成唯識論

XVIII. THE THREE NON-NATURES

If there are three natures, why did the Blessed One say, “All dharmas are without self-nature”?

The verse says:

Precisely based upon these three natures,

Those three non-natures are established.

Therefore, with “hidden intent,” the Buddha said:

“All dharmas are without nature.”

The first is non-nature of characteristics;

The next, non-nature of natural arising.

The last, through separation from the former nature,

Which is the nature that grasps self and dharmas.

This is the ultimate meaning of all dharmas,

And is also precisely suchness.

Because it is always such in its nature,

It is the true nature of Consciousness-only.

The Treatise says: Precisely based upon the foregoing three natures, the subsequent three non-natures are established: the non-nature of characteristics, the non-nature of arising, and the non-nature of ultimate meaning. Therefore, with “hidden intent,” the Buddha said, “All dharmas are without self-nature”; he did not say that “nature” is altogether nonexistent.

In the verse, the words “hidden intent” indicate that this statement was not made according to the ultimate meaning. That is, although the latter two natures—the other-dependent nature and the perfectly accomplished nature—may not be nonexistent, ignorant people falsely superimpose upon them a truly existent nature of self and a truly existent nature of dharmas. This very false grasping is called the imagined nature.

To eliminate this false grasping, the Blessed One spoke collectively of the “existence” of the other-dependent and perfectly accomplished natures and the “nonexistence” of the imagined nature as “non-nature.”

– How are those three non-natures established based upon these three natures?

– Based upon the first, the imagined nature, the “non-nature of characteristics” is established, because its essential characteristics are entirely nonexistent, like illusory flowers in empty space.

Based upon the second, the other-dependent nature, the “non-nature of arising” is established. Because the other-dependent arises in dependence upon conditions, like an illusion, and does not possess a natural nature such as falsely discriminating cognition grasps, it is provisionally said to have the “non-nature of arising”; this does not mean that the other-dependent nature is altogether nonexistent.

Based upon the last, the perfectly accomplished nature, the “non-nature of ultimate meaning” is established. That is, this very ultimate meaning, because it is separated from the previously mentioned imagined nature that grasps self and dharmas, is provisionally said to be the “non-nature of ultimate meaning”; this does not mean that the “nature of ultimate meaning” is altogether nonexistent. It is like empty space: although it pervades all forms, it is revealed through the absence of nature in those forms.

Although the other-dependent is not ultimate meaning, it too may be called the non-nature of ultimate meaning. Yet, to avoid confusing it with the second, the other-dependent nature, this is not stated here. (The other-dependent is not described as the non-nature of ultimate meaning; it is only said that the “non-nature of arising” is established based upon the other-dependent.)

This perfectly accomplished nature is precisely the supreme meaning of all dharmas, the ultimate truth of all dharmas.

In brief, however, there are four kinds of ultimate truth:

1. The worldly ultimate truth: the five skandhas, twelve ayatanas, eighteen dhatus, and so forth.

2. The ultimate truth of principle: the Four Noble Truths.

3. The ultimate truth of realization: suchness revealed by the two kinds of emptiness.

4. The ultimate truth of ultimate meaning: the one true dharmadhatu.

The term “ultimate meaning” stated in the verse refers to the fourth ultimate meaning, because this is the principle of the most excellent factors of the path that are cultivated and realized. The verse therefore uses these words to distinguish it from the first three kinds of ultimate meaning.

This ultimate meaning of all dharmas is also precisely suchness. “True” means genuine, indicating that it is not false; “suchness” means eternally thus, indicating that it does not change. That is, its true nature, throughout all stages, is always such in its nature—unchanging while responding to conditions—and is therefore called suchness. It is precisely the meaning of tranquil freedom from falsity.

The word “also” in the verse indicates that ultimate meaning has many other names, such as dharmadhatu, true limit, and so forth, as extensively explained according to their meanings in the treatises.

This ultimate meaning is precisely the true nature of Consciousness-only. In brief, the nature of Consciousness-only is of two kinds:

– First is the false nature, namely, the imagined nature.

– Second is the true nature, namely, the perfectly accomplished nature. To distinguish it from the false, it is called the true nature.

There are also two natures:

1. The conventional, namely, the other-dependent nature.

2. The ultimate, namely, the perfectly accomplished nature. To distinguish it from the conventional, it is called the true nature.

Taken together, the three verses above reveal that when the scriptures speak of “non-nature,” they do not speak according to the final, true meaning. The wise should not rely upon those statements to deny that all dharmas possess any self-nature whatsoever.

XIX. THE FIVE STAGES OF CULTIVATION AND REALIZATION

– The characteristics and nature of Consciousness-only have thus been established. Who enters them? Through how many stages? And how is entry attained?

– Those who possess both kinds of Mahayana lineage gradually enter through five stages.

What are the two kinds of Mahayana lineage? They are:

a. The lineage naturally present from the beginning: the uncontaminated causal seeds of dharmas that are naturally present according to the nature of things and, since beginningless time, have depended upon the root consciousness.

b. The lineage formed through perfuming: by hearing the True Dharma that flows forth from the impartial dharmadhatu, reflecting after hearing, cultivating after reflecting, and thereby being perfumed until the lineage is formed.

Only by possessing both Mahayana lineages can one gradually pass through the five stages and enter Consciousness-only.

– What are the five stages of entry into Consciousness-only?

1. The stage of provisions—cultivating that which accords with the factor of liberation (nirvana) in the Mahayana.

2. The stage of preparatory practice—cultivating that which accords with the factor of decisive discernment (the path of seeing) in the Mahayana.

3. The stage of thorough realization—the bodhisattvas who abide at the stage of the path of seeing.

4. The stage of cultivation—the bodhisattvas who abide at the stage of the path of cultivation.

5. The ultimate stage—abiding at the stage of unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment.

– How does one gradually enter Consciousness-only?

Regarding the principle of the characteristics and nature of Consciousness-only, the bodhisattvas possess profound faith and understanding during the stage of provisions. During the stage of preparatory practice, they gradually subdue and eliminate the grasped and the grasper, and thereby gradually give rise to the wisdom of the true path of seeing. During the stage of thorough realization, they thoroughly realize, just as it truly is, the principle of the characteristics and nature of Consciousness-only. During the stage of cultivation, in accordance with the principle they have thoroughly realized, they repeatedly cultivate to subdue and eradicate the obstructions. Upon reaching the ultimate stage,

they transcend all obstructions and attain complete illumination. Throughout all future time, they teach and transform sentient beings, enabling those who study likewise to enter the characteristics and nature of Consciousness-only.

XX. THE STAGE OF PROVISIONS

– First, what are the characteristics of the stage of provisions?

The verse says:

Until the consciousness has not yet arisen

That seeks to abide in the nature of Consciousness-only,

The latent tendencies of the two graspings

Still cannot be subdued and eliminated.

The Treatise says: From the time the profound and steadfast aspiration for great bodhi is aroused until the consciousness that accords with the factor of decisive discernment at the stage of preparatory practice has not yet arisen, one single-mindedly seeks to abide in the true ultimate nature of Consciousness-only. Everything throughout this period belongs to the stage of provisions. Because one directs the mind toward unsurpassed, perfect enlightenment, cultivates all kinds of excellent provisions, and diligently seeks liberation for the sake of sentient beings, this is also called that which accords with the factor of liberation.

Bodhisattvas at this stage still rely upon four excellent powers: inner causes, spiritual friends, proper attention, and provisions. Thus, although they possess profound faith and understanding regarding the principle of Consciousness-only, they are not yet able to clearly understand that both the grasper and the grasped are empty. Because they mostly still abide at the outer gate—the level of phenomenal characteristics—while cultivating bodhisattva practices, they do not yet possess the strength to subdue and eliminate the latent tendencies of the two graspings and prevent the manifest activity of those two graspings from arising.

In the verse, “the two graspings” refers precisely to the two kinds of attachment concerning grasper and grasped: attachment to the apprehending aspect, the subjective grasper, and attachment to the appearance aspect, the object grasped. The habitual seeds of the two graspings are called the latent tendencies of the two graspings. They accompany sentient beings and lie dormant in the store consciousness, or follow sentient beings and increase their delusions and faults; hence they are called latent tendencies. These are also precisely the seeds of the obstruction of the knowable and the afflictive obstruction.

The afflictive obstruction is the satkayadrsti—the view of a real self, or the view of the self in the body—that accords with the imagined nature. This view stands foremost among the 128 fundamental afflictions and the derivative afflictions that issue forth in resemblance to it. They all disturb and torment the bodies and minds of sentient beings and obstruct nirvana; therefore, they are called the afflictive obstruction.

