成實論

CHAPTER 176: THE PERCEPTION OF REVULSION TOWARD FOOD

The arising of all suffering is due to craving for food; food also contributes to the arising of sexual desire. Whatever kinds of suffering exist in the Desire Realm all arise from food, drink, and sexual desire. Therefore, only by eliminating craving for food can one cultivate the perception of revulsion.

Moreover, at the beginning of the kalpa, sentient beings descended from the heavens and were spontaneously born here. Their bodies radiated light, and they could fly about freely. Then they began to eat the savory essence of the earth.

Whoever ate much immediately lost the radiance of their majestic virtue. In this way, aging, illness, and death gradually arose. Today, the human lifespan is only one hundred years, and people undergo many kinds of suffering and affliction.

Because of craving for food, all those former benefits were lost. Therefore, one should rightly contemplate food.

Furthermore, attachment to food and drink gives rise to sexual desire. From sexual desire arise the afflictions; because of the afflictions, unwholesome karma is produced; and unwholesome karma increases the populations of the three evil destinies while diminishing those of devas and humans. Therefore, all decline and affliction are due to craving for food. Moreover, the characteristics of aging, illness, and death are all due to food and drink. Food is also an object of the strongest attachment. Although sexual desire is powerful, it does not afflict people as universally as food does. Whether young or old, householders or monastics, no one is free from being afflicted and harmed on account of food.

Furthermore, to partake of this food without the mind becoming attached is extremely difficult for one who has not yet become free from desire. It is like enduring a knife cutting the flesh, drinking poison, or tending a venomous snake. Therefore, the Buddha said: “One should train oneself to take food in this way, and then one will not be afflicted and harmed by the suffering of craving for food.” Some non-Buddhist practitioners cultivate the practice of abstaining from food.

Therefore, the Buddha said: “Freedom from this food is not attained merely by abstaining from it; one should eat with mindful reflection.” If one merely abstains from food without exhausting the afflictions, one will die in vain and without benefit. Therefore, the Buddha taught that one should arouse the perception of revulsion and detachment toward food; then none of the foregoing faults will occur.

Question: How should one arouse the perception of revulsion and detachment toward food?

Answer: Food is by nature impure. Even the finest and most flavorful foods are all impure. Therefore, one should become disenchanted with them. Moreover, all food and drink, though clean, fragrant, and beautiful, can benefit the body only after becoming impure. Once held and chewed by the teeth and soaked with saliva, it resembles vomit; only after it descends into the stomach can it benefit the body. One should therefore know it to be impure. Moreover, food and drink are enjoyed because of ignorance. Even after a person has eaten delicious food, if it is spat out, that person cannot eat it again. One should therefore understand that it is regarded as delicious only through the power of ignorance.

Furthermore, because of food and drink, one undergoes many hardships and much exhausting toil in gathering, storing, and guarding provisions, as do farmers who till the fields. Through these causes and conditions, immeasurable transgressions are committed. Moreover, all the many impure substances arise because of food and drink.

If there were no food and drink, whence would skin, flesh, blood, bones, excrement, and all the other impure substances arise? Furthermore, beings in many evil destinies, such as worms in latrines, are born there because of attachment to fragrances and flavors. As stated in the chapter on karma: Sentient beings who die from hunger and thirst are born as creatures living in water; those who die amid clamor are born among birds; and those who die craving sexual desire are born in the womb.

All such cases follow this general pattern.

Moreover, if one becomes free from food, one attains great bliss, as when one is born in the Form Realm or enters nirvana. Furthermore, because of dependence on food, there is the suffering of plowing and cultivation. Contemplating food in this way as suffering and impurity, one should therefore cultivate the perception of revulsion.

CHAPTER 177: THE PERCEPTION THAT NOTHING IN THE ENTIRE WORLD IS DELIGHTFUL

The practitioner perceives that the entire world is suffering, and therefore the mind takes no delight in it whatsoever. Moreover, this practitioner abides in meditative concentration free from joy and cultivates such perceptions as the perception of impermanence, the perception of suffering, the perception of non-self, the perception of revulsion toward food, and the perception of death. Therefore, the mind takes no delight in the entire world.

Furthermore, when this person sees those who are loved, craving increases; when seeing those who are hated, anger increases. When seeing those who are loved, craving increases; when seeing those who are hated, anger and the like increase. This person also sees the poor and destitute suffering from deprivation and want.

Moreover, this person sees those in favorable circumstances who will fall into unfavorable circumstances and sees those in unfavorable circumstances presently undergoing many sufferings. This person also sees those who are presently wealthy and honored and knows with certainty that they will fall, for their circumstances are likewise a gathering place for the afflictions of greed and anger. As for those who are presently poor and destitute, this person knows that they have no opportunity to escape.

Therefore, the practitioner does not crave or delight in anything throughout the entire world.

Moreover, few sentient beings are born in favorable states, while most fall into evil destinies. As a sutra says: “Few are born in favorable states, while many are born in unfavorable states. Having seen this fault, seek only nirvana.” Furthermore, this person sees the faults of greed and the other afflictions, which constantly cling to sentient beings like enemies lying in wait to kill someone, striking the moment an opportunity arises.

How could one find delight while among such hostile bandits? This person also sees that the afflictions give rise to unwholesome karma, and that the unpleasant results of such karma constantly follow and pursue beings, from which they can never escape. As a sutra says: “If a person commits evil karma—whether committed now, committed in the past, or to be committed in the future—even if that person flies through the sky, there is certainly no possibility of escape.” Therefore, the practitioner takes no delight in the world.

Furthermore, the eight sufferings—birth and the rest—pursue even a meritorious person, much more so one without merit. How, then, could one delight in the world? It is also like a chest filled with venomous snakes, a bandit armed with five sharp knives, and bandits ravaging an empty village. The sufferings of this shore constantly pursue sentient beings; how could one find delight? Furthermore, sentient beings are swept along in the bitter and briny river of craving. The suffering of the five sensual desires is like a poisoned barb, while the darkness of ignorance and a blazing pit of fire constantly beset sentient beings. How, then, could one find delight?

Furthermore, the practitioner knows that peaceful happiness is scarce, while suffering, decline, and affliction are abundant. Why is this so? Because the practitioner sees that throughout the world, auspicious days, joyous gatherings, forests filled with luxuriantly blooming flowers and beautiful, abundant fruits, and peaceful and happy kingdoms do not endure for long. Those who enjoy such happiness are few, while those who undergo suffering are many. Therefore, one cannot take delight in anything throughout the entire world.

Question: What benefits are gained by cultivating this perception?

Answer: One becomes free from attachment to all the phenomena and characteristics of the world. Moreover, by cultivating this perception, one quickly attains liberation, for one will no longer remain long in samsara. This practitioner also gains the benefit of wisdom, because of constantly examining the faults in all conditioned phenomena. Furthermore, afflictions do not arise in this person’s mind; and even if they arise, they are quickly extinguished, like a drop of water falling upon a heated iron plate. Because the practitioner takes no delight in the world, the practitioner can take great delight in quiescent cessation. Therefore, one should cultivate the perception that nothing in the entire world is worthy of delight.

CHAPTER 178: THE PERCEPTION OF IMPURITY

Question: What is the internal cultivation of impurity?

Answer: The practitioner observes that the seed from which the body arises is impure: from the impure passages of the father and mother, two drops, red and white, are produced and mingle together. Furthermore, this body is formed from impure substances, namely food and drink that have been crushed and dissolved within, without anything pleasing about them. It is also born in an impure place, within the mother’s womb, which is filled with impurities.

Furthermore, feces, filth, and other impure substances gather together to form the body; impurities constantly flow from its nine orifices. Moreover, the place where the body is deposited is neither fine nor clean. Food, drink, clothing, and coverings, upon coming into contact with the human body, all become impure and are loathed by people.

The articles used for this body are also impure, such as bathwater, bathing platforms, and the like. Furthermore, what is produced from the body—nails, hair, sweat, mucus, saliva, and so forth—is all impure. Seeing that corpses are truly impure, how could my own body be any different when it dies?

One should know that it has always been impure. While it is alive, it is only because the mind’s conception of self conceals this fact that one considers it pure; yet upon touching a corpse, one considers it impure. Hair, nails, and the like are things that are perpetually dead, and many kinds of dead worms are also constantly present within the body.

Therefore, one should know that this body has always been impure. Furthermore, impure lice, flies, mosquitoes, and various other kinds of insects constantly come into contact with the body. Therefore, one should know that it is impure.

This body is like a latrine, always filled with impurities; for this reason thousands of kinds of worms arise in a latrine, and this body is likewise. Furthermore, this body is like a graveyard. Why is this so?

A place where corpses are deposited is called a graveyard, and within this body there are likewise many dead worms lying therein. Furthermore, this body can make other things impure: clean places, beautiful flowers, garments, necklaces, and the like all become impure because of this body. Furthermore, brahmins do not accept food from households in which someone has died or a woman has given birth, because such places are impure.

Yet within this body, thousands upon tens of thousands of kinds of worms are constantly being born and constantly dying; therefore, one ought not to accept food and drink from it. One should know that it is impure. Moreover, an impure place in the world is a prison.

This body itself is a prison for thousands of kinds of worms, and therefore it is called impure. Furthermore, this body is constantly bathed and washed. If it were clean, why would it need bathing and washing?

Again, seeing that flowers of enduring beauty, necklaces, and ornaments are used to adorn this body, one should know that the body is by nature impure and must rely on pure external objects for adornment. Furthermore, the human body is exceedingly impure. The skin, hair, nails, teeth, sinews, bones, flesh, and hide of other sentient beings may have some use, but from the human body there is not a single thing worth taking, because it is impure.

Furthermore, utpala, padma, and other lotus flowers arise from impure places and are therefore called impure; but this body is not like that. It is not made impure by other things; it is itself impure. Moreover, if this body were clean, why would it need to be concealed by clothing? It is like a person covering a heap of excrement and urine with garments in order to deceive others. Women likewise use clothing and ornaments to conceal their bodies and deceive men, while men in turn do the same. One should know that the body is impure. Furthermore, impurities constantly flow from throughout this entire body: from its nine impure orifices and from all its pores, there is not the slightest purity. Therefore, one should know that it is impure.

