解脫道論

Chapter 11: Five Skillful Means

Section 2: Skillful Means of the Noble Truths

Question: What are the Skillful Means of the Noble Truths?

Answer: They are the Four Noble Truths: the Noble Truth of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, and the Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering.

Question: What is the Noble Truth of Suffering?

Answer: Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow is suffering; lamentation is suffering; distress is suffering; pain is suffering; association with those one hates is suffering; separation from those one loves is suffering; not obtaining what one seeks is suffering. In brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering.

Birth is suffering means that, among all classes of sentient beings, when the aggregates arise, this is an accumulation of suffering. Aging is suffering means that all the elements, having arisen, then age and decline, losing strength, complexion, faculties, memory, and wisdom. Death is suffering means that the ending of the lifespan gives rise to fear in the heart.

Sorrow is suffering means that, upon encountering suffering, the mind is troubled and the heart seems to burn. Lamentation is suffering means suffering expressed in words of grief, as though burning within and without. Pain is suffering means that when the body is already afflicted, that pain becomes a further cause of bodily suffering.

Distress is suffering means that the afflicted heart becomes a cause of mental suffering. Association with those one hates is suffering means that being compelled to dwell near those who are disagreeable gives rise to suffering. Separation from those one loves is suffering means being parted from loved ones and, because of that separation, suffering grief and anxiety.

Not obtaining what one seeks is suffering means being unable to remain apart from those one hates, being unable to remain near those one loves, and having to lose one’s happiness. In brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are suffering means that one is never separated from the five aggregates; therefore, stated concisely, it is precisely the five aggregates subject to clinging that experience suffering and must endure every kind of suffering.

Question: What are the five aggregates subject to clinging?

Answer: The form aggregate subject to clinging, the feeling aggregate subject to clinging, the perception aggregate subject to clinging, the formations aggregate subject to clinging, and the consciousness aggregate subject to clinging. These are the five aggregates that are experienced and appropriated through clinging, as explained extensively in the section on the Skillful Means of the Aggregates. Thus it may be understood that the five aggregates, through being objects of clinging, give rise to suffering.

Thus, there are two kinds of suffering: suffering as a basis and suffering by intrinsic nature. The suffering of birth, death, association with those one hates, separation, not obtaining what one seeks, and, in brief, the five aggregates—these constitute suffering as a basis, the ground upon which suffering arises. The suffering of sorrow, lamentation, and distress is called suffering by intrinsic nature.

Suffering is also distinguished into three kinds: the suffering of pain, the suffering of change, and the suffering of conditioned existence. Bodily suffering and mental suffering constitute the suffering of pain. Delight in pleasures still bound up with afflictions and the outflows, when those pleasures alter and pass away, is called the suffering of change. The body and mind comprising these five aggregates, which cling to existence, constitute the suffering of conditioned existence.

The foregoing is the Noble Truth of Suffering.

Question: What is the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering?

Answer: It is craving that causes renewed birth, arises together with lust and delight, and arises everywhere: namely, craving for sensual pleasure, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence.

The Origin of Suffering means that the origin inseparably associated with suffering is called the Origin of Suffering, in the sense that it is the source of suffering. Craving that causes renewed birth means that abundant craving produces the desire to continue living forever. Arises together with lust and delight means that craving itself causes pleasure to arise, further causes attachment, and then, together with that attachment, gives rise to delight.

Arises means that it arises everywhere according to one’s disposition; wherever there is a pleasing form, that disposition gives rise to delight there. Thus there are craving for sensual pleasure, craving for existence, and craving for nonexistence. Apart from craving for existence and craving for nonexistence, all other objects of desire constitute craving for sensual pleasure.

Craving for existence means the desire that oneself should exist forever, arising together with the view of eternalism. Craving for nonexistence means the desire that oneself should no longer exist, arising together with the view of annihilationism.

This is called the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering.

Question: What is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering?

Answer: The Cessation of Suffering means that craving has been utterly extinguished without remainder; it has been relinquished, released, and no place remains where craving exists. This is called the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering.

Question: That is not so! This is the cessation of the origin of suffering, so why did the Blessed One call it the Cessation of Suffering?

Answer: Because the cause of suffering has been utterly extinguished, there will be no further birth and cessation; this accords with the meaning of realization. Therefore, the Blessed One called the cessation of the origin the Cessation of Suffering.

Question: What is the Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering?

Answer: It is the Noble Eightfold Path, the eight factors of the path leading to the complete cessation of suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path consists of right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Right view means clearly understanding the Four Sublime Truths, that is, the Four Noble Truths. Right thought means contemplating the three wholesome thoughts. Right speech means abstaining from the four unwholesome verbal actions. Right action means abandoning the three unwholesome actions of body, speech, and mind. Right livelihood means abstaining from wrong livelihood. Right effort means the four right efforts. Right mindfulness means the four foundations of mindfulness. Right concentration means the four stages of jhana.

Furthermore, diligently cultivating the Noble Path and clearly seeing nirvana is called right view. Awakening to nirvana is called right thought. Completely abandoning wrong speech is right speech. Eliminating wrong action is right action. Abandoning wrong livelihood is right livelihood. Eliminating wrong effort is right effort. Recollecting and attending to nirvana is right mindfulness. The mind’s constant one-pointed direction toward nirvana is right concentration.

Thus, the faculty of wisdom, the power of wisdom, the basis of spiritual power consisting in investigation, and the awakening factor of investigation of Dharma all enter into right view. The faculty of effort, the power of effort, the basis of spiritual power consisting in effort, the basis of spiritual power consisting in desire, the awakening factor of effort, and the four right efforts all enter into right effort. The faculty of mindfulness, the power of mindfulness, the awakening factor of mindfulness, and the four foundations of mindfulness all enter into right mindfulness.

