成唯識論

XI. The Third Transformation of Consciousness (continued from Part 2)

The characteristics of the twenty secondary afflictions have already been explained. What are the characteristics of the four indeterminate mental factors?

The verse says:

The indeterminate are remorse and sleep,

Examination and investigation; the two pairs are each twofold.

The treatise says: “The four—remorse, sleep, examination, and investigation—are indeterminate with respect to both the wholesome and the defiled. Unlike contact, attention, and so forth, they do not invariably pervade all states of mind; unlike aspiration, resolute conviction, and so forth, they do not invariably pervade all grounds. Therefore, they are designated ‘indeterminate.’”

Remorse is disapproval of a past action. Its nature is to dislike what one has done and subsequently recollect it with regret; its function is to obstruct the cultivation of calm abiding, because remorse readily gives rise to restlessness. Here, the name of the cause—disapproval of a past action—is provisionally established on the basis of the result—subsequent remorse. One first dislikes what one has done, which is the cause, and only afterward recollects it with regret, which is the result. Alternatively, regretting that one did not previously do something is also disapproval of a past action, as when one remorsefully thinks, “Why did I not formerly do such-and-such a thing?” This is disapproval of a past action.

Sleep means slumber. Its nature is to render the mind obscure and contracted, and the body lacking in freedom; its function is to obstruct the cultivation of insight, because sleep readily gives rise to torpor. That is, when one is deeply asleep, the body is not under one’s control, while the mind is extremely darkened and debilitated, directed solely inward.

“Obscure” distinguishes it from the state of meditative concentration, and “contracted” distinguishes it from the waking state. This demonstrates that sleep is not devoid of substance and function. Although the name “sleep” is also provisionally applied among the five states without mind—states in which mental consciousness does not arise, namely the attainment of non-perception, the attainment of cessation, sleep, unconsciousness, and birth among the non-percipient gods—it nevertheless corresponds with mind, as do the five hindrances and the ten fetters.

The five hindrances are five things that veil the mind: sensual desire, ill will, torpor and sleep, restlessness and remorse, and doubt. The ten fetters are ten things that bind the mind: shamelessness, lack of moral dread, jealousy, stinginess, remorse, sleep, restlessness, torpor, anger, and concealment. Therefore, sleep is said definitely to possess real substance and function.

– One opinion holds: “Remorse and sleep take delusion as their substance, because the Yogacara Treatise says, ‘They are secondary afflictions and aspects of delusion.’”

– Another opinion holds that this is incorrect, because remorse and sleep may also be wholesome in nature. It should therefore be said that when these two are defiled, they take delusion as their substance, and when purified, they take non-delusion as their substance. The treatise speaks from the perspective of their defiled aspect when it says that remorse and sleep are included among the secondary afflictions and are aspects of delusion.

– Another opinion holds that this explanation is also unreasonable, because remorse and sleep may also be karmically neutral, whereas karmic neutrality is by nature neither delusion nor non-delusion. It should therefore be said that disapproval of a past action takes volition and wisdom as its substance, because one examines and chooses one’s actions through wisdom and volition. Sleep should take aspects of volition and perception as its substance, because while asleep one still conceives the objects appearing in dreams. Thus, the treatise says that both exist only according to worldly convention. The defiled nature of remorse and sleep is an outflow of delusion, just as lack of faith is an aspect of delusion.

Another opinion holds that this is incorrect, because volition, wisdom, and perception are not themselves the nature of remorse and sleep; rather, their nature consists precisely in binding body and mind. It should therefore be said that remorse and sleep each have a distinct substance, because their modes of activity differ from those of the other mental factors. However, because remorse and sleep are spoken of in conformity with the characteristics of delusion, they are said to exist according to worldly convention.

Examination means seeking. Its nature is to cause the mind to act swiftly toward an object apprehended through conceptual language and to observe it in a coarse manner.

Investigation means scrutinizing. Its nature is to cause the mind to act swiftly toward an object apprehended through conceptual language. The objects received by mental consciousness are mostly based upon names and words; in other words, they are objects existing only in designation and not in actuality—there are merely provisional names and no real meanings.

Investigation observes such objects in a subtle manner. Both examination and investigation have the function of serving as a basis upon which body and mind may abide in either ease or unease. They take aspects of volition and wisdom as their substance, for examination and investigation differ in meaning according to whether one reflects upon and comprehends an object of conceptual language shallowly or deeply.

Apart from volition and wisdom, examination and investigation have no distinct substantial classes of their own.

– Regarding the words “the two pairs are each twofold” in the verse, one opinion holds that examination and investigation are each of two kinds: defiled and purified.

Another opinion holds that the foregoing explanation is incorrect, because remorse and sleep are also of two kinds, defiled and purified. It should therefore be said that, as explained previously, some defiled mental factors are primary afflictions and others are secondary afflictions. These two pairs—remorse and sleep, and examination and investigation—are each both unwholesome and karmically neutral; alternatively, each has both an active fetter, its manifest activity, and a latent tendency, its seed.

Another opinion holds that this explanation is also incorrect, because only after listing all four indeterminate factors does the verse state “the two pairs are each twofold.” Therefore, “two” indicates two pairs: the first is remorse and sleep, and the second is examination and investigation. These two pairs are each twofold and belong to different classes. Thus, the single word “twofold” reveals two pairs, each of which is twofold. This means that each pair has two aspects, defiled and undefiled, unlike the other mental factors, which are either exclusively wholesome or exclusively defiled. Alternatively, the phrase “the two pairs are each twofold” simply distinguishes them from the defiled mental factors. Some also say that all four are secondary afflictions.

Here, to reveal the “indeterminate” character of these four, the verse says, “the two pairs are each twofold.” The verse is therefore highly meaningful.

– Among these four, examination and investigation are certainly provisionally existent, because the Noble One said, “They are formed through the combination of volition and wisdom.” Some also say that remorse and sleep are provisionally existent, because the Yogacara Treatise says, “They exist only according to worldly convention.”

Another opinion holds that remorse and sleep are substantially existent and that only examination and investigation are provisionally existent. The statement that they “exist according to worldly convention” means that they exist in dependence upon other characteristics of the afflictions; it does not mean that remorse and sleep are merely provisionally existent. Furthermore, although seeds within consciousness are substantially real, a treatise also says that they “exist only according to worldly convention.”

Among these four, examination and investigation do not correspond with each other, because although they belong to the same substantial class, examination is coarse whereas investigation is subtle.

On the basis of whether examination and investigation are defiled or free from defilement, three distinct grounds are established: the ground with examination and investigation—the desire realm and the preparatory stage of the first dhyana; the ground without examination but with investigation—the fundamental stage of the first dhyana; and the ground with neither examination nor investigation—the second dhyana. These grounds are not established according to whether the seeds or manifest activities of examination and investigation are present or absent; hence, there is no confusion among them. Examination and investigation may correspond with remorse and sleep. Remorse and sleep may also correspond with one another.

– None of the four corresponds with the seventh or eighth consciousness, as previously explained. Remorse and sleep correspond only with the sixth consciousness and not with the first five consciousnesses. One opinion holds that examination and investigation also correspond with the first five consciousnesses, because the treatise says, “The five consciousnesses have examination and investigation.”

It also says that examination and investigation are themselves included among the seven kinds of discrimination: discrimination accompanied by perceptual images, discrimination without perceptual images, spontaneous discrimination, seeking discrimination, scrutinizing discrimination, defiled discrimination, and undefiled discrimination. The Samuccaya Treatise further says, “Spontaneous discrimination is the five consciousnesses.” The five consciousnesses discriminate only spontaneously and naturally; they do not discriminate by way of seeking and scrutinizing.

– Another opinion holds that examination and investigation correspond only with mental consciousness. The treatise says, “Seeking and scrutinizing are both factors exclusive to mental consciousness.”

– It also says that examination and investigation correspond with the feelings of sorrow and joy, but does not say that they correspond with the feelings of pain and pleasure. Equanimous feeling is pervasive and thus need not be mentioned. Why does it not say that examination and investigation correspond with the feelings of pain and pleasure? Although pleasurable feeling is present on the mental ground in the first dhyana, this pleasure is inseparable from joy and is therefore collectively called joy. Although painful feeling is present on the mental ground in a state of unmitigated suffering, it resembles sorrow and is therefore collectively called sorrow.

It is also said that examination and investigation take collections of names, collections of phrases, and so forth as their objects, whereas the first five consciousnesses cannot take collections of names, collections of phrases, and so forth as their objects. When the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says, “Examination and investigation are present in the five consciousnesses,” it indicates that examination and investigation arising at the initial moment are, for the most part, induced by the five consciousnesses; it does not mean that examination and investigation are associated with the five consciousnesses.