Question: What benefits are gained by cultivating the perception of impurity?

Answer: Because one regards men and women as pure, sensual desire arises, thereby opening the gates to all transgressions. Cultivating the perception of impurity enables one to subdue sensual desire. Why is this so? This body is entirely foul-smelling and impure. It is only because a thin layer of skin conceals it that this is not perceived, just as a garment may cover a heap of impurities. Whoever delights in cleanliness should keep far away! Furthermore, by means of perceptions such as livid discoloration, this practitioner mentally disintegrates the entire body. Because the body is disintegrated, sensual desire does not arise. The practitioner also sees only livid and other such colors.

Question: If in reality the body has not yet turned livid, why does one see it as livid?

Answer: Through the power of resolute understanding, the practitioner apprehends this characteristic of livid discoloration and then sees all colors as livid.

Question: Is such contemplation not distorted?

Answer: Within this body there are portions that are livid. As stated in the sutras, water possesses the characteristic of blueness. Furthermore, through constantly cultivating the characteristic of livid discoloration, it can overpower other colors, just as the radiance of a blue jewel can overwhelm the color white. Thus, by long cultivating livid discoloration and the other characteristics, the perception of impurity is perfected. When the perception of impurity is perfected, lust does not arise. When lust does not arise, the gates of transgression are closed, and one accords with nirvana. Such are the benefits gained by cultivating the perception of impurity.

CHAPTER 179: THE PERCEPTION OF DEATH

Because the practitioner’s mind is uncertain concerning the duration of life, the perception of death should be cultivated. Furthermore, such a person will constantly take great delight in wholesome Dharma and will eliminate the unwholesome. Why is this so?

Because sentient beings mostly forget about death, they create unwholesome karma; if they remain mindful of death, they can eliminate it. Furthermore, by constantly recollecting death, attachment and affection toward parents, brothers, sisters, relatives, neighbors, friends, and so forth are diminished. Moreover, by cultivating the perception of death, one gains benefit for oneself, meaning that one can single-mindedly accumulate wholesome dharmas.

Sentient beings in the world often delight in benefiting others while abandoning their own benefit. Furthermore, such a person can swiftly attain liberation. Why is this so?

Because those who continually come and go within the world are subject to death; becoming disenchanted with death, this person seeks liberation.

Question: How should one cultivate the perception of death?

Answer: Previously, all impermanence was explained in general; now only the contemplation of the body’s impermanence is discussed. The cessation of the continuous succession of the skandhas is called death. One should perceive this body as even more impermanent than external objects, like jars and bowls that bear no characteristic of solidity.

The practitioner contemplates that the body is more fragile than those objects. Why is this so? If jars and bowls are carefully protected, they may endure for a long time; but even if this body lives long, it does not exceed a hundred years.

Because it is so lacking in solidity, one should remain mindful of the perception of death. Furthermore, this body is subject to many things that oppose and harm it: knives, clubs, sharp points, hostile bandits, pits and chasms, undigested food and drink, and illnesses caused by cold, heat, and wind. To observe the matter in brief: all sentient beings and insentient things are factors that oppose and harm the body.

Therefore, one should cultivate the perception of death. Furthermore, the practitioner observes that in every thought-moment the body constantly bears the characteristic of decay and cannot be guaranteed to endure for even a single thought-moment; therefore, one should cultivate the perception of death. The practitioner also directly sees that whether people are young and strong, elderly, sick, or healthy, none can repel death, and thus reflects that one’s own body will also be the same.

Therefore, one should cultivate the perception of death. Furthermore, the practitioner sees that karmic retribution is uncertain, and that not all karma is necessarily experienced within a lifespan of one hundred years. Because karma is uncertain, death is also uncertain; therefore, one should remain mindful of death.

Moreover, throughout beginningless birth and death there has been immeasurable karma, and some karmas can overpower other karmas. I too must possess karma that could bring about an untimely death; how, then, can I place trust in this life? Furthermore, the practitioner perceives that death possesses immense power.

It cannot be persuaded with gentle words, deceived with wealth, or escaped through pursuit and litigation. It is like four great mountains of stone closing in from the four directions, leaving nowhere to flee.

Question: If someone could make King Yama rejoice, would that person be able to escape death?

Answer: To say so is foolish. King Yama has no sovereign power to carry out acts of life and death; he can only examine whether deeds were wholesome or unwholesome. Therefore, the practitioner perceives that this body has nowhere to rely upon and no refuge to seek on the path to death.

One should thus remain mindful of the perception of death. Furthermore, the practitioner constantly sees this body afflicted and tormented by aging and illness, devoid of any enduring nature, arising and ceasing from moment to moment in unbroken succession, and bound by karmic consciousness; therefore, one cultivates the perception of death. Furthermore, this practitioner sees that death is certain, while the time of death is uncertain and cannot be determined.

Because its time is uncertain, one cultivates the perception of death.

Question: Why are perceptions of aging, illness, and the like not taught, while only the perception of death is taught?

Answer: Aging, illness, and the like do not take everything away from a person. Illness takes away health; aging takes away youth and vigor, yet one’s lineage, neighbors, and body still remain intact. Death alone takes everything away completely. Furthermore, aging, illness, and the like are causes and conditions of death, so they need not be discussed separately. At death there is no one to rescue or assist us, no companions, and nowhere upon which to rely; it is therefore most dreadful. Thus, one should contemplate death. Furthermore, because of death, sentient beings fear the next life. Moreover, death exists throughout all three realms, whereas aging and illness are not necessarily so.

Question: If death does not exist apart from sentient beings, and sentient beings are merely provisional designations, why should the practitioner cultivate this perception?

Answer: Without destroying the characteristics provisionally attributed to sentient beings, they remain afraid of death. If one cultivates the perception of death, fear and terror will not arise; therefore, it must be cultivated. Furthermore, the perception of impermanence and the others are called the proximate path, whereas the perceptions of impurity, the loathsomeness of food, death, and the others are called the remote path. Those who have not yet attained the Path can restrain their minds by means of these perceptions.

CHAPTER 180: THE FINAL THREE PERCEPTIONS

The perception of abandoning: As stated in the four right efforts, one diligently exerts oneself in order to abandon unwholesome and evil qualities that have already arisen. These unwholesome and evil qualities are the causes and conditions of the torments of hell and the other evil destinies, and they are also the roots of all sufferings, such as an evil reputation and remorse. Therefore, they must be abandoned.

Question: How are they abandoned?

Answer: When one attains the state of no longer committing them, they are then abandoned. Furthermore, wrong recollection is the cause of greed, desire, and the other afflictions. When that wrong recollection is abandoned, these qualities are abandoned.

Question: What benefits are gained by cultivating this perception of abandoning?

Answer: One who cultivates this perception never follows evil qualities but does what ought to be done. Furthermore, this is to be free from the eight difficulties and to make the human body meaningful—that is, to put an end to the afflictions. Moreover, delighting in abandoning the afflictions is the benefit of donning Dharma robes, shaving one’s head, and going forth. If one does not do so, one has only brought shame upon oneself in vain. Furthermore, if the practitioner delights in cultivating the perception of abandoning, the exhaustion and non-arising of desire is called freedom from desire. Contemplating this freedom from desire is called the perception of freedom.

Question: If the perception of abandoning is itself the perception of freedom, why is the latter taught again?

Answer: Through abandoning, freedom is attained. Abandoning means the extinguishing of greed and desire. As stated in a sutra: “Because greed and desire are ended, the five skandhas are ended.” Furthermore, the perception of abandoning is the perception of freedom from desire.

Why is this? If one has no attachment to a certain dharma, this is called abandoning that dharma. Therefore, when one attains freedom from desire, suffering and affliction cease.

As stated in a sutra: “One who is free from desire attains liberation.” To attain liberation is itself abandoning. If one enters nirvana without remainder, that is called cessation. Furthermore, a sutra teaches three natures: the nature of abandoning, the nature of freedom from desire, and the nature of cessation.

The nature of abandoning and the nature of freedom from desire pertain to an arhat, who has abandoned all afflictions, is free from desire within the three realms, and abides in nirvana with remainder. The nature of cessation refers to relinquishing one’s lifespan at death, ending the continuity of the skandhas, and entering nirvana without remainder.

Furthermore, there are two kinds of liberation: liberation through wisdom and liberation of mind. “Abandoning” means freedom from ignorance; therefore, wisdom is liberated. “Freedom from desire” means that the mind of craving is liberated.

The fruit of these two liberations is called cessation. Furthermore, the perception of abandoning refers to ending the outflow of ignorance. The perception of freedom from desire refers to ending the outflow of sensual desire and the outflow of existence.

The perception of cessation is the fruit of these two. Furthermore, as stated in a sutra: “Ending all formations is called Abandoning; becoming free from all formations is called Freedom; extinguishing all formations is called Cessation.” Thus, these three dharmas have one meaning but different names. If one cultivates the perception of impermanence through to the perception of cessation, all that must be done is accomplished: the afflictions are extinguished, the fetters that perpetuate the continuity of the skandhas are severed, and one enters nirvana without remainder.

CHAPTER 181: THE FIRST FIVE OF THE SUPPORTS FOR SAMADHI

Question: You previously said that the Truth of the Path is called the supports for samadhi and samadhi itself. Samadhi has already been explained; the supports for samadhi should now be explained. Why is this? Because when the supports for samadhi are present, samadhi can be accomplished, whereas without them it cannot be accomplished.

Answer: There are altogether eleven supports for samadhi: 1. Pure observance of the precepts; 2. Associating with good spiritual friends; 3. Guarding the sense doors; 4. Knowing moderation in food and drink; 5. Reducing sleep during the beginning and end of the night; 6. Being fully endowed with wholesome reflection; 7. Being fully endowed with faith and understanding; 8. Being fully endowed with the practitioner’s requisite qualities; 9. Being fully endowed with the bases of liberation; 10. Being free from hindrances; 11. Being without attachment.

1. PURE OBSERVANCE OF THE PRECEPTS: Abstaining from unwholesome karma is called observing the precepts. Unwholesome karma consists of killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct—the three bodily karmas—and false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech—the four verbal karmas.

