淨土論

The wondrous gate of the Pure Land is praised throughout the ten directions; in Amitabha’s jeweled land, ordinary beings and sages rejoice together. Therefore, the sixteen contemplations^[1] flourished widely in India, and the teaching of the nine grades^[2] was ardently sought in China. I have often opened the scriptures and read them, carefully reflecting upon the Buddha’s words, and have ventured to consider this school an essential path of cultivation. Those who comprehend this school bow their heads and seek it; those who do not yet understand it remain hesitant after examining it. If anyone fails to direct the mind toward this school, I fear that in the end they will remain forever submerged in the darkness of birth and death.

I have now examined the sutras, read the treatises, extracted their essentials, and compiled them into this Treatise on the Pure Land. Worthies of ancient times, such as Dharma Master Huiyuan^[3], Xie Lingyun^[4], and others, all sought birth in the Western Land; yet in the end they benefited only themselves, leaving later students without a basis upon which to rely in their practice. In more recent times, Chan Master Daochuo^[5] composed the Collection on Peace and Bliss in one fascicle.

Although he cited many sutras and briefly explained their principles, its wording and meanings are intermingled and its chapters and sections disordered, causing later readers also to hesitate without reaching a decision. In this present work, however, I have researched and gathered material from various books, cited the principles in full, and arranged them into nine chapters. The wording and meanings are clear, and the sections and categories are distinctly ordered, so that readers may see them as clearly as an object resting in the palm of the hand.

My aspiration is that the teaching of the Three Meritorious Actions^[6] may be propagated forever, that the scriptural words concerning the Four Vows^[7] may remain an eternal standard, that the sixteen contemplations may be widely expounded, and that everyone may be born among the nine grades. Thus may beings in the unfathomable six realms^[8] forever abandon the defiled land, and may the four kinds of birth dwell eternally upon lotus terraces.

Though we may not equal the ancient worthies, may we all nevertheless reach the Pure Land.

Homage to Amitabha Buddha,

In the Land of Ultimate Bliss in the West,

Who skillfully established vast vows to save sentient beings;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

Upon the royal lotus throne, You sit upright,

Your body emitting wondrous light that shines through the eight directions;

With the five eyes^[9], You behold all lands everywhere;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

The fivefold Dharma body^[10], perfectly luminous, its nature eternally abiding;

With great compassion You receive and deliver beings, Your life immeasurable;

With unconditioned loving-kindness^[11], You liberate sentient beings;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

The jeweled land is adorned with myriad colors,

All arising from wish-fulfilling jewels;

By seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching, offenses are extinguished.

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

Streams, birds, forests, and flutes resound in song,

Their sounds proclaiming the profound Dharma.

Beings who hear them immediately realize non-retrogression;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, greatly loving and compassionate,

Regards all sentient beings as an only child;

With jeweled hands, he receives and guides them like a loving mother;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva, greatly sovereign,

Whether walking or sitting, causes the great trichiliocosm to tremble;

Transformation Buddhas and bodhisattvas all assemble;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

The assembled sages gather in numbers vast as the sea,

Like the myriad stars attending the Northern Dipper;

Impartially they relieve suffering throughout the three realms;

I vow to attain birth there and bow my head in homage.

I have now surveyed the entire Great Canon,

Summarizing its principles and meanings in nine chapters;

May all who read it arouse the bodhicitta,

And may we together attain birth in the Land of Peace and Bliss.

The young master Zhisu asked Master Pure Land:

“I have heard that the Buddha’s Way is lofty and profound, where the path of language is severed, and that the Dharma gate is deep and hidden, where the activities of the mind cease. This is because all language arises from deluded consciousness, and every activity of the mind consists of inverted conceptions. Yet it is now said that those wishing to be born in the Western Land should exclusively praise and recite the name of Amitabha Buddha.

If so, could the words ‘the path of language is severed’ be mistaken, and ‘the activities of the mind cease’ be untrue? Because my consciousness remains bound by attachments, I have not yet comprehended this vast meaning. I therefore knock at your gate and ask one of eminent wisdom to reveal this profound principle.

Moreover, lands are not inherently defiled, for purity arises from one’s own mind; yet I now hear the instruction to concentrate upon and recollect the Western Land. I wish to understand this point that remains unclear to me. The ten directions are all pure, yet one seeks birth in only one direction.

I now bring this still-fettered mind-consciousness before you and ask you to release it from its bonds.”

The Master said:

“Excellent indeed is your question! If not a wise and discerning person, who could answer it? Yet the profound and wondrous Dharma gate is truly the intention of the Tathagata, whereas I am ashamed of my own lack of clarity and can only attempt to discuss it.

Those of penetrating understanding, through their acute discernment, see what is right at a glance; ordinary beings, because their wisdom is shallow, become entangled wherever they turn. Although the Noble Path is truly vast and has eighty thousand divisions, in summary it does not go beyond Phenomena and Principle. These two are like the two wheels of a cart or the two wings of a bird.

If either is missing, the cart cannot travel far and the bird cannot fly high. Thus, the Treatise on the Awakening of Faith teaches the two gates of calm abiding and contemplation: calm abiding takes Principle as its object, while contemplation takes Phenomena as its object. If one has not thoroughly understood these two gates, one will merely give rise to falsity and become entangled.

The complete cessation of speech and the utter ending of conceptual thought pertain to Principle; seeking birth in the Western Land and retaining mindfulness of the Buddha’s name pertain to Phenomena. Yet the three realms are manifested by mind alone, and none of the lands is inherently defiled. Therefore, until one has reached the Ten Bhumi, one should provisionally use an objective realm to purify one’s own mind.

Although the ten directions are all pure, their realms extend too broadly. Therefore, to make the mind concentrate exclusively upon attaining birth, one should seek birth in only one direction.

CHAPTER I

DETERMINING THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE LAND

This chapter comprises two parts: 1) Essential Nature, and 2) Whether or Not It Belongs to the Three Realms.

– Question: The gate of that land is entered by ordinary beings and sages alike, and Amitabha’s jeweled land may be reached through ten recollections. Amitabha Buddha has permitted followers of both the Mahayana and the Hinayana to reach His land, and beings of every kind may attain birth there; but I do not yet know what the characteristics and essential nature of that land are.

– Answer: Ordinarily, dazzling colors blind people’s eyes, while ornate language obscures reason. Now, wishing to enable both the foolish and the wise to understand, I shall dispense with all empty embellishment and present only what is essential.

I.1 ESSENTIAL NATURE

There are three kinds of Pure Land: the Dharma-body Pure Land, the Reward-body Pure Land, and the Transformation-body Pure Land.

I.1.1 The Dharma-body Pure Land

It has two meanings: the essence of the person who dwells^[12], and the essence of the land in which that person dwells^[13].

I.1.1.1 The Essence of the Person Who Dwells

According to the explanation in the Treatise on the Awakening of Faith, this is the Tathagatagarbha, whose essence possesses the three aspects of greatness.

a) Greatness of Essence: All dharmas are equally True Suchness, neither increasing nor decreasing; this is the single flavor of True Suchness. This essence not only encompasses both the internal and the external but is also common to ordinary beings and sages.

b) Greatness of Attributes: The Tathagatagarbha fully possesses the qualities of the unconditioned nature free from outflows—that is, innumerable distinct qualities. This greatness of attributes is possessed only by sentient beings, not by insentient things. Therefore, the Nirvana Sutra states: “Those without Buddha-nature are insentient things such as walls, partitions, tiles, stones, and so forth.”

c) Greatness of Function: Because the Tathagatagarbha can produce wholesome worldly and supramundane causes and effects, this is precisely the function of the greatness of attributes described above.

The two meanings of greatness of attributes and greatness of function are here taken as the essence of the person who dwells; yet they are said to be distinct because this distinction is made on the basis of the meaning of the single flavor of True Suchness.

I.1.1.2 The Essence of the Land in Which That Person Dwells

The meaning of the greatness of essence—the single flavor of True Suchness—is taken as the essence of the land in which that person dwells; that is, it serves as the basis for innumerable virtues.

Thus, in this Pure Land, the person and the land share a single essence but are distinguished into two meanings.

I.1.2 The Reward-body Pure Land

There are two kinds: the Land of True Recompense and the Land of Functional Manifestation.

I.1.2.1 The Land of True Recompense

The person and the land share the same essence; that is, the essence of that land consists of the myriad virtues that arise from the very beginning. As the section on the Eighteenfold Perfect Purity in the Mahayana-samgraha states: “Great emptiness, signlessness, and so forth are the gates; the three kinds of wisdom^[14] are the path”; and the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “Dharani is the garden, and the undefiled Dharma is the grove of trees.” If the person who dwells therein is described as one who gathers the myriad virtues and attains Buddhahood, then this person and land cannot be seen by any bodhisattva from the stage of the Vajra Mind^[15] downward, for only a Buddha together with another Buddha can see them.

I.1.2.2 The Land of Functional Manifestation

The person and the land have different essences; that is, the Crystal Lotus Treasury World and so forth constitute the essence of the land in which one dwells. Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “The Pure Land takes the King of Lotuses as its support; great samadhi, great compassion, excellent marks, noble characteristics, and so forth constitute the essence of the person who dwells therein.” The Mahayana-samgraha also states: “The response body takes great samadhi and great compassion as its essence.” This person and land can be seen by bodhisattvas from the First Bhumi through the Tenth Bhumi according to their respective degree of realization.

Their perceptions are not identical: because the various bhumis differ in elevation, what is seen also differs in coarseness and subtlety. Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “If separated from the response body, bodhisattvas from the First Bhumi upward would not possess the full provisions for bodhi.” That body is called the recompense body, the enjoyment body, or the response body. Recompense means the return of a result; response means accordance with principle.