The obstruction of the knowable is the satkayadrsti that apprehends dharmas as truly existent—the view of a self in dharmas. This view stands foremost among views, doubt, ignorance, craving, anger, pride, and so forth. These obscure the undistorted nature of objects of knowledge and obstruct bodhi; therefore, they are called the obstruction of the knowable.

This obstruction of the knowable is definitely not associated with the eighth consciousness, the maturation consciousness, because that consciousness is exceedingly subtle and weak; because it is not associated with ignorance or discriminative wisdom, whereas the obstruction of the knowable is ignorance and inferior wisdom; and because that consciousness also arises together with the qualities belonging to the wisdom of the emptiness of dharmas.

Among the seven evolving consciousnesses, the obstruction of the knowable is present in greater or lesser measure as appropriate, just like the afflictive obstruction.

Because the five consciousnesses—eye, ear, and so forth—do not possess a discriminating nature, they are not associated with the views, doubts, and so forth arising from attachment to dharmas. Apart from views and doubts, however, the other afflictions, being elicited by the power of the mental consciousness, are all present in the five consciousnesses.

This obstruction of the knowable is associated only with unwholesome and morally indeterminate states of mind. The treatise says: “Ignorance, as the obstruction of the knowable, is only unwholesome or morally indeterminate in nature,” because delusion, which is unwholesome, and non-delusion, which is wholesome, are incompatible.

Within the afflictive obstruction there is certainly the obstruction of the knowable, because the afflictive obstruction necessarily relies upon the obstruction of the knowable as its basis.

The substances of the two obstructions are not different, but their functions differ. Therefore, these two kinds of latent tendencies are eliminated earlier or later according to whether the power of the noble path is stronger or weaker.

Among the four kinds of unobscured, morally indeterminate states—deportment, craftsmanship, transformation, and maturation—this obstruction of the knowable belongs to those born of maturation. The morally indeterminate states of deportment and the others are too feeble in substance and function to obscure objects of knowledge and obstruct bodhi. The obstruction of the knowable is described as unobscured in relation to practitioners of the Two Vehicles; in relation to bodhisattvas, however, the obstruction of the knowable is also obscured.

– If the obstruction of the knowable includes views, doubts, and so forth, why do the sutras say that the seeds of the obstruction of the knowable constitute the ground of abiding in ignorance?

– Because ignorance predominates within the obstruction of the knowable, it is collectively called ignorance; this does not mean that views and doubts are absent. Similarly, among the seeds of the afflictive obstruction, those belonging to erroneous views are designated the ground of abiding in views and craving, while those belonging to the Desire, Form, and Formless Realms are designated respectively the ground of abiding in sensual craving, the ground of abiding in craving for form, and the ground of abiding in craving for existence. This does not mean that pride, ignorance, and so forth are absent from those grounds of abiding.

Of these two obstructions, those that arise through discrimination are included among what is abandoned on the path of seeing; those that arise spontaneously, being innate, are included among what is abandoned on the path of cultivation.

Practitioners of the Two Vehicles can eliminate only the afflictive obstruction; bodhisattvas alone can eliminate both obstructions. Yet only the noble path of the ten bhumis can permanently eliminate the seeds of both obstructions. Even the contaminated paths cultivated before entering the bhumis, however, can suppress the manifest activity of both obstructions.

Although bodhisattvas dwelling at this stage of accumulation can suppress the coarse portion of the manifest activity of the two obstructions, they cannot yet subdue and eliminate the subtle portion of their manifest activity or the two obstructions’ latent tendencies, because the power of calm abiding and insight remains weak.

Although at this stage of accumulation they have not yet realized the nature of suchness as Consciousness-Only, by relying upon the power of superior understanding and cultivating the excellent practices—the six paramitas—they are also included within the stage of practice through understanding.

– What are the characteristics of the excellent practices cultivated here?

– In brief, there are two kinds: merit and wisdom. Among the excellent practices, those whose nature is wisdom are called wisdom, while the remainder are called merit. Considered in their general characteristics, all six paramitas include both merit and wisdom. Considered in their particular characteristics, the first five paramitas are merit, while the sixth paramita is wisdom. Alternatively, the first paramita alone is merit, the last paramita alone is wisdom, and the two paramitas of diligence and meditative concentration encompass both merit and wisdom.

– There are also two kinds: benefiting oneself and benefiting others. When excellent practices are cultivated, all of them encompass both benefit for oneself and benefit for others, according to the strength of one’s aspiration.

Considered according to their distinguishing characteristics, the six paramitas and the factors conducive to bodhi are all included among practices benefiting oneself, while the four means of embracing others, the four immeasurable minds, and so forth are all included among practices benefiting others. Such cultivated practices are numerous and boundless; all are excellent practices cultivated at this stage of accumulation.

Although the two obstructions have not yet been subdued and eliminated at this stage of accumulation, when cultivating excellent practices, even though three causes of regression may arise, one can use three means to temper one’s mind, making it courageous and preventing regression from cultivation and realization. These three are:

1. Upon hearing that unsurpassed perfect enlightenment is vast and profound, one’s mind may immediately shrink back. One then recalls others who have cultivated and realized great bodhi in order to temper one’s mind, make it courageous, and prevent further regression.

2. Upon hearing that the paramita of generosity and the others are extremely difficult to practice, one’s mind may immediately regress. One then steadfastly awakens one’s own aspiration and delight in being able to cultivate generosity and the other practices, thereby tempering one’s mind, making it courageous, and preventing further regression.

3. Upon hearing that the perfectly accomplished fruit of transformation of the basis attained by all Buddhas is exceedingly difficult to realize, one’s mind may immediately shrink back. One then compares the coarse and shallow virtues of others with the extraordinary causes cultivated by oneself, thereby tempering one’s mind, making it courageous, and preventing it from shrinking back.

Through these three means, one tempers one’s mind in the cultivation of the excellent practices.

XXI. THE STAGE OF PREPARATORY PRACTICE

– Second, what are the characteristics of the stage of preparatory practice?

The verse says:

One establishes a small object before oneself,

And considers it the nature of Consciousness-Only.

Because there is still something attained,

One does not yet truly abide in Consciousness-Only.

The treatise says: During the first of the incalculable eons, the bodhisattva first skillfully prepares the provisions of merit and wisdom and fulfills the practices conducive to liberation. Wishing then to advance, enter the path of seeing, and abide in the nature of Consciousness-Only, the bodhisattva next cultivates the four preparatory practices to suppress and eliminate the two graspings. These are Heat, Summit, Receptivity, and the Highest Mundane Dharma. These four are collectively called the aids to decisive discernment. Because they accord with and lead toward true decisive discernment and are close to the path of seeing, they are designated preparatory practices. This does not mean that there are no preparatory practices at the preceding stage of accumulation.

The four dharmas of Heat, Summit, Receptivity, and the Highest Mundane Dharma are established in successive order on the basis of the four investigations and the four knowledges in accordance with reality.

The four investigations—searching and examining—are investigation of names, investigation of meanings, investigation of intrinsic nature, and investigation of distinctions. All four are merely provisionally existent and are not real.

To know thoroughly, in accordance with reality, that these four—names, meanings, and so forth—do not exist apart from consciousness, and that the consciousness that apprehends them also does not exist apart from those four aspects, so that both grasper and grasped are empty: this is called knowledge in accordance with reality. Because the characteristics of names and meanings differ, they are investigated separately; because the intrinsic natures and distinctions of names and meanings have the same characteristics, they are investigated together.

– Relying on the concentration that attains illumination, one gives rise to the lower level of investigative contemplation and observes that the characteristics of the apprehended do not exist; this is established as the “Stage of Warmth.” That is, at this stage one contemplates the four apprehended dharmas—name, meaning, intrinsic nature, and differentiation—and sees that they are all transformations manifested by one’s own mind, provisionally designated as existent, but in reality nothing can be apprehended. Because one first attains the initial luminous characteristic of the sun of wisdom, this concentration is specifically called “attaining illumination.” Since one attains the initial sign of the fire of the Path—the sign of warmth—it is also called Warmth.

– Relying on the concentration that increases illumination, one gives rise to the higher level of investigative contemplation and observes that the apprehended does not exist; this is established as the “Stage of the Summit.” That is, at this stage one still contemplates the four dharmas—name, meaning, intrinsic nature, and differentiation—and sees that they are all transformations manifested by one’s own mind, provisionally designated as existent, but in reality nothing can be apprehended. The luminous characteristic of the fire of wisdom gradually grows brighter, and hence this is called the “increase of illumination.” Because this is the culmination of the stage of investigative contemplation, it is called the Summit.