The faculty of concentration, the power of concentration, the basis of spiritual power consisting in mind, the faculty of faith, the power of faith, the awakening factor of concentration, the awakening factor of joy, the awakening factor of tranquility, and the awakening factor of equanimity all enter into right concentration. Thus, the thirty-seven factors of awakening all enter into the Right Path.

This is called the Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering, that is, the truth of the path leading to the complete cessation of suffering.

The foregoing explains the Four Noble Truths, also called the Four Sublime Truths.

Question: Why are only four Noble Truths taught, rather than three or five?

Answer: If three or five Noble Truths were taught, doubt would arise. The Four Noble Truths explain cause and effect in the mundane and supramundane spheres; therefore, there are four.

Question: What are cause and effect in the mundane and supramundane spheres?

Answer: The Truth of Suffering and the Truth of its Origin are respectively the effect and cause in the mundane sphere. The Truth of Cessation is the effect in the supramundane sphere. The Truth of the Path is the causal condition for the supramundane sphere. For this reason, there are only four, rather than three or five.

Furthermore, according to these four statements, there are only four, rather than three or five: the Truth of Suffering is to be fully understood; the Truth of its Origin is to be abandoned; the Truth of Cessation is to be realized; and the Truth of the Path is to be cultivated.

Those Four Noble Truths may be further understood in the following eleven ways: by the meaning of the words, by characteristics, by sequence, by concise exposition, by similes, by analysis, by enumeration, by sameness, by difference in kind, by the tenfold method, and by inclusion.

Question: What is meant by the meaning of the words?

Answer: “Noble Truth” means that it is taught by noble ones, and that those who fully penetrate it become noble ones; therefore it is called a Noble Truth. “Truth” means thusness: it does not change, and its intrinsic characteristic does not alter. Suffering means having to undergo the painful result. Origin means the cause that gives rise to suffering. Cessation means bringing it to complete extinction. Path means seeing the supreme meaning, that is, the absolute meaning.

Thus, through the meaning of the words, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by characteristics?

Answer: Suffering has the characteristic of the pain arising from faults. Origin has the characteristic of causation and conditions. Cessation has the characteristic of non-arising. The Path has the characteristic of the means leading to the cessation of suffering.

Furthermore, Suffering has the characteristic of being tormented by afflictions and anxiety, the characteristic of being conditioned, and the characteristic of being limited. Origin has the characteristic of accumulation, the characteristic of causation and conditions, the characteristic of conjunction, and the characteristic of attachment. Cessation has the characteristic of escape, the characteristic of tranquility, the characteristic of the unconditioned, and the characteristic of nirvana. The Path has the characteristic of conveying one to the destination, the characteristic of clear seeing, and the characteristic of providing a refuge.

Thus, through characteristics, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by sequence?

Answer: The Truth of Suffering should be taught first because its meaning is coarse and can easily be demonstrated to people in the world. Next, as the second point, the Truth of Origin is taught as the source of Suffering. When the source of

Suffering has been extinguished, Suffering is also completely extinguished; this is the third point. The means by which that complete extinction is accomplished constitute the fourth point, the teaching of the Truth of the Path.

This method of teaching resembles the diagnosis made by a skilled physician. First, the physician examines the root of the disease; afterward, he inquires into the causes and conditions that produced it; then, wishing to eradicate the disease completely, he prescribes the medicine that will cure it. Thus, the disease itself is the Truth of Suffering; this may be inferred and understood. Thus, the cause and conditions of the disease are the Truth of Origin; this may be inferred and known. Thus, the ending of the disease is the Truth of Cessation; this may be inferred and understood. Thus, the medicine is the Truth of the Path; this may be inferred and understood.

Thus, by following the sequence of the teaching, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by concise exposition?

Answer: Birth is the Truth of Suffering. That which causes birth is the Truth of Origin. Bringing Suffering to an end is the Truth of Cessation. That which brings about this cessation is the Truth of the Path.

The locus of afflictions is the Truth of Suffering. Afflictions are the Truth of Origin. The eradication of afflictions is the Truth of Cessation. The means used to eradicate afflictions are the Truth of the Path.

The Truth of Suffering firmly closes the door of the view of self. The Truth of Origin shuts the door of the annihilationist view. The Truth of Cessation closes the door of the eternalist view. The Truth of the Path locks the door of wrong view.

Thus, through concise exposition, one may gain further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by similes?

Answer: The Truth of Suffering should be regarded as a poisonous tree; the Truth of Origin as the seed of that tree; the Truth of Cessation as the burning of that seed; and the Truth of the Path as the fire that burns it.

The Truth of Suffering should be regarded as this shore, where suffering and fear remain; the Truth of Origin as a raging flood; the Truth of Cessation as the farther shore, where suffering and fear are no more; and the Truth of the Path as the boat that carries one to the farther shore.

The Truth of Suffering is like a heavy burden; the Truth of Origin is like carrying the burden; the Truth of Cessation is like laying the burden down; and the Truth of the Path is the means by which the burden is cast off.

Thus, through similes, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by analysis?

Answer: There are four kinds of truth: (1) verbal truth, (2) particular truths, (3) the truth of the supreme meaning, and (4) Noble Truth.

Thus, speaking truthfully and not falsely is verbal truth. With regard to all forms of knowledge, carefully examining all that has been seen and heard and discarding every false statement that obscures the Dharma is called particular truths. The Dharma of nirvana is the absolute truth and is therefore called the truth of the supreme meaning. The true path of practice followed by noble ones is called Noble Truth.

Thus, through the analysis of truths, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by enumeration?

Answer: Apart from craving, the three spheres of the wholesome, the unwholesome, and the indeterminate—neither wholesome nor unwholesome—belong to the Truth of Suffering. Craving belongs to the Truth of Origin. The eradication of this craving belongs to the Truth of Cessation. The eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path belong to the Truth of the Path.