When the Mahāyānābhidharma-samuccaya-vyākhyā speaks of “spontaneous discrimination,” it refers to the five consciousnesses and differs in meaning from the discrimination discussed in the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra. The “spontaneous discrimination” mentioned in the former is precisely the five consciousnesses, referring only to discrimination by intrinsic nature; the seven kinds of discrimination in the Yogācārabhūmi are examination and investigation associated with the mental consciousness that arises together with the five consciousnesses.

Therefore, the evidence cited by that position is not established. Consequently, the five consciousnesses definitely do not possess examination and investigation.

– One opinion holds that regret is associated with sorrow and equanimous feeling, because it occurs only in states of anxiety and also extends to the morally indeterminate nature.

Torpor-and-sleep is associated with pleasant, sorrowful, and equanimous feelings, because its mode of activity extends to neutral states as well as states of joy and anxiety. Examination and investigation are associated with sorrowful, pleasant, equanimous, and blissful feelings, because in the first dhyāna the mental consciousness is associated with bliss.

– One opinion holds that these four indeterminate factors are also associated with painful feeling, because in realms of pure suffering the mental consciousness is associated with pain.

– These four indeterminate mental factors are all associated with the five specific-object mental factors, because the modes of activity and objects of the two groups do not conflict.

– Regret and torpor-and-sleep are associated only with the ten wholesome mental factors, because they occur only in the desire realm, where there is no pliancy. Examination and investigation are associated with all eleven wholesome mental factors, because in the first dhyāna they are still associated with pliancy. Regret is associated only with ignorance. Because its mode of activity is coarse, whereas craving and the others are subtle, torpor-and-sleep, examination, and investigation are associated with the ten minor secondary afflictions, since these can be linked with one another without conflict.

Regret is also associated with the intermediate and major secondary afflictions, but not with anger and the other ten minor secondary afflictions, because each minor secondary affliction acts independently. Torpor-and-sleep, examination, and investigation are associated with all twenty secondary afflictions, because all those afflictions may arise during torpor-and-sleep.

The four indeterminate mental factors extend to all three natures—wholesome, unwholesome, and morally indeterminate—because retrospective regret also occurs regarding morally indeterminate actions.

– One opinion holds that regret and torpor-and-sleep possess only innate wholesomeness, because their modes of activity are coarse, inferior, dull, and abbreviated. Examination and investigation also extend to wholesomeness produced through applied effort (innate wholesomeness is goodness with which one is born because it was cultivated habitually in the past; wholesomeness produced through applied effort is goodness acquired by striving to associate with spiritual friends, listening to the true Dharma, and then reflecting upon and practicing it), because examination and investigation are still present in wisdom arising from hearing.

– One opinion holds that regret and torpor-and-sleep also possess wholesomeness produced through applied effort, because regret and torpor-and-sleep are still present during hearing and reflection. Torpor-and-sleep, examination, and investigation extend to the defiled, purified, and morally indeterminate; but regret is not defiled, because its comprehension may be coarse or subtle.

Among the four kinds of pure moral indeterminacy—resultant, deportmental, artisanal, and transformative (the resultant body of karmic retribution in the three realms is resultant; walking, standing, lying down, and sitting are deportmental; carving and painting are artisanal; and transformations produced by supernormal powers are transformative)—regret belongs only to the two middle kinds of moral indeterminacy, because its mode of activity may be coarse or subtle and it is neither meditative concentration (transformative moral indeterminacy) nor karmic retribution (resultant moral indeterminacy).

Torpor-and-sleep is excluded only from the fourth kind of moral indeterminacy, because it is not produced through meditative concentration; torpor-and-sleep is also present in resultant mind. Examination and investigation are excluded from the first kind of moral indeterminacy, because its comprehension is subtle and weak and cannot examine the meanings of names.

Regret and torpor-and-sleep exist only in the desire realm. Examination and investigation exist in both the desire realm and the first dhyāna. Since the dharmas in the higher stages are all wondrous and pure, these four indeterminate mental factors do not exist there. When one is born in a higher realm, regret and torpor-and-sleep certainly no longer arise manifestly. Examination and investigation, when one is born in a higher realm, may also take objects of a lower realm; when one is born in a lower realm, they may also take objects of a higher realm.

– One opinion holds that regret and torpor-and-sleep cannot take objects of a higher realm, because their modes of activity are coarse, inferior, extremely dull, and abbreviated.

– One opinion holds that regret and torpor-and-sleep can also take objects of a higher realm, because, for example, a person holding wrong views may regret cultivating the meditative concentrations of the higher realms, and because dreams can also take as objects all manner of things previously experienced.

– Regret does not exist at the stage beyond training, because it is abandoned when desire has been relinquished. Torpor-and-sleep, examination, and investigation extend to all three categories: training, beyond training, and neither. The conditioned wholesome dharmas of those seeking liberation are all called “training.” When those in training have reached the ultimate, their conditioned wholesome dharmas are called “beyond training” (because these wholesome dharmas still arise and cease, they are called conditioned).

Regret and torpor-and-sleep extend only to what is eliminated on the path of seeing and the path of cultivation, because they may also arise through the power of wrong views. Since they are not directly produced by the undefiled path, they are also unlike the faculty of sorrow, which arises from seeking liberation, or those factors which, once eliminated, are said not to be subject to elimination. Although examination and investigation are not themselves the true undefiled path, they can induce the undefiled path and can be induced by the undefiled path; therefore, they fully comprise what is eliminated through seeing, what is eliminated through cultivation, and what is not subject to elimination.

– One opinion holds that examination and investigation are not subject to elimination and that, among the five dharmas (characteristics, names, discrimination, correct wisdom, and suchness), they are included only under discrimination, because the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says, “Examination and investigation are discrimination.”

– One opinion holds that examination and investigation are also included under correct wisdom, because Right Thought among the Noble Eightfold Path is undefiled, and because Right Thought can cause the mind to seek and examine. It is also said that examination and investigation are the causes of speech (only when examination and investigation are present does speech arise).

At a stage where the ultimate has not yet been attained, one is not yet able to know all medicines and illnesses (the medicines are the Dharma methods of practice, and the illnesses are the mental illnesses of sentient beings). Therefore, within subsequently acquired wisdom, when one wishes to teach the Dharma to others, one must rely upon examination and investigation; it is not as at the stage of Buddhahood, where teaching occurs without effort. Therefore, examination and investigation also extend to the undefiled. Although examination and investigation are said to be discrimination, it is not definitely stated that they belong to the third dharma, discrimination, because within subsequently acquired correct wisdom there is also ... discrimination.

As for distinguishing these four indeterminate mental factors from other perspectives, this should be understood in accordance with the foregoing. (39)

– Do the six classes of mental factors described above possess intrinsic natures distinct from the sovereign mind, or are they merely differentiated states of the sovereign mind? What fault would follow from either position?

Both positions entail faults. If they possessed intrinsic natures distinct from the sovereign mind (the substance of mind), why would the sacred teachings say that there is consciousness-only (rather than also mentioning mental factors)? Furthermore, why is it said that the mind travels far alone (without mentioning mental factors)? The six elements—earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness—combine to constitute a sentient being (without saying that mental factors also constitute one). The Mahāyāna-sūtrālaṃkāra Śāstra asks, “Moreover, how can this be reconciled?” As that treatise states in verse:

The mind is caused to appear as two

(Appearing as the two dharmas, wholesome and defiled),

And likewise as “craving” and the rest,

Or as “faith” and the rest;

No separate defiled or pure dharmas exist.

If mental factors are merely differentiated states of mind, why do the sacred teachings say that they are associated with mind? Only things possessing distinct natures can be associated; an intrinsic nature cannot be associated with itself. Furthermore, how could it be said that mind and mental factors arise simultaneously, like the sun and its rays? And the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra asks, “Moreover, how can this be reconciled?” This treatise states that mental factors are not mind itself. As the verse in that treatise says:

The fivefold nature cannot be established

(The fivefold nature of the appropriated skandhas);

Differentiated states entail a fault

(It is erroneous to say that the five skandhas are established through differentiated states),

Because the causes and conditions are not different

(Within a single instant),

And this contradicts the sacred teachings.

Therefore, it should be said that mental factors possess intrinsic natures distinct from mind.

Because mind is preeminent, it is spoken of as consciousness-only. Because mental factors arise by relying upon the power of mind, it is said that the mind manifests in the likeness of those wholesome dharmas; it is not that those wholesome dharmas themselves are mind.

Moreover, whenever the term “mind-consciousness” is used, it also includes the mental factors, because they are always associated with mind. Therefore, neither the expression “consciousness-only” nor the statement that “it manifests in their likeness” entails any error. Nevertheless, this is said to exist only according to conventional truth; according to ultimate truth, mental factors and mind are neither separate nor identical. It should be understood that the various consciousnesses, in relation to one another, are likewise so.

This is the wondrous principle of the conventional and ultimate truths in the Mahayana.

– The mental factors associated with the six consciousnesses have already been discussed. How, then, can their stages of active manifestation be known?

The verse says:

Relying upon the fundamental consciousness,

The five consciousnesses manifest according to conditions,

Arising together or not,

Like waves relying upon water.