– Relying on the concentration of confirming conformity, one gives rise to the lower level of wisdom in accord with reality, decisively confirms and retains the “nonexistence of the apprehended,” and also conformingly delights in and accepts the “nonexistence of the apprehender.” Since there is no real object apart from the apprehending consciousness, how could there be a real consciousness apart from the apprehended object? The apprehended and the apprehender exist only in mutual dependence. Confirmation, conformity, and acceptance are collectively called acceptance. Because one first confirms the “nonexistence of the apprehended” and afterward conforms to the “nonexistence of the apprehender,” this is called “confirming conformity.” Since one accepts that both object and consciousness are empty, it is also called Acceptance.

– Relying on the uninterrupted concentration, one gives rise to the higher level of wisdom in accord with reality and confirms that both modes of apprehension are nonexistent; this is established as the “Foremost Mundane Dharma.” That is, the preceding higher level of acceptance confirmed only the “nonexistence of the apprehender,” whereas this Foremost Mundane Dharma confirms the nonexistence of both. From this point onward, proceeding continuously and without interruption, one will certainly enter the Path of Seeing, and hence it is called “uninterrupted.” Among the dharmas of ordinary beings, this is the most supreme of all, and hence it is called the Foremost Mundane Dharma.

Thus, at the stages of Warmth and the Summit, relying on the apprehending consciousness, one contemplates the apprehended object as empty. When the lower level of acceptance arises, one confirms the empty characteristic of the object. When one advances and gives rise to the middle level of acceptance, one also sees that the apprehending consciousness is empty like the object and can conformingly delight in and accept this. When the higher level of acceptance arises, one confirms the nonexistence of the apprehender. Upon reaching the Foremost Mundane Dharma, one confirms that both apprehender and apprehended are nonexistent.

Nevertheless, at the preceding stages one still perceives a characteristic of “emptiness” to be realized and therefore has not yet realized reality. Thus it is said that a bodhisattva at this stage still sets up some slight thing before the mind and regards it as the ultimate nature of Consciousness-Only. This is because the two characteristics of emptiness and existence have not yet been eliminated, and one still contemplates the mind while bearing characteristics and still has something to attain. Therefore, one does not truly abide in true Consciousness-Only. Only when those characteristics have ceased does one truly abide therein. In accordance with this meaning, the verse says:

The bodhisattva, abiding in concentration,

Contemplates images as mind alone.

When the characteristics of meanings have been eliminated,

One thoroughly contemplates only one’s own cognition.

Thus abiding within the mind,

One knows the “apprehended” does not exist.

Then knowing the “apprehender” is also nonexistent,

One afterward realizes nonattainment.

At this Stage of Preparatory Practice, one has not yet eliminated bondage to the characteristics of existence and emptiness, and therefore cannot yet sever the bondage of the two kinds of obstructive coarseness. One can only suppress the active manifestations of the two discriminatively arisen obstructions, because their active manifestations oppose the Path of Seeing. As for the active manifestations of the two innately arisen obstructions and the latent tendencies of both obstructions, because the mind is still contaminated and its contemplation still involves attainment and discrimination, they have not yet been completely suppressed or entirely severed.

At this stage, the bodhisattva studies and contemplates both the established truths—the Four Noble Truths—and the unestablished truth—the true suchness of the twofold emptiness—in order to induce the future arising of the two modes of seeing, the true Path of Seeing and the representational Path of Seeing, and to suppress the two discriminatively arisen obstructions. The unestablished truth is the principal object contemplated for bodhi; this differs from the Two Vehicles, which contemplate only the established truths.

When bodhisattvas give rise to wholesome roots such as Warmth and the Summit while cultivating skillful means, these roots can indeed be developed in all the dhyana realms, but they must rely on the fourth dhyana to reach perfection, because it is by relying on the most excellent state that one enters the Path of Seeing. Moreover, these wholesome roots arise only in a human body in the Desire Realm. In the other realms, the minds of wisdom and disenchantment are inferior, making these roots difficult to develop.

This Stage of Preparatory Practice is also included within the stage of resolution through practice, because one has not yet realized the true ultimate meaning of Consciousness-Only.

XXII. THE STAGE OF PENETRATING INSIGHT

– Third is the Stage of Penetrating Insight. What are its characteristics?

The verse says:

When, regarding the object of cognition,

Wisdom has nothing whatsoever to attain,

At that time one abides in Consciousness-Only,

For one is free from both characteristics of apprehension.

The Treatise says: When a bodhisattva’s nonconceptual wisdom has absolutely nothing to attain with regard to its object of cognition and does not apprehend any characteristics of conceptual proliferation, only then is it called truly abiding in the true ultimate nature of Consciousness-Only; that is, realizing true suchness. Wisdom and true suchness are equal and both are free from the characteristics of apprehender and apprehended, because apprehender and apprehended are both characteristics of conceptual proliferation manifested by a discriminating mind that conceives something to be attained.

– Some maintain that this wisdom has neither the seeing division nor the objective division, because it is said to be without the characteristics of apprehended and apprehender.

– Some maintain that this wisdom possesses both the objective division and the seeing division, because wisdom arises bearing the characteristic of true suchness, which is called cognizing that characteristic. If it could be called cognizing the characteristic of true suchness without needing to possess that characteristic of true suchness, then wisdom cognizing form should also be wisdom cognizing sound. Furthermore, without a seeing division, cognition would be impossible; how then could it be called wisdom that cognizes true suchness? It cannot be held that the nature of true suchness, though not the seeing division, may nevertheless be called the cognizer. Therefore, it should be accepted that this wisdom certainly possesses a seeing division.

– Some maintain that this wisdom has a seeing division but no objective division, because when it is said to lack an apprehensible characteristic, this means that it does not apprehend characteristics. Although it possesses a seeing division, it is nonconceptual and therefore is said not to be an apprehender; it does not mean that the apprehending capacity is entirely absent. Although it has no objective division, this wisdom may be said to arise bearing the characteristic of true suchness, for it is not separate from true suchness. It is like the self-cognizing division cognizing the seeing division: it cognizes without transforming an objective division. The same is true here. To cognize through a transformed objective division is not direct realization, as in the case of subsequently attained wisdom, which involves discrimination. Therefore, it should be accepted that the fundamental wisdom realizing true suchness has a seeing division but no objective division.

Through continuous and uninterrupted cultivation of the preparatory practices, when this nonconceptual wisdom arises, one directly comprehends true suchness; this is called the Stage of Penetrating Insight. Because one first begins to illuminate true principle, it is also called the Path of Seeing.

– This Path of Seeing is briefly of two kinds:

– The first is the true Path of Seeing. This is precisely the nonconceptual wisdom discussed here. It directly realizes the true principle revealed by the twofold emptiness and actually severs the latent seeds of the two discriminatively arisen obstructions. Although the mind passes through many moments before this work is completed, because the earlier and later moments resemble one another, they are collectively called a single mind.

– Some maintain that in this true Path of Seeing, the twofold emptiness is realized gradually and the two obstructions are severed gradually, because they differ in shallowness and profundity, coarseness and subtlety.

– Some maintain that in this true Path of Seeing, the twofold emptiness is realized all at once and the two obstructions are severed all at once, because the power of one’s aspiration possesses the capacity to accomplish this.

– The second is the representational Path of Seeing. This is again of two kinds:

1. Contemplation of the unestablished truth through three grades of mind:

a. The inner cognition that removes the disorder of taking conceptualized sentient beings as its object is capable of severing the weaker portion of the discriminative latent afflictions.

b. The inner cognition that removes the disorder of taking conceptualized dharmas as its object is capable of severing the intermediate portion of the discriminative latent afflictions.

c. The universal cognition that removes all disorders of taking conceptualized sentient beings and dharmas as its objects is capable of severing all discriminative latent afflictions.

The first two cases are called “cognition of dharmas,” because they separately take the inner body and inner dharmas as their objects. The third case is called “subsequent cognition,” because it takes them together as its objects.

This is established in imitation of the true path of seeing, wherein the seeing aspect takes the “twofold emptiness” as its object and itself severs the two obstructions through the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation. Because it takes them separately and collectively as its objects, it is designated the representational path of seeing.

– Some hold that all three cognitions above belong to the true path of seeing, because the representational path of seeing takes the Four Noble Truths as its objects and does not contemplate the unestablished truth.

– Some hold that these three cognitions belong to the representational path of seeing, because the true path of seeing does not take individual objects separately.

2. Taking the established truths—the Four Noble Truths—as its objects, there are sixteen mental moments. These are again of two kinds:

a. On the basis of contemplating the apprehended and the apprehender, the dharma cognitions and subsequent cognitions are separately established, comprising sixteen mental moments. That is, contemplation of the Truth of Suffering has four mental moments:

– Receptivity to the cognition of the dharma of suffering: this is the contemplation of the true-suchness nature of the Truth of Suffering throughout the three realms, directly severing the twenty-eight kinds of discriminative latent afflictions that are abandoned upon seeing the Truth of Suffering in the three realms.