Furthermore, apart from craving and the afflictions, the three spheres of the wholesome, the unwholesome, and the indeterminate belong to the Truth of Suffering. Craving and the remaining afflictions belong to the Truth of Origin. The eradication of this craving and these afflictions belongs to the Truth of Cessation. The path of eradication is the Truth of the Path.

Furthermore, apart from craving and the afflictions, all unwholesome things within the spheres of the wholesome and the determinate belong to the Truth of Suffering. Craving, the remaining afflictions, and all unwholesome things belong to the Truth of Origin. Their complete eradication is the Truth of Cessation. The path leading to that eradication belongs to the Truth of the Path.

Furthermore, apart from craving, the afflictions, and all unwholesome things, the remaining unwholesome and indeterminate things belong to the Truth of Suffering. Craving, the remaining afflictions, and all unwholesome things within the three spheres belong to the Truth of Origin. Their complete eradication is the Truth of Cessation. The path leading to that eradication is the Truth of the Path.

Thus, seeking pleasures is craving, while the remaining afflictions, because they are driven by the fetters, belong to the Truth of Origin. Although all unwholesome things can be eradicated, because they cause rebirth they belong to the Truth of Origin. Wholesome and unwholesome things within the three spheres, because they cause rebirth, belong either to the Truth of Suffering or to the Truth of Origin. Tormenting afflictions, anxiety, and all conditioned and limited things belong to the Truth of Suffering. The accumulation of causes and conditions, attachment, and the characteristic of conjunction all belong to the Truth of Origin.

Thus, through the enumeration of factors, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by sameness?

Answer: The Four Noble Truths possess the same nature when considered according to these four meanings: (1) the meaning of truth, (2) the meaning of thusness—that it is just so, (3) the meaning of Dharma, and (4) the meaning of emptiness.

Thus, through their sameness in meaning, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: What is meant by difference in kind?

Answer: There are two kinds of truths: mundane truth (= truth in the world) and supramundane truth (= truth that transcends the world, the absolute). Mundane truth is still subject to outflows, domination, bondage, inundation, the oppression of the yoke, obscuration, contact, clinging, and affliction; these are called the Truth of Suffering and the Truth of the Origin of Suffering. Supramundane truth is without outflows, domination, bondage, inundation, the oppression of the yoke, obscuration, contact, clinging, or affliction; these are called the Truth of Cessation and the Truth of the Path.

Three truths are conditioned (= subject to change according to conditions and circumstances), while the Truth of Cessation is unconditioned. Three truths are without material form, whereas the Truth of Suffering may possess material form or be without material form. The Truth of the Origin is unwholesome, while the Truth of the Path is wholesome.

The Truth of Cessation is indeterminate (= neither wholesome nor unwholesome). The Truth of Suffering may be wholesome, unwholesome, or indeterminate.

The Truth of Suffering must be fully understood. The Truth of the Origin must be abandoned. The Truth of Cessation must be realized. The Truth of the Path must be cultivated.

Thus, through their different classifications, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: How are they understood according to ten classifications?

Answer: Classified as one: this conscious body is Suffering. Self-conceit (= arrogance) is its source, namely, the Origin. The abandonment of self-conceit is Cessation. Maintaining right mindfulness of body and mind is the Path.

Classified as two: Name-and-Form is Suffering. Ignorance together with craving for existence (= the desire to live forever) is the Origin. The abandonment of these two is Cessation. Concentration and wisdom are the Path.

Classified as three: suffering due to suffering is the Truth of Suffering. The three unwholesome roots are the Origin. The abandonment of all three is Cessation. Moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom are the Path.

Classified as four: the four abodes of bodily nature are Suffering. The four inversions are the Origin. The abandonment of the inversions is Cessation. The four foundations of mindfulness are the Path.

Classified as five: the five realms of rebirth are Suffering. The five hindrances are the Origin. The abandonment of the five hindrances is Cessation. The five faculties are the Path.

Classified as six: the contacts of the six faculties are Suffering. The six bodily cravings are the Origin. The abandonment of the six bodily cravings is Cessation. The six principles of emancipation are the Path.

Classified as seven: the seven consciousnesses are Suffering. The seven fetters are the Origin. The abandonment of the seven fetters is Cessation. The seven factors of enlightenment are the Path.

Classified as eight: the eight worldly winds are Suffering. The eight erroneous extremes are the Origin. The abandonment of the erroneous extremes is Cessation. The eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path are the Path.

Classified as nine: the nine abodes of sentient beings are Suffering. The nine sources of craving are the Origin. The abandonment of these sources is Cessation. The nine forms of right attention are the Path.

Classified as ten: conditioned formations throughout the ten directions are Suffering. The ten fetters are the Origin. The abandonment of the fetters is Cessation. Contemplation of the ten perceptions of impurity is the Path.

Thus, through the ten classifications, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Question: How are they understood through inclusion?

Answer: There are three modes of inclusion (= encompassing): inclusion within the skandhas, inclusion within the ayatanas, and inclusion within the dhatus. Thus, the Truth of Suffering is included within the five skandhas. The Truth of the Origin and the Truth of the Path are included within the formation skandha. The Truth of Cessation is not included within the skandhas.

The Truth of Suffering is included within the twelve ayatanas. The other three truths are included within the dharma ayatana. The Truth of Suffering is included within the eighteen dhatus. The other three truths are included within the dharma dhatu.

Thus, through inclusion, one gains further understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

The arising of understanding concerning the Noble Truths by the foregoing methods is called the Method of the Noble Truths.

The Method of the Noble Truths ends here.

Chapter 12: Analysis of the Truths

Section 1: Analytical Knowledge, Knowledge of Arising and Cessation, and Contemplative Knowledge of Cessation

At that time, the meditator had clearly understood the skandhas, dhatus, ayatanas, causes and conditions, and truths, and had already heard teachings on ascetic practices and meditation.

