains wise faith, joy, ease, and equanimity are included within right concentration. Therefore, the eight factors encompass all factors.

You ask: Why are three teachings given concerning a single dharma—namely, that the Middle Way can extinguish merit and evil and lead to the end of suffering?

Answer: It is because of three excellent functions. For example, because the sun can dispel darkness, it is called light; because it can distinguish day from night, it is called day; and because it can distinguish moments, it is called time. This Noble Path is likewise. Because it can transcend the two extremes, it is called the Middle Way. Because it can eliminate the two kinds of karma, black and white, it is called the extinguishing of merit and evil. Because it uproots the suffering of body and mind, it is said to lead to the end of suffering. Alternatively, because it eliminates the paths of the three times, it is said to lead to the end of suffering.

You ask: Why is right view taught first?

Answer: Because it is the foremost dharma, like a king. As the sutra says: Among all conditioned dharmas, prajna is supreme.

Furthermore, it can produce superior virtues. If wisdom is superior, all virtues are superior. Because of right view, Sariputra did not contemplate other aspects. Because of right view, the mind of the householder Sura was difficult to move. Because of this right view, King Asoka could not be swayed by anything else. The elder Cittala was able to uproot the source of calamity. As the sutra says: When knowledge arises, ignorance is utterly extinguished. Therefore, right view is foremost.

You ask: Why is it said to precede the others?

Answer: Through attaining right view, the other factors become supramundane, uncontaminated, and uncommon. Alternatively, it is said that through the power of right view, the remaining factors acquire the name “path of liberation.” As the sutra says: A bhiksu is one who possesses right view, because his bodily, verbal, and mental karma yields excellent, wholesome, and desirable fruits. This is extensively explained in the sutras; therefore, right view is placed first.

You ask: What is the meaning of right view?

Answer: “View” means direct illumination without error: relying upon the true nature of its own kind, it directly illuminates without distortion.

Furthermore, the correct contemplation of suchness is called view. Because it contemplates the Noble Truths as they truly are, it is called right view.

Furthermore, “right” means worthy of praise, and “view” means luminosity. Because it is a luminous discernment worthy of praise, it is called right view. As the sutra says: Among all forms of discernment, this discernment is supreme and is called right view.

Furthermore, practice in which the object and wisdom possess supreme virtue is called right view. Why? The stage of right concentration is called right view, as stated in the Sutra on the Parable of the Seed.

Furthermore, the Treatise on Sufficient Principles says: Because the object is right, wisdom is right; it is not that because wisdom is right, the object becomes right. Because conditioned and contaminated phenomena possess the characteristics of correspondence, all are only suffering. Definitively knowing this is right view, as the Buddha taught Mahakatyayana.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Pitaka says: That which counteracts lack of knowledge, doubtful knowledge, and inverted knowledge, and which can transcend all suffering—this true wisdom is called right view.

You ask: Since view is empty, who is the one who sees?

Answer: The gathering together of conditions constitutes this seeing; there is no separate entity that is a seer, just as with flowers and fruits. Furthermore, as the verse says:

Dharmas arise from conditions and cannot be said to belong to any one thing. Thus, in order to refute Cầu-na, the Buddha said: “I do not say that consciousness is that which cognizes.” Why is this? Because this is called a wholly nominal construction.

You ask: How does right view differ from the right view of the Ten Wholesome Actions?

Answer: Conventional knowledge pertains to the Ten Wholesome Actions. True knowledge pertains to the Noble Eightfold Path. The kind of right view that can bring about a future existence with suffering as its fruit and takes karma as its object belongs to the Dharma of the Ten Wholesome Actions. The kind of right view that can extinguish the three realms of existence, has nirvana as its fruit, and takes the truths as its object belongs to the Noble Eightfold Path.

You ask: If, through right view, one sees the truths at a single moment, then there must be multiple objects. If this is not so, would it not cease from moment to moment?

Answer: Because four things can be accomplished in a single moment, it is said to occur at one moment, not because the objects are different. The Lý Túc Treatise says: A practitioner of contemplation, using noble wisdom that penetrates even the pores of the body, can cut off all delusions.

Moreover, other sutras say that if one contemplates the three feelings collectively, what had to be done is finished and need not be done again. Because the universal characteristic of the Dharma-truth is the characteristic of non-self, one comprehensively contemplates the Four Truths in a single moment. Just as in sequential contemplation, by taking impermanence, suffering, and non-self as conditions, one comprehensively penetrates the truth of suffering in a single moment.

You ask: If right view has already clearly understood the truths, what use are the other factors?

Answer: All the factors can eliminate that which they respectively counteract; each has its own function, like pulling something out from below.

Furthermore, all the factors, while each taking the leading role in its own function, jointly accomplish a single task. They are like the parts of a cart and the cart itself. Each part of the cart has its own function, and together they accomplish the work of transportation. The factors of the Path and the Path itself are likewise.

You ask: What is the meaning of right awakening?

Answer: A Dharma never before present that now appears as though newly arisen is called right awakening.

Furthermore, this Dharma of equality arises in dependence upon perception and volitional formations.

Furthermore, because the object, essence, characteristic, and result accord with one another, it is called right awakening.

Furthermore, seeing, following, and discerning without abandoning are called right awakening.

Furthermore, it is skillful hearing of the Dharma of equality, like a factor of concentration.

Furthermore, because it takes nirvana as its object, like the concentration of non-perception, the three therefore constitute one.