– Cognition of the dharma of suffering: immediately and without interruption after that receptivity to the cognition of the dharma of suffering, it contemplates the true-suchness nature of the Truth of Suffering as before and realizes liberation from the afflictions previously severed.

– Receptivity to the subsequent cognition of suffering: immediately and without interruption after the preceding cognition of the dharma of suffering, undefiled wisdom arises and inwardly realizes both the receptivity to the dharma and the cognition of the dharma separately. All noble dharmas following this receptivity to the dharma and cognition of the dharma are included in this category.

– Subsequent cognition of suffering: immediately and without interruption after that receptivity to the subsequent cognition of suffering, undefiled cognition arises and carefully confirms and approves the preceding receptivity to the subsequent cognition.

Just as the Truth of Suffering has four mental moments, it should be understood that the Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Truth of Cessation, and the Truth of the Path likewise each have four mental moments.

Among these sixteen mental moments, the eight belonging to receptivity to the dharma and cognition of the dharma contemplate true suchness, while the eight belonging to subsequent receptivity and subsequent cognition contemplate correct cognition. They are established precisely in imitation of the distinctions between the seeing aspect and the self-cognizing aspect in the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation within the true path of seeing; hence they are called the representational path of seeing.

b. On the basis of contemplating the objects of the Four Noble Truths in the lower and higher realms, sixteen mental moments are separately established, comprising eight dharma cognitions and eight subsequent cognitions. That is, in contemplating each of the Four Noble Truths in the realm directly present—the Desire Realm—and in the realms not directly present—the Form and Formless Realms—there are, as appropriate, two mental moments for each truth: receptivity of direct realization, which is the uninterrupted path, and cognition of direct realization, which is the path of liberation.

These imitate the seeing aspect’s contemplation of the Four Noble Truths through the uninterrupted path and the path of liberation within the true path of seeing, severing the 112 kinds of discriminative latent afflictions abandoned by the path of seeing. This is called the representational path of seeing.

If explained according to the principles extensively set forth in the sacred teachings, the representational path of seeing has nine mental moments. This is established on the basis of the two preceding sets of sixteen mental moments in the representational path of seeing that takes the established truths as its objects, separately establishing the two kinds of calm abiding and insight. The dharma cognitions and subsequent cognitions each include receptivity and cognition.

The dharma cognitions have four modes of contemplation, and the subsequent cognitions have four modes of contemplation, making eight mental moments; the calm abiding associated with them is combined into a single mental moment, making nine mental moments in all. Although the path of seeing contains both calm abiding and insight, insight is more consonant with the meaning of seeing the path than calm abiding is. Therefore, insight and calm abiding are here sometimes distinguished and sometimes combined.

Thus these nine mental moments are called the representational path of seeing.

All forms of the representational path of seeing are provisionally described on the basis of the true path of seeing. It is provisionally said that they arise immediately after the foremost worldly dharma and that they sever the latent afflictions of the two obstructions, but this is not actually so. This is because the representational path of seeing arises only after the true path of seeing, and the established truths are engaged only after the unestablished truth, while the discriminative latent afflictions of the two obstructions have already been completely severed on the true path of seeing.

First, the true path of seeing realizes the nature of Consciousness-Only; afterward, the representational path of seeing realizes the characteristics of Consciousness-Only. Of these two paths of seeing, the true path of seeing is superior. Therefore, the verse specifically states: “Cognition is entirely without anything apprehended.”

The preceding true path of seeing is included within fundamental cognition, while the subsequent representational path of seeing is included within subsequently attained cognition.

– Do the various forms of subsequently attained cognition possess both an image aspect and a seeing aspect?

– One view holds that they possess neither, because they have already transcended the twofold apprehension.

– Another view holds that subsequently attained cognition possesses a seeing aspect but no image aspect, because the treatise states that this cognition involves discrimination. Because all noble cognition can directly illuminate its objects, it is said to be free from the twofold apprehension on account of its nonattachment.

– Another view holds that this cognition possesses both the seeing and image aspects, because the treatise states that this cognition merely considers an image resembling true suchness and does not perceive the real nature of true suchness. It also states that this subsequently attained cognition discerns the particular and common characteristics of dharmas, observes differences in the faculties and dispositions of sentient beings, and teaches the Dharma to them accordingly. It further states that this subsequently attained cognition manifests bodies and lands in order to teach the true Dharma to sentient beings. If it did not transform and manifest semblances of forms, sounds, and so forth, how could there be such activities as manifesting bodies and teaching the Dharma? If, after the basis of the form skandha has been transformed, forms are no longer manifested, then after the bases of the other four skandhas have been transformed, there should likewise no longer be any feeling.

Furthermore, if this subsequently attained cognition did not transform and manifest a resembling object to be cognized, then, apart from a dharma’s own essence, there would be no object of cognition. If something that is not an object of cognition could nevertheless be cognized, then when form is cognized, sound would also be cognized. Moreover, when nonexistent dharmas such as the past and future are cognized, logically there would be no objective condition, because the past and future have no real substance and therefore lack the function of serving as conditions. Consequently, subsequently attained cognition possesses both the seeing and image aspects.

– How are these two paths of seeing included within the six kinds of direct realization?

The six kinds of direct realization are:

1. Direct realization through reflection—This is the wisdom produced by reflection, associated with the mental factor of volition and with a superior feeling of joy. This wisdom of reflection is capable of contemplating the common characteristics of dharmas and gives rise to the capacity to contemplate dharmas while on the path of preparatory practice, at the stages of Warmth, Summit, and so forth. Because the function of this wisdom of reflection is very powerful, it is specially established as a direct realization. The wholesome roots of Warmth, Summit, and so forth, however, cannot extensively discern dharmas and have not yet realized the truth; hence they are not direct realization.

2. Direct realization through faith—This is the arising of resolute, pure faith by taking the worldly and supramundane Three Jewels as its objects. It assists direct realization and prevents regression; hence it is called direct realization through faith.

3. Direct realization through moral discipline—This is undefiled moral discipline. It removes the defilements of violating the precepts and makes contemplative cognition increasingly luminous; hence it too is called direct realization.

4. Direct realization of the truth through the cognition of direct realization—This comprises all nondiscriminating fundamental and subsequently attained cognitions that take the unestablished truth as their object.

5. Direct realization of the truth through cognition at the boundary of direct realization—This comprises the worldly and supramundane cognitions that take the established truths as their objects and follow direct realization of the truth through the cognition of direct realization.

6. Ultimate direct realization—This is cognition at the ultimate stage, such as the cognition of exhaustion and so forth.

– This true path of seeing includes one part of the fourth direct realization.

– This representational path of seeing includes one part of the fourth and fifth direct realizations.

Although the second and third direct realizations arise together with the aspects of the Path of Seeing, they are not the intrinsic nature of the Path of Seeing; therefore, they do not subsume one another.

When a bodhisattva attains these two Paths of Seeing, he is born into the family of the Tathagata and abides in the Stage of Great Joy. He thoroughly comprehends the Dharma realm, attains various kinds of equality, is constantly born within the assemblies of the Buddhas, and gains mastery over hundreds of Dharma teachings. He knows that before long he will realize great bodhi and will be able to benefit and bring happiness to all sentient beings until the end of future time.

XXIII. THE STAGE OF CULTIVATION

– Fourth, what are the characteristics of the Stage of Cultivation?

The verse says:

Without attainment, inconceivable,

It is supramundane wisdom.

By relinquishing the two forms of coarseness and heaviness,

One thereby realizes the transformation of the basis.

The Treatise states: After a bodhisattva has previously aroused the Path of Seeing, wishing further to eliminate the two innately arising obstructions and realize the transformation of the basis, he repeatedly cultivates nonconceptual wisdom. Because this wisdom is free from the apprehended and the apprehender, it is said to be without attainment and inconceivable. Alternatively, because it is free from conceptual proliferation, it is called “without attainment”; because its wondrous functioning is difficult to fathom, it is called “inconceivable.” This is supramundane nonconceptual wisdom.

Because it eliminates the mundane, it is called supramundane. The latent tendencies of the twofold apprehension are the root of the mundane, and only this nonconceptual wisdom can eliminate them; therefore, it alone is called “that which transcends.” Alternatively, it is called supramundane on the basis of two meanings: its essence is uncontaminated, and it realizes true suchness. Because this nonconceptual wisdom possesses both meanings, it alone is called supramundane.