Because ordinary beings have not yet attained liberation, they still fear rebirth in the evil realms. By contemplating the evil realms, samsara since beginningless time (= whose initial beginning cannot be known), the impossibility of obtaining even a single moment (= an extremely brief unit of time), the simile of three hundred sharp spears, and the simile of wishing to extinguish a fire burning upon one’s head, those who have not yet comprehended the Four Noble Truths must arouse aspiration, exert courageous energy, and apply themselves fully to sustained mindfulness so that they may clearly discern the Four Noble Truths.

Question: How should this be done?

Answer: That meditator should first listen to teachings on the Four Noble Truths, whether in brief, in detail, or both briefly and in detail, and should then endeavor to retain them through the wording, the meaning of the scriptures, and recitation.

At that time, the meditator goes to a secluded place and sits down. The mind neither wanders to and fro nor becomes distracted, and mindfulness of the Four Noble Truths arises. First, regarding the Truth of Suffering, mindfulness should be aroused through the skandhas, the ayatanas, or the dharmas of the skandhas and dhatus.

Regarding the skandhas, one forms a conception of the skandhas in accordance with their respective intrinsic characteristics, just as clearly explained in the section entitled “Method of the Skandhas.” Regarding the ayatanas, one forms a conception of the ayatanas in accordance with their respective intrinsic characteristics, just as learned in the section entitled “Method of the Ayatanas.” Regarding the dhatus, one forms a conception of the dhatus in accordance with their respective intrinsic characteristics, just as heard in detail in the section entitled “Method of the Dhatus.”

Having thus clearly understood the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus, the meditator knows that there are only skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus, and that there is no sentient being and no life principle whatsoever. When this conception has arisen in the mind, the meditator attains the conception of conditioned formations.

Then, stated briefly, only two categories arise: name and form. Thus, the form skandha, ten ayatanas, and ten dhatus belong to form. The other four skandhas, the mind ayatana, and seven dhatus belong to name. The dharma ayatana and dharma dhatu may belong either to name or to form.

Form is form, while name is name; the two are entirely distinct. Form is devoid of name. Name is devoid of form. Form is not separate from name, and name is not separate from form, just as a drum and the sound of the drum. Form arises in dependence upon name, and name arises in dependence upon form, just as a blind person and a lame person rely upon each other to travel far.

Question: How do name and form differ from each other?

Answer: Name has no body, whereas form has a body. Name has an object of cognition, whereas form has no object of cognition. Name moves swiftly, whereas form moves slowly. Name does not coalesce, whereas form tends to coalesce. Name cognizes (= awakens to), knows, thinks, and is conscious; form does not. Form walks, stands, sits, lies down, bends, and stretches; name does not. Name knows, “I walk, I stand, I sit, I lie down, I bend, I stretch”; form does not. Form drinks, eats, chews, and tastes; name does not. Name knows, “I drink, I eat, I chew, I taste”; form does not. Form pats the shoulder, plays (= sports), laughs, weeps, and speaks in various ways; name does not. Name knows, “I pat the shoulder, I play, I laugh, I weep, and I speak in various ways”; form does not.

This is the distinction between name and form. The meditator thus clearly knows that there are only name and form here, that there is no sentient being and no life principle, and thereby attains the conception of conditioned formations.

Now, to summarize the whole: the Truth of Suffering causes knowledge and vision of Name-and-Form to arise, purified in accordance with reality. This is the general statement describing the Truth of Suffering, which must be fully understood. By arousing understanding of the Truth of Suffering, the meditator acquires a correct conception regarding sentient beings. Thereafter, one should continue by contemplating the causes and conditions that give rise to Suffering.

Question: Through what condition and from what source does that suffering arise?

Answer: The meditator understands thus: That suffering arises with birth as its condition. Birth has existence as its condition. Existence has clinging as its condition.

Clinging has craving as its condition. Craving has feeling as its condition. Feeling has contact as its condition.

Contact has the six sense bases as its condition. The six sense bases have name-and-form as their condition. Name-and-form has consciousness as its condition.

Consciousness has formations as its condition. Formations have ignorance as their condition. Thus, with ignorance as condition, formations arise; with formations as condition, consciousness arises; and with birth as condition, aging and death arise, together with sorrow, suffering, and affliction.

Thus this entire mass of suffering comes to be and arises. In this way, the meditator extensively contemplates by following the chain of conditionality.

To state it briefly: that very feeling serves as the condition for craving, thereby giving rise to the Origin of Suffering, the source of suffering. From this origin of suffering arise either knowledge of the Dharma of Conditionality or purified knowledge free from all doubt. These are the expressions describing the Truth of Origin that cause knowledge to arise. When the meditator has discerned the origin of suffering, he passes beyond all doubt concerning the three times—past, present, and future.

Now he contemplates the Cessation of Suffering. Through the cessation of what does that suffering cease? The meditator understands that when birth ceases, that suffering ceases. Following the cessation of birth comes the cessation of existence. When existence ceases, clinging also ceases. When clinging ceases, craving also ceases. Following the cessation of ignorance comes the cessation of formations. When formations cease, consciousness ceases accordingly. Following the complete cessation of birth, aging and death, sorrow, suffering, and affliction also come to an end. Thus the entire mass of suffering is wholly extinguished. In this way, the meditator extensively contemplates by following the chain of conditions leading to cessation.

In brief, that feeling conditions craving; when that craving ceases, suffering ceases accordingly, causing the Truth of Cessation to arise. The meditator thereby brings forth the Truth of Cessation.

He then proceeds to contemplate the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering. What path is this? What must be fully developed for craving to cease? Having clearly understood the five aggregates subject to clinging in this manner, the meditator contemplates the faults of the five aggregates subject to clinging. This is the path, the way leading to the cessation of suffering. It is also the complete development that causes craving to cease and gives rise to the Truth of the Path, as was explained extensively above in the Section on the Method of the Truths.