Keeping far away from these transgressions is called observing the precepts. Furthermore, respectfully welcoming and seeing others off, making offerings, and cultivating wholesome dharmas are also called precepts. Because the precepts can serve as a cause for samadhi, they should be accepted and upheld.

Why is this? It is just as in refining gold, where one first removes the gross impurities. In the same way, one first uses observance of the precepts to remove the gross fault of breaking the precepts, and only afterward uses samadhi and the other practices to remove the subtler faults.

Why is this? Without observing the precepts, there is no meditative concentration. Through the causes and conditions provided by observing the precepts, meditative concentration can readily be accomplished.

As stated in a sutra: “The precepts are the root of the Path and also its wondrous stairway.” It is also said: The precepts are the first vehicle; if one does not board the first vehicle, how can one speak of the second vehicle and the others? It is also said: The precepts are level ground; standing upon level ground, one can contemplate the Four Truths. It is also said that there are two powers: the power of reflection and the power of cultivation.

The power of reflection is the observance of the precepts; the power of cultivation is the Path. First, one reflects upon and considers the faults of breaking the precepts and the benefits of observing them; only then can one uphold the precepts. After attaining the Path, one naturally becomes free from evil.

It is also said: The precepts are the roots of the Bodhi tree; without roots, there can be no tree. Therefore, one should uphold the pure precepts. Furthermore, this is necessarily so according to the Dharma: without observing the precepts, there is no meditative concentration.

It is like a method for curing illness: it must be employed in this way to cure the illness of the afflictions; without observing the precepts, the method is incomplete. It is also said: One who purely observes the precepts has no remorse in the mind and, proceeding onward until freedom from desire, the mind attains liberation. All these virtues arise from observing the precepts.

Therefore, the precepts are called a support for samadhi. Furthermore, there are the obstruction of karma and the obstruction of afflictions; the resultant obstruction produced by these two is called the obstruction of retribution. If one’s precepts are pure, none of these three obstructions exists.

If the mind is unobstructed, it can accomplish samadhi. Furthermore, one who purely observes the precepts will not fall into ruin and will certainly reach nirvana, like a piece of wood floating down the Ganges River. Moreover, pure observance of the precepts enables one to establish oneself securely: observing the precepts can prevent unwholesome karma of body and speech; the power of samadhi can prevent unwholesome karma of mind.

Yet to prevent the afflictions in this way, one must attain true wisdom before they can ultimately be abandoned. Furthermore, the edifice of the factors of the Path takes the precepts as its pillars; the citadel of the mind in meditative concentration takes the precepts as its surrounding moat; the bridge for crossing the ocean of birth and death takes the precepts as its supporting beams. To enter the assembly of good people, one takes the precepts as one’s credential; the field of the Noble Eightfold Path takes the precepts as its boundary embankments.

Just as water will not remain in a field without embankments, so too, without pure precepts, the water of samadhi will not remain.

Question: What is called pure observance of the precepts?

Answer: If a practitioner, with a truly profound mind, takes no pleasure in committing evil and fears the consequences in future lives and a bad reputation, this is called pure observance of the precepts. Furthermore, because the practitioner observes the precepts with a pure mind, the precepts are pure. As stated in the discourse on the seven kinds of sexual misconduct: “Although the body does not transgress, if the mind is impure, the precepts are not pure.” Moreover, the causes and conditions for breaking the precepts are the afflictions; therefore, one who can subdue them makes the observance of the precepts pure.

Furthermore, shravakas observe the precepts solely for the sake of nirvana; those who seek the Buddha Way, moved by great compassion for all sentient beings, do not cling to the characteristics of the precepts and can cause those precepts to accord with the nature of bodhi. Observing the precepts in this way is called purity.

2- SPIRITUAL FRIENDS: The sutras state that right view arises through two causes and conditions: first, hearing the Dharma from another person; second, personally and correctly contemplating and recollecting the Dharma that one has heard. This is called a spiritual friend.

Question: If that is so, why are only spiritual friends mentioned?

Answer: The sutra states: “Ananda asked the Buddha: While sitting quietly alone, I had this thought: Is encountering a spiritual friend half of the causes and conditions for attaining the Way? The Buddha said: Do not speak thus. A spiritual friend constitutes the complete causes and conditions for attaining the Way.

Why is this? Because sentient beings subject to birth, aging, sickness, and death have me as their spiritual friend, they attain liberation from birth, aging, sickness, and death.” Furthermore, through spiritual friends, sentient beings develop the five qualities beginning with morality, just as a great sala tree develops five kinds of growth through the Snow Mountain. Moreover, even the Buddha himself delighted in having a spiritual friend.

When he had first attained the Way, he had this thought: “If a person has no teacher, there is nowhere he can be free from fear; lacking reverence, he is constantly obscured by unwholesome qualities and has no peaceful conduct. Whom should I now take as my teacher, and upon whom should I rely and abide?” Having thought thus, he surveyed all beings everywhere and found no one superior to himself. He then thought: “It was through the Dharma I realized that I became a Buddha; I should now rely upon that Dharma.” The Brahma gods also praised him, saying: Thus, no one is equal to the Buddha.

All Buddhas take the Dharma as their teacher. Furthermore, a spiritual friend is like a bright lamp: although one has eyes, without a lamp one can see nothing. Likewise, although a practitioner possesses superior faculties, merit, and favorable causes and conditions, without a spiritual friend these bring no benefit.

Question: What kind of person is a spiritual friend?

Answer: Anyone capable of causing others to develop wholesome qualities is called a spiritual friend. Furthermore, all good persons who abide in the true Dharma are spiritual friends of gods, humans, and the world.

3- GUARDING THE SENSE DOORS: This means correct mindfulness. The practitioner should not close his eyes when looking, but should single-mindedly maintain correct mindfulness of what is presently before him. It is also called right wisdom, for only through this right wisdom can one overcome the present sense object. Because one can overcome the object before one, one does not grasp at perceptions. Because one does not grasp at perceptions, one does not pursue conventional designations. If one fails to guard the faculties and grasps at characteristics, the afflictions will then flow out through the five doors and immediately destroy the precepts and other wholesome qualities. If one can guard the sense doors, the precepts and other wholesome qualities will remain firm.

4- KNOWING THE PROPER MEASURE IN FOOD AND DRINK: One does not eat for strength, sexual desire, or attachment to flavor, but only to sustain the body.

Question: For what purpose does the practitioner sustain the body?

Answer: In order to cultivate wholesome qualities. If wholesome qualities are abandoned, there is no Dharma of the Way. Without the Dharma of the Way, how can one escape suffering? If a person eats without doing so for the sake of cultivation, he merely sustains an enemy and a thief; he also destroys the merit of the donor and harms the one who makes the offering. Thus, he is unworthy of eating another person’s food.

Question: How does one determine the proper measure of food and drink?

Answer: Whatever is sufficient to sustain the body is called the proper measure.

Question: What foods should one eat?

Answer: If a food does not aggravate bodily illnesses such as disorders of cold or heat, or mental illnesses such as greed or anger, then it may be eaten. Such foods must also be appropriate to the time. If one knows that at a particular time a food will aggravate disorders such as cold, heat, greed, or anger, one should not eat it.

Question: The followers of other paths say: “If one eats pure food, one can obtain pure merit. This means choosing according to one’s desire the form, fragrance, flavor, and tangible quality; the water must be strained, and vows must be made before one eats. This is called purity.” What of this?

Answer: Food and drink cannot be definitively declared pure. Why is this? If leftovers are considered impure, then there is no food or drink that is not a leftover: milk is what remains from the calf; honey is what remains from bees; water is what remains from insects; pollen is what remains from butterflies and bees; and fruit is what remains from birds. All such things should be contemplated in this way. Furthermore, this body is born from impurity, its essential nature is impure, and it is filled throughout with impurity. Food and drink are impure beforehand, and after entering the body they contain not the slightest purity. It is only through delusion and inverted perception that they are wrongly regarded as pure.

Question: If all are impure, what difference is there between us and lowly people or chandalas?

Answer: Furthermore, one obtains food in accordance with the Dharma by refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and so forth. One uses wisdom to contemplate the faults of food and drink, then strains the water before eating. Purity does not consist merely in straining the water.

5- REDUCING SLEEP AT THE BEGINNING AND END OF THE NIGHT:

The practitioner knows that undertakings are accomplished through diligent effort and therefore does not sleep. Furthermore, he sees that sleep is futile and yields nothing. If someone regards sleep as pleasure, such meager and inferior pleasure is not worth mentioning. Moreover, the practitioner does not wish to dwell together with the afflictions, just as a person does not wish to live with an enemy or thief. Who in the world could sleep soundly while in the midst of battle? Therefore, he does not sleep.

Question: When sleep comes demanding its due, how can it be driven away?

Answer: This person has savored the meaning of the Buddha-Dharma, and his mind is filled with joy; therefore, he can dispel it. Furthermore, when he reflects upon the faults of aging, sickness, and death within samsara, fear arises in his mind, and thus he does not sleep. Moreover, the practitioner recognizes that obtaining a human body, having all the faculties complete, being fortunate enough to encounter the Buddha-Dharma, and being able to distinguish good from evil and right from wrong are extremely difficult. If he does not now seek liberation, when will he ever be freed? Therefore, he must diligently exert himself to eliminate sleep.

CHAPTER 182: UNWHOLESOME THOUGHTS

6- PERFECTING WHOLESOME THOUGHTS: Even if a person does not sleep, should he give rise to unwholesome thoughts—namely, thoughts of sensual desire, anger, and harming; or thoughts about relatives, the nation, immortality, benefiting others, disparaging others, and so forth—it would be better for him to sleep than to give rise to such unwholesome thoughts. Instead, he must correctly contemplate and recollect wholesome thoughts such as thoughts of renunciation, freedom from anger and harming, and the eight reflections of a great person.

THOUGHTS OF SENSUAL DESIRE: Thoughts arising in dependence upon sensual craving and perceiving twofold benefit and pleasure in the five sensual desires are called thoughts of sensual desire. Intending to harm sentient beings is called a thought of anger or a thought of harming. The practitioner should not entertain these three kinds of thought.

Why is this? Because recollecting them incurs grave offenses. Furthermore, the faults of greed and the other afflictions have already been explained above.

Because of these faults, one should not think of or recollect them.