Other forms of wisdom cannot be so called. This wisdom is precisely the nonconceptual wisdom cultivated throughout the ten stages. By cultivating it constantly, one can relinquish the two forms of coarseness and heaviness.

The seeds of the two obstructions are called coarseness and heaviness because their nature is coarse, defiled, burdensome, and incapable of adaptability, in opposition to subtle, light, and keen uncontaminated wisdom. Causing the seeds of those two obstructions to be permanently eliminated is therefore called relinquishment.

When this nonconceptual wisdom relinquishes those two coarse and heavy obstructions, one thereby realizes the two great transformations of the basis.

“Basis” means that which serves as a support, namely, the other-dependent eighth consciousness. Because it serves as the support for both defiled and pure dharmas, it is called the basis. Defiled dharmas are the falsely imagined nature. Pure dharmas are the true, perfectly accomplished nature.

“Transformation” means that, of the defiled and pure aspects dependent upon the other-dependent eighth consciousness, the defiled aspect is relinquished through transformation and the pure aspect is attained through transformation. Through the constant cultivation of nonconceptual wisdom, the two coarse and heavy obstructions within the root consciousness are eliminated. Thus, the falsely imagined aspect—the defiled aspect—superimposed upon the other-dependent eighth consciousness is relinquished through transformation, while the perfectly accomplished nature—the pure aspect—within the other-dependent eighth consciousness is attained through transformation.

By transforming the afflictive obstruction, great nirvana is attained; by transforming the cognitive obstruction, unsurpassed awakening is attained.

– The purpose of establishing the principle of Consciousness-Only is to enable sentient beings to realize these two fruits of the transformation of the basis.

Alternatively, the “basis” is the true suchness that is the real nature of Consciousness-Only, which serves as the basis for samsara and nirvana. Deluded ordinary beings, confused and mistaken, fail to understand this true suchness; therefore, since beginningless time they have undergone the sufferings of samsara. Noble ones, however, are free from confusion and error and awaken to this true suchness; therefore, they realize the ultimate peace and bliss of nirvana.

Through the constant cultivation of nonconceptual wisdom, the two coarse and heavy obstructions within the root consciousness are eliminated. Consequently, the aspect of samsara dependent upon true suchness is extinguished through transformation, and the aspect of nirvana dependent upon true suchness is attained through transformation. This is precisely true suchness freed from the nature of defilement.

Although true suchness is pure in nature, its appearance is associated with defilement; therefore, when it is freed from defilement, it is conventionally said to have become pure. This newly manifested purity is called the “transformation of the basis.”

At the Stage of Cultivation, the transformation of the basis is realized by eliminating the obstructions. Although bodhi is also realized through cultivation in these ten stages, this is not what the verse intends to discuss. The verse intends only to clarify the transformation of the nature of Consciousness-Only, for the nature of Consciousness-Only is nirvana. At the perfected stage of the Two Vehicles, it is called the liberation body; in the Great Muni, the Buddha, it is called the Dharma body.

– How are the two kinds of transformation of the basis realized?

– Within the ten Stages, one cultivates the ten supreme practices—the ten paramitas—eliminates the ten grave obstructions, and realizes the ten aspects of true suchness. Through this, the two kinds of transformation of the basis are realized.

The ten Stages are:

1. The Stage of Great Joy – For the first time, one acquires the nature of a noble being, fully realizes the two kinds of emptiness, benefits oneself and others, and gives rise to great joy.

2. The Stage Free from Defilement – One fully possesses pure moral discipline and is free from the defilements and afflictions that ordinarily cause subtle transgressions of the precepts to arise.

3. The Luminous Stage – One accomplishes supreme meditative concentration, retains the great Dharma, and produces the boundless radiance of wondrous wisdom.

4. The Stage of Blazing Wisdom – One abides in the most excellent factors of awakening; the firewood of the afflictions is consumed, and the flame of wisdom intensifies.

5. The Stage Extremely Difficult to Conquer – The modes of activity of the two wisdoms of ultimate and conventional truth are mutually opposed; harmonizing them and bringing them into correspondence is extremely difficult.

6. The Stage of Manifest Presence – One abides in the wisdom that understands dependent origination and brings the supreme nonconceptual prajna wisdom into manifest presence.

7. The Far-Progressed Stage – One reaches the furthest limit of effortful abiding in the signless and far surpasses the paths of the mundane world and the Two Vehicles.

8. The Immovable Stage – Nonconceptual wisdom continues spontaneously, and neither the appearances nor the activities of the afflictions can disturb it.

9. The Stage of Excellent Wisdom – One accomplishes the four wondrous unobstructed understandings and skillfully expounds the wondrous Dharma throughout the ten directions.

10. The Stage of the Dharma Cloud – The cloud of great Dharma wisdom contains the water of merit, covers everything, and, like space, overspreads the two coarse and heavy characteristics, bringing the Dharma body to fullness.

These ten Stages collectively encompass all conditioned and unconditioned virtues, taking them as their intrinsic nature. Because they serve as the basis and provide superior support that sustains and nurtures the growth of cultivation, they are called Stages.

The ten supreme practices are:

1. The supreme practice of generosity has three forms: the giving of material possessions, the giving of fearlessness, and the giving of Dharma.

2. The supreme practice of moral discipline has three forms: the discipline of restraining oneself through ethical rules, the discipline of embracing wholesome dharmas, and the discipline of benefiting sentient beings.

3. The supreme practice of patience has three forms: patience in enduring injury and hostility, patience in calmly accepting suffering, and patience in contemplating dharmas.

4. The supreme practice of diligence has three forms: armor-like diligence, diligence in gathering wholesome qualities, and diligence in benefiting and bringing happiness to sentient beings.

5. The supreme practice of meditative concentration has three forms: concentration that establishes one in peaceful abiding, concentration that induces higher qualities, and concentration that accomplishes tasks.

6. The supreme practice of prajna has three forms: nonconceptual wisdom regarding the emptiness of persons, nonconceptual wisdom regarding the emptiness of dharmas, and nonconceptual wisdom regarding both kinds of emptiness.

7. The supreme practice of skillful means has two forms: skillful means in dedicating merit and skillful means in rescuing beings.

8. The supreme practice of vows has two forms: the vow to seek bodhi and the vow to benefit and bring happiness to sentient beings.

9. The supreme practice of powers has two forms: the power of discerning examination and the power of cultivation.

10. The supreme practice of wisdom has two forms: wisdom that experiences the bliss of the Dharma and wisdom that brings sentient beings to maturity.

– As for the nature of these ten supreme practices: generosity takes as its nature non-greed and the three kinds of action arising from non-greed. Moral discipline takes as its nature the three kinds of action performed while undertaking and training in the bodhisattva precepts. Patience takes as its nature non-hatred, diligence, discerning wisdom, and the two kinds of action arising from them. Diligence takes as its nature energetic effort and the three kinds of action arising from it. Meditative concentration takes only samadhi as its nature. Each of the latter five supreme practices takes as its nature the wisdom that discerns dharmas, namely, fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom. Some hold that the eighth supreme practice, vows, takes aspiration, resolute understanding, and faith as its nature.

This explains the self-nature of each perfection in this way. If its associated factors are also included, then each perfection takes all the virtues practiced together as its nature.

– The characteristics of these ten perfections must be embraced by seven supreme qualities before they can be established as paramitas.

1) Supreme abiding — One must abide in the bodhisattva lineage.

2) Supreme basis — One must take the mind of great bodhi as one’s basis.

3) Supreme aspiration — One must have compassion for all sentient beings.

4) Supreme undertaking — One must fully perform all excellent deeds.

5) Supreme skillful means — One must be embraced by the wisdom of non-characteristics.

6) Supreme dedication — One must dedicate everything to unsurpassed bodhi.

7) Supreme purity — One must not be intermingled with the two obstructions.

If they are not embraced by these seven qualities, generosity and the other practices do not reach the other shore. Therefore, each of the ten perfections, such as generosity, should be distinguished in relation to paramita by means of the four alternatives: generosity that is not paramita, paramita that is not generosity, and so forth.

Only these ten perfections are taught, neither more nor fewer, because in the ten bhumis they counteract the ten obstructions and realize the ten kinds of suchness, neither more nor fewer.

– Furthermore, the first six perfections are neither more nor fewer because they counteract six contrary faults. Thus generosity counteracts the fault of stinginess, and so forth; through them one gradually cultivates the Buddha-Dharma and gradually brings sentient beings to maturity. This has been extensively explained in the treatises and should be understood accordingly.