You ask: If the exhaustion of the outflows is realized by relying on the two concentrations, right awakening is incomplete and the factors of the Path are deficient. This matter requires examination.

Answer: If one cultivates the Noble Eightfold Path by relying on the two concentrations, only the factors of initial and sustained thought belonging to the first concentration are absent; it is not that the awakening factor of the Path is absent. This is analogous to the first concentration and samadhi being without initial and sustained thought.

Furthermore, because it is present through the accomplishment of its function, it is said that right awakening exists; it is not said to exist on account of its substance. It is like the presence of awakening among the five faculties.

Furthermore, because it can uproot that which it counteracts, it is said that right awakening exists, just as with right speech.

You ask: What is the meaning of right speech?

Answer: To undertake a vow that will never be broken is called right speech, as in the account of Cù-sư-la.

Furthermore, such speech is purified by removing the defilement of attachment to vows.

Furthermore, to forever skillfully practice the Dharma one has attained is called right speech. There are two kinds of morality pertaining to right speech: first, speech that does not communicate something, as the sutra says, “This person abstains from false speech, and so forth”; second, speech that does communicate something, as the sutra says, “This person speaks at the proper time, speaks truthfully, and so forth.”

You ask: If there is speech, then cultivation lacks concentration. Why is this? As the Buddha said, for concentration, sound is a thorn. Yet if there is no sound, the factor of the Path cannot be established.

Answer: Because it is a factor of the Path, it is not a thorn. This is like the factor of right awakening, the awakening factor of joy, and so forth.

Furthermore, sound is not invariably a thorn. It is like seeing a woman. The sutra says: “Constantly seeing women is a thorn to one who practices the holy life.” Yet it is not a thorn to an arhat, because an arhat has removed every thorn.

Another sutra says: “The Great Elephant said that, while in concentration, walking, standing, and so forth are all tranquil.” If a practitioner of contemplation teaches the Dharma through right reflection, the mind is concentrated; it is not the case that concentration is absent merely because there is speech.

The masters of the Sautrantika school say: Merely abstaining from the four kinds of speech is itself right speech. This is like worldly expressions in which abstention is spoken of as a positive action, as when one says, “This horse runs well,” or “This person awakens skillfully.”

You ask: What is the meaning of right action?

Answer: The sutra says that abstaining from evil bodily actions is called right action.

Another sutra says: “This bodily action goes neither against the current nor with the current; it is not bestowed, is autonomous and unappropriated, and can give rise to tranquility.” This is right action.

Furthermore, through contemplating faults, one completely abstains from killing living beings, neither committing it nor acting upon it, but restraining and taking no delight in it. This is right action.

You ask: All the factors are right actions; why is only one factor called right action?

Answer: Apart from this designation, the other designations do not make the matter clear. The dhatu of mental objects, the ayatana of mental objects, and so forth, because they are not objects of eye-consciousness, do not enable people to recognize what right action is. Because it is the support of all actions, it is like the foundation of action.

You ask: If abstention from action is said to be right action, abstention itself is not an action; how, then, can it constitute karma?

Answer: Not committing deeds that would give rise to evil karma, while maintaining and protecting the wholesome, should be understood as karma. As the sutra says: “I speak of action, and I speak of non-action.”

Furthermore, because it can eliminate the two kinds of karma, black and white, it is called non-action. Because it can act as an antidote to karma, it is called action.

Furthermore, right action is also called the removal of action. By means of this designation, the meanings of action and non-action are established as names. It is like saying, on account of the eye, that one sees, and also saying, on account of the eye, that one does not see.

If it is non-action, how can one know that this karma exists?

Answer: There are many reasons by which this karma can be known. The sutra says that form is of three kinds: first, visible and resistant; second, invisible and resistant; and third, invisible and non-resistant.

It also speaks of form free from the outflows.

It also speaks of the benefits of the seven meritorious qualities.

It also says that one who instructs others likewise possesses the ten courses of karma.

It also says that a bhiksu possesses a Dharma not included among the eleven ayatanas; that is, it is invisible and non-resistant, yet it is not said to be non-form.

Furthermore, if this karma did not exist, the eight factors of the Noble Path would be incomplete. Why is this? Because at the very moment of entering contemplation, the three kinds of karma are not being performed.

Question: That reasoning is incorrect. Why is this? Because the three kinds of karma have already been cultivated during the preparatory stage. As the sutra says: “For one who sees thus and knows thus, right view, right awakening, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration are cultivated to perfection, while right speech, right action, and right livelihood had already been purified beforehand.”

Answer: This passage was spoken with reference to the morality of abstaining from sensual desire on the mundane path.

Furthermore, the morality of the Pratimoksha should then likewise not exist. Why is this? At the time it is undertaken it may exist, but afterward, when the mind is in another state, one should no longer be called a bhiksu or bhiksuni.

Another sutra says that this karma is called an embankment because it can prevent the violation of morality. If it did not exist, it could not prevent evil.

The masters of the Sautrantika school say: Such proofs are exceedingly numerous and exceedingly rare, yet their meaning is not as claimed. Why is this? You say: “Because three kinds of form are taught, it is known that non-manifest action exists.” This reasoning is incorrect. Masters of contemplative practice such as Maudgalyayana, Aniruddha, and others say that the form present within the object of concentration is obtained through the power of concentration. Because this form is not an object of the eye faculty, it is said to be invisible; because it obstructs no place, it is said to be non-resistant.

If you ask, “How, then, can it be called form?” the same question applies equally to non-manifest action; therefore, the question is turned back upon your own position.