Question: Why are thoughts of delusion and the like not mentioned?

Answer: These three thoughts arise in sequence, whereas the other afflictions do not. A practitioner may think of the five sensual desires and thereby give rise to thoughts of greed; when his greed is not satisfied, anger arises; and anger brought to completion is called harming. Therefore, thoughts of delusion and the like are not mentioned. Furthermore, the results of delusion are greed and anger, just as unwholesome karma arises from greed and anger. These three kinds of thought are causes of unwholesome karma. As the sutra states: “It is like a clod of earth: at night it emits smoke, and by day it burns with fire.” Smoke represents thought; fire is called karma.

THOUGHT OF KINSHIP: Because of relatives and neighbors, one gives rise to thoughts and recollections, wishing that one’s relatives and neighbors may be secure, peaceful, and happy. Or, upon thinking that they may suffer harm, one becomes sorrowful; or one thinks of joining one’s relatives and neighbors in various common undertakings. This is called the thought of kinship.

A practitioner should not think or dwell upon this kind of thought. Why is this? Because, in accordance with one’s original vow upon leaving the household life, one renounced kinship; yet now to give rise again to this thought is improper.

If one who has left the household life still thinks of kinship, then one has abandoned one’s family in vain; what benefit is there in such futile effort? Because of affection for relatives, attachment arises. Because of attachment, one seeks to protect them.

Because of the conditions involved in protecting them, deeds involving whips, clubs, and the like arise in succession. Therefore, one should not give rise to thoughts of kinship. Moreover, when one associates with relatives, one cannot increase and develop wholesome qualities.

Furthermore, the practitioner should reflect that among all sentient beings wandering through birth and death, there is not a single one who has not been one’s relative; why, then, should one cling to partial distinctions? Moreover, throughout birth and death, because of relatives one has grieved, mourned, wailed, and shed tears enough to form a vast ocean. If one now becomes attached yet again, suffering will be endless!

Furthermore, sentient beings become affectionate toward one another because of conditions of benefit; such affection is not fixed. Moreover, one who constantly thinks of relatives bears the mark of delusion. A fool in the world has not yet benefited himself, but wishes to benefit others.

If one thinks of relatives, one gains little benefit for oneself. For these reasons, the practitioner should not give rise to thoughts of kinship.

THOUGHT OF COUNTRIES: A practitioner may think: “Such-and-such a country is prosperous, happy, and peaceful; I should go there and may then live happily.” Or, with a restless mind, one wishes to travel about and see every place. A practitioner should not give rise to such thoughts. Why is this?

Because every country has its faults and evils: some countries are extremely cold; some are extremely hot; some have many dangers; some have many diseases; some have many bandits and thieves. There are many different faults and adverse conditions such as these, and therefore one should not think of them. Moreover, one who is restless loses meditative concentration.

Wherever one delights in dwelling and can increase wholesome qualities, that place is good; what need is there to see all the countries? All countries sound beautiful only when heard of from afar; upon arriving there, one may not necessarily be satisfied, for worldly people often exaggerate beyond the truth. Furthermore, those who travel through various countries endure much suffering.

Since this body is a cause of suffering, wherever one carries this cause of suffering, one will suffer. Moreover, the suffering and happiness one experiences arise from karmic causes; no matter how far one travels, it is of no benefit. Therefore, one should not give rise to thoughts of countries.

THOUGHT OF NOT DYING: A practitioner may think: “I should postpone cultivating the Path until later. First, I must read and recite the Sutra Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidharma Pitaka, Miscellaneous Pitaka, and Bodhisattva Pitaka; extensively collect books of non-Buddhist teachings; raise many disciples; and guide good people to make offerings to the four stupas and cause them to practice great generosity. Only afterward shall I cultivate the Path.” This is the thought of not dying.

A practitioner should not give rise to such a thought. Why is this? Because the time of death is uncertain and cannot be known in advance.

If, while occupied with these undertakings, one’s life should unexpectedly end, how could one still have time to cultivate the Path? When death approaches, one’s heart will be filled with remorse and sorrow, and one will exclaim: “I have nourished this body in vain and gained nothing at all; I die no differently from any beast.” As a sutra says: “An ordinary person should use twenty dharmas to discipline and subdue his own mind, thinking thus: ‘Only my form and garb differ from those of laypeople, yet I have gained no benefit at all.’ And so forth, until: ‘I shall carry what is of no benefit with me to death.’” Furthermore, the wise do not do what ought not to be done.

As the Dhammapada says: “Do not do what should not be done; constantly do what should be done. Mindful, mentally peaceful, and wise, one brings all the outflows to an end.” Moreover, a sutra says: “Those who have not yet realized the Four Noble Truths and seek through skillful means to realize them must redouble their diligent effort, with an urgency far surpassing that of extinguishing a fire burning upon their heads.” Therefore, one should not give rise to the thought of not dying.

Moreover, the thought of not dying is a habitual tendency of delusion. How could a wise person who knows that human life is impermanent, like a fragile drop of morning dew upon a willow branch, readily expect to preserve it for even a single moment? Furthermore, a sutra says: “The Buddha asked the bhikkhus, ‘How do you cultivate the perception of death?’ One replied to the Buddha, ‘I cannot be certain of living for seven years.’ Another reduced it to six years, and in this way they progressively shortened the time, until one said that he could not be certain of living even for a brief instant.

The Buddha rebuked them, saying, ‘All of you are heedless in your perception of death.’ At that time, one bhikkhu bared his right shoulder and said to the Buddha, ‘When I breathe out, I cannot be certain that I will breathe in; when I breathe in, I cannot be certain that I will breathe out.’ The Buddha then praised him: ‘Excellent! Excellent! You alone truly cultivate the perception of death.’” Therefore, one should not give rise to the thought of not dying.

THOUGHT OF BENEFITING OTHERS: Regarding those who are not one’s relatives, one wishes to cause them to obtain benefit. Or one may think: “May such-and-such a person become wealthy, honored, peaceful, and happy, so that he can practice generosity, whereas such-and-such a person will have no opportunity to practice it.” A practitioner should not give rise to such thoughts. Why is this? Because merely thinking does not enable one to cause that person to attain happiness or avoid suffering. Such thoughts only disrupt and disturb one’s concentrated mind.

Question: Is not the wish to benefit others a mind of loving-kindness?

Answer: A practitioner seeking the Path should contemplate the benefit of ultimate meaning, such as impermanence and the other truths. Although such thoughts may yield a little merit, they can impair the Path; the benefit is slight and the harm is great, because they disturb the concentrated mind. If, with a distracted mind, one thinks of benefiting others, one will be unable to perceive the faults of attachment. Therefore, one should not entertain such thoughts.

THOUGHT OF DISPARAGING OTHERS: A practitioner may think: “That person’s lineage, physical appearance and strength, wealth and honor, abilities, observance of precepts, sharp faculties, meditative concentration, wisdom, and so forth are all inferior to mine.” A practitioner should not give rise to such discursive thought. Why is this? Because all things are impermanent; how, then, can there be any real distinction among superior, middling, and inferior?

Moreover, that person’s hair, body hair, nails, and teeth are all called impure; in this respect all are equal and without difference. Furthermore, aging, sickness, death, decline, and affliction are likewise the same for all. Moreover, all sentient beings are equally afflicted by inward and outward suffering, without distinction.

Furthermore, for ordinary persons, wealth and honor are conditions for committing faults and offenses. Moreover, wealth and honor do not last long, and one soon becomes poor and destitute again. Therefore, one should not give rise to discursive thoughts that slight or disparage others.

Furthermore, pride and conceit belong to the domain of ignorance; how could the wise give rise to such discursive thoughts?

CHAPTER 183: WHOLESOME THOUGHTS

The thought of renunciation: This is the mind that delights in detachment, such as detachment from the five sensual desires and from the two realms of form and formlessness. Because one delights in detachment, it is called the thought of renunciation. This delight in detachment is free from suffering, for suffering arises only in dependence upon attachment; when there is no attachment, there is happiness.

Among these thoughts, two are happy thoughts: the thought of non-anger and the thought of non-harming. Why is this so? Because these two thoughts are called thoughts of security.

As stated in the Chapter on the Tathagata: “The Tathagata always has two thoughts present before him: the thought of security and the thought of seclusion.” The thought of security is the thought free from anger and harm. The thought of seclusion is the thought of renunciation. Furthermore, by contemplating these three thoughts, merit increases; one is also able to establish the mind in concentration, and the mind becomes purified.

Contemplating these three thoughts can also prevent the fetters; because the fetters are severed, one quickly realizes cessation. Furthermore, because the practitioner delights in detachment and accumulates many wholesome qualities, one can quickly attain liberation.

The eight thoughts of a great person: In the Buddha-Dharma, it is those of few desires who can obtain benefit, not those of many desires; those who are content, those who dwell in seclusion, those who are diligent, those who possess right mindfulness, those whose minds are concentrated, those who possess wisdom, and those who are free from frivolous discourse. These are called the eight.

Fewness of desires is called a practice because, in order to cultivate the Path, one must desire the necessary requisites, but one should not seek many surplus things that will not be used. This is called fewness of desires.

Contentment: Some people, whether because of circumstances, because of observing the precepts, or because they wish others not to regard them as content, do not consider what they receive sufficient. If someone regards even a little as sufficient, this is called contentment. Some people, although they accept only a few things, seek those of fine quality; this is fewness of desires but not contentment. If one accepts whatever few things one happens to receive, this is called contentment.

Question: If taking only what is necessary is called fewness of desires, then all sentient beings should be called people of few desires, since they all take what is necessary for themselves.

Answer: The practitioner does not take things with a mind of attachment, but takes them only for use; therefore, the practitioner does not take much. This is unlike worldly people, who continually acquire many things for adornment and praise.

Question: Why must the practitioner have few desires and be content?

Answer: The practitioner sees faults in all matters of acquiring and safeguarding possessions. Moreover, storing things without using them is a sign of foolishness. Furthermore, monastics should not accumulate stores of possessions as worldly people do.

Because of these faults, they must have few desires and be content. Furthermore, if practitioners do not have few desires and remain content, their greed will gradually increase; then, for the sake of wealth, they will seek things that ought not to be sought. Moreover, those who greedily delight in material gain are never at peace, because they are excessively attached.