– Furthermore, generosity, observance of the precepts, and patience bring about excellent rebirths along the path, with abundant wealth, a fine body, and a large retinue. Diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom bring certainty on the path of the perfections: diligence overcomes the afflictions, concentration and supernormal powers bring sentient beings to maturity, and wisdom accomplishes the Buddha-Dharma. The bodhisattva path is encompassed within these two paths, and if either is lacking it cannot be accomplished.

– Furthermore, the first three perfections benefit sentient beings. Through generosity, one gives them material possessions; through observance of the precepts, one does not harm or trouble them; and through patience, one endures the harm they inflict upon oneself, solely in order to benefit them. The other three perfections—diligence and so forth—counteract the afflictions. Although the afflictions have not yet been subdued and eliminated, through diligence one cultivates the wholesome preparatory practices that counteract them; meditation permanently subdues the afflictions, and wisdom permanently eradicates all afflictions.

– Furthermore, because of generosity, observance of the precepts, and patience, one does not abide in nirvana; because of diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom, one does not abide in samsara. These serve as provisions for non-abiding nirvana. Therefore, the first six perfections are neither increased in number nor reduced. The latter four perfections assist the first six and bring their cultivation to completion; hence they too are neither increased nor reduced. Thus, “skillful means” assists generosity, observance of the precepts, and patience; “vow” assists diligence; “power” assists meditative concentration; and “knowledge” assists prajna, bringing their cultivation to completion. This is extensively explained in the Samdhinirmocana Sutra and should be understood accordingly.

The order of the ten perfections is such that each preceding perfection gives rise to each succeeding perfection, while each succeeding perfection preserves the purity of each preceding perfection. Moreover, the preceding perfections are coarse and the succeeding ones subtle; the former are easy to cultivate and the latter difficult. Such is their order. The general and particular names of the ten perfections are explained elsewhere.

– There are five ways of cultivating these ten perfections:

a. Cultivation based on spontaneous observance.

b. Cultivation based on deliberate effort.

c. Cultivation based on joyful inclination.

d. Cultivation based on skillful means.

d. Cultivation based on mastery.

By cultivating according to these five ways, the cultivation of the ten paramitas is perfected. Their characteristics are extensively explained in the Compendium of Abhidharma and elsewhere.

– As for the mutual inclusion of these ten paramitas, generally speaking, each of the ten paramitas includes all the other paramitas because they accord with one another.

Specifically speaking, their mutual inclusion has three meanings:

1. From the standpoint that cultivating a preceding practice leads to a succeeding practice, the preceding practice includes the succeeding one, because the latter must depend upon the former. The succeeding practice does not include the preceding one, because the former need not depend upon the latter.

2. From the standpoint that cultivating a succeeding practice preserves the purity of a preceding practice, the succeeding practice includes the preceding one, because the latter preserves the purity of the former. The preceding practice does not include the succeeding one, because the former does not preserve the purity of the latter.

3. If discussed from the standpoint of cultivating them singly or in combination, then because they are mutually related, the four alternatives should be established: single but not combined, combined but not single, both single and combined, and neither single nor combined.

– In reality there are ten paramitas here, but because some teachings speak of six paramitas, it should be understood that the latter four of the ten are included within the sixth paramita. Alternatively, when the six paramitas are expanded into ten, the sixth encompasses non-conceptual wisdom, while the latter four are all included within subsequently attained wisdom because they take conventional phenomena as their objects.

– The results brought about by these ten practices are as follows: the ten contaminated practices bring about four results—the result corresponding to its cause, the ripened result, the dominant result, and the result of human effort—excluding the result of separation. The ten uncontaminated practices bring about four results—the result corresponding to its cause, the dominant result, the result of human effort, and the result of separation—excluding the ripened result. Yet some texts say that the ten practices bring about all five results, either because of their similarity or because the results of both contaminated and uncontaminated practices are combined in the explanation.

The mutual inclusion of these ten practices and the three trainings of those beyond training is as follows:

– The training in precepts has three aspects:

a. The precepts of disciplined restraint — This means correctly abandoning what ought to be abandoned.

b. The precepts of gathering wholesome dharmas — This means correctly cultivating and realizing what ought to be cultivated and realized.

c. The precepts of benefiting sentient beings — This means correctly bringing benefit and happiness to all sentient beings.

This training in precepts has both common and uncommon aspects in relation to the Two Vehicles and is vast and profound, as explained elsewhere. The precepts of disciplined restraint are shared with the Two Vehicles, whereas the other two kinds of precepts are found only in the Mahayana.

– The training in concentration has four aspects:

a. The Concentration of the Great Mahayana Light — This is the concentration that gives rise to the light of wisdom that clearly illuminates the principles, teachings, practices, and fruits of the Mahayana (the virtue of prajna).

b. The Kingly Concentration That Amasses Merit — This is the sovereign concentration that amasses boundless merit, like a powerful king without equal (the virtue of liberation).

c. The Concentration of the Foremost Guardian — This is the concentration capable of preserving the manifestly wholesome dharmas of the mundane and supramundane realms (the virtue of the Dharma-body).

d. The Concentration of Heroic Action — This is the activity of great and mighty beings such as Buddhas and bodhisattvas (the Surangama concentration).

The apprehended objects, counteragents, powers of endurance, modes of arousal, and functions of these four concentrations are explained elsewhere.

– The training in wisdom has three aspects:

a. Non-conceptual preparatory wisdom (investigation of suchness).

b. Fundamental non-conceptual wisdom (realization of suchness).

c. Subsequently attained non-conceptual wisdom (wisdom functioning to benefit others).

The self-nature, basis, causes and conditions, objects, and modes of activity of these three kinds of wisdom are explained elsewhere.

– As for these three kinds of wisdom, at the level of seeds, all three are present in both the stages of accumulation and preparatory practice; at the level of active manifestation, however, they are present only in the stage of preparatory practice. In the stage of penetration, at the level of active manifestation there are the two kinds of wisdom—fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom—while at the level of seeds, all three kinds are present. In the path of seeing, there is no active manifestation of the wisdom of preparatory practice. The stage of cultivation comprises the ten grounds. From the seventh ground downward, the three kinds of wisdom are present both as seeds and in active manifestation. From the eighth ground onward, only fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom are actively manifest, because from the eighth ground onward the path is effortless and is incompatible with the active manifestation of the wisdom of preparatory practice. All progress is made through subsequently attained wisdom, which arises spontaneously during undefiled contemplation, rather than through the wisdom of preparatory practice. In the ultimate stage, both fundamental wisdom and subsequently attained wisdom are present as seeds and in active manifestation, whereas the seeds and active manifestation of the wisdom of preparatory practice have both been entirely relinquished.

– If each intrinsic nature is subsumed according to its own intrinsic nature, then moral discipline subsumes only moral discipline; concentration subsumes only meditative absorption; and wisdom subsumes the latter five perfections. If the accompanying and assisting perfections are also included, then all six perfections mutually subsume one another in full.

If they are subsumed according to function, moral discipline subsumes the first three perfections, because generosity is the provision for moral discipline, observance of precepts is the essential nature of moral discipline, and patience is the retinue of moral discipline. Concentration subsumes meditative absorption; wisdom subsumes the latter five perfections; and diligence subsumes all three—moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom—because it universally urges all three onward.

– If they are subsumed according to their clearly manifest characteristics, moral discipline subsumes the first four perfections: generosity, moral discipline, patience, and, in addition, diligence, which urges and safeguards them, thus making four. Concentration subsumes meditative absorption, and wisdom subsumes the latter five perfections.

– As for the stages in which these ten excellent practices occur, all ten are present throughout the five stages, from accumulation through the ultimate stage, although their characteristics are most clearly manifest only in the stage of cultivation. For bodhisattvas of sudden awakening, in the first two stages the seeds of the ten practices encompass both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, while their active manifestations are only contaminated. For bodhisattvas of gradual awakening, both the seeds and active manifestations encompass the contaminated and the uncontaminated, because they have already attained uncontaminated contemplation of the emptiness of persons. In the stage of penetration, the seeds of the ten practices encompass both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, while their active manifestations are only uncontaminated.

– The stage of cultivation comprises the ten grounds. From the seventh ground downward, both the seeds and active manifestations of the ten practices encompass the contaminated and the uncontaminated. From the eighth ground onward, the seeds of the ten practices encompass both the contaminated and the uncontaminated, while their active manifestations are only uncontaminated. In the ultimate stage, both the seeds and active manifestations of the ten practices are exclusively uncontaminated.