The mental consciousness constantly manifests,

Except when born in the Heaven of No-Thought,

And in the two mindless samadhis,

During deep sleep and unconsciousness.

The Treatise says: The fundamental consciousness is precisely the eighth consciousness, the adana consciousness, which is the basis from which all defiled and pure consciousnesses arise. “Relying upon” means that the first six evolving consciousnesses take this fundamental consciousness as their common immediate basis.

“The five consciousnesses” are the first five evolving consciousnesses. Because they belong to the same class, they are collectively described by the phrase “manifest according to conditions,” indicating that they do not arise continuously. “Conditions” means attention, faculties, objects, space, light, the fundamental basis (namely, the eighth consciousness), the basis of defilement and purity (namely, the seventh consciousness), the discriminating basis (namely, the sixth consciousness), and the basis of seeds.

That is, the five sensory consciousnesses inwardly rely upon the fundamental consciousness and outwardly follow attention, the five faculties, and the five objects. Only when all these conditions are present and united can they manifest. Therefore, they may all arise together at once, or they may not, because external conditions sometimes converge suddenly and sometimes gradually, just as waves arise upon water according to the greater or lesser number of conditions.

The principle and its analogy are thus; they are explained extensively in the sutras.

Because the modes of activity of the five evolving consciousnesses are coarse and agitated, and because the many conditions upon which they depend are often incomplete, the times when they arise are few, while the times when they do not arise are many. Although the sixth, mental consciousness, is also coarse and agitated, the conditions upon which it depends are never incomplete. Only when contrary conditions occur, as in a mindless samadhi, does it sometimes fail to arise. The seventh and eighth consciousnesses, however, have subtle modes of activity, and the conditions upon which they depend are always present; therefore, they are not prevented from actively manifesting through any obstruction of conditions.

Moreover, the five sensory consciousnesses are incapable of deliberation. They turn only toward external objects and can arise only by relying upon many conditions. Therefore, they are interrupted often and actively manifest seldom.

The sixth, mental consciousness, deliberates by itself and turns toward both internal and external objects. It does not need to rely upon many conditions and therefore fails to manifest only in five circumstances. Thus, the mental consciousness is interrupted seldom and manifests often. For this reason, it is not said that the mental consciousness manifests according to conditions as the five consciousnesses do.

What are the five circumstances? They are birth in the Heaven of No-Thought and so forth.

Those in the Heaven of No-Thought are practitioners of the Samadhi of No-Thought who, through the power of their revulsion toward coarse thought, are born in that heaven. Because they oppose the noncontinuous activities of mind and mental factors and principally take the cessation of thought as their state, it is called the Heaven of No-Thought. Therefore, there all six evolving consciousnesses cease.

– One opinion holds that in that heaven the six consciousnesses are continuously absent, because the sacred teachings say, “In that realm there are no evolving consciousnesses”; they also say, “There is only the material body there” (the material link among the twelve links), and further, “That is a mindless state.”

Another opinion holds that when beings in that heaven are about to die, the evolving consciousnesses must arise before death, because they must give rise to the affliction of craving, which moistens birth into a lower realm. The Yogacarabhumi-sastra says, “When the final thought appears, the sentient beings of that realm perish immediately thereafter.” The statement that there are no evolving consciousnesses in that heaven is made with reference to their absence over a long period; it does not mean that they are entirely absent.

– Another opinion holds that evolving consciousnesses are also present at birth in the Heaven of No-Thought, because in the intermediate existence afflictive craving, which moistens birth, must certainly arise. Likewise, when the basic existence begins in the various dhyana realms, evolving consciousnesses must also be present. (The existence between death and birth is the intermediate existence, or intermediate state; the existence at the moment of taking birth is the birth existence; from birth until death is the basic existence; and the moment of death is the death existence. These are called the four existences in the cycle of transmigration.) The Yogacarabhumi-sastra says, “When one is born in the Heaven of No-Thought, there is only entry into samadhi and no emergence from samadhi.” If thought arises, one immediately dies there. Suppose that at the beginning of the basic existence there were no evolving consciousnesses; how could it be called entry into samadhi? Only when they exist before and cease afterward can it be called entry.

Furthermore, the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī section of the Yogacarabhumi-sastra says, “In that heaven, the complete cessation of those mind and mental factors that arise by birth is called no-thought.” This passage means that at the beginning of the basic existence there, evolving consciousnesses produced through maturation temporarily arise. Merely through the causal power of the samadhi previously cultivated, the evolving consciousnesses thereafter no longer arise.

The power of that Samadhi of No-Thought brings forth a distinctive stage of indeterminate maturation, which is called no-thought. Just as the two samadhis—the Samadhi of No-Thought and the Samadhi of Cessation—are produced through wholesome preparatory practices and are therefore called wholesome, so it is here. Otherwise, if none of the evolving consciousnesses ever actively manifested, why would the text say only that the mind and mental factors arising by birth had completely ceased?

Therefore, it is known that at the beginning of birth in the Heaven of No-Thought, the six evolving consciousnesses still arise temporarily.

– The Heaven of No-Thought exists only in the fourth dhyana, because in the lower realms thought is coarse and agitated and difficult to eliminate, while in the higher formless realm there is no matured material body to serve as the locus of the maturation of no-thought. It is precisely the volitional karma that brings forth the Samadhi of No-Thought that produces the maturation-result of birth in the Heaven of No-Thought.

In the verse, the line “And in the two mindless samadhis” refers to the Samadhi of No-Thought and the Samadhi of Cessation. In both samadhis, the six consciousnesses are absent; therefore, they are called mindless.

The Samadhi of No-Thought is attained by an ordinary being who has subdued the innate craving belonging to the Heaven of Universal Purity in the third dhyana but has not yet subdued craving for the higher heaven. By first directing attention toward the thought of deliverance, the practitioner causes the noncontinuous activities of mind and mental factors within the mental consciousness to cease. Because the cessation of thought is foremost, it is named “No-Thought”; because it brings harmony and ease to the body, it is called “samadhi.” The cultivation of this samadhi has three grades.

In the lower grade, the present cultivation is subject to regression and, after regression, cannot quickly be brought forth again. Therefore, one is subsequently born in the Heaven of No-Thought with a body that is not very luminous and pure and a form that is not very vast; one dies prematurely midway through the samadhi. In the middle grade, the present cultivation does not regress, and even if regression occurs, the samadhi is quickly brought forth again.

Therefore, one is subsequently born in the Heaven of No-Thought with a body that is very luminous and pure and a vast form, though these qualities are not complete. Premature death may occur, but it is not certain. In the higher grade, the present cultivation does not regress.

One is subsequently born in the Heaven of No-Thought with a body that is exceedingly luminous and pure and a vast form. One does not die prematurely but dies only after living out one’s full lifespan.

This samadhi belongs only to the fourth dhyana. It is also wholesome, because it is produced through wholesome preparatory practices. This samadhi does not exist in the lower or higher grounds, as explained above in the discussion of the Heaven of No-Thought. Of the four kinds of karma—karma to be experienced in the present life, karma to be experienced in the next life, karma to be experienced in a subsequent life, and karma whose time of maturation is indeterminate—this samadhi has three kinds, excluding karma to be experienced in the present life.

– One opinion holds that this concentration can arise only in the Desire Realm, being induced through the teaching power of non-Buddhist practitioners, because it is only among human beings that extremely keen and powerful understanding is found.

– Another opinion holds that, after first cultivating it in the Desire Realm and subsequently being born in the Form Realm, one can induce it to manifest, except when born in the Heaven of Non-Perception or the Highest Heaven.

This Concentration of Non-Perception is entered through revulsion toward perception and delight in the resultant state of the Heaven of Non-Perception. Therefore, it is only contaminated and is not an uncontaminated concentration of the noble ones.

– The Concentration of Cessation is attained by noble ones who are learners or beyond learning, or by noble learners who have subdued or entirely abandoned the coemergent craving belonging to the Sphere of Nothingness, while their craving belonging to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception need not necessarily have been abandoned. Through first directing attention toward the cessation of perception, the defiled and non-continuously active mind and mental factors associated with the six consciousnesses, together with part of those continuously active in the seventh consciousness, are completely brought to cessation; hence it is called “cessation.” Because it also brings the body into a state of peace and harmony, it is called a concentration. Moreover, because it is entered through particular revulsion toward “feeling” and “perception,” it is also called the Concentration of the Cessation of Feeling and Perception.

There are three grades in cultivating this Concentration of Cessation. In the lower grade, after the currently cultivated Dharma has regressed, one cannot quickly cause it to arise again. In the middle grade, the currently cultivated Dharma does not regress; even if it does regress, one can quickly cause it to arise again. In the higher grade, it never regresses at all.