Furthermore, although monastics delight in cultivating the practice of seclusion, through craving gain they forget what they ought to cultivate. They are then unable to abandon the afflictions. Why is this so?

If they cannot even relinquish external things, how much less can they relinquish internal phenomena? Furthermore, they see that offerings and gain are causes of decline and distress, just as hail damages young rice plants. Therefore, one should cultivate fewness of desires and contentment.

They also see that it is difficult to repay the kindness of receiving the faithful’s offerings; it is like incurring a debt and failing to repay the principal, for which one must later undergo suffering. They also see that offerings and gain are things rejected by the Buddha and good people. As the Buddha said: “I do not draw near to offerings and gain; let offerings and gain not draw near to me.” Furthermore, because practitioners are endowed with wholesome qualities, they should relinquish offerings and gain.

As the Buddha said: “Even the devas cannot attain the happiness of renunciation, the happiness of detachment, the happiness of quiescent cessation, and the happiness of true wisdom that I have attained.” Therefore, offerings and gain should be relinquished. Moreover, as Venerable Sariputra said: “I have well cultivated signlessness and maintained the samadhi of emptiness; I contemplate all external things as though they were phlegm spat out from the nose.” Furthermore, the practitioner sees that no one who indulges in sensual desires ever finds satisfaction, just as drinking salt water cannot quench thirst.

Therefore, diligently seeking wisdom alone brings fulfillment. The practitioner also sees that those of many desires constantly make aspirations and seek things; wishing to obtain much but receiving little, they are always afflicted by suffering. The practitioner also sees that those who go about begging are despised by others and receive none of the respect accorded to people of few desires.

Moreover, for monastics to make many demands is highly improper, whereas people consider it proper for them not to accept things. Therefore, one must cultivate the practice of fewness of desires and contentment.

Seclusion: With regard to householders and monastics, one cultivates bodily seclusion; with regard to the afflictions, one cultivates mental seclusion. This is called seclusion.

Question: Why must the practitioner dwell in seclusion?

Answer: Although monastics have not yet attained the Path, they take delight in seclusion. Amid worldly people, the attractions of women, and noisy places, they can never be at ease. Furthermore, in seclusion the mind easily becomes tranquil, just as water that is not stirred naturally settles and becomes clear.

Therefore, seclusion should be cultivated. Moreover, this Dharma of seclusion has been praised by Buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges. How is this known?

When the Buddha saw a bhiksu sitting in meditation near a village, he was not pleased; yet when he saw a bhiksu sleeping in an empty, secluded place, he rejoiced. Why is this so? Sitting in meditation near a village, the bhiksu is distracted from concentration by many causes and conditions, so that the state that should remain undisturbed becomes disturbed, and what should be realized is not realized.

Although one who sleeps in a secluded place may be somewhat indolent, upon awakening and seeking to enter concentration, one can gather in the distracted mind. By gathering in the mind, one can attain liberation. Furthermore, it is through grasping at characteristics that greed and the other afflictions arise; but in an empty, secluded place, where there are no characteristics such as visible forms, the afflictions are easily severed, just as a fire without firewood naturally goes out.

Moreover, a sutra states: “If a bhiksu delights in dwelling among crowds, delights in speaking miscellaneous words, and does not leave the assembly, he will not even be liberated from the conditions of affection and attachment, much less attain indestructible liberation.” Yet one who cultivates the practice of seclusion will certainly realize both. Furthermore, just as a lamp removed from the wind can shine brightly, so too can the practitioner, by cultivating the practice of seclusion, quickly attain true wisdom.

Diligence: If practitioners cultivate right effort, abandon unwholesome qualities, and cultivate and accumulate wholesome qualities, their diligent cultivation of these is called diligence. In this way, they can obtain the benefits of the Buddha-Dharma. Why is this so?

The accumulation of wholesome qualities increases day by day, just as red and white lotuses and the like gradually grow in accordance with the water. But an indolent practitioner is like a wooden pestle that, from the time it is made, wears away day by day until it is exhausted. Furthermore, because diligent people obtain benefit, their minds are always joyful; but indolent people have their minds obscured by evil and constantly harbor suffering.

Moreover, for diligent people, wholesome qualities increase continuously in every thought-moment and never diminish. Furthermore, by deeply cultivating diligence, one attains the supreme state: the Path of the Buddhas. As stated in a sutra, the Buddha told Ananda that deeply cultivating diligence enables one to reach the Buddha Path.

Moreover, diligent people easily attain mental concentration. Even those of dull faculties who are diligent, though they still remain within samsara, quickly attain liberation; but those of sharp faculties who are indolent cannot attain it. Furthermore, all benefits in this life and future lives, whether worldly or supramundane, arise through diligence.

Conversely, all the decline and distress found in the world arise through indolence. Thus, seeing the faults of indolence and the benefits of diligence, one should remain mindful of diligence.

Right mindfulness: One constantly establishes right mindfulness in contemplating the body, feelings, mind, and dharmas.

Question: What benefits are obtained by being mindful of these four dharmas?

Answer: Unwholesome and evil dharmas cannot penetrate the mind, just as, when a place is closed and guarded, others cannot enter. Again, just as no more water can enter a full vessel, so too, because this person is filled with wholesome dharmas, there is no room for evil. Again, if one cultivates this right mindfulness, all wholesome dharmas and karma enter the constituent of liberation, just as drinking the water of the ocean is drinking from all its sources, because all streams flow into the great ocean.

Again, cultivating this right mindfulness is called securely abiding in one’s own sphere of practice; the demon Māra and his host of afflictions cannot destroy it, as in the simile of the hawk and the quail. Again, this person’s mind abides securely and is difficult to move, like a round vessel placed within a supporting ring. Again, before long this person will obtain benefit, as stated in the Bhikṣuṇī Sūtra: “The bhikṣuṇīs asked Venerable Ānanda: ‘Venerable Sir!

When we skillfully cultivate the establishments of mindfulness, do we know that we are different from before?’ Ānanda replied: ‘When this Dharma is skillfully cultivated, it should indeed be so.’” Concentration of mind: If concentration of mind is cultivated, wondrous benefits are obtained. As the sūtra says: “One who cultivates concentration is able to know things as they really are.” Again, through this, the person’s body acquires dharmas surpassing those of ordinary people—that is, from the body one can emit water and fire, fly freely, and so forth.

Again, this person obtains bliss that even devas, Brahmā kings, and the rest cannot equal. Again, this person does what ought to be done and need not do what ought not to be done. Again, by skillfully cultivating concentration, wholesome dharmas continually increase.

Again, one who cultivates concentration afterward has no remorse; this person is said to have obtained the fruit of going forth. Such a person is also said to follow the Buddha’s teaching, unlike those who gratuitously receive the offerings of faithful donors. This person can repay the kindness of benefactors, whereas others cannot.

Again, this Dharma of mental concentration was cherished by all Buddhas, sages, and noble ones; it also enables one to receive and uphold all wholesome dharmas. Again, if concentration of mind is perfected, one realizes the Noble Path; if it is not perfected, one is born among the pure devas of the two realms of form and formlessness. Why is this?

Because such a result cannot be obtained merely by cultivating generosity and the like. Through concentration, one is ultimately able to refrain from doing evil. As the sūtra says: “If a child cultivates loving-kindness from early childhood, can that child later give rise to an evil mind and contemplate evil deeds?” “Blessed One, that is impossible.” All this is the power of concentration.

Again, concentration of mind is called the cause of true wisdom, by which alone all conditioned karmic activities can be brought to an end. When conditioned activities cease, all suffering and affliction also cease. Again, whatever this practitioner intends regarding any worldly or supramundane matter is immediately accomplished without laborious effort; other people cannot even conceive of or measure what such a person has attained.

Therefore it is said that concentration of mind can bring benefit.

Wisdom: Afflictions do not arise in the mind of a wise person; if they arise, they are immediately extinguished, like a drop of water falling upon red-hot iron. Again, the mind of a wise person does not give rise to marks; if they arise, they are immediately extinguished, like dew upon a willow branch that dries as soon as sunlight touches it. Again, one who possesses the eye of wisdom can behold the Buddha-Dharma, just as a person with eyes can make use of daylight.

Again, a wise person is said to have obtained a share of the Buddha-Dharma, just as a true child is entitled to a share of the parents’ inheritance. Again, one with wisdom is said to possess life; all others are as though dead. Again, a wise person is called a true follower of the Path because such a person can know the Path.

Again, the wise know the flavors of the Buddha-Dharma, just as an unimpaired tongue faculty can distinguish the five flavors. Again, within the Buddha-Dharma, the mind of a wise person is concentrated and unmoving, like a rocky mountain that the wind cannot move. Again, a wise person is called one who has faith, because such a person personally acquires the four kinds of faith rather than obtaining them by following others.

Again, one who has acquired the noble faculty of wisdom is called a disciple of the Buddha; all others are ordinary outsiders. Therefore it is said that wisdom can bring benefit. Freedom from conceptual proliferation: modes of argument concerning identity and difference are called conceptual proliferation.

Thus Ānanda asked Śāriputra: “If the six bases of contact have been entirely extinguished through dispassion, does anything still remain?” Śāriputra replied:

“If the six bases of contact have been entirely extinguished through dispassion, and one asks whether anything remains, is that not discussing what cannot be discussed?” If one argues that nothing exists, that something exists, that it both exists and does not exist, or that it neither exists nor does not exist, the questions and answers are likewise.

Question: Why can this matter not be discussed?

Answer: This question asks whether a real self is identical with or different from something else. Therefore it is not answered, because the self is indeterminate. It is merely a designation provisionally established in relation to the five skandhas. If one answers in terms of existence or nonexistence, one falls into annihilationism or eternalism. If one discusses the self in terms of dharmas arising through causes and conditions, this is not conceptual proliferation. Again, if one perceives the emptiness of sentient beings and the emptiness of dharmas, there is no conceptual proliferation. Therefore it is said that only one who is free from conceptual proliferation obtains the benefits of the Buddha-Dharma. This is called fulfillment of wholesome discernment.