– During their causal cultivation, the ten excellent practices have three names:

a. Distant Paramitas — This refers to the first incalculable eon. At this time, the power of generosity and the other practices is still weak; they are overpowered by the afflictions and cannot yet overcome them. Consequently, the afflictions continue to arise suddenly in active manifestation.

b. Near Paramitas — This refers to the second incalculable eon. At this time, the power of generosity and the other practices gradually increases; they are no longer overpowered by the afflictions but instead overcome them. Consequently, the afflictions become actively manifest only when deliberately allowed to arise.

c. Great Paramitas — This refers to the third incalculable eon. At this time, the power of generosity and the other practices increases still further and completely subdues every active manifestation of the afflictions. Consequently, the afflictions can never again become actively manifest. Nevertheless, the active manifestations and seeds of the subtle cognitive obstructions, as well as the seeds of the afflictive obstructions, have not yet been entirely eliminated.

The categories and meanings of the ten excellent practices are boundlessly diverse. For fear of excessive length, only their essential outline has been briefly presented.

– Although bodhisattvas genuinely cultivate all ten excellent practices on each of the ten grounds, each ground cultivates one particular practice according to whichever characteristic is predominant there.

Although the bodhisattvas of the ten grounds have immeasurable approaches to cultivation, all are subsumed within these ten practices that carry one to the other shore.

– The ten major obstructions are:

1. The obstruction of the nature of an ordinary being — This is established as the nature of an ordinary being on the basis of the portion of seeds of the two obstructions that arise through discrimination. When practitioners of the two vehicles have the wisdom of the path of seeing directly present, they eliminate only one kind of discriminatively arisen affliction and are said to attain the nature of a noble one.

When bodhisattvas have the wisdom of the path of seeing directly present, they eliminate both discriminatively arisen obstructions and are said to attain the nature of a noble one. This is because, when the two true paths of seeing—those of the two vehicles and of bodhisattvas—are directly present, the seeds of those two discriminatively arisen obstructions necessarily cease to be established. It is like light and darkness, which certainly do not arise together, or like the two ends of a balance, where one rises as the other falls at the same moment.

Such is the constant principle governing mutually opposed dharmas. Therefore, there is no fault of the two natures, “delusion” and “wisdom,” arising simultaneously.

Question: During the uninterrupted path, since the seeds of the various delusions no longer remain, why is it necessary to arouse the path of liberation?

Answer: It is because the uninterrupted path is the period in which subsequently attained wisdom eliminates the delusions, while the path of liberation is the period in which fundamental wisdom realizes cessation. Since the mind differs in these two periods, the path of liberation is necessary. Furthermore, it is necessary in order to relinquish the nature of the coarseness and heaviness belonging to that class of delusions.

Although the seeds of the various delusions are absent during the uninterrupted path, their nature of incapacity—their coarseness and heaviness—has not yet been relinquished. Therefore, the path of liberation must be aroused in order to relinquish that nature of incapacity. Moreover, it is aroused in order to realize the unconditioned cessation through discernment associated with that class of delusions.

Although, when the path of seeing arises, it also eliminates the karma and results that lead to the evil destinies, it is said here that the path of seeing still addresses the afflictions because the afflictions are the root of such karma and results. Therefore, the first ground is said to eliminate their nature of coarseness and heaviness. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance involving attachment to a self and dharmas, namely the obstruction of the nature of an ordinary being discussed here.

– Second, ignorance concerning the various forms of defilement in the evil destinies. The karma and results produced through ignorance belong to the same category as ignorance and are therefore collectively called ignorance.

The subsequent nine grounds should be explained according to this model. For example, mistakenly committing the three kinds of karma is also called ignorance.

Alternatively, the statement that two kinds of ignorance are eliminated on the first ground refers to the two kinds of ignorance that arise together with the acute afflictions—the five wrong views—and the dull afflictions, such as greed and hatred.

The phrase “their coarseness and heaviness” refers to the seeds of the two kinds of ignorance, or to the nature of incapacity produced by those two kinds of ignorance. For example, it is said that upon entering the second meditative absorption, the faculty of suffering—its coarseness and heaviness—is eliminated. Although the faculty of suffering is neither actively manifest nor present as a seed, it is still called coarseness and heaviness. Here, “coarseness and heaviness” means the nature of incapacity.

From this point onward, whenever the term “coarseness and heaviness” occurs in the discussion of the grounds, it should be explained according to this principle.

Although the delusions eliminated by the path of seeing on the first ground actually encompass both the afflictive obstructions and the cognitive obstructions, the statement that the first ground is obstructed by the nature of an ordinary being primarily refers to the portion of cognitive obstruction within that nature. This is because the sutra states, “The ten grounds eliminate ten kinds of ignorance,” rather than defiled afflictive dharmas. Ignorance is precisely the delusion within the ten classes of obstructions. Since practitioners of the two vehicles can also eliminate the afflictive obstructions, and since the afflictions are common to the two vehicles, they are not what is intended here.

Furthermore, the ten undefiled kinds of ignorance are described solely in relation to the delusions eliminated through cultivation on the ten grounds. Although a portion of the innate afflictions is also subdued on the first ground, it is therefore not discussed here. According to the correct principle, during the stage of the path of cultivation on the first ground—a ground having three phases: the entering mind, the abiding mind, and the exiting mind; the entering mind is also called the initial mind and belongs to the path of seeing, while the abiding and exiting minds are also called the subsequent mind and belong to the path of cultivation—a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions is also eliminated.

Here, however, the principal concern is the obstruction that must first be eliminated, namely the obstruction of the nature of an ordinary being.

The abandonment of the obstructions in the subsequent nine grounds should be understood by analogy with this.

After abiding for a long time in the fulfillment stage of a ground—the final mind of the First Ground—one must advance and completely abandon the obstructions that ought to be abandoned. Otherwise, the three phases within each ground—the beginning, with the uninterrupted path; the middle, with the path of liberation; and the end, with the path of special advancement—would not differ from one another.

Therefore, it is said that after bodhisattvas attain direct realization, they enter the stage of cultivation throughout the ten grounds and cultivate the path solely to abandon forever the cognitive obstructions. They retain the seeds of the afflictive obstructions that arise innately so that, in fulfillment of their bodhi vow, they may again take birth in the three realms. Unlike those of the Two Vehicles, they do not seek to attain final nirvana quickly. Thus, during the stage of cultivation, bodhisattvas do not abandon the seeds of the afflictions; they wait until they are about to attain Buddhahood and then swiftly abandon them all at once.

2. The obstruction of wrongful conduct—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions, together with the mistaken transgressions committed through the three kinds of karma that arise from that portion of the innate cognitive obstructions. It obstructs the supremely pure morality of the Second Ground. Upon entering the Second Ground, this obstruction is forever completely abandoned. Therefore, it is said that on the Second Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance that causes subtle violations of the precepts, namely, a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions.

– Second, ignorance concerning various karmic actions and various destinies, namely, the mistaken actions of the three kinds of karma that arise from this obstruction; alternatively, it is ignorance because one merely produces karma without understanding it to be karma.

3. The obstruction of dullness—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions that causes the teachings one has heard, contemplated, and cultivated to be forgotten. It obstructs the superior samadhi and dharani of the Third Ground, as well as the three superior kinds of wisdom arising from that samadhi. Upon entering the Third Ground, this obstruction is forever completely abandoned. Therefore, it is said that on the Third Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, the ignorance of sensual craving, namely, the ignorance—a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions—that obstructs the superior samadhi and the wisdom born of cultivation discussed here. Because from time immemorial it has most often accompanied sensual craving, it is called the ignorance of sensual craving. Now, upon attaining superior samadhi and wisdom born of cultivation, a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions is forever abandoned, and sensual craving is also subdued accordingly. This is because, since beginningless time, sensual craving has arisen in dependence upon that portion of the innate cognitive obstructions.

– Second, ignorance concerning the perfect dharani of retaining what has been heard, namely, the ignorance that obstructs the wisdom capable of comprehensively retaining the Dharma that has been heard and contemplated.

4. The obstruction of the active manifestation of subtle afflictions—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions, together with the view of a self in the body that arises in association with the sixth consciousness. Because it is of the most subtle degree, engages its objects without deliberate attention, and has continually manifested since time immemorial, it is called subtle.

It obstructs the factors conducive to bodhi on the Fourth Ground. Upon entering the Fourth Ground, this obstruction is forever completely abandoned. Because this portion of the innate cognitive obstructions has, since time immemorial, arisen as one and the same entity together with the afflictive view of self that arises spontaneously and innately in the sixth consciousness, it is called an affliction.

Now, on the Fourth Ground, when the uncontaminated factors conducive to bodhi are realized and that cognitive obstruction is forever abandoned, this view of self also forever ceases to manifest.

On the First, Second, and Third Grounds, the cultivation of generosity, morality, and wisdom born of cultivation has characteristics in common with the mundane world. Only on the Fourth Ground, when the factors conducive to bodhi are attained through cultivation, is it called supramundane. Therefore, the two views concerning the body—the view of a self in the body and the extreme view—can be forever destroyed.