You say: “Because form free from the outflows is taught, it is known that non-manifest action exists.” This reasoning is incorrect. This form is also produced through the power of concentration. Because the concentration is free from the outflows, the form is likewise free from the outflows.

Furthermore, some masters explain that the material form of an arhat is also without outflows and is not a basis upon which the outflows depend.

Objection: This interpretation is incorrect. As the sutra says: “What are the dharmas with outflows? They are all eyes, all forms, and so forth.” Because such form does not counteract the outflows, it is said to have outflows. If so, is this form with outflows or without outflows?

Answer: If so, what fault would there be?

Objection: Would this not cause the characteristics to become intermingled?

Answer: How could the characteristic of having outflows and the characteristic of being without outflows become intermingled?

Furthermore, if the form ayatana were entirely with outflows, why would the sutra distinguish and speak of it particularly rather than speak of it generally? The sutra speaks of form with outflows because there is firm mental appropriation of it and because it obscures the basis; therefore, it is called form with outflows.

You say: Because there are seven kinds of meritorious benefit, it is known that unmanifest action exists. This interpretation is incorrect. The masters of the Sautrantika school say: When you make use of something donated by a benefactor, the merit of the recipient brings benefit; therefore, even when the benefactor’s mind has turned to something else, the prior volition of giving continues to perfume the mental continuum and progressively becomes stronger.

Through this greater strength, it can produce a future result corresponding to its measure. It is with reference to this continuum that the benefactor’s merit is said to increase. If you say that its increase or decrease depends upon the other continuum and upon whether the gift is used, then when the benefactor’s mind has turned elsewhere, how can that continuum become stronger?

This objection is incorrect. Why? Because the same issue applies to unmanifest action.

You maintain that unmanifest action increases or decreases according to the other continuum and according to whether the gift is used. How, then, can it be established through that other continuum?

Question: If merit does not increase, how can it continually arise among those who receive no instruction or training?

Answer: Through constant cultivation, the volition that takes morality and concentration as its object continues to follow and increase even during sleep.

Question: If so, what is the meaning of the Sutra of the Householder Ugra? The sutra says: “If a bhiksu who observes the precepts and practices virtue makes use of robes, food, and other requisites supplied by a benefactor, cultivates the concentration of the immeasurable states of mind, personally realizes this concentration, and enters and dwells in a forest, then because of this use, the benefactor’s merit, goodness, and happiness increase and flow without measure.” What volition could there be here? Therefore, it should be accepted that the continuum becomes stronger; this is the correct principle.

You say: If there is no unmanifest action and no instruction, then when one person instructs another to perform an action, how can the course of karma be established?

The masters of the Sautrantika school also explain it in this way: Because of this instruction, another person either becomes separated from life or undergoes the suffering of being killed, and so forth. Therefore, in the subtle continuum of the person who gives the instruction, good or evil becomes stronger. Through this increase in strength, a future result corresponding to its measure can be produced.

When a person performs the act himself, as the act is accomplished, his continuum becomes stronger; this is called a course of karma. This meaning should be understood. Because the result borrows the name of the cause, the result of this bodily or verbal act likewise borrows the designation of body or speech.

The same applies to volition and to bodily or verbal action that is not instructed. A certain venerable master says that, with reference to the appropriated skandhas of a sentient being, the offense of killing is incurred through volitions at three times, namely: “He will kill for me,” “He is killing,” and “He has killed.” This explanation is also incorrect. Although these three intentions are present, the course of karma is not necessarily established.

Why? If the life faculty of one’s mother and so forth has not been severed, a person who gives rise to these three intentions does not incur an offense of immediate retribution. If one personally takes another person’s life, however, these three intentions render one liable to the offense.

Objection: No equivalence can be seen. Why do you reject and denounce unmanifest action yet accept that the continuum becomes stronger?

Answer: There is no rejection here. A course of karma is established merely through the mind’s directing the body. If a practitioner thinks, “Another person possesses a different dharma and a different state of mind, and I am displeased with him,” then because of the mind’s preparatory action, the deed is accomplished. Because the deed is accomplished, the continuum becomes superior in strength. This meaning can be established. Why? Because the result is accomplished through the mental continuum.

You say: The Buddha did not state that the dharma ayatana is immaterial, and therefore it is known that unmanifest action exists. This has already been answered, as in the case of forms belonging to the sphere of concentration.

You say: If this karma did not exist, the eightfold path could not be established; therefore, it is known that unmanifest action exists. This point requires clarification, friend. You should explain how right speech, right action, and right livelihood can be present in a person who has entered contemplation of the truths. While in contemplation, does that person engage in speech and action and seek the four requisites, so that these three factors are present?

Answer: No. When, then, does the person in contemplation acquire these three kinds of unmanifest action? Because they are acquired, after emerging from contemplation one does not abide in wrong speech and so forth, but abides only in right speech and so forth.

Thus, the result is provisionally named after its cause. Therefore, unmanifest action is called right speech and so forth. The author of the treatise replies: Why not maintain the following interpretation here?

While one is properly engaged in contemplation, apart from unmanifest action, one acquires such a volition and such a basis. Because these are acquired, after emerging from contemplation one does not abide in wrong speech, but abides only in right speech and so forth. Thus, the result is provisionally named after its cause.

Therefore, the continuum’s increase in strength is called right speech. In this sense, the path has eight factors.