Because one enjoys the flavor of the Dharma for the sake of others, it is called enjoyment. Therefore, the recompense body may also be called the body of sustenance, since it resembles the enjoyment body.

I.1.3 The Transformation-Body Pure Land

This also has two kinds:

1) The body that accomplishes the practice of benefiting others throughout three great asamkhya^[16] kalpas, namely, the transformation body manifested in accordance with beings’ capacities. This body and land continually manifest without interruption in other realms for a kalpa, a hundred years, and so forth, fully endowed with the thirty-two noble marks and the eighty subsidiary characteristics. This means that its lifespan is continually renewed, yet it repeatedly enters parinirvana.

2) The transformation body that suddenly appears where previously there was none; that is, relying upon this transformation body, many other transformation bodies are manifested. For example, Buddha Sakyamuni, as a transformation body manifested in accordance with beings’ capacities, further divided himself into other transformation bodies. These are transformation bodies that suddenly appear where previously there were none. They may appear as apes, monkeys, horses, and so forth, and do not manifest only as Buddhas.

Just as there are two bodies, so too are there two lands. The wondrous lotus flowers in the Abhirati World are an example of a transformation Pure Land manifested in accordance with beings’ capacities. Likewise, in the Vimalakirti Sutra, when the Tathagata pressed his toe upon the earth, the entire trichiliocosm^[17] became pure; this was a transformation Pure Land that suddenly appeared where previously there was none.

These two bodies and two lands can all be seen by bodhisattvas prior to the bhumis^[18], followers of the Two Vehicles, and ordinary beings. Therefore, the Mahayana-samgraha states: “If separated from the transformation body, sravakas of dull faculties and those who have newly resolved to practice and delight in the stages would be unable to attain fruition.” The Dharma body and the Dharma-body Pure Land can be seen only by the wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and Buddha eye.

The recompense body and recompense land can also be seen by the physical eye and the divine eye.

—Question: Since there are three kinds of Pure Land, I do not yet know to which kind the Western Land belongs.

—Answer: The Western Land also has three kinds. If it is the land seen by bodhisattvas from the First Bhumi onward through fundamental wisdom^[19], it is precisely the Dharma-body Pure Land. If it is the land seen by bodhisattvas at the stage of preparatory practice^[20] through subsequently attained wisdom, it is precisely the recompense-body Pure Land.

If it is the land seen by bodhisattvas prior to the bhumis, followers of the Two Vehicles, and ordinary beings, it is precisely the transformation-body Pure Land. For example, when bodhisattvas such as Nagarjuna and others are reborn there, they see all three Pure Lands—the transformation-body, Dharma-body, and recompense-body Pure Lands—because those at higher stages can see the lower stages. For this reason, when the sutras and treatises classify the Western Land as either a recompense land or a transformation land, neither classification is incorrect.

—Question: I now understand that the Western Land possesses all three lands, but I do not yet know where ordinary beings today who recollect the Buddha and aspire to be reborn there will take birth.

—Answer: According to the Mahayana-samgraha, such persons are born only in the transformation-body Pure Land and cannot see the Dharma-body Pure Land or the recompense-body Pure Land. In this transformation-body Pure Land, there are two kinds of beings: those born from a womb and those born by transformation.

+There are again two kinds of womb birth:

1) Those who harbor doubt: According to the Sutra of Infinite Life, these persons are born in a palace made of the seven precious substances in the border city of the Land of Ultimate Bliss. For five hundred years, they are unable to see the Buddha; this is called womb birth.

2) Those who actually have a father and mother are called the womb-born kind. As recorded in the Dharani Sutra of the Drum-Sound King, Buddha Amitabha also has parents. The sutra states: “That city is named Pure Serenity and is ten thousand yojanas wide.

Within it dwell very many members of the ksatriya class. His father is the Wheel-Turning Sage-King Moon Above; his mother is named Supremely Excellent Wondrous Countenance; his son is named Moonlight; his attendant disciple is named Stainless Renown; his disciple foremost in wisdom is named Embracing Light; his disciple foremost in spiritual powers is named Master of Transformation; Mara is named Unvanquished; and Devadatta is named Tranquil.” (These are beings spontaneously born by transformation, not people of the present day who attain rebirth by recollecting the Buddha.

Thus, although the place is one and the same, everyone sees it differently.)

+The land of transformation birth: According to the sutras and treatises, there are three kinds: the land of the Mahayana alone, the land of the Hinayana alone, and the land in which Mahayana and Hinayana are intermingled.

1. The land of the Mahayana alone: Beings born in this place study only the Mahayana. Among the nine grades of rebirth, these persons belong to the three grades of the upper rank. Therefore, the Treatise on Rebirth states: “In the land of those possessing Mahayana roots of goodness, there are none who disparage or doubt the Buddhadharma. In this land there are also no women, followers of the Two Vehicles, or people with disabilities.”

2. The land of the Hinayana alone: Beings who study only the Hinayana are born here. Considered according to the nine grades of rebirth, these persons belong to the two grades of the middle rank. Therefore, the Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “Beyond the three realms there is a land of Wondrous Purity where arhats will be born.”

3. The land in which Mahayana and Hinayana are intermingled: Beings who study both the Mahayana and the Hinayana are born here. Considered according to the nine grades of rebirth, these persons belong to the lower grade of the middle rank and the three grades of the lower rank.

Regarding those born in the lower grade of the middle rank, the sutra states that they are people who are filial and support their parents, practice worldly benevolence, and encounter a spiritual friend who expounds to them the forty-eight great vows of Buddha Amitabha. Having heard those vows, they further study both Mahayana and Hinayana teachings. This category even includes those who have attained the fruit of arhatship but subsequently turn their minds toward the Mahayana.

As for those born in the three grades of the lower rank, by hearing the forty-eight great vows of Buddha Amitabha, hearing the twelve divisions of the scriptures, or recollecting Buddha Amitabha, they attain rebirth in that land and all generate bodhicitta.

Briefly speaking, there are three Pure Lands. Yet if they are clearly distinguished, sentient beings give rise to practices under many different circumstances, and therefore the lands they perceive upon rebirth also differ greatly. If this is understood, then whether the scriptures and treatises classify the Western Land as a recompense land or a transformation land presents no obstacle.

We know, however, that through their cultivation, all Buddhas bring forth both recompense lands and transformation lands. As the Mahayana-samgraha states: “Those at the stage of preparatory practice perceive the transformation body, while those who realize the wisdom of the true essence perceive the recompense body.” Yet whether it is the recompense body or the transformation body, both serve to bring sentient beings to accomplishment.

Thus, the land is not manifested in vain, and practices are not cultivated fruitlessly. One need only believe the Buddha’s words, follow the sutras, and single-mindedly recollect the Buddha; one will then attain rebirth there. There is no need to seek after the recompense body or the transformation body!

– Question: It may be understood that, in principle, the Dharma-body Pure Land encompasses all places, whereas the recompense land and transformation land should have boundaries. But on what scriptural passage is the assertion based that the Western Land possesses both a recompense land and a transformation land?

– Answer: Recompense lands and transformation lands may either have boundaries or be without boundaries. The true recompense land, being within the recompense land, has no boundaries. That is to say, the Tathagata perfectly cultivated the eighty thousand practices over three asamkhya kalpas, fully accomplished the Two Teachings^[21], and made the fivefold Dharma-body shine resplendently. His noble marks illuminate every drop of water in the ocean, and his excellent characteristics extend throughout every speck of dust among the mountains. The Three Knowledges^[22] are perfectly clear, and the Two Wisdoms^[23] illuminate together, just as clouds appear when a dragon roars and winds arise when a tiger growls. How, then, could precious objects be used to adorn this land, or boundaries be used to delimit it? Only a Buddha can perceive the splendor of this land; even bodhisattvas cannot yet cast their eyes upon it. In the land of functional manifestation, however, there are vajra pillars supporting it from below and a gleaming lapis lazuli ground above. Outside, it is encircled by railings made of the seven treasures, while within, ponds of water possessing the eight virtues sparkle brightly. Jewels adorn beautiful groves, and jeweled nets are spread over magnificent palaces. The body is endowed with the myriad virtues, and the land is likewise replete with splendor; such a land has boundaries.

Within the transformation land, from the standpoint of the power of the Buddhas’ vows of great compassion, this land encompasses the entire realm of sentient beings and therefore has no boundaries. From the standpoint of the principle of teaching and transforming sentient beings, however, the body continually assumes new lives and repeatedly enters nirvana; in this sense, the land has boundaries.

The teaching that “the Western Land is a recompense land” comes from the Mahayana Sutra of the Same Nature. The sutra records:

– Bodhisattva Jñanaprabha asked the Buddha: “What is the Tathagata’s recompense body like?” The Buddha said: “This body of mine that you now see is precisely the Tathagata’s recompense body. Moreover, in pure lands, the bodies that have attained Perfect Enlightenment and the bodies that will attain Perfect Enlightenment are all recompense bodies of the Tathagata.”

The sutra explains that a body attaining Buddhahood in a Pure Land is called a recompense body. This is precisely the enjoyment body, not the true recompense body; if it is described as a transformation body, it is a subtle transformation body.

The sutra states: “This body of mine that you now see is precisely the recompense body,” meaning that the recompense body can also be seen in a defiled land.

This sutra further states: “A body that attains Buddhahood in a land of the five defilements, where there are the periods of the True Dharma, the Semblance Dharma, and the Final Dharma, is precisely an responsive transformation body.” Thus, that sutra says that all bodies attaining Buddhahood in a defiled land are transformation bodies. Yet the sutra also says, “This body of mine that you now see is precisely the recompense body,” meaning that the recompense body can also be seen in a defiled land. Why, then, could the transformation body not be seen in a Pure Land? Therefore, it may be known that both defiled and pure lands possess both the recompense body and the transformation body.