Thus the meditator successively brings forth the Four Noble Truths within his own knowledge.

At that time, the meditator contemplates the five aggregates subject to clinging through one hundred and eighty phenomena, successively grouping and distinguishing them. He examines all material forms—past, future, and present; internal or external; great or small; gross or subtle; near or far—and sees that all those material forms are impermanent, suffering, and non-self. With the same extensive mode of contemplation, he examines all feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. In each of these aggregates there are twelve entrances; thus, in the five aggregates, five times twelve Dharma-doors make sixty. From these arise sixty contemplations of impermanence, sixty contemplations of suffering, and sixty contemplations of non-self, totaling one hundred and eighty.

Furthermore, there are one hundred and eighty Dharma-doors among the entrances: six internal sense bases, six external sense bases, six bodies of consciousness, six bodies of contact, six bodies of feeling, six bodies of perception, six bodies of volition, six bodies of craving, six bodies of thought, and six bodies of contemplation. These ten groups of six make sixty. From these arise sixty contemplations of impermanence, sixty contemplations of suffering, and sixty contemplations of non-self; three times sixty makes a total of one hundred and eighty.

Throughout long years and many months, from one season to another, from month to month, fortnight to fortnight, then day by day and night by night, down to a single thought-moment, all these conditioned phenomena change and become renewed, continuing one after another like a flame passed perpetually from one lamp to another. In accordance with the impermanence inherent in the transformation of formations, the meditator examines and distinguishes the aggregate of formations.

In the woeful realms of rebirth, one must endure the suffering of hunger and cold, fear, longing, separation from loved ones, aging, illness, death, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, and affliction. These conditioned phenomena continually rise and fall. In accordance with the suffering inherent in the transformation of conditioned phenomena, the meditator examines and distinguishes the aggregate of formations.

In dependence upon the aggregates, sense bases, dhatus, conditions, truths, karma, and its results—which are the conditions causing renewed birth—there is no being, nothing immutable, and nothing that can arise through an intrinsic nature of its own. In accordance with the non-self inherent in the transformation of conditioned phenomena, the meditator examines and distinguishes the aggregate of formations.

Form is impermanent in the sense that it must change and perish. Form is suffering in the sense that it gives rise to fear. Form is non-self in the sense that it is insubstantial. In this way, he examines and distinguishes it both in brief and extensively.

In the same manner, he examines and distinguishes feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. That is, he sees these aggregates as impermanent in the sense of changing and perishing, as suffering in the sense of giving rise to fear, and as non-self in the sense of being insubstantial. This is the method of examination and discernment both in brief and extensively.

Thus, by discerning impermanence, the perception of permanence is abandoned; by discerning suffering, the perception of pleasure is abandoned; and by discerning non-self, the perception of self is abandoned. (The perception of pleasure means regarding as pleasurable that which is suffering.)

Question: What is the extensive discernment of impermanence?

Answer: The meditator sees in accordance with reality that all formations did not exist before they arose and do not remain after they have ceased. His mind then arises and abides in the signless sphere, where it becomes tranquil. In this way, he extensively contemplates and discerns impermanence.

Question: What is the extensive discernment of suffering?

Answer: When contemplating formations, the mind feels fear on account of desire; wishing to make the mind tranquil, he abides in the sphere of the wishless—that is, without longing. This is the extensive discernment of suffering.

Question: What is the extensive discernment of non-self?

Answer: When contemplating all dharmas, he sees that they all depend upon other things. From this, his mind arises and abides in the sphere of emptiness, where it becomes tranquil. This is the extensive contemplation and discernment of non-self.

In the same manner, he examines and distinguishes the three realms—the desire realm, form realm, and formless realm—the five destinations of rebirth, the seven abodes of consciousness, and the nine dwelling places of beings. By considering the principles of change and destruction, of giving rise to fear, and of insubstantiality, the meditator brings forth contemplation.

Here ends the Discernment Knowledge.

Having clearly discerned that the five aggregates subject to clinging all conform to the three characteristics—impermanence, suffering, and non-self—the meditator wishes to be liberated from all formations. Then, while contemplating within the five aggregates subject to clinging, he clearly understands the apprehension of those three characteristics both at their arising and at their cessation. Thus he comprehends that all dharmas do not exist before they arise, exist only at the moment of arising, and disappear when that arising has ceased.

The apprehension of the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering, and non-self appears in three forms: apprehending the characteristic of the defilements, apprehending the characteristic of concentration, and apprehending the characteristic of wisdom. Here, when an ignorant worldling sees, hears, senses, or cognizes an object, he takes delight in that which is seen, heard, sensed, or cognized, giving rise to the perverted perceptions of pleasure and permanence; he then grasps and clings to it, thereby becoming attached through the defilements, like a moth plunging into a flame.

This is called clinging to the defilements.

Question: What is meant by apprehending the characteristic of concentration?

Answer: A meditator who wishes to attain concentration uses mindfulness and right knowledge, with regard to the thirty-eight subjects of contemplation, to apprehend the characteristic of concentration belonging to each subject and thereby bind the mind, just as an elephant keeper restrains an elephant with a hooked goad.

This is called apprehending the characteristic of concentration.

Question: What is meant by apprehending the characteristic of wisdom?

Answer: One who diligently contemplates first uses wisdom to discern the individual characteristic of each of these: form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. Then, wishing to cultivate equanimity of mind, he immediately apprehends those individual characteristics, like one pursuing a venomous snake. This is called apprehending the characteristic of wisdom. Thus, apprehending the characteristic of wisdom is a cause for rejoicing.

Question: How does one apprehend the characteristics of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness?

Answer: Regarding the characteristic of form: whether through the earth dhatu, water dhatu, fire dhatu, wind dhatu, the sense-faculty ayatanas, or the body ayatana, the meditator contemplates in this way and apprehends the characteristic of form. Regarding the characteristic of feeling: whether pleasant, painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, he contemplates in this way and apprehends the characteristic of feeling. Regarding the characteristic of perception: whether through the characteristic of form or the characteristic of dharmas, he contemplates in this way and apprehends the characteristic of perception.