Furthermore, the Sthavira school says that merely refraining from evil constitutes these three factors. Why? Through the power of the noble path dharmas, one resolutely refrains from acting. Because this depends upon the path without outflows, it is called without outflows. It is not necessarily the case that every enumerated dharma everywhere truly exists as a distinct entity. This is like the eight worldly dharmas: gain, loss, fame, obscurity, praise, blame, pleasure, and pain. Among these, loss does not exist as a separate dharma.

Furthermore, other masters say that the morality of the pratimoksa constitutes the three factors of the path. It is based upon the volition of accepting and maintaining the former prescribed rules. Because this volition can guard the body and speech and prevent evil conduct, it is called the morality of the pratimoksa. If you say that when a person’s mind is occupied with something else there is no guarding, this is incorrect. Because of constant cultivation, when an object conducive to violating the precepts appears, the relevant volition immediately arises. This volition is called an embankment. Why? Because one remembers one’s previous vow not to commit evil. Since it has this function, one must receive the precepts.

Furthermore, if, as you maintain, there were a distinct unmanifest action capable of preventing violations of the precepts, there should be no instance of violating the precepts through a lapse of mindfulness. There is no need to argue at length; whether it is so or not must be determined.

Within the Noble Eightfold Path, morality has three factors. Because it is the foundation of the path, it is like the earth. Because it goes before, it is like a king. Because it enables one to pass through dense forests of thorns, it is like feet. Because it possesses a delightful fragrance, it is like the leaves of the heavenly sandalwood tree. Because, through successive stages of purification, it can lead to nirvana, it is like the seven chariots.

Furthermore, other masters say that sutras are cited as evidence because this morality is the fruit of the path, because it is a cause and condition for reverence and offerings, because it is not a protective antidote, and because it enables one to know what has been attained. Thus, it is known that this morality exists.

Furthermore, other masters ask: Why is unmanifest action considered form rather than bodily feeling?

Answer: Unmanifest action belongs to bodily and verbal karma and is therefore included within form. Bodily feeling is associated with mind and is therefore included within name.

Furthermore, unmanifest action is bodily karma and therefore belongs to the body. Feeling is a mental dharma and therefore belongs to the mind.

Furthermore, unmanifest action is both morality and form and is included within the form skandha. Bodily feeling is a mental dharma and is included within the feeling skandha. The mental dharma now under discussion is the basis of karma; therefore, it receives its designation from the person who accomplishes it through body and speech. How does this dharma differ from feeling?

Answer: Feeling is included within the feeling skandha, whereas this dharma pervades all the skandhas. Why? Because it depends upon the continuum.

You ask: Why is abstention from beating and so forth not said to be a factor of the path?

Answer: Because noble trainees have not yet attained quiescence, it is comparable to the formulation of disciplinary offenses; because it is not universal, it is like conduct contrary to the holy life; because it is not fixed, it is like the factors of Poṣadha; and because it serves as a provision, it is comparable to giving and so forth. The present treatise clearly distinguishes eight categories; among these, three are described as factors of the Noble Path.

You ask: How do right action and right livelihood differ from the right action and right livelihood included among the ten wholesome deeds?

Answer: The former can destroy and eliminate, whereas the latter cannot. They arise from supramundane right view, and their fruit is the undefiled nectar of immortality. The others arise from mundane right view, and their fruit is the appropriated aggregates accompanied by outflows. What can produce merit is called a path of karma. What can transcend merit is called a factor of the Path.

You ask: What is the meaning of right livelihood?

Answer: Right livelihood is of two kinds. First, a householder abstains from the five kinds of trade. Second, one who has gone forth renounces the five kinds of wrong livelihood.

Furthermore, it means seeking and making use of the four requisites—robes, food, and so forth—in accordance with the proper principle.

Furthermore, it means knowing contentment, not losing the lineage of the noble ones, and guarding bodily and verbal conduct.

Furthermore, first relying upon wisdom to abandon wrong views concerning body and mind is called right livelihood.

You ask: If right livelihood is included within bodily and verbal karma, why is it established separately?

Answer: It is included in both. That it is established separately because of its distinct meaning can readily be understood. For example, all the aggregates are included within formations, yet because their meanings differ, four aggregates are established separately.

Furthermore, because its essence is twofold, it is like contemplation of the body. The sutra says, “One abides contemplating the body in the body.”

Furthermore, right livelihood differs from the preceding two factors, just as the classifications of defilements differ.

You ask: What is called effort?

Answer: In every mode of practice, according to the distinctions among the stages, one strives with body and mind to attain the various wholesome dharmas and does not lay down the burden.

Furthermore, constantly practicing with courage and vigor in order to eliminate unwholesome dharmas and realize wholesome dharmas is called effort.

Furthermore, exerting body and mind without error while cultivating this practice is called effort.

You ask: What is its characteristic, function, condition, and meaning?

Answer: Urging the body and mind onward is its characteristic. Not falling back is its function. The arising of a corresponding kind of effort is its condition.

The Abhidharma Piṭaka says: Vigor is the characteristic of effort. Not sinking is its function. The four right efforts are its conditions. Victorious practice is its meaning. If a person is indolent, that person’s practice will not be victorious.

Furthermore, because its power is difficult to overcome, a person possessing effort has, in the battle against the afflictions, a power difficult to defeat. This is not so for an indolent person.

Furthermore, the ability of this practice to scatter, destroy, and eliminate is the meaning of effort.

You ask: If eliminating evil is wholesome, there cannot be two kinds of effort. If it is not wholesome, would the truth of cessation be unwholesome?