The Western Land is said to be a transformation land because the Sutra of the Prophecy Bestowed upon Avalokitesvara states:

– Good man, Amitabha Buddha has an immeasurable lifespan that will end only after hundreds of thousands of kotis of kalpas. After the Buddha enters nirvana, his True Dharma will remain in the world for as long as the Buddha’s lifespan. Good man, immediately after Amitabha Buddha’s True Dharma disappears, when midnight has passed and the light of the sun first appears, Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara will attain Equal and Perfect Enlightenment beneath the bodhi tree, bearing the name Tathagata King of the Mountain of Universal Light and Merit. This Buddha’s land will be called Universally Gathered Adornment of All Treasures. In this land there will be no sravakas or pratyekabuddhas. After the Tathagata of Universal Light and Merit enters nirvana and his True Dharma has disappeared, Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta will immediately attain Buddhahood, bearing the name Tathagata King of Treasures Who Abides Well. His land, light, lifespan, and even the duration of his True Dharma will likewise be the same.

Furthermore, the Drum-Sound King Dharani Sutra states: “Amitabha Buddha has parents, a son, and disciples such as Sariputra, Maudgalyayana, Devadatta, and others…”

I.2 WHETHER OR NOT IT BELONGS TO THE THREE REALMS

I.2.1 Belonging to the Three Realms

– Question: The wholly pure and wondrous recompense land far transcends the Three Realms, and all the sentient beings taught and transformed there have already transcended fragmentary birth-and-death^[24]. In principle, it is therefore easy to believe that this land lies beyond the Three Realms. Although this land is pure, its purity is not yet wondrous, because the sentient beings taught and transformed there are bodhisattvas below the bhumis. Should this land, then, be considered part of the Three Realms or not?

– Answer: Considered from the standpoint of the Buddha, this land is wondrous and transcends the Three Realms. Considered from the standpoint of sentient beings, it has both meanings: it belongs to the Three Realms and it does not belong to the Three Realms. First, regarding the case in which it belongs to the Three Realms: because ordinary beings and noble trainees who have attained the first three fruits^[25] can be reborn there, this land belongs to the Three Realms, for such sentient beings have not yet departed from the Three Realms.

– Question: How can this meaning be known?

– Answer: As the Infinite Life Sutra records: “Ananda said to the Buddha: ‘World-Honored One, since this land has no Mount Sumeru and so forth, where do the Four Heavenly Kings and the gods of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three dwell?’ The Buddha replied: ‘They dwell supported by their karma.’” Since this land has human beings and also the Four Heavenly Kings, it should be known to belong to the Desire Realm. This sutra further records: “The Buddha said to Maitreya: ‘Do you see all the adornments extending from the ground up to the Heaven of the Pure Abodes^[26]?’ Maitreya replied: ‘I have seen them.’” It should therefore be known that this recompense land encompasses both the Desire Realm and the Form Realm, although nothing is said about the Formless Realm.

– Question: Why is the Formless Realm not mentioned?

– Answer: Because the sutra’s intention is to praise the adornments and wonders of the Pure Land in order to encourage everyone to seek rebirth there, it does not discuss the Formless Realm; nevertheless, its essence is present.

– Question: Since this body and that land both belong to the Desire Realm, why does the Buddha urge people to seek rebirth there?

– Answer: Although both are called the Desire Realm, their meanings differ. The Desire Realm here has two meanings: manifest active desire^[27] and latent desire in the form of seeds. Because the Desire Realm here possesses both meanings, men and women become infatuated with one another, give rise to craving and pursue sights and sounds, delighting in dwelling within the burning house of the three realms. The Western Desire Realm has only latent desire in the form of seeds and no manifest active desire. Since there is no manifest active desire, none of the faults mentioned above exist there; neither unwholesome nor indeterminate states of mind exist there, but only wholesome states of mind. Therefore, the section on the Eighteen Kinds of Perfect Purity in the Mahayana-samgraha states: “In the Pure Land there is only pleasant feeling; there is neither painful nor neutral feeling.” As the Mahabheriharaka Sutra states: “Painful feeling is unwholesome, pleasant feeling is wholesome, and neutral feeling is indeterminate.” Since there are only wholesome states of mind, there is no occasion for evil to arise. Therefore, the Sutra of Immeasurable Life states: “In Amitabha Buddha’s land, there is no occasion for committing evil.” Thus, although the West is spoken of as belonging to the Desire Realm, how could it truly be the same as the Desire Realm? The same applies to the Form Realm.

– Question: The Pure Land is wondrous and sublime, and therefore all beings delight in it. Since the intention is to encourage people to seek rebirth there, why must it be said that it belongs to the three realms?

– Answer: That is what the sutra teaches; it is not a matter determined by people. Furthermore, if that land belongs to the three realms, beings who have not yet completely eliminated the afflictions of the three realms can be reborn there. If it were beyond the three realms, noble disciples who are still in training and ordinary beings would have no share in it, for beings within the three realms who remain full of afflictions could not be caused to enter a Reward Land beyond the three realms. Because that land lies within the three realms, rebirth there is easy; and because it has no manifest active desire, beings there never regress.

– Question: If that Pure Land belongs to the three realms, regression should occur there. Why, then, is it called the Stage of Non-retrogression?

– Answer: “The three realms” is a general designation, not the name of a single realm. For example, the eastern world of Abhirati has a continent of Jambudvipa, the Heaven of the Thirty-three, men, and women, yet it is called a Pure Land. How, then, could it be outside the three realms? Since that land lies within the three realms and has women, it is also called a Desire Realm; but could it therefore be regarded as identical to the Desire Realm of the Saha world?! That land is a Pure Land, whereas this land is a Defiled Land. If that Pure Land is now classified merely as a Pure Land of the Transformation Body, the beings within that Transformation Land all remain within the three realms. If, however, that Pure Land is a Pure Land of the Reward Body, the beings there are all beyond the Transformation Land, which is to say, beyond the three realms. This is because Pure Lands have three grades, superior and inferior to one another. The eastern world of Abhirati is a Pure Land of the lower grade because men and women dwell there together. The western world of Ultimate Bliss is a Pure Land of the middle grade because it includes both the Mahayana and the Hinayana. The upper world of Many Fragrances is a Pure Land of the highest grade because it has no followers of the Two Vehicles. These three grades of Pure Lands all lie within the Desire Realm because humans and devas have separate dwelling places there. The world of Abhirati has devas and humans, as the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “From the realm of Jambudvipa up to the Heaven of the Thirty-three.” The world of Ultimate Bliss has devas and humans, as the Sutra of Immeasurable Life states: “The Buddha said to Maitreya: Do you see the adornments extending from the ground upward to the Five Pure Abodes?” The world of Many Fragrances has humans and devas, as the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “Causing devas and humans alike to enter and to practice in observance of the precepts.” Since those worlds have separate dwelling places for devas and humans, they all lie within the Desire Realm. If those worlds belong to the Desire Realm, then even though they have devas, the dwelling places of those devas should be understood to lie within the Desire Realm. If those worlds belonged to the Form Realm, they would have devas but no humans, because the Form Realm is situated high above and humans cannot ascend to it. If those worlds were beyond the three realms, there would be no separate dwelling places for humans and devas.

Just as Pure Lands have three grades, Defiled Lands also have three grades. As the Sutra states: “Traveling eastward from here, there is a world named Sikha. Its ground is mixed with sand and triangular stones.

Rain falls there twice each year, yet the water penetrates no more than five inches into the soil. The beings there eat only grass and wear tree bark. They wish to live but cannot, and seek death without attaining it.

This is a Defiled Land of the middle grade. There is also a world inhabited by tigers, wolves, ferocious beasts, and even snakes and centipedes, all of which can fly. When they encounter people, they immediately devour them, making no distinction between good and evil persons.

This is a Defiled Land of the lower grade. Buddhas regularly appear in the Saha world; beings bring forth the resolve for bodhi; food grows from the earth; and people possess propriety and righteousness. This is a Defiled Land of the highest grade.”

Although Pure Lands have three grades, all who are reborn there attain Non-retrogression for four reasons:

1) Because their lifespan is long, they do not regress. As the Sutra states: “In the Pure Land, beings have lifespans extending to immeasurable asamkhya kalpas.” One needs to practice for only three asamkhya kalpas to attain Buddhahood, much less for immeasurable asamkhya kalpas. In Defiled Lands, lifespans are short, and therefore beings regress.

2) Because Buddhas and bodhisattvas serve as spiritual friends, they do not regress. As the Sutra states: “Beings in the Pure Land gather together in one place with supremely virtuous people.” In Defiled Lands, because beings encounter many evil companions, they regress.

3) In the Pure Land there are no women, and all objects of the six sense faculties are conditions that assist progress along the path; therefore, the beings there do not regress. As the Sutra of Immeasurable Life states: “When the eyes see forms, the resolve for bodhi immediately arises; and even when the mind takes dharmas as its objects, the resolve for bodhi likewise immediately arises.” In Defiled Lands, because women are present and all objects of the six sense faculties are conditions that cause regression from the path, the beings there regress.

4) In the Pure Land there are only wholesome states of mind, and therefore there is no regression. As the Sutra states: “In the Pure Land there is no occasion for committing evil.” In Defiled Lands, because both unwholesome and indeterminate states of mind exist, the beings there regress.

I.2.2 Not Belonging to the Three Realms

If those reborn there are bodhisattvas of the First Bhumi or above, arhats, or pratyekabuddhas, then this Pure Land does not belong to the three realms, because they have completely eliminated the principal defilements^[28] and have therefore escaped the three realms. As the Mahaprajnaparamita Shastra states: “There is a wondrous and sublime Pure Land beyond the three realms, where arhats will be reborn.” That treatise says “arhats” and does not mention noble disciples who are still in training. Thus, it is known that noble disciples who are still in training must be reborn within the three realms.