Question: How is it known that this view of a self in the body is associated only with the sixth consciousness?

Answer: The view of self associated with the seventh consciousness is contrary in nature to the uncontaminated path. Therefore, only from the Eighth Ground onward does this view of self forever cease to manifest; up to and including the Seventh Ground, it can still arise, because this view of self serves as the supporting basis that sustains the afflictions of delusion about self, attachment to self, and pride of self. The view of self in the sixth consciousness is coarse, whereas that in the seventh consciousness is subtle; hence, their subjugation occurs earlier and later, respectively. Therefore, on the Fourth Ground, only the abandonment of the view of self associated with the sixth consciousness is taught.

The expression “view of a self in the body,” and so forth, also includes attachment to samadhi—attachment to meditative concentration—and attachment to Dharma—attachment to the Dharma that has been heard, contemplated, and cultivated—which belong to the beginningless cognitive obstructions. These attachments to samadhi and Dharma still increase on the Third Ground and are forever abandoned only upon entering the Fourth Ground, because the factors conducive to bodhi are especially opposed to them. Therefore, it is said that on the Fourth Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance involving attachment to meditative attainments—the concentrations of the bases of mastery, the ten totalities, the four formless attainments, and the attainment of non-perception—namely, the attachment to samadhi that accompanies the innate cognitive obstructions discussed here.

– Second, the ignorance of attachment to Dharma, namely, the attachment to Dharma that accompanies the innate cognitive obstructions discussed here.

When the two kinds of ignorance subsumed under the cognitive obstructions have been abandoned, the two kinds of attachment belonging to the afflictive obstructions also forever cease to manifest.

5. The obstruction of the nirvana of the Lesser Vehicle—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions that induces one, like those of the inferior Two Vehicles, to become weary of samsara and delight in nirvana, rejecting suffering and desiring quiescence. It obstructs the path of non-differentiation on the Fifth Ground. Upon entering the Fifth Ground, this obstruction is forever abandoned. Therefore, it is said that on the Fifth Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, the ignorance that exclusively gives rise to the intention to reject samsara, namely, what is described here as weariness of samsara.

– Second, the ignorance that exclusively gives rise to the intention to proceed toward nirvana, namely, what is described here as delight in nirvana.

6. The obstruction of the active manifestation of coarse characteristics—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions that actively apprehends the existence of the coarse characteristics of defilement and purity. It obstructs the path that is neither defiled nor pure on the Sixth Ground. Upon entering the Sixth Ground, this obstruction is forever abandoned. Therefore, it is said that on the Sixth Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, the ignorance involved in the direct contemplation of the activities of cyclic flow, namely, what is described here as apprehending the existence of the characteristic of defilement—within the cyclic-flow approach of the Truths of Suffering and Origin—because the activities of cyclic flow belong to the defiled aspect.

– Second, ignorance concerning the frequent manifestation of contemplation of characteristics, namely, what is described here as apprehending the existence of the characteristic of purity. Because one grasps the characteristic of purity—within the return-to-cessation approach of the Truths of Cessation and the Path—contemplation of characteristics frequently manifests, and one is not yet able to abide for a long time in the contemplation of signlessness.

7. The obstruction of the active manifestation of subtle characteristics—This is a portion of the innate cognitive obstructions that actively apprehends the existence of the subtle characteristics of arising and cessation. It obstructs the wondrous path of signlessness on the Seventh Ground. Upon entering the Seventh Ground, this obstruction is forever eliminated. Therefore, it is said that on the Seventh Ground, two kinds of ignorance and their coarseness and heaviness are abandoned. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance concerning manifest characteristics, namely, what is described here as apprehending the characteristic of arising, because one still grasps the subtle characteristic of arising within the approach of cyclic flow.

– Second, the ignorance of exclusively directing attention toward seeking signlessness, namely, what is described here as apprehending the characteristic of cessation. Because one still grasps the subtle characteristic of cessation within the approach of return to cessation and exclusively directs attention toward seeking signlessness, one is not yet able, while skillfully abiding in emptiness and signlessness, to give rise to superior conditioned practices.

8. The obstruction of applied effort in signless contemplation — This is a part of the innate cognitive obstruction. It prevents signless contemplation from arising spontaneously.

In the first five grounds, contemplation with signs predominates, while signless contemplation is less frequent. On the sixth ground, contemplation with signs is less frequent, while signless contemplation predominates. On the seventh ground, there is exclusively signless contemplation; although it continues uninterruptedly, it is still a contemplation involving applied effort.

Because applied effort is present during signless contemplation, bodily forms and pure lands cannot yet be manifested spontaneously. Such applied effort obstructs the path free from effort on the eighth ground. Upon entering the eighth ground, this obstruction is forever eliminated.

Through its permanent elimination, two kinds of mastery are attained: mastery in manifesting forms and mastery in manifesting lands. Therefore, it is said that on the eighth ground two kinds of ignorance and their quality of heaviness are eliminated. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, the ignorance of applying deliberate effort within signlessness.

– Second, the ignorance concerning mastery: lacking mastery over forms, which causes one to lack mastery over forms. These forms also include, in part, the forms of lands. From the eighth ground onward, the pure, uncontaminated path—the contemplation of the two kinds of emptiness—can arise spontaneously and with mastery. At that time, the afflictions of the three realms never again become active; only the subtle cognitive obstruction in the seventh consciousness can still arise, because the wisdom resulting from the emptiness of persons does not conflict with that subtle cognitive obstruction.

9. The obstruction of unwillingness to practice for the benefit of others — This is a part of the innate cognitive obstruction. It causes one to be unwilling to strive for the welfare and happiness of sentient beings and to delight only in cultivating practices for one’s own benefit. It obstructs the four unobstructed understandings of the ninth ground. Upon entering the ninth ground, two kinds of ignorance and their quality of heaviness are eliminated. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance concerning mastery of dharani with respect to the immeasurable teachings expressed, the immeasurable names, phrases, and syllables, and the eloquent wisdom of subsequent cognition. Mastery of dharani with respect to the immeasurable teachings expressed means unobstructed understanding of meaning: one freely comprehends and retains the meanings that are signified, manifesting all meanings within a single meaning. Mastery of dharani with respect to immeasurable names, phrases, and syllables means unobstructed understanding of Dharma: one freely comprehends and retains the words that signify, manifesting all names, phrases, and syllables within a single name, phrase, or syllable. Mastery of dharani with respect to the eloquent wisdom of subsequent cognition means unobstructed understanding of language: one freely comprehends and retains words, sounds, and their successive explanations and interpretations, manifesting all sounds within a single sound.

– Second, ignorance concerning mastery of eloquence. Mastery of eloquence is unobstructed understanding of eloquence: one skillfully understands the capacities and needs of beings and skillfully teaches the Dharma to them. This ignorance obstructs those four kinds of mastery and is wholly included within this ninth obstruction.

10. The obstruction of not yet attaining mastery over all dharmas. This is a part of the innate cognitive obstruction that prevents mastery over all dharmas. It obstructs the great cloud of Dharma-wisdom of the tenth ground, the merits contained therein, and the activities arising from that wisdom. Upon entering the tenth ground, this obstruction is forever eliminated. Therefore, it is said that on the tenth ground two kinds of ignorance and their quality of heaviness are eliminated. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, ignorance concerning great supernatural powers; this is what is described here as obstructing the arising of activities.

– Second, ignorance concerning entry into subtle mysteries; this is what is described here as obstructing the great cloud of Dharma-wisdom and the merits contained within that wisdom, such as the ten powers and four fearlessnesses.

Although one attains mastery over dharmas on this tenth ground, it cannot yet be called the ultimate culmination because residual obstructions remain—namely, the subtle innate cognitive obstruction and the spontaneously arising seeds of the afflictive obstruction. When the vajra-like samadhi becomes manifest, they are swiftly eliminated all at once, and one enters the ground of the Tathagata. Therefore, on the Buddha ground, two kinds of ignorance and their quality of heaviness are eliminated. The two kinds of ignorance are:

– First, the ignorance of extremely subtle attachment with respect to all knowable objects; this is what is described here as the subtle cognitive obstruction.

– Second, the ignorance of subtle obstruction; this is what is described here as the seeds of all spontaneously arising innate afflictive obstructions. Therefore, the Compendium states: “Upon attaining bodhi, one swiftly eliminates the afflictive and cognitive obstructions, becomes an arhat and a Tathagata, and realizes Great Nirvana and Great Bodhi.”

(End of the ninth fascicle of the Chinese text)