When this concentration is first cultivated, one must rely upon the Heaven of the Summit of Existence—the Heaven of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception—and enter it through the preparatory practice of successively contemplating uncontaminated dharmas as objects. Among the nine successive concentrations—the four dhyanas, the four formless attainments, and the Concentration of Cessation—this concentration is the last. Although it pertains to the Summit of Existence, it is included among the uncontaminated states.

Once one has attained mastery in entering and emerging from this concentration, it can also become manifest in the final minds of the other seven grounds, apart from the Summit of Existence. Although this concentration belongs to the Truth of the Path, it is classified as neither learning nor beyond learning, because it resembles nirvana.

When this concentration is first cultivated and brought forth, it is in the human realm, where it arises through the teaching power of the Buddha and the Buddha’s disciples, and because human beings possess extremely keen and powerful understanding. Through cultivating it in the Desire Realm, one can subsequently be born in the two higher realms and still cause it to become manifest. The Udayin Sutra provides evidence for this.

The Formless Realm is also called the Heaven of Mind-Made Beings. Those who have no faith in the teaching concerning the storehouse consciousness do not bring forth this concentration even if they are born in the Formless Realm, because they fear that without form and mind they would fall into annihilation. Those who have faith in the doctrine of the storehouse consciousness, however, can cause this concentration to manifest when born in the Formless Realm, because they know that the storehouse consciousness exists and therefore do not fear annihilation.

– One must entirely abandon the contaminants of the three realms that are abandoned through seeing before this concentration can be brought forth, because ordinary beings cannot subdue and eliminate the mind and mental factors belonging to the Summit of Existence that are abandoned through seeing. Moreover, this subtle and wondrous concentration can be induced only by the subsequently attained wisdom arising after realization of the two kinds of emptiness.

One opinion holds that, with respect to the group of contaminants abandoned through cultivation in the eight lower grounds—the nine grounds excluding the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-Perception—one must entirely abandon all nine grades of the afflictions abandoned through cultivation in the Desire Realm and subdue those of the other seven grounds before this concentration can be brought forth. This is because the seeds of the contaminants of the Desire Realm possess both the unwholesome and the morally indeterminate yet obscured natures, are extremely complex, and strongly obstruct this Concentration of Cessation.

The sutras and treatises state that only non-returners, those beyond learning in the three vehicles, and bodhisattvas can attain this concentration. They may be born, as they wish, into any of the eight higher grounds and can subsequently bring forth this concentration in all of them.

Another opinion holds that one must entirely abandon the contaminants that are abandoned through cultivation in the four lower grounds, and subdue or abandon the contaminants of the other five grounds, before this concentration can first be brought forth. This is because the seeds of the afflictions associated with variable feelings—pain, pleasure, sorrow, and joy—in the four lower grounds strongly obstruct the cultivation of this concentration. According to their aspirations, these practitioners may be born into any of the five higher realms, in all of which this concentration can subsequently be brought forth.

Question: - If merely subduing the contaminants of the lower realms enables this concentration to arise, and one can subsequently be born in a higher realm without regressing even though those contaminants have not been abandoned, how can one abandon the contaminants of the lower realms only after being born in a higher realm?

Answer: - They can be abandoned, and there is no fault in this, just as one who is born in a higher realm can abandon the coemergent afflictions of the manas consciousness belonging to a lower realm. Noble non-returners, because of the strength of their antidotal practice, do not give rise to the manifest afflictions that moisten rebirth at the very moment the consciousness of rebirth is being moistened. Rebirth into the higher realms is moistened only by the seeds of the contaminants, not by their manifest activity.

Although subdued contaminants may or may not arise again through regression, there is no principle whereby one is born in a higher ground merely by subduing the contaminants of a lower realm. Therefore, there is no fault in abandoning the contaminants of a lower realm only after being born in a higher realm.

Some bodhisattvas attained the Concentration of Cessation while still at the stage of the Two Vehicles and only afterward redirected their minds toward the Mahayana. It is hoped that they can bring forth this concentration throughout all Mahayana stages—the three stages of the worthy and the ten stages of the noble ones. If they cannot do so, some must wait until the completion of the Seventh Ground, the Far-Going Ground, before they can permanently subdue all afflictions.

Although they have not yet entirely abandoned the afflictions of the Desire Realm that are abandoned through cultivation while on the Seventh Ground, it is as though they have abandoned them, and they can bring forth this concentration. Thus the Treatise says: “Only after bodhisattvas have entered the Far-Going Ground can they manifestly bring forth the Concentration of Cessation.”

There are also sharp-facultied bodhisattvas who, from the First Ground onward, can permanently subdue all afflictions, just as arhats do. They bring forth this concentration throughout the Ten Grounds, for the sutra says: “Bodhisattvas on the first six grounds can also bring forth the Concentration of Cessation.”

The verse states: “Mindless deep sleep and unconsciousness.” This means that during profound sleep and severe unconsciousness, the first six consciousnesses do not manifest. Because conditions of extreme exhaustion cause the body to become incompatible with the six consciousnesses, this is called profound sleep. Although in profound sleep there is no distinct mental factor of sleep in its own substantial nature, because ordinary sleep gradually becomes similar to that mental factor, it is conventionally called profound sleep.

Again, because conditions such as illness caused by wind and heat cause the body to become incompatible with the first six consciousnesses, the state is called severe unconsciousness. Alternatively, it is said that all such conditions involve a partial deficiency of contact.

Except in the five cases above, mental consciousness always manifests.

Question: - At the very moments of birth and death there is also no mental consciousness. Why, then, is it said that mental consciousness does not manifest only in the five cases above?

– One opinion holds that precisely at the times of death and birth there is likewise no mental consciousness, and that the words “and” and “together with” in the verse make this clear.

Answer: - What they say is incorrect. Why? Because the noble teachings state that there are only six mindless states: the five cases listed above and nirvana without remainder.

Therefore, the times of birth and death are included together as a single case within unconsciousness, because the mind at birth and death is in a state of extreme unconsciousness. Although the words “and” and “together with” are used, they specifically reveal the five mindless states so that they will not be confused with one another. Here it is made clear that, after the six consciousnesses have ceased, they arise again in dependence upon their own seeds within the fundamental consciousness.

Therefore, these five mindless states are not regarded as entry into nirvana without remainder, for after nirvana without remainder the mental consciousness does not arise again.

Among the five mindless states above, ordinary beings may undergo four, excluding the Concentration of Cessation. Noble ones undergo only the final three. Among them, the Tathagata and sovereign bodhisattvas undergo only the very last, the Concentration of Cessation; they do not undergo deep sleep or unconsciousness.

Therefore, among the eight consciousnesses of sentient beings, the eighth and seventh consciousnesses always operate together. If the sixth consciousness arises, then three consciousnesses arise together: the sixth, seventh, and eighth consciousnesses. As for the other five consciousnesses, depending upon the conjunction of conditions, from one to five of them may arise. Thus, four consciousnesses may operate together (namely, the eye-consciousness, mental consciousness, manas, and the eighth consciousness; the arising of ear-consciousness and the others should be understood in the same way), and so on, up to all eight consciousnesses operating together.

This is a brief explanation of the meaning of the consciousnesses arising together.

Question: If many consciousnesses can operate simultaneously within a single sentient being, why is that being spoken of as one sentient being?

Answer: If a sentient being were established according to the number of consciousnesses that arise, then, according to your view, would a person in a mindless state not be a sentient being? Moreover, when a portion of the mind belonging to another realm manifests, why can that person still be spoken of only as a sentient being of their own realm? For example, when someone in the human realm gives rise in the mind to an evil thought belonging to the hell realm, why is that person not called a sentient being of hell, but is still called a human being?

The establishment of a sentient being may, without contradicting reason, be based either upon the life faculty or upon the retributive consciousness, because both the life faculty and the retributive consciousness are continuously present and are each only one, thus constituting one sentient being.

Question: In one body there is only one immediately antecedent condition—that is, within a single body, the preceding moment serves as the condition for the subsequent moment, forming the continuity of one kind of body. How, then, can many consciousnesses operate at the same time?

Answer: Since you already accept that one immediately antecedent condition can give rise to many mental factors in the subsequent moment, why do you not accept that this one immediately antecedent condition can give rise to many primary consciousnesses? Furthermore, who has definitively asserted that there is only one immediately antecedent condition? If it is said that many consciousnesses arise together, one must accept that there are many immediately antecedent conditions.

Moreover, when one wishes to apprehend many objects at the same time and many objects appear, how could they not be apprehended at once? Since the faculties and their objects come into conjunction equally, it is unreasonable to say that one consciousness arises before another. Furthermore, although the nature of the mental factors does not differ, their wholesome and unwholesome types do differ.

Since it is accepted that many mental states may arise together, why not accept that a primary consciousness and mental factors of differing types may also arise simultaneously? Again, just as many waves arise based upon one body of water and many reflections arise based upon one mirror, so too, based upon one primary consciousness, many consciousnesses may arise. Moreover, if it were not accepted that mental consciousness arises together with the five consciousnesses, then the five consciousnesses could not clearly apprehend their respective objects, just as when mental consciousness is distracted and takes as its object something that has long since ceased to exist.