CHAPTER II.

DETERMINING WHO ATTAINS REBIRTH.

1- Question: I now understand that the nature of the Pure Land includes both the Reward Land and the Transformation Land, but I do not yet know which stages of persons qualify for rebirth there.

– Answer: According to the sutras and treatises, practitioners—whether male or female, noble or ordinary, even those who have committed the ten evil deeds^[29] or the five heinous offenses^[30]—can all attain rebirth there if, at the time of death, they maintain right mindfulness clearly present and their minds remain undistracted. According to the Contemplation Sutra, only those who slander the Mahayana are excluded from rebirth; according to the Sutra of Immeasurable Life, those who commit the five heinous offenses are also excluded.

2- Question: Both of these sutras were taught by the Buddha, but why does the Sutra of Immeasurable Life exclude two classes of people, whereas the Contemplation Sutra excludes only one?

– Answer: The earlier sutra speaks restrictively, while the later sutra speaks expansively; this is the customary manner in which the Buddhas teach the Dharma. The Sutra of Infinite Life was preached first, giving a detailed account of the causes and conditions of Bhikshu Dharmakara and describing rebirth in the Pure Land. The Contemplation Sutra was preached later and discusses only rebirth there.

3- Question: The Sutra of Infinite Life states: “All sentient beings reborn in the Pure Land abide in the Assembly of Right Determination,” while the Amitabha Sutra states: “Shariputra! All sentient beings born in the Land of Ultimate Bliss are avaivartikas^[31].” According to these two sutras, only those who have reached the Ten Abodes or higher can attain rebirth there. Why, then, is it said that even those who have committed the ten evil deeds and the five heinous offenses can attain rebirth there?

– Answer: Right Determination and avaivartika both mean non-retrogression. Non-retrogression is a general term and is not limited to those at the stage of the Ten Abodes. According to the explanations given in the sutras and treatises, there are four kinds: First, non-retrogression in mindfulness, attained from the Eighth Bhumi onward; second, non-retrogression in practice, attained from the First Bhumi onward; third, non-retrogression in spiritual status, attained from the Ten Abodes onward; and fourth, non-retrogression by virtue of place, attained by those dwelling in the Western Pure Land. Therefore, the Sutra of Infinite Life states: “In that land there are none belonging to the Assembly of Wrong Determination or the Assembly of Indeterminate Determination.” Among Amitabha Buddha’s forty-eight great vows, it is stated: “If, after I attain Buddhahood, the devas and humans in my land do not abide in the Assembly of Right Determination until they attain extinction, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.” Since there are as many as four kinds of non-retrogression, how could you cite only one kind, non-retrogression by virtue of place, and disregard the other three!

4- Question: A discussion of non-retrogression should be based on one’s stage of cultivation. Why, then, can non-retrogression be attained by relying upon a place?

– Answer: Non-retrogression in one’s stage of cultivation occurs because, at that stage, afflictions no longer remain in the mind. Non-retrogression by virtue of place occurs because no other kinds of conditions exist outside those found in that place. Each kind of non-retrogression is established according to a particular meaning; what is so strange about that!

5- Question: The first three kinds of non-retrogression are all attested in the sutras and treatises, but there is no textual evidence for non-retrogression by virtue of place. Can it be believed?

– Answer: I shall now cite the Vibhasha Treatise as evidence. That treatise sets forth six dispositions: retrogressive, reflective, protective, abiding, advancing, and immovable. A person of the retrogressive disposition may fall back even after attaining the fruit of arhatship and may even give rise again to the afflictions belonging to the Stage of Cultivation in the Three Realms, because that person’s faculties are weak. Although such a person is, by nature, of retrogressive faculties, that person will regress only when encountering all five conditions for regression among the humans of the Desire Realm. If this person is born in any of the six heavens of the Desire Realm, in the Form Realm, or in the Formless Realm, where the five causes of regression do not exist, that person will not regress. Thus, because the place in which that person dwells contains no causes of regression, that person will never regress. The five causes of regression are prolonged illness, traveling far away, reciting sutras, managing affairs, and mediating disputes. These five occur only among humans and not among devas. Although reciting sutras, managing affairs, and mediating disputes are wholesome activities, they compel one to interrupt the practice of contemplation and therefore cause regression. The other conditions should be understood in the same way as these three. All ordinary beings who practice mindfulness of the Buddha but have not yet reached the stage of the Ten Abodes still belong to the class of external ordinary beings^[32] and are therefore, by nature, subject to regression. If such people dwell in the defiled Saha world, they regress because they continue to encounter the five conditions for regression. If they are born in the Western Land, they do not regress because the five conditions for regression are absent there. The five conditions for regression are:

1) A short lifespan and many illnesses

2) The presence of women and the defiling influence of the six sense objects

3) Association with evildoers, that is, encountering evil spiritual friends

4) Unwholesome and karmically indeterminate states of mind

5) Seldom encountering a Buddha

These five conditions for regression do not exist in the Pure Land; therefore, all sentient beings there attain non-retrogression.

This is to cite the Buddha’s words as evidence for non-retrogression by virtue of place.

Furthermore, both sutras state that those reborn in the Pure Land attain non-retrogression; they do not state that only those who have already reached the stage of non-retrogression can attain rebirth there. Thus, the Sutra of Infinite Life states: “Those born in that land all abide in the Assembly of Right Determination.” Why? Because in that land there are none belonging to the Assembly of Wrong Determination or the Assembly of Indeterminate Determination.

The Amitabha Sutra (the shorter version) states: “Sentient beings born in the Pure Land are all non-retrogressive.” It does not state that only those who are already non-retrogressive can attain rebirth there. Likewise, beings in this realm experience all three kinds of feeling, but when born in that realm, they experience neither painful nor neutral feeling, but only pleasant feeling.

6- Question: The Contemplation Sutra states: “One who attains the highest grade of the highest level of rebirth is born in that land and immediately realizes the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas.” It should therefore be understood that such a person is a bodhisattva of the Eighth Bhumi. If so, must not one who attains a lower grade of rebirth have reached at least the Ten Abodes? For if such a person were below the Ten Abodes, this would not only contradict the sutra, but the disparity between the stages would also be far too great.

– Answer: It is not so. The patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas is also of four kinds:

+First, realizing the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas through scriptural teachings. This means that ordinary beings and those at the stage of the Ten Faiths, by reading Mahayana sutras and treatises, awaken to non-arising. This is the wisdom born of hearing.

+Second, realizing the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas through contemplation. This means that those from the Ten Abodes through the Ten Dedications, by practicing contemplation of the three non-natures^[33], awaken to the principle that all dharmas are unborn. This is the wisdom born of reflection.

+Third, awakening to the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas through realization of the principle. This means that bodhisattvas from the First Bhumi onward realize the true suchness of the twofold emptiness, which pervades the Dharma realm. This is the wisdom born of cultivation.

+Fourth, realizing the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas by virtue of one’s stage. This means that bodhisattvas from the Eighth Bhumi onward realize the simultaneous functioning of the principles of ultimate truth and conventional truth, thereby attaining effortless wisdom. This is the wisdom born of cultivation.

Since “the patience regarding the non-arising of dharmas” is a general designation for all four kinds, how could one rely upon only one kind and elevate the other three to that same level? Dharma Master Huiyuan held that those attaining the highest grade of the highest level of rebirth are bodhisattvas from the Fourth through the Eighth Bhumi, while the Mahayana-samgraha Treatise holds that they are bodhisattvas of the Fourth Bhumi.

According to causes and conditions, those bodhisattvas undergo the birth and death of transformation^[34], whereas the Western Land is a realm in which beings still undergo segmented birth and death^[35]. What, then, could cause bodhisattvas possessing bodies of transformation^[36] to assume once again bodies subject to segmented birth and death^[37]? Thus, the Sutra of Avalokiteshvara’s Prediction of Buddhahood states: “Amitabha Buddha has an immeasurably long lifespan, yet in the end he will enter nirvana.” It should be understood that although the sentient beings there likewise have immeasurably long lifespans, they must eventually die,

for the Amitabha Sutra (the shorter version) states: “Sentient beings in the Pure Land are also called Amitabha.” With regard to the passage on those reborn in the nine grades in the Contemplation Sutra, venerable masters of old, such as Dharma Master Huiyuan and others, judged according to the resultant attainment and therefore held that those attaining the highest grade of rebirth occupied exceedingly high stages.

Here, judging according to the cause, the stages of those attaining the highest grade of rebirth are relatively low. For example, a person who gives rise to the three kinds of mind immediately attains the highest grade of the highest level of rebirth. Those three are the sincere mind, the profound mind, and the mind that dedicates merit and makes vows.

According to the Awakening of Faith Treatise, these three minds are precisely the initial three minds of the Ten Abodes. That treatise states: “The arousal of the mind through the fulfillment of faith occurs at the final stage of the Ten Faiths. At that time, one must arouse three kinds of mind in order to enter the stage of the Ten Abodes.” Those three minds are:

1) Straightforward mind: The mind that rightly contemplates the Dharma of True Suchness; this is the sincere mind taught in the Contemplation Sutra. “Sincere mind” and “straightforward mind” have the same meaning, though their names differ. The Vimalakirti Sutra states: “At the very outset, both practices pertaining to the Pure Land bodhimanda each possess the three minds,” meaning the same as in the Contemplation Sutra.

Upon examining the sutras and treatises, one finds that they all state only that, at the very outset of all practices, these three minds must be aroused. Therefore, one should know that these three minds are the beginning of the myriad practices. Since these three minds are the beginning of the myriad practices, how could one born in the highest grade immediately realize non-arising, even attaining the Eighth Bhumi?