Answer: The elimination of evil is merely the nonexistence of a thing, whereas wholesomeness is not so; therefore, effort is twofold.

Furthermore, eliminating evil is called true wholesomeness. Apart from this, there are three other kinds of wholesomeness. Why? Because there are four kinds of wholesomeness. Abandoning the foulness of breaches of discipline is the elimination of evil. The arising of the fragrance of moral discipline is called the generation of wholesomeness. It is like heat becoming quiescent, which is different from cold arising.

You ask: If cultivating the right efforts with a single-pointed mind is in itself complete, there cannot be four right efforts. If they are cultivated successively, then would the cultivation of the aids to the Path not be complete?

Answer: With a single-pointed mind, one cultivates all four right efforts. This is like contemplating all four truths together with a single-pointed mind. Why? Because through this cultivation, unarisen evils are prevented from arising, arisen evils are prevented from remaining, unarisen wholesome dharmas are caused to arise, and arisen wholesome dharmas are caused to remain firmly. Therefore, effort is one in essence but four in function.

Furthermore, the Vibhajyavāda school says: When a person who maintains the precepts practices contemplation, that person cultivates the four right efforts in order to eliminate obstacles to concentration. Evils that have already arisen can obstruct concentration and are eliminated through effort; breaches of discipline that have not yet arisen are prevented from arising later; concentration that has not yet arisen is caused to arise; and pure moral discipline already attained is caused to remain firmly. For this reason, effort is a single thing, but its functions are fourfold.

Furthermore, one teaching says that the four right efforts arise successively, as in the attainment of concentration. Why? One right effort can destroy only manifest afflictions, while another right effort can uproot latent afflictions. Another right effort can cause faculties not yet arisen to arise. Still another right effort can cause those already arisen to remain firm. Therefore, although right efforts exist, the cultivation of the factors of the Path is not a scattered cultivation.

You ask: What is right mindfulness?

Answer: Not forgetting a previously cognized object is called right mindfulness, like retaining a familiar characteristic. As the sutra says, mental awareness, mental retention, and so forth are called mindfulness.

You ask: What is its characteristic, function, condition, and meaning?

Answer: Recollecting an object afterward is its characteristic. Not allowing the mind to become separated from its object is its function. The six recollections are its conditions. Recollecting for oneself and causing others to recollect is the meaning of mindfulness, just as bodhi means awakening oneself and causing others to awaken.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Piṭaka says: The clarity and purity of the mind are its characteristic; it does not forget, and if an object is lost, it brings it back into the present.

Furthermore, because mindfulness is able to apprehend its object and is the support of knowledge, it is called mindfulness.

Furthermore, mindfulness is of four kinds: 1. That which follows and retains names, phrases, and syllables. 2. That which can follow the meaning of what has been retained. 3. That which can follow the meaning of what has been contemplated. 4. That which can follow and fully comprehend the meaning of what has been contemplated. What the present treatise calls right mindfulness specifically elucidates the fourth kind.

You ask: Since all conditioned dharmas do not remain for even a single moment, how can mindfulness be established? Why? Because if one person sees and another person remembers, this is meaningless.

Answer: If the cognizer and the one who remembers were different persons, mindfulness could not be established, just as when Mr. Zhang sees something and Mr. Wang remembers it. If the cognition within a continuum and the mindfulness were different, it likewise could not be established, just as seeing a cow does not cause one to remember a horse, and so forth. If cognition consisted of only a single thought-moment, it also could not be established, because there would be no subsequent cognition. Therefore, when these three alternatives are reversed, it is called mindfulness.

To explain further: If there is no relation between them, one person cannot remember what another has seen. Thus, what one person sees is not remembered by another. If, however, their causes and conditions are related, then what is seen by one person can be remembered by another. For example, the cognitions and recollections of a child, a youth, a mature adult, and an elderly person can arise in succession.

Furthermore, it is like seeds: because they are unrelated, a wheat seed does not produce a rice sprout. When causes and fruits are related yet distinct, the rice seed, sprout, stem, branches, and leaves can arise successively. If there were only a single thought-moment, mindfulness likewise could not be established, because the relationship of cause and fruit could not be established. Just as a seed that always remained identical with a single sprout could not produce anything, so, because the related factors are neither different nor one, mindfulness can be established.

You ask: If all dharmas are foundations of mindfulness, yet the faculty of mindfulness itself is a foundation of mindfulness, does this not contradict the meaning?

Answer: The present treatise explains that the faculty of mindfulness is precisely the four foundations of mindfulness; however, a faculty is not distinguished on the basis of its object. It is like the faculty of knowledge and the measure of knowledge.

Furthermore, there are three kinds of foundations of mindfulness. First is the foundation of mindfulness by intrinsic nature, which merely gives rise to recollection, like a king. Second is the composite foundation of mindfulness: dharmas that can assist mindfulness are also called mindfulness, just as the king’s ministers and aides are also said to belong to the king. Third is the foundation of mindfulness as object: because mindfulness arises in dependence upon this object, it too is called mindfulness, like the dwelling place of a king. Therefore, the faculty of mindfulness is itself a foundation of mindfulness, and there is no contradiction in meaning.

You ask: If mindfulness alone cannot guard even a single dharma, why does the sutra say that mindfulness is the sole guardian?

Answer: Mindfulness is the foremost predominant condition among all forms of guardianship; therefore, it is called the sole guardian. It is like a king, who is supreme. As the sutra says, “For all dharmas, mindfulness is the predominant condition and the guardian.”