Question: Why is it that only one mental consciousness arises together with the five consciousnesses, yet it can apprehend one or many among forms, sounds, and so forth?

Answer: Just as the eye-consciousness and the other sense consciousnesses can each apprehend one or many objects within their own respective fields, what fault is there in this? The perceiving aspects and objective aspects of the six consciousnesses are each manifold.

Question: Why do consciousnesses of the same type not arise together in a single instant and take the same object?

Answer: With regard to an object, if one consciousness is already capable of clearly apprehending it, the other consciousnesses have no further function.

Question: If so, since the five consciousnesses already clearly apprehend their respective objects, why is it necessary for mental consciousness to arise together with them for those objects to be clearly apprehended?

Answer: The mental consciousness that accompanies the five consciousnesses also assists those five consciousnesses in arising; its sole function is not merely to apprehend clearly the objects taken by the five consciousnesses. Moreover, mental consciousness can clearly cognize the objects of the five consciousnesses in a manner different from the five consciousnesses themselves, and therefore it is not useless. For this reason, the sacred teachings say that mental consciousness possesses discrimination, whereas the five consciousnesses do not.

Question: When many consciousnesses arise together, why are they not associated with one another, as mind and mental factors are mutually associated?

Answer: Because they do not have the same object. Even if they do have the same object, the faculties upon which they depend and the types of consciousness differ from one another. For example, the five consciousnesses depend upon the five faculties, whereas mental consciousness depends only upon the mental faculty; the five consciousnesses are associated with thirty-four mental factors, whereas mental consciousness is associated with fifty-one mental factors. Thus, although the five consciousnesses together with the five faculties may take the same object, they are not mutually associated.

The intrinsic natures of the eight consciousnesses cannot be said to be definitively one, because their modes of activity—their perceiving aspects—the faculties upon which they depend, their objects, and their associated mental factors differ. Moreover, when one consciousness ceases, the others do not cease, and the characteristics of that which perfumes and that which is perfumed differ. Yet they also cannot be said to be definitively different, because the sutras say that the eight consciousnesses are like water and waves, equal and without difference: the eighth consciousness is like the water, while the seven active consciousnesses are like the waves.

If the eight consciousnesses were definitively different, they could not stand in a relationship of cause and effect to one another. The eight consciousnesses are dependently arisen, like an illusion, and have no fixed nature.

As stated above, the distinctions among the characteristics of the consciousnesses are explained according to conventional truth, not according to ultimate truth, for within ultimate truth both mind and words cease. As a verse in the Lankavatara Sutra says:

Mind, manas, and consciousness are eightfold;

Conventionally, their characteristics differ.

Ultimately, their characteristics do not differ;

Both characteristics and that which is characterized are empty.

Above, the characteristics of the three kinds of transforming consciousness have been extensively distinguished; they serve as the basis for the two aspects—the perceiving aspect and the objective aspect—that they transform and manifest. How do we know that, based upon the characteristics transformed by consciousness, self and dharmas are provisionally designated, while that self and those dharmas possess no separate real substance, and that therefore everything is consciousness-only?

The verse says:

These consciousnesses transform,

Into the discriminator and the discriminated.

Because both of these are nonexistent,

Everything is consciousness-only.

The Treatise says: “These consciousnesses” refers to the three transforming consciousnesses and their mental factors, as previously explained. They are all capable of transforming and manifesting what resemble the two aspects, the perceiving aspect and the objective aspect; this is called transformation. The transformed perceiving aspect is called the discriminator because it is capable of cognizing the objective aspect. The transformed objective aspect is called the discriminated because it is the appearance cognized by the perceiving aspect.

By this correct principle, it is known that the self and dharmas apart from the manifestations transformed by consciousness are certainly nonexistent. Apart from the grasper—the perceiving aspect—and the grasped—the objective aspect—no separate thing can be found. There can be no real entity apart from the characteristics of grasper and grasped. Therefore, all conditioned dharmas—form, mind, mental factors, and formations dissociated from mind—and all unconditioned dharmas—such as unconditioned space—whether real, such as form and mind, or provisionally established, such as formations dissociated from mind, are not separate from consciousness.

The word “only” is used merely to exclude real entities existing outside consciousness; it does not also exclude mental factors and other dharmas that are inseparable from consciousness. “Only” excludes external objects as nonexistent, while “consciousness” indicates that mind and mental factors are not nonexistent.

Alternatively, “transformation” means that internal consciousness transforms and manifests appearances resembling a self and dharmas as though they were external objects. That very capacity for transformation is called discrimination, because false discrimination is its intrinsic nature. It is precisely mind and mental factors throughout the three realms.

The objects grasped are called the discriminated—that is, the self and dharmas falsely grasped as truly existent. Because this discriminating nature transforms and produces a provisional self and provisional dharmas resembling external objects, while the real self and real dharmas discriminated and grasped in that way are certainly nonexistent. The teachings and reasoning cited previously have already refuted them. Therefore, everything is consciousness-only, existing solely through false discrimination. This has been conclusively established.

The word “mere” does not exclude dharmas that are not separate from consciousness; thus true emptiness and so forth also exist, yet are not separate from consciousness.

Therefore, by abandoning the two extremes of attachment—over-affirmation and denial—the principle of Consciousness-Only is established in accord with the Middle Way.

Question: By what teachings is the principle of Consciousness-Only established?

Answer: Has this not already been explained?

Question: Although it has been explained, it is not yet clear, for merely refuting the principles of others does not naturally establish one’s own principles. Please present further valid evidence to establish this teaching of Consciousness-Only.

Answer: The sutras say: “The three realms are mind-only.” They also say: “All objects of cognition are manifestations of consciousness alone.” They also say: “All dharmas are not separate from mind.” They further say: “The defilement or purity of sentient beings is due to mind.” They also say: “When bodhisattvas accomplish four kinds of wisdom, they can thereby penetrate the principle of Consciousness-Only, in which there are no external objects.” These four kinds of wisdom are:

1. Wisdom concerning contradictory appearances of consciousness – This is the wisdom that understands the mutually contradictory appearances among different consciousnesses. That is, with regard to the same object, ghosts, humans, and devas, according to their differing karma, perceive it differently (for example, regarding the very same object, ghosts see blood, humans see water, and devas see lapis lazuli). If the object truly existed, why would such differences occur?

2. Wisdom concerning consciousness without an object – This is the wisdom that understands consciousness cognizing where no real object exists. For example, when cognizing images of the past, the future, or objects in dreams, although they are not real objects, consciousness still perceives them as existing. Since those objects do not exist yet are still perceived as existing, the same applies to other objects in the present.

3. Wisdom that the ignorant should naturally be free from error – This is the wisdom that understands that the cognition of ignorant people would naturally be undeluded. If the cognition of ignorant people correctly apprehended real objects, that cognition would naturally be undeluded wisdom, and without exerting themselves in cultivation they would attain liberation. (This means that if self and dharmas truly existed, anyone who perceived the existence of self and dharmas would perceive correctly and without error. If they were already undeluded, they would have no need to cultivate the abandonment of attachment to self in pursuit of liberation.)

4. Wisdom that accords with three kinds of wisdom. These are:

a. Wisdom that accords with the cognition of those who have mastery – Those who have attained mastery of mind can transform earth into water or water into fire according to their wishes. If objects truly existed, how could they be transformed in this way?

b. Wisdom that accords with the cognition of contemplatives – Practitioners of contemplation who have attained excellent samadhi can contemplate a single object and cause many appearances to manifest. If objects truly existed, how could objects be transformed in accordance with mind in this way?

c. Wisdom that accords with nonconceptual wisdom – When nonconceptual wisdom arises and realizes the true principle of suchness, all ordinary objective appearances cease to manifest. If objects truly existed, why would they not manifest at that time?

When bodhisattvas accomplish the four kinds of wisdom stated above, they will certainly penetrate the principle of Consciousness-Only.

Another verse says:

The objects cognized by mind, mentation, and consciousness

Are never separate from the mind’s own nature.

Therefore, I declare that everything

Is consciousness alone and nothing else.

There is more than one such sacred teaching that serves as proof. The commonly accepted visual consciousness and so forth, because each is one of the five consciousnesses, are, like the other consciousnesses, unable directly to cognize anything beyond their own respective sensory objects. The other consciousnesses, because they are consciousnesses, are, like visual consciousness, likewise unable directly to cognize anything beyond their own respective dharmas.

The image portion directly cognized by the six consciousnesses is certainly not separate from the six consciousnesses, because it is included in one of the two portions—the perceiving portion and the image portion—just as is the perceiving portion that cognizes it. The cognized dharma, like the associated dharma (the image portion), is certainly not separate from mind and mental factors.