CHAPTER 184: THE REMAINING FIVE ACCESSORIES OF CONCENTRATION

7—FULFILLMENT OF WHOLESOME FAITH AND RESOLVE: When a practitioner is able to delight in nirvana and to loathe and become disenchanted with samsara, this is called “wholesome faith and resolve.” With such faith and resolve, one swiftly attains liberation. Again, one who delights in nirvana has a mind attached to nothing whatsoever. Again, one who delights in nirvana has no fear. Why is this? If an ordinary person thinks of nirvana, fear immediately arises: “My self will be utterly lost.”

Question: Through what causes and conditions does one develop faith and resolve regarding nirvana?

Answer: When a practitioner perceives the world as impermanent, suffering, empty, and without self, the perception of quiescent cessation arises with regard to nirvana. Again, a person whose innate afflictions are weak and slight experiences faith and joy upon hearing nirvana taught. Again, one may follow a good teacher or read scriptures and thereby hear of the faults of samsara. When texts such as the Beginningless Sūtra, the Five Divine Messengers Sūtra, and other sūtras are taught, one becomes disenchanted with samsara and develops joyful faith in nirvana.

8—FULFILLMENT OF THE PRACTITIONER’S FACTORS: As stated in the sūtra, there are five factors of a practitioner: first, having faith; second, possessing a mind free from deceit; third, having little illness; fourth, diligence; and fifth, wisdom. Having faith means that the mind has no doubt or regret concerning the Three Jewels and the Four Noble Truths. Because there is no doubt or regret, one quickly accomplishes concentration. Again, one who has faith possesses much joy and therefore quickly accomplishes concentration. Again, the mind of one who has faith is gentle, harmonious, and easily gathered, and therefore such a person quickly attains concentration.

Question: If wisdom arises from concentration and can afterward eliminate doubt, why is freedom from doubt now mentioned before concentration?

Answer: Doubt is eliminated through extensive learning, not through the attainment of concentration. Again, one may be born into a family with great faith, or associate and work with people of faith, and thus continually cultivate faith. Although such a person has not yet attained concentration, doubt does not arise.

Such are the cases referred to. Freedom from deceit means possessing an upright and sincere mind, concealing nothing; such a person is easy to guide, just as a patient who truthfully and fully describes the symptoms of an illness is easy to cure. Having little illness means being able to practice diligently without interruption during the first and last watches of the night.

If a person is ill, it obstructs the practice of the Path. Diligence means constantly applying oneself with energetic effort in seeking the Path, just as one who drills wood to make fire and does not stop will quickly obtain fire. Wisdom: Through wisdom, one obtains the fruit of the four matters, namely the Noble Path.

Question: Are not the establishments of mindfulness and other dharmas also factors of a practitioner? Why are only these five dharmas mentioned?

Answer: Although all are factors, these dharmas are the most excellent and are indispensable to the practitioner; therefore they are taught separately. Because they also enable one to abandon all evil and gather all good, they are called the practitioner’s factors, as stated in the Guṇiṣa Sūtra.

9—SUFFICIENT BASES OF LIBERATION: These are the five bases of liberation. First, when the Buddha or an eminent bhikkhu teaches the Dharma to a person, upon hearing it, that person is able to comprehend the language and meaning. Through such comprehension, joy arises in the mind.

When joyful, the body becomes tranquil; when the body is tranquil, one experiences bliss. Experiencing bliss, the mind becomes collected. This is the first base of liberation.

When a practitioner abides in this base of liberation and applies vigorous mindfulness, the mind becomes collected and concentrated, all the outflows are extinguished, and nirvana will certainly be realized. Second, diligently reading and reciting the scriptures. Third, teaching the Dharma to others.

Fourth, sitting alone in one place and contemplating the dharmas. Fifth, properly apprehending the characteristics of concentration, namely the nine characteristics and so forth, all as explained above.

Question: Why do the Buddha and eminent bhikkhus teach the Dharma to this practitioner?

Answer: Because the practitioner is capable of receiving the Dharma and obtaining great benefit, they teach it. Furthermore, this bhikkhu has gone forth under the Buddha and his faculties have matured; therefore, the Dharma is taught to him. Eminent bhikkhus also teach one another because they share the same practice.

Moreover, this practitioner needs to hear the Dharma; therefore, it is taught to him. Furthermore, this person has already perfected such virtues as pure morality, like a sound vessel capable of being filled to the brim; therefore, the Dharma is taught to him. These are called the three kinds of wisdom: comprehending language is the wisdom born of learning; comprehending meaning and principle is the wisdom born of reflection.

By attaining these first two kinds of wisdom, one can give rise to joy of mind, and so on, until the mind becomes collected and knowledge of things as they really are arises; this is called the wisdom born of cultivation. These three kinds of wisdom have three kinds of fruits: disenchantment, dispassion, and liberation. Furthermore, hearing the Dharma, reading and reciting it, and teaching it to others constitute the wisdom born of learning; examining and considering the dharmas constitute the wisdom born of reflection; skillfully apprehending the characteristics of concentration constitutes the wisdom born of cultivation.

Question: Is there any difference between liberation of mind and the exhaustion of the outflows?

Answer: Because concentration restrains the afflictions, it is called liberation of mind; only when the afflictions are permanently severed is it called exhaustion of the outflows.

Question: Practices such as observing morality are also bases of liberation. It is said that when one observes morality, the mind is free from remorse; when the mind is free from remorse, joy arises, and so forth. Liberation may also be attained through generosity and other practices. Why, then, are only these five dharmas mentioned?

Answer: Because they are especially excellent, they are taught separately.

Question: In what way are the other dharmas not excellent?

Answer: These five are the proximate causes of liberation. Morality and the other practices are remote causes and therefore are not mentioned.

Question: How is it known that these are proximate causes?

Answer: By hearing the Dharma, a practitioner understands that the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, and so forth are merely combinations of dharmas and that there is no self within them; thus, the practitioner has destroyed conventional designation. The destruction of conventional designation is the gateway to liberation; therefore, it is called a proximate cause. Furthermore, the sutra says: “The virtue of extensive learning is that one need not seek the Dharma from others, the mind is easily collected, and so forth.” From this as well, it is known to be proximate.

Moreover, the Buddha-Dharma possesses great virtue and is able to extinguish afflictions and lead to nirvana and so forth. Regarding this Dharma of quiescence, whether one hears it, recites it, or personally reflects upon it, one swiftly attains liberation. Therefore, it is called a proximate cause.

Furthermore, generosity brings great wealth, morality brings honor, and extensive learning brings wisdom. It is through wisdom that all the outflows are extinguished, not through wealth or honor. Thus, it should be known to be a proximate cause.

Moreover, Sariputra and others were honored as persons of great wisdom, all because of extensive learning.

Question: If extensive learning makes the mind easy to collect, why did Ananda fail to attain liberation throughout the entire night?

Answer: Before Ananda’s head reached the pillow, he attained liberation. Thus, he always stands among those associated with rare and extraordinary events; how could it be said that his attainment was not swift? Furthermore, during that night Ananda’s vigor was slightly flawed, for he was excessively fatigued and therefore did not attain liberation earlier. Moreover, Ananda made this vow: “Tonight I shall certainly attain the exhaustion of the outflows.” This was like the Bodhisattva’s vow at the seat of awakening. Who else possessed such strength? Those like Ananda all attained it through the power of extensive learning.

10—FREEDOM FROM OBSTRUCTIONS: There are three obstructions: the obstruction of karma, the obstruction of retribution, and the obstruction of afflictions. If one is not covered by these three kinds of obstruction, one does not fall into the difficult states. If one is free from the difficulties, one is capable of receiving the Dharma of the path.

Such a person is also said to possess the four wheels: dwelling in a favorable country, relying upon good persons, personally forming right aspirations, and having merit from previous lives. Such a person can also fulfill the four factors of stream-entry: associating with good persons, delighting in hearing the true Dharma, properly attending to it oneself, and being able to practice in accordance with the Dharma. Such a person can also abandon the three dharmas beginning with craving, as the sutra says: “Without severing these three dharmas, one cannot pass beyond aging, illness, and death.”

11—NON-ATTACHMENT: This means not being caught on this shore, not being caught on the farther shore, not sinking in midstream, not being cast up onto dry land, not being taken by humans or seized by nonhuman beings, not entering a whirlpool, and not rotting from within. This shore is the six internal ayatanas; the farther shore is the six external ayatanas; midstream is craving and delight; dry land is self-conceit; being taken by humans means associating with householders or renunciants; being seized by nonhuman beings means observing morality for the sake of rebirth in heaven; the whirlpool is the violation of morality; and rotting from within is the violation of the grave precepts.

If a person apprehends a self in the internal ayatanas, the thought of possessions of the self consequently arises regarding the external ayatanas. Because craving and delight arise from those internal ayatanas, the person sinks therein. From this, self-conceit also arises.

Why is this so? If a person is attached to the body and experiences pleasure, then when others slight or disparage him, arrogance arises. In this way, the self and possessions of the self, craving and delight, and self-conceit disturb the mind, thereby giving rise to various other activities.

Question: In this analogy, what is represented by the water? If the Noble Eightfold Path is taken as the water, then the internal and external six ayatanas should not be taken as the two shores, nor should craving, delight, and so forth be taken as the midstream; moreover, there should be no whirlpool or rotting. If craving is taken as the water, how could following it lead to nirvana?

Answer: The Noble Eightfold Path is taken as the water. An analogy need not correspond in every respect. Just as this piece of wood, when free from the eight perils, will certainly float to the great ocean, so too a bhikkhu, when free from the currents and perils, follows the waters of the Noble Eightfold Path and flows into nirvana.

When it is said that milk is white like a conch shell, only the color of the shell is intended, not its hardness; likewise, when it is said that a face is like the moon, only its fullness is intended, not its shape. Furthermore, after a practitioner has departed from the Noble Path and again becomes attached to the internal and external ayatanas, that person resembles this piece of wood in the midst of the current, caught on this shore or the farther shore, rotting, and so forth.

Another treatise master said: “Just as the waters of the Ganges River certainly flow to the great ocean, so the Noble Eightfold Path certainly leads to nirvana.” Therefore, this analogy was employed.

Thus, the eleven requisites of concentration have been explained in brief. If one possesses these dharmas, concentration naturally arises.