Furthermore, a single mindfulness can guard all formations; therefore, it is called the sole guardian. As the sutra says, “This mindfulness functions everywhere.”

Furthermore, all mindfulness can guard the six faculties, like a gatekeeper.

Furthermore, this mindfulness can take a single mind as its object, like a person’s hand grasping the mouth of a bellows.

Furthermore, because it can preserve the continuity of a single characteristic, it is called the sole guardian, like watching over and protecting an only child.

Furthermore, the six faculties are bound together; in a single moment they remain without dispersing, each abiding in its own object, like six living beings bound together to a single post. Therefore, the sutra speaks of the single grasp of mindfulness.

You ask: Why is it that sometimes one can remember and sometimes one cannot?

Answer: There are three causes and conditions capable of giving rise to mindfulness: 1. Habitual practice. Through repeatedly training body, speech, and mind, one remembers even when seeing something in a dream. 2. Characteristics. Through corresponding and contrary characteristics, one remembers objects that are similar and dissimilar. 3. Clarity. When the mind is settled and pure, mindfulness immediately arises, just as a vessel of clear water reveals the reflection of a face. When these three are absent, one cannot remember.

Moreover, near death and immediately after birth, one is oppressed by many sufferings and loses one’s original recollection; therefore, one cannot remember previous lives.

Furthermore, there are six causes and conditions capable of giving rise to mindfulness.

As the verse says:

Correspondence, contrariety, and habitual practice,

Correspondence is, for example, seeing someone resembling one’s child and immediately remembering one’s own child. Contrariety is, for example, touching something hot and remembering the cold experienced in the past. Habitual practice is, for example, naturally remembering an activity one has performed continually. Convergence in one place is, for example, seeing a mango tree and remembering the sour taste of mangoes. The power of concentration is, for example, one who has attained the three knowledges remembering events from previous lives. The power of causes is, for example, noble ones and virtuous persons of great practice remembering past lives.

You ask: What is samadhi?

Answer: The sutra says that the mind’s concentrated, tranquil abiding is samadhi.

The Abhidharma Pitaka also says that the capacity to collect and sustain dharmas without distraction is samadhi.

Furthermore, when the mind remains continuous and the fierce winds of the afflictions cannot disturb it, like a lamp flame in a sealed room, this is samadhi.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of samadhi: mundane and supramundane. Mundane samadhi can produce mundane results, is separate from the factors of awakening, and can subdue the manifest afflictions of the mind. Supramundane samadhi can enable one to transcend and leave the world, corresponds with the factors of awakening, and can uproot the latent afflictions. The concentration discussed in this treatise is supramundane concentration.

You ask: What is its characteristic, what is its function, what is its condition, and what is its meaning?

Answer: Concentrated abiding of the mind is its characteristic. Subduing what it counteracts is its function. The training of the mind is its condition.

Furthermore, the Treatise Pitaka says: One-pointedness of mind is its characteristic. Non-distraction is its function. The four concentrations are its conditions. Settling the mind and making it straight is its meaning. It is like an archer straightening an arrow. In worldly speech, this is called the arrow of samadhi. Here, it means making the arrow straight. Likewise, continuously straightening the mind is called samadhi. As the verse says:

Furthermore, it can establish the mind in equanimity, just as a charioteer makes a carriage travel along a level road and avoid dangerous, winding paths. A practitioner of contemplation is likewise able to establish the mind in secure equanimity and prevent all evil and uneven states; therefore, it is called samadhi.

Furthermore, it removes the five obstructing ailments, like a person free from illness; therefore, it is called samadhi.

You ask: If right concentration is concentration, then a stream-enterer should be without desire and anger. If this is not so, does it not contradict reason?

Answer: Because what concentration counteracts is still present, yet the fruit has been attained, this proves that concentration has been attained, just as with the five faculties.

Furthermore, it is because the mind is devotedly directed toward concentration. It is like a bee that, though caught in an impure place, delights in lotus flowers and therefore constantly dwells where flowers are found. Noble ones are likewise: although they dwell amid the objects of desire, their minds delight in quiescence. Thus, one knows that they constantly abide in concentration.

Furthermore, although ignorance remains in a stream-enterer, knowledge is not lost.

Furthermore, although the Buddha, the Blessed One, possessed initial and sustained thought, his mind did not emerge into distraction, because he constantly abided in concentration. The concentration of a stream-enterer is likewise; therefore, this does not contradict reason.

Question: What is the sequence of the eight factors of the Noble Path?

Answer: Because one can rely upon reason to contemplate the Noble Truths, right view is established first. With regard to the dharmas being contemplated, one firmly accepts what is right and does not relinquish it. Next, right intention is established. Thereafter, right speech, right action, and right livelihood are established. With regard to the dharmas being contemplated, there is what must be abandoned and what must be attained. Next, right effort is established. One then never forgets what is to be abandoned and what has been attained. Next, right mindfulness is established. Because mindfulness is not lost, the mind does not become distracted from the object seen. Next, right concentration is established.

Furthermore, if the eight dharmas arise together, there is no sequence; nevertheless, explaining them sequentially is not without reason. If a person wishes to proceed toward nirvana, that person must first seek right view, just as one who wishes to travel must have eyes. According to the principle seen, one accepts what is right and makes a discerning choice.

Next, right intention is established. One then speaks in accordance with what has been discerned; thus, right speech is established next. Why is this?