There is more than one correct teaching that serves as proof of the principle of Consciousness-Only in this way. Therefore, one should deepen one’s faith in and acceptance of the principle of Consciousness-Only: “Self and dharmas do not exist, yet true emptiness and true consciousness, which is capable of cognition, are not nonexistent. Apart from existence and apart from nonexistence, it accords with the Middle Way.” Based upon this principle, the Venerable Maitreya spoke these two verses:

Imaginary discrimination exists

(through imaginary discrimination, the perceiving and image portions exist).

Within it, both are nonexistent

(within the perceiving and image portions, both self and dharmas are nonexistent).

Within this, there is only emptiness

(within those dependently arisen perceiving and image portions, there is only true emptiness devoid of self).

Within that, this also exists

(within true emptiness devoid of self, the dependently arisen perceiving and image portions also exist).

Therefore, all dharmas

(conditioned and unconditioned)

Are said to be neither empty nor not empty

(because the dependent nature exists, they are not empty; because the imagined nature does not exist, they do not exist).

Thus there are both nonexistence and existence;

This accords with the Middle Way.

This verse is spoken solely from the perspective of the defiled aspect of the dependently arisen nature. According to the correct principle, there is also a pure aspect of the dependently arisen nature.

Question: If it is only internal consciousness that manifests appearances resembling external objects, why do sentient and insentient things in the world clearly appear to have determinate places and times, while the continuity and functions of individual bodies are not determinate?

Answer: Dream objects and the like serve as examples to resolve this doubt.

Question: For what reason did the Blessed One teach the twelve ayatanas?

Answer: The twelve ayatanas are manifested in dependence upon consciousness and do not possess a separate, real existence. The Blessed One taught the twelve ayatanas in order to lead people to penetrate the principle of the emptiness of self, just as he taught the continuity of sentient beings in order to prevent attachment to the view of annihilation. Furthermore, in order to lead people to penetrate the principle of the emptiness of dharmas, he taught the principle of Consciousness-Only, enabling them to understand that external dharmas likewise do not truly exist.

Question: Is this nature of Consciousness-Only not likewise nonexistent, just as self and dharmas are?

Answer: It is not.

Question: If it is not, then how should this be understood?

Answer: The nature of consciousness is not a dharma imagined by deluded attachment. That is, self and dharmas are transformations of consciousness; when examined through reasoning, that self and those dharmas are empty and cannot be apprehended, and therefore dharmas are said to be empty. This does not mean that the “nature of Consciousness-Only,” realized by correct, ineffable wisdom, is nonexistent

and is therefore called the emptiness of dharmas. For if this consciousness did not exist, there would be no conventional truth; and if conventional truth did not exist, ultimate truth would likewise not exist, because the ultimate and the conventional are established in dependence upon one another. To deny the existence of the two truths is a pernicious grasping of emptiness; the Buddhas declare those who do so to be incurable. One should therefore understand that dharmas are both empty and not empty. For this reason, the Venerable Maitreya spoke the two verses above.

Question: If forms also take consciousness as their essential nature, why do they appear as a kind of solid and continuous material form?

Answer: This arises through the force of one’s own perfuming by names and expressions, and it serves as the basis for defiled and pure dharmas. That is, if these material appearances did not exist, there would be no deluded and inverted attachment. If there were no deluded and inverted attachment, there would be no defilement, nor would there be any dharma of purity. Therefore, the consciousnesses also manifest appearances resembling form. As a verse says:

The appearance of disorder and the essence of disorder

(the transformed material appearance and the transforming essence of mind)

Should be understood as form-consciousness

(the appearance of disorder)

And non-form-consciousness;

(the essence of disorder)

If one were absent, the other would also be absent

(if this is absent, that is absent).

Question: External objects—forms, sounds, and so forth—are clearly perceived and directly known. Why are they said not to exist?

Answer: At the moment of direct perception, they are not apprehended as things external to consciousness. Only afterward, when mental consciousness arises and discriminates, are they mistakenly imagined to be external. Therefore, the object of direct perception is the consciousness-transformed image portion itself, and it too is said to exist. But when mental consciousness deludedly apprehends it as truly existing external form, that is an imagined existence; hence it is said not to exist.

Moreover, the objects of form, sound, and so forth are not actual forms or sounds, yet they appear to be forms and sounds; they are not outside consciousness, yet they appear to be external. Just as the objects seen in a dream cannot be apprehended as real external objects of form.

Question: If the forms seen while awake are all like objects in a dream and do not exist apart from consciousness, and if, upon awakening from a dream, one immediately knows that those forms were mind-only, why, then, while awake, does one not know that the objects of form one apprehends are consciousness-only?

Answer: Just as one cannot know this while the dream has not yet ended, but must wait until awakening to realize retrospectively that those were objects in a dream, so should it be understood that the objects of form perceived while awake are likewise. Until one reaches the stage of true awakening, one cannot know this; one must wait until true awakening before one can retrospectively realize the nature of objects perceived while awake. Before reaching the stage of true awakening, one is still like a person within a dream. Therefore, the Buddha described this as birth and death throughout the long night; for this reason, the principle that objects of form are consciousness-only has not yet been clearly realized.

Question: Real external forms do not exist and therefore may not be objects of internal consciousness; but other minds—the minds of other persons—really exist. Why, then, are they not the objects apprehended by one’s own consciousness?

Answer: Who says that another’s mind is not an object apprehended by one’s own consciousness? It is only said that it is not directly apprehended. That is, when an appearance-part resembling another’s mind arises within one’s own consciousness, that mind does not actually exercise its function upon the other’s mind.

It is unlike a hand directly grasping an external object or the sun emitting light that reaches and illuminates external objects. Rather, it is only like an image appearing in a mirror as though it were an external object. This is called knowledge of another’s mind, but it is not direct knowledge of it.

What is directly known is the appearance transformed by consciousness. Therefore, a sutra says: “Not even the slightest dharma can directly know another slightest dharma. It is only when consciousness arises and an appearance resembling that object manifests that this is called knowing that object.” Just as this applies when taking another’s mind as an object, so it also applies when taking form and so forth as objects.

Question: Since another person’s mind exists externally as an object-condition for this person’s mind, how can this be called consciousness-only?

Answer: How strange is the nature of obstinate attachment: wherever it turns, it gives rise to doubt! Does the teaching of consciousness-only assert that there is only the consciousness of a single person?

Question: If not, then what does it mean?

Answer: You should listen carefully. If there were only the consciousness of a single person, how could there be ordinary beings and sages throughout the ten directions, differences of honor and inferiority, and distinctions of cause and effect? Who would teach whom? What Dharma would be sought, and by whom? Thus, the statement “consciousness-only” has a profound purport.

“Consciousness” is a general designation revealing that every sentient being possesses eight consciousnesses, the six groups of mental factors, the transformed appearance-part and seeing-part, their distinct states and positions, and suchness revealed through the principle of emptiness. These are the intrinsic nature of consciousness—the mind-kings; that which corresponds with consciousness—the mental factors; the appearances of form transformed by mind and mental factors; the distinct states and positions of consciousness—the non-associated formations; and the true nature of the four dharmas of form, mind, mental factors, and non-associated formations—the unconditioned. Since dharmas such as these are all inseparable from consciousness, they are collectively called consciousness-only.

The word “only” is intended precisely to exclude the ordinary person’s attachment to the definite existence of forms apart from consciousness.

If one clearly understands the purport of the teaching of consciousness-only in this way, one can avoid cognitive inversion, skillfully prepare the provisions for the path, quickly realize and enter the principle of the emptiness of dharmas, attain unsurpassed awakening, and continually rescue sentient beings from the cycle of birth and death. Those who wrongly grasp emptiness, deny everything, and contradict the teachings cannot accomplish such realization and liberation of beings. Therefore, one should firmly believe that everything is consciousness-only.

—If there is only consciousness and absolutely no external conditions, from what do the many discriminations of consciousness arise?

The verse says:

From consciousness containing all seeds,

Transformations occur in such and such ways;

Through their mutually supporting power,

Those various discriminations arise.

Treatise: “Consciousness containing all seeds” refers to the differentiated capacities within the fundamental consciousness that are capable of producing their own fruits. These differentiated capacities produce fruits of homogeneous continuity, maturation, personal agency, and predominance; therefore, it is called “containing all seeds.” The fruit of freedom from bondage—liberation—is excluded, because it is not produced by seeds; it is attained only by relying upon the arising of the undefiled path to eradicate all fetters.

Although the undefiled path arises from undefiled seeds, in relation to the fruit of freedom from bondage it serves only as a successive and indirect condition; this, however, is not the principal meaning expressed in this verse. The verse speaks only of seeds capable of producing discrimination. Because these take the fundamental consciousness as their substance, it is designated the consciousness of seeds, for seeds have no separate intrinsic nature apart from the fundamental consciousness.