2) Profound mind: The Contemplation Sutra also calls this the profound mind.

3) Mind of great compassion: The Contemplation Sutra calls this the mind that dedicates merit and makes vows. Without the mind of great compassion, one cannot make vows and dedicate merit; therefore, these two expressions have the same meaning.

Since the three minds in the Awakening of Faith Treatise constitute the final arousal of the mind at the stage of the Ten Faiths, it is clear that the person of the highest grade of the highest birth described in the Contemplation Sutra is precisely one at the initial mind of the Ten Abodes.

The Sutra says that one realizes the patience of the non-arising of dharmas; this refers to realizing the patience of the non-arising of dharmas through contemplative practice. Dharma Master Huiyuan, however, held that a bodhisattva of the Fourth Bhumi is one who attains the highest grade of the highest birth. Yet how could one, upon reaching that bhumi, realize the patience of the non-arising of dharmas immediately, without the passage of time? For a bodhisattva progressing from the Fourth Bhumi to the Eighth Bhumi must still pass through half an asamkhya kalpa.

One of the highest grade of the middle birth is at the initial mind of the Ten Faiths. The Sutra records: “One attains the highest grade of the middle birth by deeply believing in cause and effect and not slandering the Mahayana Dharma.” For if that person had not yet reached the stage of the Ten Faiths, he would belong to the group fixed in error—that is, those who do not believe in cause and effect and who slander the Mahayana Dharma. Furthermore, the stage of the Ten Faiths comprises ten minds, the first of which is the mind of faith.

The Sutra says that, after being born in that land and passing through one minor kalpa, one realizes the patience of the non-arising of dharmas; this is realizing the patience of the non-arising of dharmas through understanding the principle. Because the days and months in that land are long, the Sutra records: “One day and one night in the Land of Ultimate Bliss equals one kalpa in the Saha world.” If one of the highest grade of the middle birth were truly a bodhisattva of the First Bhumi, as Dharma Master Huiyuan said, how could that person attain the fruit of the Eighth Bhumi after passing through merely one kalpa there? For the passage from the First Bhumi to the Eighth Bhumi requires one great asamkhya kalpa.

One of the highest grade of the lowest birth is any ordinary person inclined toward goodness who has not yet reached the Ten Faiths but has taken refuge in the Three Jewels and received the bodhisattva precepts. The Sutra records: “One of the highest grade of the lowest birth also believes in cause and effect, does not slander the Mahayana, and furthermore arouses the aspiration for the unsurpassed Way.” This means that the person has newly aroused the bodhicitta at the stage of the Ten Faiths and entered the indeterminate stage.

After being born in that land and passing through three minor kalpas, that person enters the First Bhumi. This means that the reckoning is always according to kalpas in that land, not kalpas in this world. Thus, one kalpa in the Saha world equals one day and one night in the Land of Peace and Bliss.

After one of the highest grade of the lowest birth has passed through three minor kalpas, it is reasonable that the person ascends to the First Bhumi. If that person truly belonged to the Ten Abodes, as Dharma Master Huiyuan said, how could the person reach the First Bhumi after passing through only three minor kalpas? For the period from the Ten Abodes to the First Bhumi is the first asamkhya kalpa.

The three grades discussed above all belong to the Mahayana, whereas those in the three levels of the middle grade are mostly followers of the Hinayana. One of the middle grade of the highest birth belongs to the final four preparatory stages among the seven preparatory stages of the Hinayana^[38], namely, the stages of Warmth, Summit, Patience, and the Highest Mundane Dharma. The Sutra records: “One of the middle grade of the highest birth is a person who observes the five precepts and does not commit evil deeds.” Through attaining the four stages conducive to penetration^[39] and future dhyana^[40], that person subdues the afflictions of the Desire Realm and therefore does not give rise to afflictions that lead to breaking the precepts or to evil karma,

because such afflictions and evil karma exist only in the Desire Realm.

Upon being born in that land, one of the middle grade of the highest birth immediately realizes the fruit of arhatship; that is, immediately upon birth, the person attains the four fruits of a sramana and is one who enters nirvana in the present lifetime. According to Dharma Master Huiyuan’s classification, this person is a holy one who is still in training and belongs to the three fruits, beginning with stream-entry, and so forth.

Although there is no fixed period for followers of the Hinayana to attain fruition, his classification of their stage is ultimately too high.

One of the middle grade of the middle birth belongs to the stage of the five contemplations for stilling the mind^[41] or above—that is, to the first three preparatory stages among the seven preparatory stages of the Hinayana. The Sutra records: “One of the middle grade of the middle birth is a person who observes the eight fasting precepts^[42] for one day and one night, or who observes the complete precepts^[43] for one day and one night, with all deportment complete.” Because that person is at the stage of a distracted mind and has not yet attained concentration, there is no means of counteracting the afflictions that lead to breaking the precepts, and the person cannot observe the precepts for long.

At a minimum, that person must fully maintain proper deportment for one day and one night; thereafter, even if minor precepts are violated, the person may still attain birth there. After being born in that land and passing through half a kalpa, the person realizes the fruit of arhatship. This person, too, enters nirvana in the present lifetime, because the person possesses a long lifespan.

According to Dharma Master Huiyuan’s explanation, this person belongs to the four stages of intensified practice, such as Warmth and so forth; a person at the fourth of these four stages of intensified practice realizes future dhyana and subdues the afflictions belonging to the Desire Realm. Why, then, does the Sutra record that the person observes the precepts without transgression for only one day and one night? Thus, here too, Dharma Master Huiyuan classified the stage too highly.

One of the middle grade of the lowest birth is any ordinary person who has not yet reached the Hinayana stage of the five contemplations for stilling the mind and who has received the five precepts or more. The Sutra records: “This is a person who dutifully supports his parents and practices worldly benevolence.” Although that person has not yet practiced the contemplations of those entering the Way, the person is nevertheless able to practice worldly benevolence; in all other respects, the explanation is as given above.

If, as Dharma Master Huiyuan classified them, such persons occupied one of the three stages from the five contemplations for stilling the mind through the contemplation of the general characteristics, and had attained either wisdom born of hearing, wisdom born of reflection, or wisdom born of cultivation, why would they practice only worldly benevolence and dutifully support their parents, as the Sutra records? Thus, Dharma Master Huiyuan again classified the stage too highly.

If we discuss the three grades of the lower level, generally speaking, they comprise all ordinary beings who commit evil, who create only the offenses of the Ten Evil Deeds and the Five Heinous Offenses, and who even use the property of the permanently resident Sangha without any sense of shame. Although they may be permitted to receive the precepts, immediately after receiving them they break them. If, when approaching death, such people encounter a good spiritual friend who instructs them, arouse an exceptionally powerful bodhicitta, and maintain continuous right mindfulness manifest before them, they will immediately attain rebirth.

If they do not encounter a good spiritual friend and cannot arouse an exceptionally powerful bodhicitta, they will certainly fall into hell. Therefore, the Contemplation Sutra states: “That person should fall into hell and undergo immeasurable suffering for many kalpas.” Yet when the karmic retribution of sentient beings reaches its end, aggrieved adversaries, evil karma, and every kind of suffering vie with one another to descend upon them; thus, it is extremely difficult to accomplish ten recitations of the name of Amitabha Buddha.

If they can accomplish them, however, they will certainly attain rebirth in the Pure Land. Moreover, the two paths of good and evil are as close as turning over one’s hand: turn it upward and one attains rebirth; turn it downward and one enters hell. At that moment, only the power of a good spiritual friend is needed.

If those who have broken the precepts immediately give rise to shame, repent in accordance with the Mahayana sutras, thereby extinguish their offenses, single-mindedly recollect the Buddha, and practice contemplation, they will all be born in the two higher grades of the lower level rather than in the lowest grade of the lower level. According to Dharma Master Huiyuan, these are ordinary, worldly people.

8- Question: The gate of the Pure Land is entered by ordinary beings and sages alike. I do not yet know to whom this statement specifically refers.

– Answer: Examining the passage in which Lady Vaidehi asks her question and the Tathagata replies, its intent is solely to say that the Buddha taught the Pure Land for all ordinary beings of future ages who would be harmed by the bandits of the afflictions, and exhorted them to attain rebirth there; it does not speak of bodhisattvas. If one is a bodhisattva, one has already aroused the resolve and vowed to be born in the evil destinies, rather than vowing to be born in the Pure Land. Bodhisattvas at the Ten Abodes and above, for example, constantly retain their delusions while undergoing birth, vowing to be born in the evil destinies to save suffering sentient beings and not vowing to be born in the Pure Land. Regarding the retention of delusions, the Vimalakirti Sutra states: “Such is the sick bodhisattva: without any basis for experiencing sensations, he experiences the various sensations; before fully penetrating the Buddha-Dharma, he also does not extinguish sensation and grasp realization.” This passage concerns bodhisattvas who retain delusions^[44] while undergoing birth.

In addition, both the Treatise on the Stages and the Mahayana-samgraha Treatise discuss retaining delusions while undergoing birth. In brief, the sages of the Three Vehicles and those at the Seven Expedient Stages of the Three Vehicles^[45], down to those preceding the Path of Expedient Means^[46]—whether male or female, without sexual faculties or possessing both faculties, and even the eight classes of ghosts and dragons—will all attain rebirth if they arouse bodhicitta, single-mindedly recollect Amitabha Buddha, become weary of the defiled and evil land, delight in the Pure Land, and maintain right mindfulness manifest before them when approaching death.

Those who practice with vigorous diligence, whose contemplative practice is clear, and whose minds are not confused at the final moment of death will all attain rebirth. Even those who, when approaching death, maintain their final ten thoughts continuously manifest before them will all attain rebirth. Among them, bodhisattvas who attain rebirth are divided into nine grades within three levels.