Regarding the characteristic of formations: whether through contact, thought, cognition, examination, or attention, he contemplates in this way and apprehends the characteristic of formations. Regarding the characteristic of consciousness: whether through sense consciousness or mind consciousness, he contemplates in this way and apprehends the characteristic of consciousness. Thus, the meditator skillfully apprehends the characteristics and skillfully causes the characteristics of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness to arise.

Furthermore, in the following two ways the meditator skillfully apprehends the characteristic of the mind: through the object and through attention.

The mind arises in dependence upon an object. “In dependence upon an object of form, an object of feeling, an object of perception, an object of formations, or an object of consciousness, my mind arises”; the meditator should contemplate it in this way.

Thus, through the object, the characteristic of the mind is apprehended.

Question: How does one apprehend the characteristic of the mind through attention?

Answer: “When I attend to form in this way, my mind is now arising”; the meditator should contemplate it in this way. “When I direct attention and concentrate upon feeling, perception, formations, or consciousness, my mind is now arising”; the meditator should contemplate it in this way.

Thus, through attention, the characteristic of the mind is apprehended.

Question: How does one skillfully apprehend the characteristics?

Answer: By the methods just described, the meditator contemplates the characteristics of form, feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness. If, by these methods, he is able to contemplate them ever more deeply, he will apprehend those characteristics with great skill.

To comprehend the arising and cessation of those characteristics is to see and understand clearly that they arise and pass away. Thus, form has arisen and is presently existent, and that characteristic of form’s arising changes and passes into cessation. When these two stages of arising and passing away are clearly seen by the eye of wisdom, this is called comprehension of arising and cessation.

Furthermore, there are three ways of comprehending the arising of characteristics and their cessation (arising and cessation means coming into being and passing away): through cause, through condition, and through intrinsic nature.

Question: How does one comprehend the characteristic of arising through cause?

Answer: Craving, ignorance, and karma are the causes for the arising of the skandhas. When, through the eye of wisdom, one sees these causes, one comprehends the characteristic of arising.

Question: How does one comprehend the characteristic of arising through condition?

Answer: Conditioned by food, the form skandha arises; conditioned by contact, three skandhas arise; and conditioned by Name-and-Form, the consciousness skandha arises. When, through the eye of wisdom, one sees these conditions, one comprehends the characteristic of arising.

Question: How does one comprehend the characteristic of arising through intrinsic nature?

Answer: Just as a lamp continues to burn without interruption, formations continually renew themselves in an unbroken succession, from the moment of arising, through the period of present existence, until the moment of passing away. When this intrinsic nature is clearly seen by the eye of wisdom, one comprehends the characteristic of arising.

Thus, through cause and the arising of vision, one sees the characteristic of the Truth of Origination. Through condition, intrinsic nature, and the arising of mindful cognition, one sees the Truth of Suffering; yet, taking that characteristic as the basis of seeing and cognizing, it cannot be apprehended even within a single instant.

These are the three ways—through cause, through condition, and through intrinsic nature—that enable one to comprehend the characteristic of arising.

Question: How does one comprehend the characteristic of cessation in these three ways?

Answer: The three ways are cessation through the cessation of cause, cessation through the cessation of condition, and cessation through the cessation of intrinsic nature. Thus, when craving ceases, ignorance ceases, and karma ceases, the skandhas come to cessation. Then, through the eye of wisdom clearly seeing that the causes have ceased, one comprehends the characteristic of cessation.

With the cessation of food, the form skandha comes to cessation; with the cessation of contact, three skandhas come to cessation; with the cessation of Name-and-Form, the consciousness skandha comes to cessation. Then, through the eye of wisdom clearly seeing that the conditions have ceased, one comprehends the characteristic of cessation. Just as a lamp continues to burn without interruption, from its initial kindling, through its present existence, until it is finally extinguished, all occurs according to intrinsic nature.

Then, through the eye of wisdom clearly seeing this, one comprehends the characteristic of cessation.

Thus, through the cessation of the cause, the meditator sees the Truth of Cessation; and by seeing the characteristic of the Truth of Cessation, it becomes the basis for seeing and cognizing the characteristic of the unarisen. Through the cessation of conditions, the cessation of intrinsic nature, and the cessation of what has been seen, he takes the characteristic of the Truth of Suffering as the initial vision, and what is cognized within the very instant cannot be apprehended.

Question: If one sees the Truth of Suffering through arising and passing away and takes that characteristic as the basis of seeing, how can higher knowledge arise?

Answer: What benefit is there in arousing the vision of cessation? Through the characteristic of the Truth of Suffering, we see what has never before been seen. That suffering encompasses everything, extending even to all formations, enabling one to see the characteristics of formations as they truly are. Through the arising of mindfulness, the mind transcends formations and then sees the faults of all formations as they truly are. From those characteristics of formations, the thought of transcending formations arises, and one then sees that suffering fills every place. This is called seeing as far as the furthest boundary.

It is like a bird in flight surrounded by blazing fire: it cannot be free from fear until it has soared up into the sky. From the sky, the bird looks down and sees the flames encompassing everything on all four sides. In the same way, the meditator sees suffering thus; by extending this contemplation, the rest may likewise be understood.

Through causes, conditions, and seeing arising, the meditator penetrates the characteristic of the arising of causes and conditions. The relationship between existence and coming into being is this: when this arises, that also arises accordingly. When the cause ceases and the condition also ceases, one sees the cessation of the characteristic of causes and conditions, and thus penetrates: because this does not exist, that does not come into being; because this ceases, that also ceases accordingly. Having seen coming into being through intrinsic nature and through the characteristic of arising and cessation, one penetrates the Dharma of causes and conditions: one knows arising, knows complete cessation, and knows establishment.