The two words “seed-consciousness” distinguish it from what is consciousness but not seed, and from what is seed but not consciousness, for there are things that are consciousness but not seeds, such as manifest consciousness, and things that are seeds but not consciousness, such as ordinary seeds. Moreover, “seed-consciousness” reveals the seeds within the fundamental consciousness; it does not refer merely to the consciousness that grasps and sustains the seeds, as will be explained later.

Assisted by the conditions provided by the various manifest consciousnesses, the seeds within that consciousness transform in such and such ways. That is, they transform from the stage of arising to the stage of maturation. To show that these transformations of the many seeds are numerous, the phrase “such and such” is repeated. This means that all seeds are included within the three kinds of perfuming—verbal designation, attachment to self, and the factors of existence—and within shared seeds, which produce the common environment, and unshared seeds, which produce individual sentient existence. These encompass all the seeds of consciousness.

“Their mutually supporting power” refers to the eight manifest consciousnesses—the eight consciousnesses in active operation—and the appearance-parts and seeing-parts of the mental factors corresponding to them. All possess the power to assist one another. These eight manifest consciousnesses and so forth are collectively called “discrimination,” because manifest consciousness has false discrimination as its intrinsic nature. Discrimination has many kinds: some are mind-kings and some are mental factors. Therefore, the verse says “those various.”

The meaning of this verse is that, although there are no external conditions, the various discriminations arise because all the seeds within the fundamental consciousness undergo differentiated transformations and because of the mutually supporting power of the eight manifest consciousnesses. Why, then, would external conditions be required for discrimination to arise? It should be understood that the arising of all pure dharmas occurs in the same way: they arise through undefiled seeds and manifest undefiled consciousnesses serving as conditions.

—The preceding verse states that both seeds and manifest activities serve as conditions producing discriminating consciousness. How is the character of this conditioned arising to be understood?

—There are four kinds of conditions:

1. Causal condition—This means a conditioned dharma that directly produces its own fruit. There are two kinds: seeds and manifest activities.

Seeds—These are the differentiated capacities within the fundamental consciousness belonging to wholesome, defiled, and morally indeterminate natures, and to the various realms and stages. They are able to bring forth the succeeding capacities of the same kind—seeds producing seeds—and simultaneously give rise to manifest fruits of the same kind—seeds producing manifest activity. Only in relation to these do they have the nature of a causal condition; that is, only seeds producing seeds and seeds producing manifest activity constitute causal conditions.

Manifest activities—These are the seven evolving consciousnesses and their corresponding mental factors, which transform into appearance-parts and seeing-parts, and encompass the three natures, the three realms, the four stages, and so forth. Except for the wholesome dharmas belonging to the Buddha-fruit and morally indeterminate states that are too weak to perfume the fundamental consciousness, all other kinds of manifest activity, such as the seven evolving consciousnesses, can perfume the fundamental consciousness and produce seeds of their own kind. These evolving consciousnesses have the nature of a causal condition only in relation to their seeds of the same kind; that is, manifest activities perfuming and producing seeds also have the nature of a causal condition.

Question: Why is the eighth consciousness unable to perfume, being only that which is perfumed?

Answer: If the mental group of the eighth consciousness were able to perfume, there would be nothing left to serve as that which is perfumed.

Question: How can the three natures, the three realms, and the nine grounds also be able to perfume?

Answer: Because it is not these individually, but rather the self-corroborating part of the consciousness itself, upon which they depend, that is able to perfume.

Question: Why do the wholesome dharmas of the Buddha-fruit and weak neutral dharmas not perfume?

Answer: Because the neutral nature is too weak, while the Buddha-fruit is too perfectly complete; therefore, they do not perfume and form seeds.

Manifest dharmas of the same kind, mutually relating to one another in successive interaction—as when a manifest eye-consciousness relates to another manifest eye-consciousness—are not causes and conditions, because each arises from its own distinct seed. Manifest dharmas of different kinds, mutually relating to one another in successive interaction, are likewise not causes and conditions, because they do not directly produce one another.

– One theory holds that manifest dharmas, whether of the same or different kinds, mutually serve as causes and conditions for one another. It should be understood that this is merely a provisional statement, or a statement made according to the approach that follows conventional doctrine.

– One theory states that only seeds are causes and conditions. This is said in reliance upon the predominant power of seeds—for manifest dharmas and seeds are also causes and conditions—and does not fully express the principle.

– The sacred teachings state that the transforming consciousnesses and the alaya-consciousness mutually serve as causes and conditions for one another.

2. Immediately Antecedent Condition — This means that, among the eight manifest consciousnesses, a preceding group, in relation to a succeeding group of its own kind, equally and without interruption clears the way for the succeeding group to arise.

When many seeds of mind and mental factors of the same kind arise together on a single occasion, if they are not associated, they are not immediately antecedent conditions. Consequently, the eight consciousnesses do not serve as immediately antecedent conditions for one another. Mind and mental factors alone, although they always arise together, are mutually associated and harmoniously united as one; no distinct separation between them can be established. Therefore, they may serve as immediately antecedent conditions for one another.

The final mind that enters nirvana without remainder is extremely weak, lacking the function of clearing the way; moreover, no immediately succeeding dharma will arise. Therefore, it is not included under this immediately antecedent condition.

How is this known? Because the Treatise states: “If a preceding consciousness is equal and uninterrupted, the succeeding consciousness is definitely able to arise.” This means that the preceding consciousness serves as the immediately antecedent condition for the succeeding consciousness. Precisely because of this principle, it is said that the adana-consciousness throughout the three realms and nine grounds can successively serve as an immediately antecedent condition for itself, because death and rebirth between lower and higher realms clear the way for one another.

An uncontaminated mind may arise immediately after a contaminated mind, whereas a contaminated mind definitely does not arise from an uncontaminated mind, because once the great mirror wisdom has arisen, it certainly never ceases. The same applies between the wholesome and the neutral: the neutral maturation consciousness gives rise to the wholesome immaculate consciousness, but the wholesome immaculate consciousness does not give rise to the neutral maturation consciousness.

Question: In which realm does this eighth consciousness subsequently give rise to an uncontaminated mind from a contaminated mind?

Answer: Either in the form realm or in the final body in the desire realm. That is to say, when an ordinary being resolves to seek the Buddha-fruit, after being reborn in the form realm, a contaminated mind will definitely give rise to an uncontaminated mind; thereafter, that being will certainly be born in the Palace of Great Sovereignty among the Pure Abodes and realize bodhi. If arhats of the Two Vehicles turn their minds toward great bodhi, then an uncontaminated mind will definitely arise during their final body in the desire realm, because after turning their minds, the rebirth-body they retain exists only in the desire realm.

Although they will certainly be born in the celestial Palace of Great Sovereignty before attaining Buddhahood, the rebirth-body retained through the power of their original vow remains in the desire realm.

– One view holds that in the form realm there are also sravakas who turn their minds toward the Mahayana and vow to retain their rebirth-bodies. Since this does not contradict the teachings, the uncontaminated eighth consciousness of sravakas may also become manifest at the end of existence in the form realm.

However, noble ones dwelling in the Five Pure Abodes do not turn their minds toward the Mahayana, because no sutra is seen to state that noble ones in the Five Pure Abodes resolve upon the Mahayana.

– The seventh transforming consciousness throughout the three realms and nine grounds can also successively serve as an immediately antecedent condition for itself. Because it follows the eighth consciousness and arises wherever that consciousness is born, contaminated mind, possessing conceptions of self and dharmas, and uncontaminated mind, possessing the wisdom of equality, can also succeed one another, for throughout the ten grounds they give rise to one another.

The same applies between the wholesome and the neutral. Within the neutral, the defiled and undefiled also clear the way for one another, because resultant wisdom concerning the emptiness of beings is elicited successively in earlier and later stages.

Here, in the desire realm and the form realm, a contaminated mind may also give rise to an uncontaminated mind, but this does not occur in the formless realm, because bodhisattvas who have reached the grounds are not born in the formless realm.

– In the sixth transforming consciousness throughout the three realms and nine grounds, contaminated and uncontaminated, wholesome and unwholesome minds, and so forth, each can successively serve as an immediately antecedent condition for another, because at the stage of conditioning rebirth into this realm or that ground, they give rise to one another.

The uncontaminated mind first arises only after birth in the form realm, because the wholesome dharmas belonging to the aids to penetration—the four preparatory stages of warmth, patience, supreme mundane dharmas, and so forth—exist only in the form realm.

The three consciousnesses of the eye, ear, and body exist only in the two realms of desire and form and on the two grounds of the mixed abode of the five destinies and the first dhyana. The two consciousnesses of the nose and tongue exist only in the desire realm and on the ground of the mixed abode of the five destinies. Each consciousness of its own kind successively serves as an immediately antecedent condition for itself. It should be understood that the wholesome and other natures, in relation to one another, likewise possess immediately antecedent conditions.

– One view holds that the contaminated and uncontaminated five consciousnesses, each within its own kind, successively serve as immediately antecedent conditions for one another, because before Buddhahood they may arise successively.