CHAPTER 185: IN-BREATHING AND OUT-BREATHING

Anapana means the breath and comprises sixteen practices in all: mindfully breathing in and out, whether long or short. One trains in breathing while experiencing the whole body; calming bodily formations; experiencing rapture; experiencing bliss; experiencing mental formations; calming mental formations. Mindfully breathing in and out, one trains in experiencing the mind, gladdening the mind, collecting the mind, and liberating the mind. Mindfully breathing in and out, one contemplates impermanence, contemplates cessation, and contemplates dispassion and extinction. One also mindfully breathes in and out, whether long or short.

Question: What is meant by long and short breathing?

Answer: It is like a person climbing a mountain, or carrying a heavy burden and becoming utterly exhausted, so that his breathing is short. The practitioner is likewise: while still in a coarse state of mind, the breath is short. This coarse mind is what is called a hurried and distracted mind.

Long breathing means that when the practitioner has entered a subtle state of mind, the breath is long. Why is this? Because as the mind becomes gentle, the breath correspondingly becomes gentle by degrees.

It is like that person resting after extreme fatigue, whereupon his breathing also becomes gentle; at that time, the breath is long. As for the whole body, because the practitioner believes and understands that the body is empty, he sees the wind entering and leaving through all the pores. Calming the bodily formation: The practitioner attains mastery over the object of contemplation; because the mind is peaceful and secure, coarse breathing ceases, and at that time the practitioner becomes fully mindful of every part of the body.

Experiencing joy: From this Dharma of concentration, great gladness arises in that person's mind. Although there was gladness before, it was not equal to what there is now; at that time, this is called experiencing joy. Experiencing bliss: Bliss arises from joy.

Why is this? If the mind attains joy, the body becomes harmonious and at ease; when the body is harmonious and at ease, one attains blissful pleasure. As stated in the sutra: Because the mind is joyful, the body is tranquil; when the body is tranquil, one experiences bliss.

Experiencing the mental formation: The practitioner sees the fault in joy, because it can give rise to craving. Craving is where the mind proceeds. Because feeling arises through the mind and craving arises within feeling, feeling is therefore seen as where the mind proceeds.

Calming the mental formation: The practitioner sees that the fault of craving arises from feeling and eliminates it; therefore, the mind becomes peaceful and secure, and coarse feeling is also eliminated. Hence it is called calming the mental formation. Experiencing the mind: Having eliminated attachment to the flavor of feeling, the practitioner sees that the mind is quiescent, neither sunken nor agitated.

If this mind sometimes becomes sunken, he then gives rise to joy. If the mind again becomes agitated, he immediately gathers it in. If he can become free from these two states, he should then maintain equanimity as usual; hence it is said that he causes the mind to be liberated.

When the practitioner's mind is thus quiescent and concentrated, contemplation of impermanence arises. Through contemplation of impermanence, he cuts off the afflictions; this is called contemplation of abandoning. Because the afflictions are cut off, the mind becomes disenchanted and detached; this is called contemplation of dispassion.

Because the mind is detached, it attains the cessation of all things; this is called contemplation of cessation. In this manner, liberation is attained in sequence. Hence these are called the sixteen practices of mindfulness of breathing in and out.

Question: Why is mindfulness of breathing in and out called the noble practice, the heavenly practice, the brahma practice, the practice of one in training, and the practice of one beyond training?

Answer: Wind moves through empty space. The characteristic of empty space can swiftly open the way to the characteristic of disintegration; the characteristic of disintegration is emptiness. Emptiness is the noble practice, and therefore it is called the noble practice. Because one wishes to be reborn in the realm of tranquil devas, it is called the heavenly practice. Because one wishes to reach tranquil cessation, it is called the brahma practice. Because one wishes to train in the Dharma, it is called the practice of one in training. Because one has reached the stage beyond training, it is called the practice of one beyond training.

Question: The contemplation of impurity produces profound disenchantment with the body and swiftly leads to liberation. Why, then, is it necessary to cultivate these sixteen practices?

Answer: If one cultivates the contemplation of impurity but has not yet brought the mind to disenchantment with desire, confusion will arise, just as taking medicine in excess of the prescribed amount instead causes further illness. In the same way, the contemplation of impurity readily produces aversion and disenchantment. For example, the bhiksus who cultivated the contemplation of impurity beside the Vaggumuda River became extremely disgusted and disenchanted, and consequently committed acts such as drinking poison, throwing themselves from heights, and killing themselves.

This practice does not have such consequences. It enables one to become free from desire without giving rise to disgust and aversion, and therefore it is called superior. Moreover, this practice easily takes one's own body as its object, whereas the contemplation of impurity is easily lost.

Furthermore, this practice is subtle, because it can itself break down the body, whereas the practice of impurity is coarse and forceful, and it is difficult for it to break down the perception of the skeleton. Moreover, this practice can destroy all afflictions, whereas the contemplation of impurity destroys only sexual desire. Why is this?

Because all afflictions arise from discursive thought, while mindfulness of breathing in and out cuts off such thoughts.

Question: Does breathing in and out belong to the body or to the mind?

Answer: It belongs both to the body and to the mind. Why is this? Because it is absent within the womb, it should be known to depend upon the body. Because it is absent in the fourth dhyana and the like, and in those who are without mind, it should be known to depend upon the mind.

Question: Breathing does not arise through deliberate intention. While one thinks about other matters, the breath continually enters and leaves. It is like food entering the stomach and digesting by itself, or a shadow moving by itself; it is not something done by a person, is it?

Answer: Breathing does not arise through deliberate intention; it arises only through the conjunction of many conditions. When there is mind, it is present, and when there is no mind, it is absent; therefore, it should be known to depend upon the mind. Moreover, it differs according to the mind: when the mind is coarse, the breath is short; when the mind is subtle, the breath is long.

Furthermore, breathing in and out also depends upon the realm and upon the mind. If one remains in a realm where there is breathing in and out and also has a mind belonging to a realm where there is breathing in and out, then breathing in and out is present. The realms referred to are the Desire Realm and the first three dhyanas.

If one is in a realm where there is breathing in and out but does not have a mind belonging to a realm where there is breathing in and out, or if one is in a mindless state, then it is absent. If one is in a realm where there is no breathing in and out, it is likewise absent.

Question: When breathing begins, does one first breathe out or first breathe in?

Answer: At birth, one first breathes out; at death, one last breathes in. Emerging from and entering the fourth dhyana are likewise.

Question: What does it mean for mindfulness of breathing in and out to be complete?

Answer: If a practitioner attains these sixteen practices, it is then called complete. One treatise master said: “It is called complete through six conditions.” These are COUNTING, FOLLOWING, STOPPING, CONTEMPLATING, TURNING, TAKING AS OBJECT, and PURIFICATION. COUNTING means counting the breaths in and out from one to ten.

Counting has three modes: correct counting, overcounting, and undercounting. Correct counting means counting ten as ten. Overcounting means counting one as ten.

Undercounting means counting nine as ten. FOLLOWING means that the practitioner follows the breaths in and out. CONTEMPLATING means that the practitioner sees the breath continuously coursing through the body like a thread passing through beads.

STOPPING means causing the mind to remain fixed upon the breaths in and out. TURNING means turning toward the body. TAKING AS OBJECT means causing the mind to experience the object presently before it.

The mental dharmas are likewise.

PURIFICATION means that the practitioner becomes free from all afflictions and hindrances, and the mind attains purity. This is not necessarily fixed. Why is this? Because in these practices it is not always necessary to employ the two methods of COUNTING and FOLLOWING. The practitioner merely causes the mind to abide upon the breath in order to cut off discursive thoughts. If one can cultivate these sixteen practices, it is called complete. Moreover, this characteristic of completeness is also not fixed, because what constitutes the practice of those with dull faculties is not complete for those with sharp faculties.

Question: Why is breathing in and out called food in the sutra?

Answer: When breathing in and out ceases and the like, the body experiences ease and pleasure as though it had received delicious food. Because breathing benefits the body and brings it harmony and ease, it is called food.

Question: In each of these sixteen practices, must one continually remain mindful of breathing in and out?

Answer: By skillful means, this person has already torn apart the five skandhas and passed beyond provisional designation. What further need is there to remain mindful of the breath? This is called mindfulness of the body. Because there are four dharmas of mindfulness of the body, it is called mindfulness of the body.

Question: Mindfulness takes the past as its object, whereas breathing is present. Why, then, is it called mindfulness?

Answer: This is wisdom that destroys provisional designation, but it is spoken of as mindfulness. Mental factors are mutually designated in this way, as with the ten perceptions and the like. Moreover, because one remembers what was practiced before and after, it is called mindfulness.

Question: In the practices concerning long and short breathing and the like, no noble practice is mentioned. Why, then, is a non-practice called a foundation of mindfulness? The sutra says: “If a practitioner trains in breathing in and out, whether long or short, throughout the whole body, or in calming the bodily formation, this is then called a foundation of mindfulness of the body.”

Answer: This is the initial path of skillful means. Because its purpose is to purify the mind, what follows is called the path of abandoning. Moreover, within it are such practices as contemplation of impermanence. That particular sutra simply does not state them, but other sutras do. While contemplating breathing in and out, the practitioner contemplates the body in terms of the characteristic of arising, the characteristic of cessation, and the characteristic of arising and cessation. It is also said that he contemplates the body as impermanent and so forth. It is only because the practices of impermanence and the like are complete in the fourth section that they are stated there.

CHAPTER 186: DIFFICULTIES CONCERNING CONCENTRATION

If this concentration is free from hindrances and difficulties, great benefit can be attained. One difficulty in concentration is what is called coarse elation. As stated in the sutra: “When coarse elation arises in me, it is a mental impediment.” The practitioner should not give rise to such coarse elation, for the faults of craving and attachment will disturb the concentrated mind.

Question: When elation arises because of a phenomenon, how can one prevent it from arising?

Answer: When the practitioner remains mindful of emptiness, elation does not arise. Elation arises only because one conceives of sentient beings; but when the five skandhas are empty and there are no sentient beings, over what could elation arise? Again, the practitioner should form this thought: Phenomena such as light arise through causes and conditions; what is there in them to rejoice over?

Again, when the practitioner sees that every phenomenon over which one rejoices immediately decays, coarse elation ceases. Again, the practitioner still seeks the great matter; what use are phenomena such as light? Therefore, elation does not arise.