Those of the Two Vehicles who attain rebirth are divided into the three levels of upper, middle, and lower. Ordinary beings who attain rebirth are likewise divided into the three levels of upper, middle, and lower. Each level contains nine grades, but the sutras could not distinguish them in detail and therefore discuss collectively the nine grades of ordinary beings of the Lesser Vehicle and the Mahayana.

In reality, however, there are immeasurably many different grades. A careful examination of Amitabha Buddha’s Forty-Eight Great Vows and the Contemplation Sutra shows that their principal intent is to present ordinary beings as the primary recipients of rebirth and sages as secondary recipients. Because ordinary beings fall into the evil destinies, they cannot cultivate the path or arouse the resolve while in the Defiled Land.

Only ordinary beings who slander the Mahayana cannot attain rebirth, because they have severed their roots of goodness. Sages of the Two Vehicles who are still in training and are attached to the literal Dharma^[47] cannot attain rebirth because they do not believe in the Pure Lands of the ten directions. Bodhisattvas who do not make the vow to seek rebirth likewise cannot attain rebirth, because they have no aspiration for the Pure Land.

Sages of the Two Vehicles who are beyond training, however—whether attached to the literal Dharma or not, and whether or not they seek rebirth—will all attain rebirth, because they no longer undergo birth in the Defiled Lands of the three realms. The Treatise on the Great Perfection of Wisdom states: “There is a wondrous Pure Land beyond the three realms in which the arhats will be born,” but it does not mention sages who are still in training.

CHAPTER III.

DETERMINING THE CAUSES OF REBIRTH.

– Question: I now understand that ordinary beings and sages alike can attain rebirth, but I do not yet know what practices and karmic deeds these people cultivate in order to attain rebirth.

– Answer: Based on the sutras and treatises, I shall present two causes here and explain them in two parts: 1) Citing the sutras and treatises to present these causes fully; 2) Omitting superfluous wording in order to present the causes concisely.

III.1 CITATIONS FROM THE SUTRAS AND TREATISES:

As the Infinite Life Sutra states:

“There are three levels of people born in that land. Those born in the upper grade have three causes: arousing bodhicitta, leaving the household life, and single-mindedly recollecting the Buddha’s name. At the same time, they must also cultivate other meritorious deeds, dedicate the merit, and make vows; they will then attain rebirth.”

Thus, upon examination, the intent of this sutra is to say that those born in the three grades of the upper level are solely monastics.

Those born in the middle grade also have three causes: arousing bodhicitta, single-mindedly recollecting the Buddha’s name, and observing the fasting precepts. At the same time, they must also build monasteries, fashion images, offer food and drink to the Sangha, burn incense, scatter flowers, light lamps, hang banners as offerings to the Buddhas, and perform the other practices described above. Thus, these people are solely householders. The sutra states: “Although they do not leave the household life to cultivate as sramanas,....”

“Those born in the lower grade also have three causes: arousing bodhicitta, single-mindedly recollecting the Buddha’s name for as few as ten thoughts, and hearing the profound teachings, accepting them with joyful faith and without doubt.” According to the intent of the Infinite Life Sutra, this applies to both monastics and householders.

The Sutra of the Immeasurably Pure, Impartial Enlightenment states:

– There are three levels of those who wish to be born in the precious land of Immeasurable Purity and Impartiality. Those of the upper level abandon wife and children, sever sensual desire, become sramanas, have no relations with women, practice the six paramitas, observe the fasting precepts in purity, and cultivate wholeheartedly without interruption. If they see the Buddha in a dream, they will attain rebirth. Those of the middle level uphold the sutras, receive the precepts, offer food and drink to sramanas, cultivate loving-kindness without anger or resentment, and hang banners and present flowers as offerings. If they practice without interruption for one day and one night, they will be reborn in that land. Those of the lower level are in the process of severing sensual desire, cultivate loving-kindness without anger or resentment, observe the fasting precepts in purity, and single-mindedly recollect the Buddha without interruption for ten days and ten nights; they will then attain rebirth.

(These matters are all presented in the Sutra of the Immeasurably Pure, Impartial Enlightenment and the Infinite Life Sutra.)

The Sutra of the Drum-Sound King of Amitabha Buddha states:

– If a person receives and upholds the name of Amitabha Buddha with a steadfast mind, constantly remembers it without forgetting, remains undistracted for ten days and ten nights, diligently cultivates the Samadhi of Recollection of the Buddha, knows that the Tathagata constantly abides in the Land of Peace and Bliss, continually remembers and contemplates him without interruption, receives, upholds, reads, and recites this Sutra of the Drum-Sound King throughout the day and night, single-mindedly cultivates during the six periods, prostrates with all five limbs touching the ground in reverence to that Buddha, and continues thought after thought without ceasing, then within ten days that person will certainly behold that Buddha, except for those obstructed by grave offenses.

The Contemplation Sutra states: “First, one must cultivate the three pure meritorious deeds; second, one must practice the sixteen contemplations….” These are the causal practices taught in the Contemplation Sutra. Because they are too extensive to be quoted here in full, they are presented only in general terms.

The Amitabha Sutra (the Shorter Version) states:

– If a good man or good woman hears of Buddha Amitabha and then holds fast to his name, for one day or even up to seven days, recollecting Buddha Amitabha single-mindedly and without distraction, then, when that person approaches the end of life, Buddha Amitabha and the assembly of sages will appear before that person. When that person dies, the mind will not be confused, and that person will immediately attain rebirth there.

The Mahasamnipata Sutra states: “The Buddha said to Bhadrapala:

– Why is it called the Samadhi of the Buddhas’ Presence? If a bhiksu, bhiksuni, upasaka, or upasika maintains the precepts purely, dwells alone in a secluded place, and, according to the circumstances, hears of Buddha Amitabha in the West, then, having heard, that person thinks: ‘Just as I have heard, Buddha Amitabha is presently in the West, teaching the Dharma to the bodhisattvas.’ In accordance with what was heard, that person fixes the mind in reflection and contemplates continuously and distinctly, and ultimately beholds that Buddha. It is like a man or woman who, in a dream, sees various things—gold, silver, precious objects, and so forth. The scenes seen in the dream may be adverse or favorable, joyful or sorrowful. After awakening, that person recounts them fully to others; and, upon recalling the sorrowful or joyful scenes in the dream, immediately feels sorrow or joy accordingly. It is likewise, Bhadrapala! That good man or good woman thinks of Buddha Amitabha: his excellent marks are such, his dignified deportment is such, his assembly of sages is such, his teaching of the Dharma is such, and so forth. By fixing the mind in reflection, whether for one day or one night, and recollecting him fully, that person will certainly behold Buddha Amitabha. If that person does not behold him during the day, then, while asleep at night, that person will certainly see Buddha Amitabha appear.

(This is the Bodhisattva Bhadrapala Sutra contained in the Mahasamnipata Sutra. This sutra teaches that those who contemplate the Buddha will certainly behold the Buddha.)

The Treatise on Rebirth states: “By cultivating the five kinds of mindfulness, one will attain rebirth. What are the five kinds of mindfulness? They are prostration, praise, aspiration, contemplation, and dedication of merit.”

The Mahayana Awakening of Faith states:

– Furthermore, when sentient beings first begin to study this Dharma, their minds are weak, and they fear that it will be difficult to perfect faith; thus, they are inclined to retreat. The Tathagata has an excellent skillful means for safeguarding the faith of practitioners. It is to take faith and recollection of the Buddha as the cause and condition, thereby attaining rebirth in that Buddha-land according to one’s aspiration. The sutra states: “If a person single-mindedly recollects Buddha Amitabha in the West, dedicates the roots of goodness that have been created, and aspires to be born in that world, that person will immediately attain rebirth there.”

(This is the Mahayana Awakening of Faith, composed by Bodhisattva Asvaghosa, which teaches that those who recollect the Buddha, make aspirations, and dedicate merit will attain rebirth.)

The Mahayana Treatise on the Ten Stages, composed by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna, teaches that those who prostrate to and praise Buddha Amitabha will attain rebirth. (The full text of these prostrations and praises will be given in Section V, Scriptural and Treatise Citations. Here, only a few passages from sutras and treatises are cited to explain the meaning of the first approach.)

III.2 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE CAUSES OF REBIRTH

– Question: The passages from the sutras and treatises cited above are too extensive and difficult to study. We now ask you to explain briefly the essential causes of rebirth so that practitioners may cultivate and study them easily.

– Answer: Indeed! The sutras and treatises cited above all contain teachings suited to particular capacities, and therefore they are difficult to study. Now, for the sake of simplicity, I shall omit elaborate wording and present only a concise account of the causes of rebirth. There are two kinds of causes: common causes and particular causes.

III.2.1 Common Causes:

As taught in the Sutra of Immeasurable Life, all three grades of persons who attain rebirth must arouse the bodhicitta; and according to the Contemplation Sutra, they must also fully cultivate the three pure meritorious deeds before they can attain rebirth. Causes such as these are all common causes. There are two kinds of common causes: those that universally correspond with the Pure Lands of the ten directions, and those that universally correspond with the Pure Lands of the three times.

Therefore, the Contemplation Sutra states: These three kinds of meritorious deeds are the true causes of the pure karma of all Buddhas of the three times—past, present, and future.

III.2.2 Particular Causes:

There are innumerable particular causes, but only two are of primary importance: that which is sought and that which seeks.

III.2.2.1 That Which Is Sought:

This is also of two kinds. First, one must designate a particular direction toward which to direct the mind. For example, one specifically designates the Land of Utmost Bliss in the West and seeks rebirth there; this means designating the purified vessel-world. Second, one specifically recollects a particular Buddha, honors him as one’s teacher, regards oneself as his disciple, and draws near to serve and make offerings to him; this is the purified world of sentient beings.