Thus, by seeing arising and complete cessation, one understands four dharmas: the dharma of a single characteristic, the dharma of diversity, the dharma of non-activity, and the dharma of mere abiding. While formations succeed one another like a continuous stream, by seeing their arising one avoids attachment to diversity. While earlier and later formations undergo change, by seeing their dissolution one avoids attachment to a single characteristic. By seeing that earlier and later formations are unmoving and devoid of intrinsic nature, one abandons attachment to a self.

By seeing that the transformations of earlier and later formations are all due to causes and conditions, one avoids attachment to non-activity.

The unlearned ordinary person does not yet correctly understand identity of nature and therefore clings to views of eternalism and annihilationism. Because such a person does not correctly understand the dharma of diversity, that person becomes trapped in the view of eternalism. Because such a person still does not understand the dharma of non-activity, that person clings to the view of self.

Because such a person does not understand this dharma, that person speaks of non-activity. Thus, in conventional language, a single characteristic is taken as the predominant expression; the characteristic of diversity that encompasses all dharmas is treated as a single characteristic; the meaning of discrimination is treated as the characteristic of diversity; the meaning of affliction is established as identity of nature; the meaning of skillful means is treated as diversity of nature; the meaning of receiving karmic retribution is treated as identity of nature; and the meaning of producing karmic results is treated as diversity of nature.

When the meditator thus sees identity of nature, the meditator no longer clings to the view of diversity. If the meditator sees diversity of nature, the meditator no longer clings to identity of nature. If a single nature becomes manifest, the meditator immediately directs attention to it and knows it so as to abandon that view.

If a single nature becomes manifest, the meditator immediately eliminates the view of annihilationism. If diversity of nature becomes manifest, the meditator immediately eliminates the view of eternalism. Thus, by seeing the arising and dissolution of all formations, the meditator sees the dharma of a single nature and the dharma of diversity.

Question: How can one see formations arising while they are non-active? Why do formations, being non-active and unmoving, nevertheless arise and merely abide?

Answer: Intrinsic nature and causes and conditions, conjoined with their source, constitute the causes and conditions for the arising of formations. Thus, because the dharma of mere abiding gives rise to them, they arise. According to the meaning of having no life span and the meaning of being unmoving, the dharma of non-activity can be known. According to the meaning of intrinsic nature and the meaning of circumstantial conditions, the dharma of mere abiding can thus be understood.

When emptiness is made manifest, there is non-activity; when karma is made manifest, there is that which is performed. Thus, because the dharma of mere abiding makes non-activity manifest, it is called a dharma. Thus, that which makes the dharma of mere abiding manifest is called a formation.

Thus, by knowing the dharma of a single nature, one penetrates the characteristic of suffering. By knowing the dharma of diversity of nature in this way, one penetrates the characteristic of impermanence. By knowing the dharma of non-activity and the dharma of mere abiding in this way, one penetrates the characteristic of non-self.

Question: Should the meditator contemplate the arising and dissolution of formations in every domain without exception, or is it sufficient to contemplate them in only one domain?

Answer: If, within one domain, one examines formations and apprehends their characteristic of arising and cessation, one fully penetrates all formations everywhere. It is like a person who tastes seawater at one place in the great ocean and thereby knows that seawater is salty everywhere. Thus, one may know by inference.

Through the following two means, one fully knows formations: through the object and through freedom from confusion. By penetrating and apprehending the characteristic of the arising and dissolution of formations, the meditator clearly and fully understands the objects of all formations. Because ignorance is thereby abandoned, there is no longer confusion regarding the remaining formations, and they too are clearly and fully understood.

Thus, the Knowledge of Arising and Cessation is the knowledge that discriminates all formations, discriminating them from the moment they first arise and continuing to discriminate them until they cease. It also discriminates that, before arising, formations are all empty; and it discriminates that, after ceasing, formations are likewise all empty. This is because there is no arising whatsoever before formations arise, and there is no further cessation after formations have ceased.

Therefore, the Knowledge of Arising and Cessation becomes Discriminative Knowledge, clearly knowing all formations.

Here ends the Knowledge of Arising and Cessation.

Having thus rightly seen the characteristic of arising and cessation and skillfully discerned that formations will eventually disperse and cease, the meditator then wishes to attain concentration. At that time, the meditator does not direct attention to or contemplate arising, but sees only the cessation of mental factors. A mental factor arises and ceases due to an object of form; relying solely upon the arising and cessation of that object, the meditator contemplates the mental factor as it ceases.

In the same way, with respect to an object of feeling, an object of perception, an object of formations, or an object of consciousness arising in the mind, the meditator observes the arising and cessation of the mental factors associated with that object and sees the arising and cessation of the mind.

Furthermore, through these three means, one sees the cessation of mental factors: through aggregation, through parallel occurrence, and through discrimination.

Question: How does one see the cessation of mental factors through aggregation?

Answer: In the various bodily postures—walking, standing, lying down, and sitting—in different places, when the mind and its associated mental factors arise, the meditator sees the postures cease and, through aggregation, sees the mind and its mental factors cease accordingly.

Furthermore, when contemplating form as impermanent, feeling as impermanent, perception as impermanent, formations as impermanent, and consciousness as impermanent, the mind and mental factors associated with those impermanent objects arise. Then, through aggregation, the meditator sees the objects and their associated mental factors change and cease. In the same way, the meditator contemplates objects as suffering and as non-self.

Thus, through aggregation, one should contemplate the cessation of the mind and its associated mental factors.

Question: How does one contemplate the cessation of the mind and mental factors through parallel occurrence?