If speech occurs, it relies upon initial and sustained thought; one then acts according to what one has said. Next, right action is established. When these two are purified, right livelihood is established next, and this person abides in moral discipline.

When diligent exertion arises, right effort is established next. Because there is effort, mindfulness is not lost; thus, right mindfulness is established next. Because there is mindfulness, the mind is not distracted; thus, right concentration is established next.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Pitaka says: This practice takes wisdom as its foundation. Why is this? The objects of the Four Truths are profound and cannot be clearly understood without wisdom; therefore, right view is established first, whereby the mind encounters these objects.

Next, right intention is established. Through these two factors, one personally comes to know the Four Truths. Next, right speech is established.

Through the two preceding factors, practice is initiated in accordance with what has been spoken. Next, right action is established. Through the two preceding factors, one speaks with the mouth and acts with the body, thereby applying the Four Truths.

Next, right livelihood is established. Diligent exertion of body and mind is advancement in the principles of the truths. Next, right effort is established.

Through this effort, the activity of the mind toward the objects of the Four Truths becomes pure. Next, right mindfulness is established. Through this right mindfulness, the mind and its dharmas never become distracted from the objects of the Four Truths.

Next, right concentration is established. Furthermore, through right view, this practitioner of contemplation does not fall into overweening pride and can discern, in accordance with reality, what has personally been attained. Through right intention, right speech is initiated, and what one has personally attained can be conveyed to others.

Through this right speech, one can establish, refute, and determine, causing others to trust that one possesses wisdom. Because of right action, one would rather relinquish one’s life than violate the Dharma. Therefore, one causes others to trust that one possesses the moral discipline cherished by the noble ones.

In accordance with the Dharma and proper measure, one seeks and uses the four requisites. Through right livelihood, one causes others to trust that one possesses the noble lineage of contentment.

Furthermore, through right view, right intention, and the cause of right speech, one can roar the lion’s roar. Through right action and right livelihood, one can clarify the meaning of what has been taught. Through right effort, one causes what has not yet been attained to be attained and what has not yet been eliminated to be eliminated. Through right mindfulness, when the mind sinks, becomes excited, or remains balanced, one does not forget these three characteristics; therefore, concentration is unobstructed. Through right concentration, the obstacles to concentration are eliminated, and the six superknowledges and other virtues can be produced; therefore, one is subsequently liberated from them all.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Pitaka says: Through right view are taught the faculty of faith, the power of faith, and aspiration. Why is this? Because through wisdom, faith and aspiration are perfected. Through effort are encompassed the right exertions, the faculty and power of effort, and the factor of awakening of effort. Through right concentration are encompassed the bases of spiritual power associated with concentration, the faculty of concentration, the power of concentration, and the factors of awakening of joy, tranquility, equanimity, and concentration, and so forth. For this reason, one should know that the thirty-seven factors of awakening are encompassed within the Eightfold Path.

Furthermore, right view and right mindfulness belong to the aspect of vipashyana. Because ignorance is extinguished through these, liberation by wisdom is their fruit. The other factors of the Path belong to the aspect of shamatha. Because desire is abandoned through these, liberation of mind is their fruit. Therefore, in brief, the Path has two aspects: the first is vipashyana, and the second is shamatha.

Furthermore, the Abhidharma Treasury says: Right speech, right action, and right livelihood constitute the group of morality. Through this morality, the root of the evil of hatred is uprooted. Right intention, right effort, and right concentration constitute the group of concentration. Through these, the root of the evil of craving is uprooted. Right view and right mindfulness constitute the group of wisdom. Through these, the root of the evil of ignorance is uprooted. For this reason, the path has three divisions.

Furthermore, the path is fourfold: 1. The path of preparation. Because the uninterrupted path arises through it, everything preceding the uninterrupted path is called preparation. 2. The uninterrupted path. Because it is directly capable of removing the obstacles to be counteracted, and because the defilements cannot obstruct it, it is called uninterrupted. 3. The path of liberation. The liberation that newly arises when the uninterrupted path has destroyed the defilements is called liberation. 4. The superior path. All paths subsequent to the path of liberation are called superior paths.

Question: Why are these four called paths?

Answer: Because through them one advances toward nirvana, they are called paths.

If so, why are liberation and superiority called paths?

Answer: Because they belong to the category of the path, and because their increasingly superior progression from the former to the latter can lead to nirvana without remainder, they are called paths.

Furthermore, there are four kinds of path: 1. The painful path with slow knowledge. 2. The painful path with swift knowledge. 3.

The pleasant path with slow knowledge. 4. The pleasant path with swift knowledge. The pleasant path means that, because it relies upon the four concentrations complete in all their factors, because concentration and wisdom are balanced, and because its practice is effortless, it is called the pleasant path.

Everything apart from this is called the painful path—that is, what relies upon the future concentration, the intermediate concentration, the three formless concentrations, and so forth. Because their factors are incomplete, concentration and wisdom are unequal, and their practice requires effort. The future concentration possesses wisdom but little concentration.

The three formless concentrations possess concentration but little wisdom. In the intermediate concentration, the factors are incomplete; therefore, both concentration and wisdom are deficient. For this reason, it is called the painful path.

Of these two paths, one who possesses the faculty of faith is said to practice slowly, while one who possesses the faculty of wisdom is said to practice swiftly. Thus, with respect to concentration and faculties, this eightfold Noble Path has four modes of practice.

Furthermore, the Noble Path is also spoken of as the thirty-seven aids to awakening.