III.2.2.2 That Which Seeks:

Strictly speaking, this cause has six aspects: one must specifically recollect the name of Buddha Amitabha, prostrate, praise, make aspirations, contemplate, and dedicate merit.

1) Recollection of the Buddha: There are two methods: mental recollection and oral recitation.

a. Mental recollection: This has two forms:

– Recollection of the Buddha’s physical body: This means recollecting that the physical body of Buddha Amitabha possesses 84,000 excellent marks, that each mark has 84,000 beautiful characteristics, and that each beautiful characteristic emits 84,000 rays of light.

– Recollection of the Buddha’s wisdom-body: This means recollecting that Buddha Amitabha possesses the fivefold Dharma-body, great loving-kindness, great compassion, the Ten Powers^[48], the Four Fearlessnesses^[49], and so forth.

b. Oral recitation: If the mind is weak, it must receive assistance from the mouth; one uses the mouth to guide the mind so that the mind does not become distracted. As the sutra states: If a person recites the name of Buddha Amitabha one million times or more, that person will certainly attain rebirth in the Land of Utmost Bliss. From this sutra, Chan Master Daochuo determined that if one can single-mindedly recollect the Buddha for seven days, one can complete one million recitations. Therefore, most sutras state that by recollecting the Buddha for seven days, one will attain rebirth.

2) Prostration: One should face west, visualize Buddha Amitabha as if he were before one’s eyes, reverently offer incense and flowers, recite the Buddha’s name with one’s mouth, prostrate with the five limbs touching the ground, bow one’s head three times, and aspire to be born in that land. One should recite Nagarjuna’s Twelve Prostrations, translated into Chinese by Tripitaka Master Dhyana:

I bow my head to Buddha Amitabha,

The Great Sage, the Honored One Perfect in Both Blessings and Wisdom^[50],

Revered by devas and humans,

Dwelling in the wondrous Land of Peace and Bliss,

Surrounded by immeasurable disciples.

………

3) Praise: One should specifically praise Buddha Amitabha—his body, his mind, his dependent recompense, or his primary recompense. Whether standing or sitting, one should look directly toward the West and visualize Buddha Amitabha and the realm of the West as if they were before one’s eyes; with one’s mind, one should praise him and aspire to be born in that Pure Land. One should recite Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s verses in the Mahayana Treatise on the Ten Stages and the hymn of praise in the Treatise on Rebirth.

4) Making aspirations: One should make the aspiration to seek rebirth solely in the Land of Utmost Bliss. One may aspire for oneself to attain rebirth, aspire for sentient beings to attain rebirth, aspire for Buddha Sakyamuni to see one off, aspire for Buddha Amitabha to come and welcome one, aspire always to roam throughout the Pure Land, aspire forever to leave behind a body born from a womb, aspire to be peaceful and secure at the end of life, or aspire for right mindfulness to be present. Aspirations such as these may all be aroused according to one’s heart, as the Ratnagotravibhaga states:

Through reliance upon these merits,

May I, at the time of death,

Behold Buddha Amitabha,

Whose body possesses boundless virtues.

When I and those endowed with faith

Have beheld that Buddha,

May we attain the stainless eye^[51]

And realize unsurpassed bodhi.

5) Contemplation: The aspects of the circumstantial and direct recompenses of the Western Land must be set forth separately for contemplation. Thus, among the sixteen contemplations in the Contemplation Sutra, the first seven contemplate the circumstantial recompense, while the latter nine contemplate the direct recompense. Likewise, according to the Treatise on Rebirth, the circumstantial recompense has seventeen adornments; as for the direct recompense, the Buddha has eight adornments, and the bodhisattvas also have four adornments. Each of these should be contemplated one by one. If any one contemplation is successfully accomplished, rebirth is assured.

6) Dedication of merit: This has two aspects. First, one dedicates one’s merit so that sentient beings may likewise be born in the Pure Land. Second, one vows to dedicate all one’s merit from beginningless time until now, together with all merit acquired in this life—whether great or small, whether consisting of merit or wisdom—to seek rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss.

—Question: The two kinds of general and particular causes explained above are difficult to cultivate fully. Ordinary beings of shallow wisdom and meager strength may fear that the thought will arise in their minds that they have no share in this. I now ask you to summarize and broadly explain the essential points.

—Answer: The two kinds of general and particular causes that I have just presented above are fully present in those of superior faculties. Those of middling and inferior faculties need only fulfill five practices:

1) They must repent of the evil karma that has obstructed the Path from beginningless time until now, lest it hinder the practice of the Pure Land, as taught in the Vaipulya Sutras and the Buddha-Names Sutra.

2) They must arouse the bodhi mind. If they do not arouse the bodhi mind, they will merely be seeking happiness for themselves while escaping suffering, and it is feared that they will not attain rebirth. Briefly stated, the bodhi mind has three aspects: first, the mind that eliminates all evil; second, the mind that cultivates all good; and third, the mind that guides all sentient beings to liberation. (According to the Infinite Life Sutra, those in all three grades of rebirth must arouse the bodhi mind.)

3) They must single-mindedly recite the name of Amitabha Buddha. A separate place of practice should be established, where incense is burned, flowers are scattered, banners are hung, lamps are lit, and so forth. An image of Amitabha Buddha should be installed and honored in the place of practice.

The image should face east, while the practitioner faces west toward the image. This practice may be undertaken for seven days (as taught in the Amitabha Sutra, the shorter version), or for ten days (as taught in the Drum-Sound King Sutra and the Sutra of Pure and Impartial Enlightenment), reducing sleep and rest and dispelling distraction. Except when attending to urination, defecation, eating, and drinking, one must spend all remaining time single-mindedly reciting the Buddha’s name.

If drowsiness arises, one should stand up and continue reciting. There is no need to bow or circumambulate the Buddha; one need only recite the Buddha’s name continuously for the full seven days. After leaving the place of practice, one should nevertheless continue reciting the Buddha’s name at all times—while walking, standing, lying down, sitting, or at leisure.

Constant recitation of the Buddha’s name has three benefits: First, because of constant recitation, evil thoughts do not arise at all, and karmic obstructions are also eliminated. Second, because of constant recitation, roots of goodness increase, and the causes and conditions for seeing the Buddha are also planted. Third, because of constant recitation, acuity and maturity are instilled, so that at the time of death right mindfulness will manifest before one.

4) They must contemplate the overall aspect of the Land of Ultimate Bliss: what its ground is like, what its ponds are like, what its towers and pavilions are like, and what its groves are like; how Amitabha Buddha sits upon the lotus throne, what his excellent marks are like, what his disciples are like, and how he teaches the Dharma. (These are the Buddha’s instructions to sentient beings in the Bhadrapala Sutra of the Great Collection Sutra.) By performing this contemplation of the overall aspect, one will assuredly attain rebirth, because the Three Realms are merely manifestations of mind.

5) All merit that has been created, whether in past lives or in the present life, must be vowed and dedicated toward seeking rebirth in the Land of Peace and Bliss.

If one fully cultivates the five practices described above, one will assuredly attain rebirth. May you harbor no doubts! For the Lotus Sutra states: “I now assure you that this matter is wholly without falsehood.” I likewise vow and assure you that this matter is wholly without falsehood.

Notes:

^[1] The sixteen contemplations in the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Infinite Life are: Contemplation of the Sun, Contemplation of Water, Contemplation of the Ground, Contemplation of Jeweled Trees, Contemplation of Jeweled Ponds, Contemplation of Jeweled Towers, Contemplation of the Lotus Throne, Contemplation of the Image, Contemplation of the True Body, Contemplation of Avalokitesvara, Contemplation of Mahasthamaprapta, Comprehensive Contemplation, Contemplation of Various Images, Contemplation of the Superior Grade, Contemplation of the Middle Grade, and Contemplation of the Inferior Grade.

^[2] According to the Contemplation Sutra, because their faculties and practices differ, those who aspire to rebirth are divided into nine levels and are born in nine corresponding grades in the Land of Ultimate Bliss: upper level of the superior grade, middle level of the superior grade, lower level of the superior grade, upper level of the middle grade, middle level of the middle grade, lower level of the middle grade, upper level of the inferior grade, middle level of the inferior grade, and lower level of the inferior grade.

^[3] Dharma Master Huiyuan (334–416): An eminent Chinese monk who lived during the Eastern Jin dynasty. His family name was Jia, and he was from Loufan, Yanmen (Guo County, Shandong Province). He was the First Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land school.

^[4] A renowned Chinese Buddhist layman of the Liu Song dynasty, from Yangxia. He was well versed in the scriptures, calligraphy, painting, poetry, and literature. He served in official positions including Military Adviser to the Grand Commandant and Grand Tutor of Yongjia. He was falsely accused and put to death by the emperor in Guangzhou in 433.

^[5] This refers to Chan Master Xihe (562–645), whose family name was Wei and who was from Wenshui, Bingzhou (present-day Taiyuan County, Shanxi Province). He was the Second Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land school and composed such works as the Treatise on the Pure Land (two fascicles) and the Collection on Peace and Bliss (two fascicles).

^[6] The three pure meritorious practices cultivated by practitioners to attain rebirth in the Land of Ultimate Bliss are: 1) worldly merit: caring for one’s parents with filial devotion, attending upon teachers and elders, cultivating a compassionate mind and refraining from killing living beings, and practicing the ten wholesome actions; 2) merit of moral discipline: receiving and upholding the Three Refuges and all the precepts, and observing proper conduct without transgression; and 3) merit of practice: arousing the bodhi mind, deeply believing in cause and effect, reading and reciting Mahayana scriptures, and encouraging others to advance in cultivation.