Answer: Having discerned form as impermanent, the meditator gives rise to a mind that contemplates impermanence and, in accordance with impermanence, sees the mind arising and ceasing. In the same parallel manner, the meditator contemplates feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness as also impermanent. In dependence upon those impermanent objects, the mind and mental factors arise and then change and cease, and the meditator sees the cessation of the mind and its associated mental factors. In the same manner, the meditator proceeds to contemplate objects as suffering and as non-self.

Thus, through parallel occurrence, one should contemplate the cessation of the mind and its associated mental factors.

Question: How does one, through discernment, see the cessation of mind and mental factors?

Answer: Having contemplated form as impermanent, and having given rise to a mind in accordance with the impermanent object, one sees the cessation of mind and mental factors. In this way, one clearly understands, through discerning contemplation, the cessation of the associated mind and mental factors. Then, in the same manner, one contemplates feeling, perception, formations, and consciousness as impermanent. Giving rise to a mind in accordance with the impermanent object, one sees the arising and cessation of mind, and with that very seeing, observes that very seeing cease. This is how, through discernment, one sees the cessation of mind and mental factors.

In the same way, one contemplates suffering and non-self. Thus, through discernment, one presently contemplates only their cessation. When contemplation of cessation has become thoroughly developed and one clearly sees formations within each instant, one attains benefit. Through that wisdom of clear understanding, the meditator no longer depends upon any other condition. With one-pointed mind, one sees this entire world, according to its intrinsic nature, like a mustard seed on the tip of an awl, changing in an instant from birth through aging to death.

At that time, the meditator sees in this way, as stated in the following verses:

According to intrinsic nature, that pair of “Name-and-Form”

Turns, turns together; ceases, ceases together.

When this arises, because of it that also arises;

When this ceases, that too, following the condition, at once ceases.

The skandhas are impermanent, inherently subject to cessation;

Being subject to cessation, suffering arises,

Like an echo when a drum is struck with a stick.

Form, scent, and the other five phenomena

Are not born from the eye,

Nor do they arise from form,

Yet they do not exist apart from the pair “eye and form.”

Conditioned phenomena arise dependent upon conditions,

Like an echo when a drum is struck with a stick.

Form, scent, and the other five phenomena

Are not born from the ear,

Nor do they arise from sound,

Yet they do not exist apart from the pair “ear and sound.”

Form, scent, and the other five phenomena

Are not born from the nose,

Nor do they arise from scent,

Yet they do not exist apart from the pair “nose and scent.”

Form, scent, and the other five phenomena

Are not born from the tongue,

Nor do they arise from taste,

Yet they do not exist apart from the pair “tongue and taste.”

Form, scent, and the other five phenomena

Are not born from the body,

Nor do they arise from contact,

Yet they do not exist apart from the pair “body and contact.”

Those phenomena do not arise from form,

Nor do they come from outside the inner sphere of mind;

They arise according to causes and conditions,

Like an echo when a drum is struck with a stick.

Their faculties are exceedingly feeble.

The initial cause is also very weak;

The present cause is no stronger.

Bound together, they become still more exhausted;

Combined, they gain no strength;

Even when conjoined, they remain weak and worn.

Their movement onward is still precarious;

They glide slowly and feebly, never abiding.

They have no power to convey themselves onward,

And lack the capacity to bring themselves into being,

Like an illusory city of the gandharvas.

From the very beginning, when those phenomena arise,

They are not born from themselves,

Nor do they exist through their own power;

Their continuance also depends upon other phenomena,

And they in turn cause further tainted phenomena to arise.

The frail body does not arise by itself,

Neither from its own cause nor through its own activity;

It has no intrinsic nature and always depends

Upon formations, the conditioned phenomena.

Because the body born is frail and life is brief,

It comes from nowhere and goes nowhere.

Who can know whether its origin is distant or near?

This mind is without self and without a life principle;

Each thought-moment is bound to suffering and pleasure.

In an instant, it crosses seas and climbs mountains;

Throughout eighty thousand kalpas, it abides but once,

Never returning, with no two minds alike.

The past and future alike have vanished;

What presently abides here consists entirely of the skandhas.

That has already passed; what was heard has vanished.

The other has not yet arrived; the interval remains empty.

No distinct characteristic arises there;

Because it has not arisen, the present arises.

Where there is no mind, the world is lost;

In the ultimate sense, there is neither coming nor going.

The future is not accomplished; there is only successive arising.

Phenomena arise and abide like mustard seeds.

A phenomenon’s cessation is its very beginning;

The world and the initial phenomenon are not separate.

No coming or going is seen; no arising is seen.

Phenomena are unborn, like empty space,

And vanish in an instant, like a flash of lightning.

Seeing endless cessation in this way, the meditator enters samadhi. Just as, when two pieces of wood are rubbed together, smoke and fire arise in an instant, so in an instant the luminous wisdom arises; and joy, bliss, liberation, mindfulness, and equanimous relinquishment arise together with it. At that time, if the meditator does not yet clearly understand the meditation Dharma, the mind will become distracted or conceit of attainment will arise.

Question: How is that distracted mind removed?

Answer: The meditator gives rise to joy in the meditation Dharma. That joy causes the mind to become tranquil, and the meditation Dharma gathers and regulates the mind, enabling it to penetrate in accordance with contemplative concentration and to abandon the perception of permanence. In this way, distraction of mind is extinguished.

Question: How does conceit of attainment arise?

Answer: When a luminous sign arises for the meditator within the meditation Dharma, the meditator thinks that the supramundane Dharma has been attained. Yet because it has not actually been attained, the meditator fails to arouse further diligence, and consequently conceit of attainment arises. A knowledgeable meditator, however, understands that this defilement is a worldly phenomenon that has caused concentration to become disturbed, whereas the object of the supramundane Dharma is nirvana. Through this understanding, the meditator removes distraction of mind, eliminates conceit, and sees only quiescent cessation. This is skillful cultivation and extensive practice.

The Knowledge of Contemplation of Cessation ends here.

(Treatise on the Path of Liberation: Fascicle Eleven).