What Dharma is called awakening? The knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising are called awakening. Through three kinds of persons, awakening is divided into three classes: the awakening of a sravaka, the awakening of a pratyekabuddha, and unsurpassed awakening. Because it can extinguish ignorance without leaving any remainder, one’s task is accomplished and nothing further remains to be done. Because it is awakening in accordance with reality, it is called awakening.

“Aids” means that these thirty-seven dharmas accompany and assist the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising; therefore, they are called aids. The number thirty-seven is stated according to their designations, not according to their essential nature. This treatise states that in essential nature there are only ten: faith, effort, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, joy, pliancy, equanimity, morality, and intention.

The Abhidharma masters say that in essential nature there are eleven, for they divide morality into two: bodily and verbal.

Other Abhidharma masters say that in essential nature there are thirteen, adding aspiration and mind. All attained wholesome dharmas are aids to awakening. Nevertheless, these ten are superior and therefore are specifically set forth.

The thirty-seven are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the eightfold Noble Path, and the seven factors of awakening.

Question: Within which stages are these seven categories of aids to awakening established?

Answer: There are altogether four stages: 1. The stage of initially commencing practice. 2. The stage of thorough comprehension. 3. The stage of seeing. 4. The stage of cultivation.

Question: What is their sequence?

Answer: A practitioner of contemplation who is established in morality can clearly understand the faults of samsara and the merits of nirvana. Apart from contemplating the Four Truths, there is no other means by which these faults and merits can be understood. Because the mind is distracted by encompassing many objects, it is caused to abide in one place. In order to produce the counteraction that subdues the four inversions, the mind is caused to enter into contemplation of the Four Truths in accordance with principle. Therefore, one first contemplates the four foundations of mindfulness.

Once the four foundations of mindfulness have been contemplated, other dharmas can be adopted or abandoned. Because one adopts the wholesome and abandons the unwholesome, one next cultivates and perfects the right efforts.

Through contemplating the right efforts, the obstructive defilements are cleansed away, the assisting dharmas are established, and the mind abides at will. Therefore, the four bases of spiritual power are established next.

Through this power of concentration, the mind gains mastery with regard to freedom from doubt concerning its object.

Through this power of faith, the mind gains mastery over indolence.

Through this power of effort, a wholesome mind is attained; receiving unobstructed assistance, the mind gains mastery over not forgetting its object.

Through this power of mindfulness, the mind is gathered upon a single object and gains mastery over non-distraction with regard to that object.

Through this power of concentration, the mind gains mastery in contemplating its object in accordance with reality.

Because they possess mastery in their very nature, the five faculties are established next. When these five faculties increase to the highest and most excellent degree, inferior defilements cannot destroy them, other worldly dharmas cannot overcome them, and the uncontaminated mind takes them successively as its conditions; thus, one does not regress from the noble stage.

For this reason, the five powers are established next. One has seen the gains and losses of this and that, obtained the true path, attained resolute determination, acquired the eye, and acquired the feet.

Through the five powers, supramundane practice is attained; therefore, the eightfold Noble Path is established next.

After the eightfold Noble Path has destroyed the defilements to be abandoned through seeing the truths, one draws near to the knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising. Therefore, this path is transformed and called the seven factors of awakening. Thus, the thirty-seven are established in sequence.

The contemplation of the four foundations of mindfulness is the stage of initially commencing practice, namely, the stage conducive to liberation.

The four right efforts constitute the stage of patience.

The four bases of spiritual power constitute the stage of names.

The five faculties constitute the stage of characteristics.

The five powers constitute the stage of the highest mundane dharma.

The preceding four are collectively called the stage of decisive comprehension.

The eightfold Noble Path constitutes the stage of seeing.

The seven factors of awakening constitute the stage of cultivation.

The knowledge of exhaustion and the knowledge of non-arising constitute the ultimate stage.

Because they are fruits and not causes, they are not established as the path.

Furthermore, this path is also called the Brahma Wheel. The Brahma Wheel is the wheel of Brahma turned by the Buddha, the Blessed One, and his disciples. Therefore, this Noble Path has six meanings by which it resembles a wheel:

1. It travels swiftly. This means that in either one moment of mind, twelve moments of mind, or fifteen moments of mind, it courses throughout the Four Truths in the three realms; therefore, it is called swift.

2. It leaves this place and reaches another. This means leaving the mundane and reaching the supramundane.

3. It moves upward and downward. This means abiding sometimes in patience concerning dharmas, sometimes in patience concerning categories, and so forth.

4. It passes from one to another. This means that continuous understanding passes from the teacher to continuous understanding in the disciple.

5. It resembles the hub, spokes, and rim of a wheel. The threefold morality is the hub. Right view, right intention, right effort, and right mindfulness are the spokes. Right concentration is the rim.

6. It is like a noble wheel-turning king. Those not yet subdued can be subdued, and those already subdued can be protected. Through the uninterrupted path, they can be subdued; through the path of liberation, they can be preserved. For this reason, it is called the Brahma Wheel.

Furthermore, within this eightfold Noble Path, right view has five factors; morality has six kinds, namely, the three kinds of karma in their forms of vijnapti and avijnapti; effort has nine factors; right mindfulness has eight factors; and right concentration also has eight factors. When explained extensively, this Noble Path has thirty-seven factors. When explained at intermediate length, it has eight factors. When explained briefly, it has either three factors or two.

The verse says:

TREATISE ON THE FOUR TRUTHS (End of Fascicle 4; the complete work)