– One view holds that the uncontaminated five consciousnesses may arise after the contaminated five consciousnesses, but the contaminated five consciousnesses do not arise after the uncontaminated five consciousnesses. This is because, apart from a Buddha, no one can possess the uncontaminated five consciousnesses. The five physical faculties of one who is still at the causal stage are necessarily contaminated, being included within the image-part of the maturation consciousness. The five contaminated faculties are the distinct bases of the five consciousnesses and necessarily share the same objects with them. Thus, it is unreasonable that the five contaminated faculties should produce the five uncontaminated consciousnesses, because the five uncontaminated faculties produce the five uncontaminated consciousnesses, which clearly illuminate their objects, whereas the five contaminated faculties produce the five contaminated consciousnesses, which merely apprehend their objects; the two differ.

3. Object Condition — This means that if there is a real dharma possessing an appearance that is borne within cognition, and mind and mental factors rely upon it in order to arise and take it as the object of their contemplation, it is called an object condition. It is of two kinds: 1.

Proximate. 2. Remote. If the image-part and the seeing-part depend upon the same substance and are inseparable, and the image-part is the object contemplated by the seeing-part and its internal basis, it should be understood to be a proximate object condition.

If the original substance, although separate from the seeing-part that apprehends it, is taken as the real basis upon which an image is produced, thereby becoming the object of contemplation and the external basis of the seeing-part, it is a remote object condition.

The proximate object condition, being the appearance within the apprehending mind, is invariably present at all times, because if the apprehending mind were separated from that which is simultaneously its basis and object of contemplation, it could not arise. The remote object condition, however, may or may not be present for an apprehending mind and is therefore not invariable. This is because even in the absence of an external object serving as its basis and object, the apprehending mind may still arise.

– Regarding the eighth mind-group: One view holds that it has only an immediate object-condition, because, in accordance with the power of co-arisen karmic causes, it spontaneously transforms and manifests an image-part which it takes as its object; it need not rely upon an external substance before transforming it into an object.

– One view holds that the eighth consciousness also has an objective object-condition, because it must rely upon a substance transformed by another before it can take that as a basis, transform an image-part, and apprehend it.

– One view holds that both theories above are unreasonable, because one's own body, the bodies of others, one's own land, and the lands of others can all be mutually experienced and enjoyed. This is because a body or land transformed by another person's eighth consciousness can serve as the substance apprehended by oneself. One's own seeds, however, are of no use to another, and it would be unreasonable to say that one also transforms and manifests another person's seeds, because not all sentient beings possess identical seeds.

– Therefore, whether or not the eighth mind-group (comprising the mind and its mental factors) has an objective object-condition is not invariably determined in every case.

The seventh mind-group (comprising the manas mind and its mental factors), while in the stage before transformation of the basis, is innately attached to self and dharmas. It must therefore rely upon the perception-part of the eighth consciousness as an external substance before it can arise; hence, it certainly has an objective object-condition. At the stage of transformation of the basis, however, it has no objective object-condition, because when it takes suchness as its object, there is no external substance.

– The sixth mind-group (comprising consciousness and its mental factors) has keen and forceful modes of activity and arises freely under all circumstances. The external substance upon which it relies may be present or absent; therefore, whether it has an objective object-condition is not invariably determined.

– The mind-groups of the first five consciousnesses, while in the stage before transformation of the basis, are coarse, dull, and weak. Because they must rely upon an external substance to apprehend an object, they certainly have an objective object-condition. Once they have reached the stage of transformation of the basis, however, whether they have an objective object-condition is not invariably determined, because at that time they can apprehend past and future dharmas that have no external substance.

4. Predominant condition - This means that if a dharma possesses a particularly powerful force or function that can either accord with or oppose another dharma, it is called a predominant condition. The preceding three conditions are also predominant conditions, but this fourth condition is a general designation for all conditions remaining outside the preceding three. This is the distinction among the four conditions.

The force and function of a predominant condition may accord with or oppose the four distinct processes of arising, abiding, accomplishment, and attainment.

Although the functions of predominant conditions in relation to phenomena are numerous, the most evident are only twenty-two, namely, the twenty-two faculties: the five material faculties—eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body; the male faculty, female faculty, and life faculty; the five faculties of feeling—pain, pleasure, sorrow, joy, and equanimity; the five wholesome faculties—faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom; and the three undefiled faculties—the faculty of one who is yet to know what should be known, the faculty of one who knows, and the faculty of one who has complete knowledge.

Among these, the five material faculties take as their intrinsic nature the pure material faculties of the eye, ear, and so forth, manifested through transformation by the fundamental consciousness. The male and female faculties take a portion of the body faculty as their intrinsic nature. The life faculty has no separate intrinsic nature; it is provisionally established on the basis of the phase of the seeds in the fundamental consciousness that engender the body.

The mental faculty takes all eight consciousnesses together as its intrinsic nature. The five faculties of feeling each take their respective experience as their nature. The five faculties of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom take faith and so forth, together with wholesome states of mindfulness, as their nature.

The faculty of “one who is yet to know what should be known” has three levels:

a. The fundamental level: At the stage of the path of seeing, the faculty of one who is yet to know what should be known is present in the first fifteen moments of mind, except in the sixteenth moment, when it is absent, for the sixteenth moment belongs to the faculty of one who knows and there is no longer anything yet unknown that is to be known.

b. The preparatory level: This is the stage of the four preparatory practices—Warmth, Summit, Patience, and the Highest Mundane Dharma—which can most directly lead to the fundamental level above.

c. The provisions level: From the time one seeks to see the Four Noble Truths, cultivates direct contemplation, and gives rise to supremely excellent wholesome dharmas, until one has not yet attained the aids conducive to discernment belonging to the preparatory stage, the wholesome roots acquired during this period are called the provisions level, because these wholesome roots can remotely assist in producing the fundamental level.

The nine faculties of faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, mind, joy, pleasure, and equanimity present within these three levels are collectively taken as the intrinsic nature of the faculty of one who is yet to know what should be known. At the preparatory and provisions levels in particular, when one experiences sorrow while seeking to realize a superior wholesome dharma later on, the faculty of sorrow is also included in its intrinsic nature. However, because the faculty of sorrow is not a principal wholesome faculty, it is generally not counted.

Those abiding in the first three Formless states—Infinite Space, Infinite Consciousness, and Nothingness—who possess this faculty of one who is yet to know what should be known do so because, while in the Fourth Dhyana, they attained the supreme path of seeing and additionally cultivated the three Formless concentrations. Alternatively, followers of the Two Vehicles who turn their minds toward the Mahayana, wishing to realize the emptiness of dharmas, also give rise, before entering the Ten Grounds, to undefiled knowledge of the emptiness of persons, which is included among the nine grounds of the three realms.

All these bodhisattvas are included under the faculty of one who is yet to know what should be known. Bodhisattvas on the path of seeing also possess this faculty, but it is described as belonging to the stages preceding the grounds because the period of seeing is very brief.

Beginning with the final moment of the path of seeing and continuing through the vajra-like samadhi—the final mind-moment of an anagamin and the final mind-moment of a bodhisattva at Equal Enlightenment are both called vajra-like samadhi—the nine undefiled faculties, such as faith and diligence, are all the nature of the faculty of one who knows. For one who has not yet abandoned desire and experiences sorrow while seeking to realize a higher liberation, the faculty of sorrow is additionally included. However, because this faculty of sorrow is not a principal wholesome faculty, it is generally not counted.

For those beyond training who fully possess the nine undefiled faculties, these are all the intrinsic nature of the faculty of complete knowledge. (The faculty of complete knowledge likewise takes the nine undefiled faculties as its intrinsic nature.)

Although contemplation of undefiled dharmas occurs at the Summit of Existence, it is not clear and keen; therefore, it does not belong to these three undefiled faculties.

Such are the intrinsic natures of the twenty-two faculties. As for the other doctrinal categories pertaining to the twenty-two faculties, they should be understood as explained in the Treatise.

(End of Fascicle Seven of the Chinese text)

Notes:

(33). - The category of associated mental factors - The sixth consciousness is associated with all fifty-one mental factors: the five omnipresent factors, the five object-determining factors, the eleven wholesome factors, the six fundamental afflictions, the twenty secondary afflictions, and the four indeterminate factors. The five consciousnesses are associated with thirty-four mental factors: the five omnipresent factors, the five object-determining factors, the eleven wholesome factors, the two intermediate secondary afflictions, the eight major secondary afflictions, and greed, hatred, and delusion.

All minds and mental factors are dependently arisen dharmas. They are related to many aspects; therefore, after the Treatise explains the names and meanings of the minds and mental factors, it further distinguishes their other interrelations, calling these the various categories of analysis. These include the category of establishing names according to objects, the category of what is innately arisen or arises through discrimination, the category of association within the same class, the category of arising together with the consciousnesses, the category of association with the feelings, the category of the three natures, the category of training, and so forth.