^[7] This refers to the Four Great Vows: the vow to liberate innumerable sentient beings, the vow to eliminate inexhaustible afflictions, the vow to study immeasurable Dharma gates, and the vow to attain the unsurpassed Buddha Way.

^[8] The six realms into which sentient beings are born according to the power of their karma are: gods, humans, asuras, animals, hungry ghosts, and hell beings. The first three are wholesome realms, while the latter three are evil realms.

^[9] The five eyes: the five kinds of vision comprising the physical eye, divine eye, wisdom eye, Dharma eye, and Buddha eye.

^[10] The five components: the five components of the Dharma body, comprising the body of moral discipline, the body of samadhi, the body of wisdom, the body of liberation, and the body of the knowledge and vision of liberation.

^[11] According to fascicle 40 of the Treatise on the Great Prajnaparamita and fascicle 15 of the Great Parinirvana Sutra, objectless loving-kindness is absolutely impartial loving-kindness arising from a nondiscriminating mind that is free from views of distinctions.

^[12] Here, the “person who dwells” refers to the direct recompense—the one who teaches and guides beings in the Pure Land, namely, the Buddha.

^[13] The “land in which one dwells” is the circumstantial recompense, the dwelling place of the “person who dwells,” namely, the Pure Land.

^[14] Wisdom born of hearing, wisdom born of reflection, and wisdom born of cultivation.

^[15] A bodhisattva at the stage of the diamond-like mind is an Equal-Enlightenment Bodhisattva, or a bodhisattva bound to one more birth.

^[16] An Indian numerical unit of extremely great value, the fifty-second in a system of sixty numerical units. One asamkhya = 10^49.

^[17] According to the cosmology of ancient India, a world consists of Mount Sumeru at its center, surrounded by four great continents, nine ranges of mountains, and eight seas. It extends from the First Dhyana Heaven of the Form Realm down to the wind disk beneath the earth, and includes the sun, the moon, Mount Sumeru, the Heaven of the Four Heavenly Kings, the Trayastrimsa Heaven, the Yama Heaven, the Tusita Heaven, the Heaven of Delight in Creating, the Heaven of Mastery over Others’ Creations, the Brahma Heaven, and so forth.

One thousand such small worlds constitute a small-thousandfold world; one thousand small-thousandfold worlds constitute a medium-thousandfold world; and one thousand medium-thousandfold worlds constitute a great-thousandfold world, also called a three-thousand great-thousand world-system or a three-thousandfold world-system.

^[18] Bodhisattvas at the stages of the Ten Abodes, Ten Practices, and Ten Dedications of Merit, who have not yet entered the Ten Bhumi.

^[19] That is, fundamental wisdom.

^[20] That is, the four preparatory stages, comprising: the Dharma of Warmth, the Dharma of the Summit, the Dharma of Patience, and the Foremost Mundane Dharma.

^[21] Two kinds of teachings. According to the meaning and content of the doctrine, the method of practice, the form in which the Dharma is taught, the teacher, and the recipient of the teaching, the Buddha’s teachings may be classified as the Half-Word Teaching and the Full-Word Teaching, or the Sudden Teaching and the Gradual Teaching, the Hinayana Teaching and the Mahayana Teaching, and so forth.

^[22] Also called the Three Penetrating Knowledges or the Three Realized Knowledges, comprising the realized knowledge of past lives, the knowledge of birth and death, and the realized knowledge of the exhaustion of the outflows—that is, the wisdom that penetrates without obstruction the three matters of past lives, the divine eye, and the exhaustion of the outflows.

^[23] Two kinds of wisdom possessed by supramundane noble beings. There are six pairs: the wisdom of exhaustion and the wisdom of non-arising; fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom; expedient wisdom and true wisdom; wisdom in accordance with principle and wisdom in accordance with measure; wisdom of all dharmas and wisdom of all modes; and discerning wisdom and wisdom that apprehends characteristics.

^[24] The cycle of birth and death through the six paths undergone by sentient beings in the Three Realms, whose bodily forms and lifespans differ.

^[25] Noble beings belonging to the three fruitions of stream-enterer, once-returner, and non-returner. Because they have not yet eliminated all afflictions and must continue cultivating to attain the fruition of arhatship, in which the afflictions are purified, they are called those in training.

^[26] That is, the five heavens belonging to the Fourth Dhyana, comprising: the Heaven Free from Affliction, the Heaven Free from Heat, the Heaven of Excellent Vision, the Heaven of Excellent Manifestation, and the Akanistha Heaven.

^[27] That is, sensual craving.

^[28] The afflictions themselves as they actively arise, as distinguished from habitual tendencies, which are residual forms of affliction left by habits repeatedly perfumed over many lifetimes.

^[29] The ten evil deeds comprise: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, frivolous speech, covetousness, ill will, and wrong views. Because these ten evil deeds are the karmic causes of painful retribution, they are also called the ten evil karmas or the ten unwholesome karmas.

^[30] Five extremely grave offenses contrary to the Way. According to the Ekottara Agama Sutra, they are killing one’s mother, killing one’s father, killing an arhat, causing the Buddha’s body to bleed, and disrupting the harmony of the Sangha. One who commits these five offenses will fall into the Avici Hell. According to volume five of the Commentary on the Sutra of the Sovereign Kings of the Golden Light of Supreme Excellence, the five rebellious offenses are killing one’s parents, killing an arhat, causing the Buddha’s body to bleed, disrupting the harmony of the Sangha, and slandering the Mahayana.

^[31] That is, the stage of non-retrogression, referring to the position of practitioners who will no longer regress until they attain Buddhahood. The stage of non-retrogression is also called the ground of non-retrogression. According to the tenets of different schools, the stage of non-retrogression may refer to the stage of Patience among the Four Wholesome Roots in the Sarvastivada school; the Path of Vision, upon attaining patience with the non-arising of dharmas; the seventh abode among the Ten Abodes; the first bhumi of a bodhisattva; or the seventh bhumi of a bodhisattva.

^[32] A general designation for the stages of ordinary beings on the Buddhist path who have not yet entered the Path of Vision. In the Bodhisattva Vehicle, the stage of acquiescent patience among the Ten Faiths is regarded as that of an external ordinary being.

^[33] Contemplation of the lack of intrinsic nature in characteristics, the lack of intrinsic nature in arising, and the lack of intrinsic nature in the ultimate truth.

^[34] The progressive transformation body through which arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and powerful bodhisattvas who have purified the afflictions associated with the four abiding grounds gradually eliminate ignorance and deepen realization until attaining Buddhahood.

^[35] The cycle of birth and death among sentient beings in the six paths, whose bodies, lifespans, and karmic retributions differ.

^[36] The primary retribution of arhats, pratyekabuddhas, and powerful bodhisattvas in the Pure Land.

^[37] The body subject to delimited birth and death, through which ordinary beings undergo rebirth in the six paths and experience various karmic retributions.

^[38] The seven stages of the Path of Vision for sravakas, comprising: 1) contemplation for calming the mind through five methods, 2) mindfulness directed toward distinct characteristics, 3) mindfulness directed toward general characteristics, 4) the Dharma of Warmth, 5) the Dharma of the Summit, 6) the Dharma of Patience, and 7) the Foremost Mundane Dharma.

^[39] That is, the four preparatory practices, comprising the Dharma of Warmth, the Dharma of the Summit, the Dharma of Patience, and the Foremost Mundane Dharma.

^[40] The dhyana attained at the stage of the Foremost Mundane Dharma among the four preparatory practices. This dhyana subdues the afflictions of the Desire Realm.

^[41] Five contemplative practices for eliminating delusive afflictions, comprising contemplation of impurity, contemplation of loving-kindness and compassion, contemplation of dependent origination, contemplation that distinguishes the elements, and mindfulness of breathing.

^[42] That is, the Eight Precepts observed for one day and one night, comprising the five lay precepts and three further precepts: not adorning oneself with perfumes or flowers; not watching or listening to singing and dancing; and not eating at improper times. Of these, the first seven are properly precepts, while the last is the fasting observance.

^[43] That is, the bhiksu precepts.

^[44] Because of their compassionate vows, bodhisattvas do not eliminate the afflictions completely but retain them so that they may take birth in the evil paths and liberate sentient beings.

^[45] The stages of practice belonging to the bodhisattva’s Path of Vision, namely, the seven stages of the Worthies.

^[46] The stage preceding entry into the Path of Expedient Means.

^[47] Attachment to views concerning dharmas.

^[48] The ten powers of the Tathagata, also called the ten supernormal powers, comprise: 1) the power of knowing what is possible and impossible, 2) the power of knowing the maturation of karma, 3) the power of knowing the dhyanas, liberations, samadhis, and meditative attainments, 4) the power of knowing whether faculties are superior or inferior, 5) the power of knowing the various inclinations of beings, 6) the power of knowing the various dhatus, 7) the power of knowing the paths leading to every destination, 8) the power of knowing past abodes and the practices associated with them, 9) the power of knowing birth and death, and 10) the power of knowing the exhaustion of the outflows.

^[49] That is, the four fearlessnesses: four kinds of confidence, security, fearlessness, and courage when teaching the Dharma. The Tathagata’s four fearlessnesses comprise: 1) fearlessness arising from perfect enlightenment with respect to all dharmas, 2) fearlessness arising from the knowledge that all outflows have been exhausted, 3) fearlessness in definitively declaring the dharmas that constitute obstacles, without error, and 4) fearlessness in declaring the path of emancipation that enables beings to realize all qualities completely and in accordance with reality. There are also the four fearlessnesses of a bodhisattva.

^[50] One of the many epithets of the Buddha, meaning the Honored One who is fully endowed with merit and wisdom.

^[51] That is, the pure Dharma eye attained by abandoning afflictions and defilements and realizing the Noble Path.