Again, because the practitioner sees the mark of cessation as beneficial, the practitioner does not regard marks such as light as worthy of elation. Again, this practitioner cultivates quiescent cessation in order to bring all afflictions to an end, and therefore does not give rise to elation. By means of these conditions, coarse elation can be extinguished.

Another difficulty in concentration is fear. When the practitioner sees an object that appears frightening, fear arises. The practitioner sees all the many frightening things in the world.

With regard to all such things, one should carefully contemplate their impermanence and decay and should not follow after them. Why is this? In the practice of seated meditation, when these causes and conditions appear as frightening things, one should not become afraid because of them, for they are all false, empty, and unreal, like magical illusions that can deceive ordinary people but are not genuine.

By reflecting in this way, one can become free from fear. Again, when one relies upon the Dharma of emptiness, there is no fear. Again, one should form this thought: It is through the power of my cultivation that these extraordinary signs have appeared; I should not be afraid.

One should also reflect that one’s own body is endowed with the virtues of observing the precepts and extensive learning, and that there is no cause or condition by which one can be harmed; therefore, one is not afraid. Again, because this practitioner delights in the flavor of the Path, the practitioner does not cherish even body or life; what then is there to fear? Again, this person’s mind constantly abides in right mindfulness, and therefore frightening things cannot intrude.

Again, by contemplating the mark of courage, one is not afraid. Fear is the mark of cowardice. By means of such methods, fear is eliminated.

Another difficulty in concentration is discomfort. The practitioner may suffer from illnesses such as heat or cold, or causes and conditions such as exhaustion and loss of sleep may make the body uncomfortable. Or afflictions such as craving, sorrow, and jealousy may make the mind uncomfortable, causing the loss of meditative concentration.

Therefore, the practitioner must care for and protect body and mind so that they remain harmonious and at ease. Another difficulty in concentration consists of disparate signs: what are called impure signs and non-impure signs can disturb meditative concentration, as can signs such as generosity. Another difficulty in concentration is lack of balance, namely, exertion that is either too rapid or too slow.

If it is too rapid, body and mind become exhausted; if too slow, one fails to apprehend the sign of concentration. In either case, one regresses and loses concentration. It is like catching a bird: if one moves too quickly, one becomes exhausted; if too slowly, the bird flies away.

It is also like tuning the strings of a lute: if they are either too taut or too slack, they produce no proper sound. Again, if exertion is too rapid, exhaustion makes it difficult to carry the practice through to completion. As the Buddha told Aniruddha: “When your exertion is excessive, the task is not accomplished, and you instead become indolent.” Why is this?

If exertion is excessive, the task is not accomplished and one instead becomes indolent; but if exertion is too slow, the task likewise is not completed. Therefore, lack of balance is also called a difficulty in concentration.

Another difficulty in concentration is lack of mindfulness: one does not recollect wholesome dharmas, or, even if one recollects wholesome dharmas, they are not the object one has undertaken. Again, one does not recollect the sign of concentration but instead thinks of external forms. This is called lack of mindfulness.

The practitioner should single-mindedly and diligently remain mindful of the dharma undertaken, like one carrying in one’s hands a bowl filled to the brim with oil. Another difficulty in concentration is inverted practice. A person with abundant lust undertakes the cultivation of loving-kindness, while a person with abundant anger cultivates the contemplation of impurity.

Persons of both kinds contemplate the twelve links of dependent origination. Again, when the mind is sunken, one cultivates CALMING; when the mind is agitated, one cultivates EXERTION. With either of these two states of mind, one instead cultivates EQUANIMITY.

This is called inverted practice.

Another difficulty in concentration is excessive speech, namely, abundant initial and sustained thought. Initial and sustained thought are causes of speech. Again, because the mind takes no delight, it is forced to remain upon the object. Another difficulty in concentration is failing to apprehend the signs. There are three kinds of signs, namely, the sign of calming, the sign of exertion, and the sign of equanimity. There are also three further signs: the sign of concentration, the sign of abiding, and the sign of arising. Because the practitioner is not skilled in distinguishing such signs, meditative concentration is lost.

Another difficulty in concentration is conceit. To say, “I can enter concentration, whereas that person cannot,” is called conceit. To say, “That person is capable, whereas I am incapable,” is called the conceit of inferiority. To have not yet attained concentration but claim to oneself that one has attained it is called the conceit of superiority. To conceive a concentration that is not sublime to be sublime is called false conceit. Moreover, phenomena such as craving are also called difficulties in concentration. As stated in the sutra: “If a practitioner possesses one particular phenomenon, that practitioner cannot contemplate the eye as impermanent.” That phenomenon is craving.

Question: Are all those who have not become free from sensual desire unable to contemplate the eye as impermanent?

Answer: That statement is somewhat defective. It should say that one in whom craving is presently arising cannot contemplate the eye as impermanent. Furthermore, there are differences in how such a quality is possessed. In some people, craving and the like are dense and heavy and constantly enter the mind; they can therefore obstruct concentration. In others, they are slight and infrequent and thus cause no serious difficulty.

Again, the sutra states that thirteen unwholesome dharmas are all called difficulties in concentration, while thirteen pure dharmas are all conducive to concentration. The Buddha said: “If three dharmas are not abandoned, one cannot cross beyond aging, illness, and death.” These are craving, anger, and delusion. If three dharmas are not abandoned, one cannot abandon craving, anger, and delusion.

These three are the view of a self, attachment to precepts and observances, and doubt. There are another three dharmas: wrong mindfulness, wrong conduct, and a sunken mind. There are another three dharmas: improper recollection, unsettled wisdom, and a distracted mind.

There are another three dharmas: restlessness and frivolity, failure to guard the faculties, and violation of the precepts. There are another three dharmas: lack of faith, wrong precepts, and indolence. There are another three dharmas: taking no delight in good people, disliking the hearing of the true Dharma, and delighting in scrutinizing the faults of others.

There are another three dharmas: irreverence, unwillingness to accept sound counsel, and association with bad spiritual friends.

If three dharmas are not abandoned, then irreverence, unwillingness to accept sound counsel, and association with bad spiritual friends cannot be abandoned. These three are lack of moral shame, lack of moral dread, and heedlessness. If lack of moral shame, lack of moral dread, and heedlessness are abandoned, then irreverence, unwillingness to accept sound counsel, and association with bad spiritual friends can be abandoned. In this way, ultimately, when the view of a self, attachment to precepts and observances, and doubt are abandoned, craving, anger, and delusion are abandoned, and one crosses beyond aging, illness, and death.

Here, crossing beyond aging, illness, and death is nirvana without remainder. The abandonment of craving, anger, and delusion is the fruit of arhatship, nirvana with remainder. The abandonment of the view of a self, attachment to precepts and observances, and doubt pertains to the three fruits of the śramaṇa.

The abandonment of wrong mindfulness, wrong conduct, and a sunken mind pertains to the wholesome roots conducive to penetration, beginning with the Stage of Warmth. The abandonment of improper recollection, unsettled wisdom, and a distracted mind is the cultivation of the four foundations of mindfulness. The abandonment of restlessness and frivolity, failure to guard the faculties, and violation of the precepts pertains to undertaking the precepts of renunciation.

The abandonment of taking no delight in good people, disliking the hearing of the true Dharma, delighting in scrutinizing the faults of others, lack of faith, wrong precepts, indolence, irreverence, unwillingness to accept sound counsel, association with bad spiritual friends, lack of moral shame, lack of moral dread, and heedlessness pertains to purity in the household life.

Why is this so? If a person commits evil in private and feels no shame, this is called shamelessness. Later, that person's evil mind increases, and even amid the assembly they commit such deeds without the slightest embarrassment; this is called lack of moral dread.

Because the roots of wholesome Dharma—the two pure qualities—have been lost, one continually pursues unwholesome dharmas; this is called heedlessness. Because these three evil qualities have been developed, one refuses to receive and obey the instructions of venerable and honored teachers and elders; this is called disrespect. To answer back against a teacher's instruction is called being difficult to admonish.

Thus, one becomes estranged from teachers and elders and draws near to evil persons; this is called associating with evil spiritual friends. Among these, disrespect arises from shamelessness; being difficult to admonish arises from lack of moral dread; and association with evil spiritual friends arises from heedlessness. Consequently, disbelief arises, and one adopts the precepts of erroneous teachings and habitually associates with evil persons.

They then teach the doctrine of disbelief, saying: “Committing evil brings its recompense.” Or, upon hearing it said that committing evil incurs retribution, one undertakes such precepts and practices as those of dogs and chickens, hoping thereby quickly to exhaust one's offenses. When the observance of these precepts and practices unexpectedly yields some slight benefit, indolence arises. Because of indolence, one dislikes good persons, considering them not to be true practitioners who practice what is right.

One also dislikes hearing the true Dharma, believing that cultivating the true Dharma, just like erroneous teachings, brings no benefit. Because the mind is defiled, one delights in finding fault with others, believing that the Dharma they cultivate is just like one's own practice and ultimately yields nothing at all. Thus, because the afflictions cannot be subdued, the mind becomes restless and frivolous.

Because of such restlessness, one fails to restrain the faculties and may break the precepts. Because the precepts are broken, false recollections arise; conduct becomes unsettled, wisdom and the mind become scattered, and wrong mindfulness immediately arises. One then cultivates a wrong path.

When cultivating a wrong path brings no benefit, the mind becomes deluded. Because the mind is not lucid, one cannot sever the three fetters. Because the three fetters are not severed, one cannot sever greed and the other afflictions, nor illness and the other forms of decline.

Qualities contrary to all those described above are called the pure qualities, that is, the stainless Dharma.

There are also the obstacles to concentration arising from sorrow and distress: the practitioner thinks, “Even when I have focused the mind upon its object, I still find no joy.” Moreover, greed and the other afflictions that obscure the mind are all called obstacles to concentration. In brief, even clothing, food, drink, and all other things that diminish wholesome roots and increase the unwholesome are called obstacles to concentration, that is, difficulties in cultivating concentration. Therefore, one must discern and recognize them, and diligently seek to abandon and separate oneself from them.

End of Volume 14 of the Treatise on the Establishment of Truth